DESIGNING THE

HIGHWAY
( Chapter 2 )
TERMINOLOGIES
■ AGGREGATE SUBBASE AND BASE COURSES - are individual stabilizing
layers of selected material and designed thickness placed on top of the subgrade
to distribute the load transmitted from the surface course.
■ ARTERIAL - functional classification of roadway that is between an interstate
highway and local collector.
■ ASPHALT CONCRETE – asphalt concrete normally known simply as asphalt, is
a composite material commonly used for construction of pavement. Highways
and parking lots.
■ AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC ( ADT ) – the average daily traffic on a roadway.
Most Designers will label the current year ADT and the forecast design year (
usually 20 years from the construction year ) ADT on a set of Roadway plans.
ADT’s is also one of the major criteria used by Roadway Designers in
determining the dimension and function of proposed roadways : relative
formula.
■ AVERAGE SPEED OF A TRAFFIC STREAM – computed as a length of a
highway segment divided by the average travel time of vehicles traversing the
segment, in kilometers per hour.
■ BACKSLOPE – where the roadway is in cut, the slope between the ditch and the
natural ground away from the road is referred to as a backslope.
■ BYPASS – a road or highway that avoids or “bypasses” a built-up area, town or
village, to let through traffic flow without interference from local traffic, to
reduce congestion in the built-up area, and to improve road safety.
■ BANK – natural land along the edge of the road.
■ BASE – series of layers above the embankment reducing stress exerted by the
traffic and preventing the bed from deforming.
■ BASE COURSE – top foundation layer, made up of fine compacted material, the
driving surface lies on it.
■ BED – composed of the embankment and the earth foundation ; base rests on it.
■ BINDER COURSE – synonym: intermediate course. Pavement Layer between
the surface course layer and the base course layer.
■ BORROW PIT – also known as a sand box, is a term used in construction and
civil engineering. It describes an area where material ( usually soil, gravel or
sand ) has been dug for use at another location.
■ BROKEN LINE – line demarcating the two lanes of the roadway and showing
that passing is permitted.
■ COLLECTOR LANE OF A ROAD – is use for slower moving traffic and has
more access to exits/off ramps.
■ DECELERATION LANE – a paved or semi – paved lane adjacent to the primary
road or street.
■ DITCH – parallel to the roadway, surface water drains on it.
■ DRAINAGE STRUCTURE – are located beneath or alongside the roadway used
in collecting, transporting and disposing of surface water originating in or near
the road right-of-way. Types of Drainage – can be lateral drainage such as a U-
shaped, V-shaped lined canal ( side ditch ) or perforated drain canal. It can also
be transverse or cross drainage such as a box culvert or a pipe culvert.
■ DRIVING LANE – an area in a parking lot/car park in between parking spaces
so that vehicles can drive into and out of the spaces.
■ EARTH FOUNDATION – part of the ground that was not excavated during the
road’s construction.
■ EMBANKMENT – layers of material used to build up or level the route the road
is to take.
■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROLS – are constructed to prevent
detrimental effects.
■ GRADE INTERSECTION – it is a junction at which two or more transport axes
cross at the same level ( or grade ).
■ GRADE SEPARATION – the process of aligning a junction of two or more
transport axes at different heights ( grades ) so that they will not disrupt the
traffic flow on other transit routes when they cross each other.
■ INTERSECTION – a road junction where two or more road either meet or cross
at grade ( they are at the same level ). Such a road junction may also be called
across roads.
■ INTERCHANGE – a road junction that typically uses grade separation, and one
or more ramps, to permit traffic on at least one road to pass through the junction
without crossing any other traffic stream.
■ MEDIAN – the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled way for
traffic in opposing direction.
■ MERGE LANE – a lane or onramp used to merge two flows of traffic into one,
with the merge lane being the lane that disappears at the end of the merging
area.
■ PASSING LANE – is often provided on step mountain grades, in order to allow
smaller vehicles to pass larger, slower ones. This is sometimes called a climbing
lane if on the uphill side.
■ RETAINING WALLS – are constructed along the side of the roadway if there
are space construction.
■ ROADWAY – surface upon which vehicles drive.
■ SLOPE – steeply sloped ground between the ditch and the bank and between
the ditch and the shoulder.
■ SLOPE PROTECTION STRUCTURES – are constructed along the side of the
roadway to stabilize the slope.
■ SUB BASE – base of a roadway, made up of coarse impacted gravel, making the
roadway solid and stable.
■ SUBGRADE – is the upper layer of the natural soil which may be the
undisturbed local materials, or soil excavated elsewhere placed as fill. In either
case, it is compacted during construction for road stability. It is also the layer
supporting the two base courses and the sub base and providing drainage.
■ SURFACE COURSE – roadway’s driving surface: it is smooth, impermeable and
provides good grip for vehicles, is the uppermost structural component of the
roadway, which provides resistance to wear and shearing stress due to traffic
load. It also provides an even skid resistance surface with comfortable
durability and is appropriately crowned to prevent rain water from penetrating
into the subgrade.
■ SOLID LINE – line demarcating the edge of the roadway or, when in the center
of the roadway, indicating the passing is prohibited.
PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY DESIGN
 DESIGN CONSISTENCY
The goal of transportation is generally stated as the safe and efficient
movement of people and goods. To achieve this goal, designers use many tools and
techniques. One technique used to improve safety on roadways is to examine the
consistency of the design.

