Every Day Science by DR Muhammad Akram Kashmiri
Every Day Science by DR Muhammad Akram Kashmiri
Every Day Science by DR Muhammad Akram Kashmiri
By
Chairman
A. H. PUBLISHERS
22 AI-Fazal Market, Urdu Bazar, Lahore Phone: 7325108
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of the publisher
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1st Edition
2nd Edition
3rd Edition
4th Edition 1
5th Edition
6th Edition
7th Edition
8th Edition
1993-94
1995-96
1997-78
999-2000
2001-02
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
Printed by NAYYAR ASAD PRINTERS,
Lahore
The encouragement for writing this book had onginally come from the academy of
Administrative Sciences a premiei institution engaged in preparing candidates for
the CSS and other Competitive
Since then the demand foi the book has been peisistent
While bringing out the second edition I have taken the oppoitumty to add
substantial mateiial The subject at places has also received a more detailed
exposition An added featui e is the addition of selected question and then answeis
at the end of each chaptei, which will be found helpful by the students
tiemendous i espouse The present revised and enlaiged edition, it is hoped will be
found even moie mstiuctive and mteiestmg and will piove hopefully rewaidmg foi
candidates of vaiious competitive examinations
it or not!
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Akram Kashmiri
Chairman
A special feature of the book is that it presents a brief history of science with
special reference to the contribution of Muslim Scientists, thus providing a
comprehensive though concise historical perspective to modern scientific
thought.
It is earnestly hoped that the present book will prove highly rewarding for
candidates of Central and provincial Civil Services. Suggestions for further
improving the quality of the book are solicited.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad
ONTENTS
Chapter 1 SCIENCE
• Introduction
• History of Science
• Islamic Science
• Nature of Science
• Impact of Science
• Limitations of Science
• Exercise
• Introduction
• Solar System
• Constellation Zodiac
• The Sun
• The Moon
• The Earth
12
19
21
22
25
25
(31-84)
31
31
32
34
38
40
41
42
43
• Earth’s Atmosphere 47
• Global Warming 51
• Ozone Depletion 52
• Acid Rain 53
• Map Reading 54
• Earthquakes 56
• Eclipses 60
• Volcanoes 67
• Universe 69
• Minerals ’ 71
• Exercise 77
• Introduction 88
• Sources of Energy 91
• Fossil Fuels _/ 92
• Petroleum Products 95
• Natural Gas 96
• Solar Energy 98
• Nuclear Energy 99
• The nuclear reactor . Heavy Water
• Energy Conservation
• Energy Terms
• Exercise
• Ceramics
• Semi-Conductors
• Laser
• Telescope
• Fertilizers
• Pesticides
• Camera
• Plastics
• Computer
• Glossary of Computers
• Exercise
101
103
105
107
108
108
110
113
(121-172)
121
125
127
129
132
133
136
138
140
141
144
148
149
157
(173-237)
173
175
• Cells 184
• Microscope 188
• Diseases 192
• Bacteria 194
• Antibiotics 196
• Vaccines 199
• Chromosomes • 204
• Genes 206
. Metabolism 208
• Vitamins 212
• Exercise 219
• Introduction 238
• The Lungs
• The Brains
The Ear
• Kxercise Appendices
258
258
260
261
262
277
(295-456)
297
318
344
375
401
427
437
440
445
449
453
457
Chapter 1
SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION
The word ’Science’ is derived from the Latin (Roman) word ’Scientia’ or ’Scire’
which means knowledge. Science deals with the understanding of natural
phenomena and the relations between them and its end is the rational interpretation
of facts of existence as disclosed to us by our faculties and senses. The hypotheses
of Science, according to a great thinker, Karl Pearson are formed on the basis of
the observed facts, which, when confirmed by criticism and experiments are
turned into the ”Law of Nature”. In the words of J. Arthur Thomson,” Science is
the well-criticised body of empirical knowledge declaring in the simplest and
Tersest terms available at the time what can be observed and experimented with,
and summing up uniformities of change in formula which are called laws
verifiable by all who can use methods.” Hypothesis, theory and law seems to be
the vertices of the triangle of science based on experiments and observations.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
The history of science must include the history of the development of all aspects
of knowledge. If science is considered as a branch of tested knowledge obtained
by the accumulation of fact derived from observations and experiments then Myth
and Religion mainly dominated as modes for explaining the world among
1
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
early civilizations. Early Greek philosophers were the first to bring a change in
this concept. They excluded supernatural causes from their accounts of reality. By
the 3rd century B.C., Greek science was highly sophisticated and producing
theoretical models that have shaped the development of science ever since.
Although modern science is said to be the child of Greek science and the
Renaissance is believed to have been brought about mainly by the restoration of
the Greek Classics but still their work was not based on observation and
experiment; a real scientific approach. Therefore, Greek science itself was not
truly scientific. The Greeks were over-theoretical, for their science was an off-
shoot of philosophy.
With the fall of Greece to the Roman Empire, science fell from grace. Science was
almost unknown in Western Europe in the 5th century A.D. after the fall of the
Romans. Islamic culture alone preserved Greek knowledge and later transmitted it
back to the West. Muslim scholars were the first to make science meaningful and
practical in the real sense by introducing observation and experiment as
characteristic steps of scientific achievements.
During the time A.D 200-1200, when Europe was passing through the so-called :
”Dark Ages”, the whole World was ringing with the scientific achievements of
Muslim scholars like Avicenna and Averroes.
ALEXANDRIAN SCIENCE
ISLAMIC SCIENCE
WESTERN SCIENCE
MODERN SCIENCE
ACHIEVEMENTS OF SOME GIANTS OF SCIENCE IN THE CHRONOLOGICAL
ORDER
Aristotle
Archimedes (Italian)
Hippocrates
Life-Span
580-500 B.C.
384-322 B.C.
287-212 B.C.
190-120 B.C.
A.D. 1571-1630
A.D. 1564-1642
Scientific Contributions
i^^^m
He formulated basic laws of geometry.
He divided the Universe into two distinct regions. He also did the first systematic work on comparative
Biology.
He gave importance to the position of stars and made comprehensive list on the relative shift in the position
of stars.
He was the first person to show that the planets move around the sun in elliptic orbits. He gave laws of
planetary motion.
A.D. 1642-1727
A.D. 1809-1892
A.D. 18791955
He was naturalist. He revolutionised Biology. He gave the theories of Natural Selection in Evolution.
He was a physicist. He revised classical physics with his theory of General Relativity.
He was born in Athens in the house of a sculptor. He was regarded as the wisest
philosopher of his time. His fields or interest were music, mathematics and
gymnastics. He gave meanings to goodness, justice and similar ideas, which seei i
so simple but are so difficult to define. Plato (428-347 B.C.) was his famous
disciple.
He was rhe son of a physician and disciple of Plato. He contributed mainly in the
fields of physics, biology and the humanities. He mentioned about 500 animals,
some with diagrams, gained by thin dissection. He described the development of
the embryo chicken,
detected the formation of the heart, and watch its beat while yet in the egg.
He was born in England on Christmas Day, 1642. His main fields of interests were
physics and mathematics. Laws of motion and Force of Gravity gave him an
immense popularity. He invented the calculus or ’flusion’s - finding the rate of
change of one variable with respect to another. He never married in his life. He
made a triangular prism and showed the dispersion of white light into seven
colours; red. orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet - this proved the
composite nature of white light.
(2) All individuals of a specie are not exactly alike, i.e., there are variations.
He assumed that variations are inherited.
(4) In the struggle for existence the favourable variations will survive and
the unfavourable will
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
The favourable, variations will accumulate and this ’Natural Selection’ will lead to
gradual changes in the characters of a species towards better adaptation. This
gradual change, when it has proceeded for enough, will result in the origin of a
new species.