Design consistency refers to highway geometry’s conformance with driver

expectancy. Generally, drivers make fewer errors at geometric features that
conform with their expectations. An inconsistency in design can be described as a
geometric feature or combination of features that has such a high driver workload
requirement that drivers may drive in an unsafe manner. This situation could lead
to inappropriate driving.
 Highway collision are a major source of societal losses, both social and
economic. Among the promising approaches to improve highway safety
performance is the concept of highway design consistency. Several research efforts
have concentrated on translating this concept into quantitative guidelines.
However, a number of concerns and challenges in applying the concept and the
guidelines still persist and may limit their applicability. Such challenges were
identified with the objective of recommending the optimum way to overcome them
and establish priorities for future research. The challenges focus on the optimum
criteria and parameters to be used in consistency evaluation, models to estimate
these parameters, and the relationship between the criteria and safety performance.

 IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY CONSISTENCY

Achieving highway geometric design consistency is an important issue in
the design and evaluation of rural highways to attain smooth and traffic operation.
Geometric design consistency is categorized into three main areas:

1. Speed consideration address the different effects of geometric parameters on

the prediction of operating speed. Based on operating speed, design
consistency of highway elements can be evaluated.
2. Safety consideration explain the different relationship between highway safety
and highway/traffic elements, vehicle stability, and low-cost improvements.
3. Performance consideration address the different effects on driver anticipation,
highway aesthetics, and interchange design. Based on this review, a framework for
highway design consistency is proposed and recommendations for future research
work on design consistency are suggested, including the need to develop operating
speed consistency models based on 3D analysis.
 DESIGN SPEED
Lowering injuries and fatalities remains a crucial goal for our cities. In 2011,
4,432 pedestrians were killed and 69,000 injured in motor vehicle crashes, according
to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Of the fatalities,
73% occurred in urban areas. This equates to 146 people killed or injured in cities
everyday.
The design speed is a tool used to determine geometric features of a new
road during road design. Contrary to the word’s implication, a road’s design speed
is not necessarily its maximum safe speed; that can be higher or lower.