He was born at Pisa, Italy in 1564. He gave the true method of physical research
by combining observation and induction with mathematical deduction tested by
experiments. He was the first man to point out that the path of a projectile would
be a parabola, resolving its motion into a horizontal component which keeps
constant, and a vertical component which follows the laws of falling bodies.
He was born at Wurtumburg, Germany in 1571. His main field of interest was
mathematics. He believed that all the natural laws could be expressed in terms of
(1) The planets move round the Sun in elliptical orbits with Sun as one of this
focci.
(2) The radius vector joining the planet and the sun sweeps equal areas in equal
times.
(3) The square of the periodic times of the various planets (including the Earth) are
proportional to the cubes of the semi-major axis of their respective orbits.
He was born in Germany in 1879. He had Jewish origin. His primary interests
were physics and mathematics. He specifically contributed in the following fields.
Inertia of Energy
There can vbe nothing at ”absolute rest” or at ”absolute motion” in the Universe.
This philosophy gave
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EVERYDAY SCIENCE
birth to the theory of relativity which was a break through in the Kingdom of
Physical Sciences.
Einstein locked energy and mass into his famous equation, E = mc2 (Where ’E’ is
the energy, ’m’ is the mass and ’c’ is the velocity of light). He got the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1921 for suggesting applications of the Quantum Mechanics. The
special theory of relativity is basprl on the following points:
(2) The laws of nature are the same for all bodies in uniform motions.
It Say* That:
(v) An object in motion has its mass increased because of the motion.
The Special Theory covers only uniform motion, whereas the General Theory
includes accelerated and rational motion as well.
ISLAMIC SCIENCE
When the people of the whole of Europe were living in a highly savage state, then
moral codes were degraded and then theology debased, the crescent of Islam rose
form the horizons to enlighten the faculties of understanding of Basic Laws of
Nature.
When the great Founder of Islam was born, the majority of mankind looked
upon the elements of Nature, the subject matter of science, as objects
possessing supernatural powers. They made idols, symbolizing different
elements, and worshipped them as gods and goddesses, either for protection from
evil or for attainment of certain objects. Thus all that was useful in the Heavens
and the Earth remained unexplored, and for thousand of years man did not realise
the sublime utility of the forces of Nature. It was reserved for the Book of Islam
to open Man’s eyes to the wonderland of Nature. Scientific activity in the Islamic
world started at a number of centres like Basra, Kufa, Baghdad and Cairo.
READ-RECKONER OF CONTRIBUTIONS OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS
• Muslim Scientist
Scientific Contributions
Practical Chemist.
I
AI-Battani
A.D. 858-929
Astronomy and
Mathematics
6.
Zakariya AI-Razi
A.D. 865-925
Chemistry, Medicine,
Physician.
7.
A.D. 980-1037
Physician, Medicine.
(Avicenna)
8.
AI-Biruni
A.D. 973-1048
Mathematics.
9.
Ibn al-Baitar
Botany, Pharmacy.
10.
Ibn Rushid
A.D. 1126-1198
Physician, Astronomy,
(Averroes)
Philosophy
11.
Nasir-ud-Din I
A.D. 1201-1274
Mathematics, Optics,
al-Toosi
Astrology, Astronomy,
Geography.
12.
Abu Qasim
A.D. 936-1013
Surgeon, Physician.
Al-Zahrawi
13.
AI-Farabi
A.D. 874-950
Mathematics, Meta-
14.
M. Ibn Ibrahim
Died 733
Mathematics.
AI-Fzari
15.
Umar AI-Khayyam
fication. He devised a
new calendar.
SCIENCE
16.
Habash AI-Hasib
time by an altitude.
17.
18.
AI-Ghazali
A.D. 1058-1111
the stars.
19.
AI-Farghani
astronomy.
20.
Al-Zarqali
21.