In 2004, the first sentence was changed to “a selected speed used to

determine the various geometric design features of a roadway”. Highway
engineers would measure the prevailing speed on a road, round up to the next
multiple of 5 mph, and design the road for that speed, assuming that it would be
safe.
■ Factors that influence Design Speed
- The functional classification of the highway
- The character of the terrain
- The density and character of adjacent land uses
- The traffic volumes expected to use the highway
- The economic and environmental consideration

Typically, an arterial highway warrants a higher design speed than a local

road: a highway located in level terrain warrants a higher design speed than one in
mountainous terrain: a highway in a rural area warrants a higher design speed than
one in an urban area: and a high-volume highway warrants a higher design speed
than one carrying low traffic volumes.
 ROAD SHOULDER
■ A shoulder or hard shoulder is an emergency stopping lane by the verge of a
road or motorway.
This shoulder is a strip of land immediately adjacent to the traffic lane of a
road not bordered by kerd & channel. The shoulder may be sealed in the case of
highways and major roads, but it is typically unsealed and of a lesser depth and
perhaps constructed of inferior material than the adjacent traffic lane.
■ Uses of Shoulder
- Emergency
- Collision
- Flat tires
- Traffic
- Sidewalk/Biking or Running Lane
■ Functions of Roads Shoulder

• Soft Shoulder
An unpaved strip of land at the side of a road (this type of shoulder is
covered only using an aggregate)

• Hard Shoulder
A narrow emergency lane along the left of a motorway, separated by a
solid white line. Most deaths on the hard shoulder happen within 30 minutes of the
driver pulling over. Using this part of the motorway should be an absolute last
resort, for a breakdown or emergency (this type of shoulder is covered by asphalt).
Hard Shoulder Rule

The Highway Code (rule 270) states that you must not stop on the
carriageway, hard shoulder, slip road, central reservation or verge except in an
emergency, or when told to do by the police, Highway Agency traffic officers in
uniform, an emergency sign or by flashing red light signals.

Some people always ask if it is illegal to drive on the shoulder? Although

collision is illegal, you may not be the only “seemingly entitled” driver who is
willing to take the risk of being caught. Therefore, the shoulder may appear to be
clear as you drive down it, but other cars may take the opportunity to move over
without warning, causing a collision.
 HIGHWAY MEDIAN
Highway Median or central reservation is the reserved area that separates
opposing lanes of traffic on divided roadways, such as divided highways, dual
carriageways, freeways and motorways.
Consideration in the design of multilane highway and Function of Highway
Meridian:
1. Separate opposing traffic flows.
2. Provide a recovery area for out of control vehicles.
3. Allow space for speed changes and left turning and U-turning vehicles.
4. Minimize headlight glare.
5. Provide width for future lanes.
6. Provide a space for landscape planting that is in keeping with safety needs and
improves the aesthetic of the facility.
7. Provide space for barriers.
 RIGHT OF WAY
A right-of-way is a strip of land that is granted, through an easement or
other mechanism, for transportation purposes, such as for a trail, driveway, rail line
or highway. A right-of-way is reserved for the purposes of maintenance or
expansion of existing service with the right-of-way. In the case of an easement, it
may revert to its original owners if the facility is abandoned. The right-of-way has
three basic categories distinguished by the degree of separation from the traffic:

Three (3) Categories of Right-of-Way:

1. Category A:
“A grade separated” or “exclusive”. It is fully controlled roadway without
grade crossing or any legal access by other vehicles. In some ways, this category
resembles a freeway system.
2. Category B:
Includes roadway types that are longitudinally physically separated from
other traffic, but with grade crossing for vehicles and pedestrians, including regular
street intersection. A light rail system that crosses few streets at a surface falls into
this category.

3. Category C:
Surface streets with mixed traffics. Most bus system and car system fall on
this category.
 Road Alignments
There are at least 2 alignments to every stretch of road:
1. Horizontal alignment.
2. Vertical alignment.

When designing a roadway, you need to decide exactly where to place that roadway. We use an alignment to show
where that road will be placed.
An alignment is defined by a series of points, lines and curves. In order to build a road, you need to know exactly
where it is located on the earth. Each point has a given coordinate nothing and easting that defines its location on the
earth. Each line has a bearing and distance. Each curve has a radius and length and several points that have coordinates
that describe exactly on a shared point, or be coincident. Otherwise, you have an error in your alignment. The
alignment is defined by stationing, which refers to the distance horizontally between the defining points. The beginning
stationing of an alignment is defined by previous designs, or by the designer. The designer tries to make the stationing
different for each alignment so that it doesn’t confuse the builder.
Typically, the alignment follows the centerline of the road. If you are driving down a road that has centerline striping,
that yellow line(s) in the center of the road probably closely follows the horizontal alignment.
 The vertical alignment follows the horizontal alignment, but is referring to whether or not you are going up a hill, or
are on the crest of a curve or sag (low point). Below is a picture of a vertical alignment in profile view.
In the geometric design of motorways, railways, pipelines, etc., the design and setting out of curves is an important
aspect of the engineer’s work. The initial design is usually based on a series of straight sections whose positions are
defined largely by the topography of the area. The intersections of pairs of straights are then connected by horizontal
curves.
In the vertical design, intersecting gradients are connected by curves in the vertical plane.
 Circular curves
Circular curves are used to join intersecting straight lines (or tangents). Circular curves are assumed to be concave.
Horizontal circular curves are used to transition the change in alignment at angle points in the tangent (straight) portions
of alignments. An angle point is called a point of intersection or PI station; and, the change in alignment is defined by a
deflection angle, Δ.
To counter-act the effect of centrifugal force and reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn and to skid laterally
outwards, pavement outer edge is raised with respect of inner edge. Thus, providing a transverse slope is known as
Super elevation. It is represented by “e”.
 Five types of highway curves
- Simple Curve
- Compound Curve
- Reverse Curve
- Spiral Curve

 Widening of curves
- Extra widening on horizontal curves
- There is a tendency of the driver to take the outer path at the curves to have more sight distance visible ahead.
While overtaking operations on horizontal curves driver will need more spacing from the other vehicles to feel
safer.
 Surface runoff
Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water that occurs when excess storm water, melt
water, or other sources flows over the Earth’s surface. This might occur because soil is saturated to full capacity,
because rain arrives more quickly than soil can absorb it, or because impervious areas (roofs and pavements=)
send their runoff to surrounding soil that cannot absorb all of it. Surface runoff is a major component of the
water cycle. It is the primary agent in soil erosion by water.
 Runoff that occurs on the ground surface before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. If a nonpoint
source contains man-made contaminants, or natural forms of pollution (such as rotting leaves) the runoff is called
nonpoint source pollution. A land area which produces runoff that drains to a common point is called a drainage basin.
When runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including petroleum, pesticides or fertilizers that
become discharge or nonpoint source pollution.
In addition to causing water erosion and pollution, surface runoff in urban areas is primary cause of urban flooding
which can result in property damage, damp and mold in basements, and street flooding.
If you have observed the pavement width on the horizontal curves you will find that to be somewhat larger than the
width on the straight roads. The pavement is extra widened on the horizontal curves due to the following reasons:

The wheel base of the vehicles is rigid and therefore while taking the turn, only front wheel are able to change
direction. Path traveled by the front will be different and will be at certain distance form the path traced by the inner
wheel. This can be understood with the help of the diagram and image shown below.
 Island
An island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movements. Within an intersection area, a
median or an outer separation is considered to be an island. It may range form an area delineated by carrier curbs to a
pavement area marked by paint.
 Classification of Islands
Islands usually serve more than one function, but may be generally classified in three separate types:
1. Channeling Islands – These are designed to control and direct traffic movement, usually through movements.
2. Divisional Islands – These are designed to divide opposing or same direction traffic streams, usually through
movements.
3. Refuge Islands – Pedestrian islands are provided to serve as safety zones for the aid and protection of persons
on foot. If a divisional island is located in an urban area where pedestrian are present, portions of each island
can be considered a refuge island.