Qutb-ud-Din Al-Shirazi
22.
AI-Nasavi
system.
23.
Abdul Latif
A.D. 1162-1231
Medicine, Anatomy.
24.
He was born (A.D. 780-847) in Khawarizm. He was one of the greatest scientist of all
times and contributed richly in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Geography. He
was considered as an authority on mathematics. He composed the oldest works on
arithmetics, algebra and astronomical tables. He actually systematised the Greek and
Hindu mathematical knowledge. His celebrated work on algebra entitled ”Hisab al Jabr
Wai Muqabala” translated in Latin, was used as the principal mathematical text-book
until the 16th century by European universities. He was an astronomer of outstanding
ability. He was also a geographer of repute and laid the foundation of geographical
science in Arabic. He has been called ”the principal figure in the early history of Arabic
Mathematics”. He wrote a great treatise on Aljebra containing analytical solutions of
quadratic equations. He authored the following important books:
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (A.D. 721-815) known as Geber in the WTest, was a great practical
chemist of his time. He prepared a large number of important chemicals like, Nitric Acid,
Sulphuric Acid and Hydrochloric Acid. He is considered as god-father of modern
chemistry, He became famous for his various chemical techniques and
c°
SCIENCE
Al-Kindi was born in Basrah in the beginning ° the 9th century A.D. He was a great
physicist, known ^s Al-Kindus in the West. He wrote a treatise On geometrical and
physiological optics. He al^° endeavoured to ascertain the laws that govern the fall °f
bodies. No less than 265 works are ascribed to him D* which at least fifteen are on
meteorology, eight on mu0ic and several on specific weights, tides, optics and on tPe
reflection of light. His important treatises are:
philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and ethics. He earned the title of the Father of
Paediatrics by writing his monograph on ”Diseases in children”. He believed in five
eternal principles in metaphysics namely Creator, Soul, Matter, Time and Space. He was
also an excellent teacher of medicine. He made an attempt to classify chemical
substances. He was the first scientist to classify substances into vegetables, animals and
minerals.
(ii) Al Hawi
(vi) Barr-ul-Saat
Abu Ali Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn Hasan Ibn Ali Ibn Sina was born in A.D. 980 at
Afshinah near Bukhara (Turkistan). He is considered as the greatest intellectual giant of
the Middle Ages. He contributed to medical science, philosophy lo^ic, mathematics,
astronomy and music. He was an unforgetable physician of all times. He is better known
a Avicenna in the West. His most famous book ’Al Qannun fil Tib’, known as Canon in
l!atin, was translated in many languages and it remained the sole textbook of medicine
for several hundred years in Western Universities. He was unparallel versatile genius. It
is said that he wrote no less than 230 books and treaties. He fell victim to a disease in
which he was a specialist and breathed his last at the age of 57 in A.D.
1037. The Canon of a Avicenna, consisting of
approximately a million words, is the most influential text-book ever written. For six
centuries it dominated the medical schools of Asia and Europe. He was the first to use
catheters made of the skins of various animals, and he mentioned intravesical injections
by means of a silver syringe.
(v) Isharrat
(6) Al-Biruni
Abu Rayhan Muhammad Al-Biruni was born near the town of Khawarizm in A.D. 973.
He was simultaneously a physician, astronomer, mathematician, physicist, geographer
and historian. He was a born writer ad he never had a pen out of his hand. He learnt
Sanskarit language in order to investigate Indian knowledge. He explained the problems
of advanced trigonometry. It was he who discovered that light travels faster than sound.
He accurately determined the weight of 18 stones in physics. He gave an understanding
to the terms of longitudes and latitudes. He died at the age of
75 years in A.D. 1048. He was the author of the following famous books.
(i) Tahqiq Al-Hind (ii) Qamun Al-Masudi (Hi) Asrar Al-Baqiya (iv) Kitab Al-Saidana
Abu Ali Al Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham, better known as Alhazan in the West, was born at
Basrah in A.D. 975. He was an outstanding mathematician, physiologists and optician.