 Interchange
An interchange is a grade-separated intersection (one road passes over another) with ramps to connect
them. Factors such as safety, cost, capacity, environment, development and politics can vary at every site;
consequently, there are hundreds of unique, one-of-a-kind interchanges worldwide. Interchanges are designed to
fit specific local conditions and meet driver expectations.
 Three (3) types of interchanges
1. Diamond Interchanges
The most common type and are suitable in both rural and urban areas. They can become congested, though,
by a high volume of left-turning movements on the crossroad, and they often include signals that control ramp
access to and form the crossroad. Spacing between the ramps is critical for efficient movement of traffic through the
interchange.
2. Directional Interchanges
Accommodate high-volume turning movements where two freeways intersect. Direct ramp movements reduce
travel distance, increase speed and capacity, eliminate weaving and avoid the need for “out-of-direction” travel on a
loop. These interchanges are costly to construct due to the increased number and length of ramps and the number
of bridge crossings.
3.Cloverleaf Interchanges
Can be used where two high volume freeways intersect. Loop-ramps are used to accommodate left-turning
movements. However, this configuration provides short weaving areas for traffic entering or leaving the interchange.
A cloverleaf interchange occupies a relatively large area of right of way.
 Intersection
An intersection is the junction at-grade of two or more roads either meeting or crossing. An intersection may be
three-way, four-way (often in the form of a crossroads), or have five or more arms. Busy intersection are often
controlled by traffic light /or a roundabout.
Intersections are classified into three general categories:
̶ Grade-separated without ramps
̶ Grade-separated with ramps (interchanges)
̶ At-grade
 Intersection Design Objectives
̶ Reduce/eliminate conflict points generated by “vehicles”
and “vehicles”, and “vehicles” and “pedestrians”
̶ Adequate maneuvering space for design vehicles
̶ Safe and convenient operations for all road users
̶ Positive guidance for drivers
̶ Cost effective
̶ Minimize adverse environmental effects
 Intersection Design Procedure
1. Traffic Data
o Classified Intersection Turning Movement Counts Summary
o Pedestrian Movement Counts Summary
o Travel Time Data

2. Site Conditions
o Site topography
o Road Inventory
o Physical features/items of cultural, historical and special significance
o Alignment of intersecting roads
o Sight Distance
o Utility
o Road Right of Way (RROW)
o Drainage facility
o Existing pavement condition
3. Preliminary Designs

a) Alternative Designs/Schemes
o Prepare rough sketches of several possible design/solutions to the problem.
o Examine several possible schemes broadly as regards to design features, operational characteristics (safety,
capacity, delay) probable cost, overall suitability to site and any local factors which may affect the decision.
o Select two or three schemes from the options worthy of more detailed study.
o Prepare more detailed plans of selected alternatives.
b) Selection of Most Suitable Design

The selected alternative should be examined under the following:

o Adaptability
o Attainability
o Design features
o Capacity
o Operational characteristics
o Management of traffic during construction
4. Functional Plans

o Advantages vs Disadvantages
o Most suitable alternative is chosen from the preliminary design procedure.
o Development of the functional plan as the basis for final detailed design procedures.

5. Final Design

Preparation of construction plans, specifications and cost estimates including other details such as:

o Horizontal Alignment
o Vertical Alignment
o Provision of Traffic Control Devices
o Location of footpaths, pedestrian safety fences, and other pedestrian provisions
o Location of street lightning and signalization pedestals
o Traffic Islands
o Landscaping
o Relocation of public utilities
 Basic Principles of Intersection Design

1) Line Width
o Through lanes 3.20 m – 3.50 m (Desirable through lane width for urban and rural areas)

2) Left turn/Right Turn Lanes

o LT o RT greater than 3.00 m (Desirable)

3) Capacity
o The design should provide adequate traffic capacity throughout.

4) Channelization
o Design of channelized layout depends on the traffic pattern, traffic volumes, available area for
improvement, topography, and pedestrian movement.

5) Traffic Control
o Intersection with no control
o Intersection controlled with traffic signs
o Intersection controlled with traffic signals
6) Design Speed
o Alignment
o Environment
o Traffic volume and composition
o Extent and type of traffic control devices

7) Distances between Intersection

o 350 m to 550 m apart

Factors:
̶ Length of weaving section
̶ Queue length
̶ Length of Left Turn lane or deceleration lane
̶ Limit of driver’s concentration
Basic Considerations in the Design of a New
Highway or Redesign of an Highway

• Suitable for traffic volume

• Consistent and must avoid surprise changes
in alignment
• Pleasing to user and to those who live along it
• Simple as possible from the standpoint of the
builder
• Can be maintained at the least cost
• And safe for driving and ensure confidence
for the motorists.
a.) Sight Distance
It is the distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see an
object ahead of time.

 Types of Sight Distance:

 Stopping (Non-Passing) Sight Distance
• Available distance on a roadway to enable a vehicle
traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a
stationary object.
• It is the sum of the break reaction and braking
distances.
 Passing Sight Distance
• Distance required for a driver to see a sufficient object to
complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the
passed vehicle in advance of meeting an opposing
vehicle appearing during maneuver.

 Decision Sight Distance

• Distance required for driver to initiate, safely and
efficiently and completely maneuver the unexpected or
otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or
hazard. The decision sight distance is substantially
greater than stopping sight distance.
b.) Horizontal Alignment
Major Design Considerations:
 Safety
 Grade profile
 Type of facility
 Design speed
 Topography
 Construction cost
 Radius of curve
 The combination of design speed and maximum super-elevation
controls the maximum degree of curvature.
 Minimum radius is 30cm for design speed of 30kph and e = 6-8%
 Length of curve
 Super-elevation
 Widening
 The objective of widening along horizontal curve is to make
operating conditions on curves comparable to those on tangents.
General Controls
 Alignment should be as directional as possible but should
be consistent with topography and with preserving
developed properties.
 Alignment should be consistent and sharp curves should
not be introduced at the end of long tangents.
 For small deflection angle, curves should be sufficiently
long to avoid the appearance of kink.
 Tangents or flat curvature should be used on high long
fills.
 Caution should be exercised in the use of compound curve.
Where topography or RROW restrictions make their use
necessary, the radius of the flatter curve should not be
more than 50 % greater than the radius of the sharper
curve.
 Any abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided. The
reversion length of tangent between reversed curves
should be 50m and in no case should be less than 30m.
 The “broken-back” or “flat-back arrangement of curve
(having a short tangent between two curves in the same
direction) should be avoided except when very unusual
topographical or R-O-W dictate otherwise.
 To avoid the appearance of inconsistent distortion, the
horizontal alignment should be coordinated carefully with
the profile design.
 Ending a curve on a bridge is undesirable, unsightly and
adds needless complications to design and construction.
c.) Vertical alignment
 Three Terrain Classifications:
 Level Terrain
is that condition of the highway sight distances on generally
long or could be made to be so without major expense.

 Rolling Terrain
is that condition when the natural slope consistently rise
above or fall below the road grade.

 Mountainous Terrain
is that condition when longitudinal and transverse changes in
the elevation of the ground with respect to the road.
Design Considerations
 Gradient
 For economy of vehicle operation, grades should be as flat as
possible
 For Philippine national roads, the maximum grade is reduced or
compensated on the sharp curves according to the following rule:
 “For every degree of curvature over six degrees, the ruling grade shall
be reduced by 0.10 percent”.
 On through cut sections, grades should at least be 0.50 % to provide
longitudinal drainage.
 A minimum of 0.35 % may be used on high type pavements and
accurately crowned to facilitate drainage discharge.
 Critical Length of Upgrades
The following critical length of upgrades when approached
by a level section should not be used as a control but should
be referred to as a guide.
Critical length (m) Upgrade (%)

500 3

340 4

240 5

200 6

170 7

150 8
 Vertical Curves
 All intersections of grade tangents shall be converted by
parabolic vertical curve either symmetrical or
unsymmetrical, where the latter should be avoided
whenever possible.
 Crest vertical curves should be long enough to permit
sight distance.
 Headlight sight distance controls length of the sag
vertical curve.
 A smooth grade line with gradual changes should be
sought for in preference to a line with numerous
breaks/short length of grades.
 The “roller coaster” or the hidden-dip type of profile
should be avoided.
 Undulating grade line involving substantial length of
momentum grades should be evaluated for their effect
on traffic operation
 A “broke-back” grade line should be avoided.
 On long grades, it may preferable to place the steepest
grades at the bottom and flatter the grades near the top
of the ascent.
 Where at grade intersections occur on roadway sectors
with moderate to steep grades, it is desirable to reduce
the grades through the intersection.
 Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless
adequate drainage can be provided.
d.) Pavement
Surface Type selection is based on:
 Traffic Volume and Composition
 Soil Characteristics
 Weather
 Performance of Existing Pavements
 Availability of Materials
 Energy Conservation
 Initial Cost, and
 Overall Annual Maintenance Cost
 Cross Slope
For multilane highway, the two lanes adjacent to the crown
line should be pitched at the normal minimum slope, and on
each successive pair of lanes or portion thereof outward, the
rate may be increased by about 0.50 to 1 %.

Surface Type Cross Slope Rating

High 1.50 – 2.0%

Intermediate 2.0 – 3.0 %

Low 3.0 – 4.0 %

 Lane Width
 Width of pavement is determined by the lane width.
 Desirable lane width is 3.65m which allows large vehicles
to pass without either vehicle having to move sideways
towards the edge of pavement.
 Lane width as low as 2.75m may be used on grounds of
economy.
 Roads with pavement widths less than 5.5m should be
regarded as single lane.
 Pavement width greater than 7.32m for 2-way movement
is not recommended for 2-lane roads as some drivers
will attempt to travel three vehicles abreast on wide
pavement.
 Shoulders
 Shoulders on fill preferably should be wider than in cuts
although the present practice is to make them equal.
 Regardless of the width, shoulders should be
continuous.
 Although, it is desirable that shoulder be wide enough
for a vehicle to be driven completely off the travel way,
narrower shoulders are better than none at all.
 Shoulder width of 0.60m may be considered on difficult
terrain and on low volume highway.
 If the Shoulder is to be used by animal-drawn vehicles,
pack animals or pedestrians, even greater width should
be considered.
 Preferably, shoulder width of 2.5m is recommended for
high speed/traffic volume.
 • Fulfill a need
• Command attention
• Convey a clear, simple message
• Command Respect
• Give adequate time for proper response
• Conspicuous
• Clear
• Comprehensible
• Credible
• Consistent
 • Fulfill a need
• Command attention
• Convey a clear, simple message
• Command Respect
• Give adequate time for proper response
•REGULATORY SIGNS
•WARNING SIGNS
•GUIDE SIGNS OR INFORMATION SIGNS
•SIGNS FOR EXPRESSWAY
•SIGNS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSE
•HAZARD MARKERS
 School zone
STOP signs are Shows a
Shows driving
fluorescent permitted action
regulations
yellow-green

Yield the right way Explains lane use Shows an action

Tells about that is not
motorist services permittedn
Warns of Hazards
ahead Railway crossing

Warns of
Construction zones Show distance and
direction
Speed restriction and derestriction
No parking signs
Restricted parking and loading signs
No waiting signs
No loading /Unloading signs
No parking or stopping signs
Miscellaneous Signs
Horizontal Alignment Signs
Intersection and Junction Signs
Advance Warning of Traffic control Device Signs
Road Width Signs
Road Obstacle Signs
Pedestrian and school signs
Railway Level crossing
Supplementary Signs
Other warning signs