He is more known for his optical works which were translated into Latin. He explained
the refraction of light rays through transparent objects, discovered magnifying lenses, and
the function of retina as the seat of vision. He identified gravity as a force, a theory which
was later on developed by Newton. He died in Cairo in A.D. 1039. He observed the semi-
lunar shape of the image of the Sun during eclipses on a wall opposite a fine hole in the
window-shutters-the first record of the camera obscura. His famous books are:
(i)
(ii)
(Hi)
(iv) (v)
Kitab Al Manazir
On Twilight Phenomena
Mizanul Hikma
(8)
Ibn Al-Baitar
Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Al-Baitar was born in Malaga (Spain) at the end
of the 12th century. He was a great Spanish Muslim botanist and pharmacist. He made a
complete collection of plants and herbs extending from Spain to Syria. HP discovered
many new plants and extracted medical drugs from them. His work was considered an
authority in plants and he gave new orientation to the classification and nomenclature of
plant kingdom over which modern botany is based. He died in Damascus in A.D. 1248.
He was the author of the following famous books:
(10) AIMawardi
Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib, Abul Hasan AIMawardi was born at Basrah in A.D. 1058.
He was a learned jurisconsul and political economist. He was an expert on diverse
subjects like religion, ethics, literature and politics. He died in A.D. 1123. He was author
of the following famous book.
(v) Al Ahkam-us-Sultaniyah
astrologer. He go built the Maragha observatory for astronomical researches He was also
an expert on mathematics and he earned great popularity by writing ”The Ilkhanian
Tables”. This work is divided into four books namely, (i) CHINESE, GREEK, ARABIC
AND PERSIAN CHRONOLOGY (ii) MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS, (Hi)
EPHERMERIDE and (iv) ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. He died in Baghdad in
A.D. 1274. He wrote a treatise on the Quadrilateral, ”a work in which Trigonometry,
Plane and Spherical”, found its first methodically developed and deliberate expression.
His other famous books are:
(in) Kitab-i-si-Fasl
Abul Qasim Al-Zahrawi, better known as Mamoon of the West, was born in A.D. 936 in
Spain. He was a great surgeon. He invented many surgical appliances, never known
before. He was a physician as well. He was an excellent dentist also and he could very
successfully set an artificial tooth in place of diseased. He gave perfection to the surgical
science. He died in A.D. 1013. He was the author of the following famous hook:
(i) Al-Tasrif
(13) Al-Battani
Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Al-Battani, a great Arab Astronomer and
Mathematician, was born around A.D. 858. He widened the scientific horizons of
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mathematics Geometry
Aljebra Trigonometry
Astronomy
Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf, Banu Musa, Abul’Wafa, AI-Mahani, Abu Kamil, Al-Sijzi, AlBaghdabi, Abdul
Faraj, Abd-ul-Malik, AlShirazi, Muhammad Ibn-al-Hussain and Kamal-ud-Din Yunus.
AI-Khwarizmi, Abu Kamil, Umar Khayyam Abu Wafa and Umar Ibn Ibrahim.
Habash al-Hasib, Abu Said al-Darir, AlFarghani, Abdur Rahman al-Sufi, Ibn Yusuf, Ibn al-
Haitham, Umar Hayyam, AlGhazali, Al-Zarqali, Banu Amajur, AIKhwarizmi, Ibn-Rushd, AI-
Bitruji, Qutb-udDin, Al-shirazi, Al-lbn Umar-al-Katibi, AlHasan AI-Marakushi.
®^SBp*i
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
6.
7.
8.
Chemistry
Physics
9.
10.
Optics
Geography
11.
Medicine
12.
Scientific Instruments
Abu Ubaidah, AI-Asma, Al-Jahiz, Muhammad AI-Dimhyari, AI-Bakri, Abdul Latif, AI-Ghafiqi, Ibn Sina,
Ibn Suri and AlIdrisi.
Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Jahiz, Abu Mansur Muwaffaq, Abdul Qasim, AI-Razi and Hasan AI-Rammah. ,
AI-Kindi, Banu Musa, Al-Jahiz, AI-Narizi, AI-Beruni, Ibn Sina, AI-Razi, Ibn Jami, AlKahin-al-Attar
Abdur Rehman Ibn Nasi, Qaisar-lbn Abi-al-Qasim
Ibn Sarafyun, AI-Mas’udi, Al-lstakhri, IbnHaukal, abdul fida, AI-Beruni, AI-Farghani, AI-Kindi, Abdul
Latif, Al-ldrisi, Hasan-alMarakashi.
AI-Kindi, Zakariya Razi, Ali Ibn Abbas, Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn-al-Haitham, Ibn al-Wafid, Ammar,
Ali Ibn Isa, Ibn Sina Ibn Zuhr, Abdul Latif, Ibn-al-Nafis and Ibn-al-Baitar, Abu Ali Sina, Abu Mansur
Muwaffaq.
Ibrahim al-Fazarum Muzaffar al-Tusi, AlBadi, AI-Asturlabi, Tabin Ibn Aflah, Qaisar Ibn abial-Qasim
Ibrahim Ibn Said al-Sahli Muhammad Ibn Hilal.
SCIENCE
8th
9th
10th
Abu Ali Sina, AI-Biruni, Ibn AI-Haitham, Abul Qasim AlZahrawi, AI-Farabi.
U+
-2ih
Ibn AI-Baitar, Ibn Rushd, Ibn-ul-Baytar, Abdul Latif, Umar-al-Khayyam Hasan-al-Marakushi, Nasir-ud-
DIn al Toosi.
Nature of Science:
SCIENTIFIC METHODS
Classical approach splits scientific methods into the following steps for the
establishment of the true identity of a fact.
(1) Perception:
(2) Inference:
(3) Comparison:
(4) Testimony:
It is the recognition and knowledge of the objects, produced by their contact with
various external sense organs such as those of sight, shearing, touch, taste, smell
and with internal sense organs such as the mind.
The wheel of time has now changed the classical approach into the following steps
of modern scientific methods:
(2) EXPERIMENTATION
Importance of Science:
Science means knowledge and it has two objectives to enable men to do and to
know. Science has evolved out of philosophy, culture, mythology and religion. In
the past science has remained a pursuit of the learned but more recently, it has
become an important factor in determining the everyday life of the common man.
There is hardly any sphere of life where science is riot serving like curing
diseases., preserving our food, warming us in winter cooling us in summer,
building our houses transporting us on land and water and helps us day and night
in a hundred different ways.
A
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Scope of Science:
The spectrum of modern science now extends from Astronomy to Zoology, from
spiraling galaxies to the heart of atom, from microchips to the mechanisms of
human body and from non-living things to living ones. Every discipline of science
has developed so much that it needs to be further classified. Science deals with
interaction of bodies with outside forces. It tells us how the bodies react to forces
but it cannot tell how they respond. No branch of science however, deals with
consciousness, purpose, intention, will, wisdom and morality. Modern psychology
and even decision making is becoming scientific-Science has become a culture, an
attitude or simply a way of life.
Applications of Science:
Horrors of Science:
man more powerful to destroy his fellows. The atomic and hydrogen bombs
continue to threaten human life, science has made life hectic, complicated, noisy
and full of violence. Inspite of these disadvantages, science can go a long way in
decreasing human misery and sorrow and increasing human happiness.
Limitations of Science:
Science cannot teach morals and so it cannot improve the ethical side of man’s
nature. Ethical moral values of life have always been governed by the strings of
religion throughout the ages. It cannot solve the problem of large scale crimes,
drug addiction and alcoholism. Science has no conscience, no feelings and no
sympathies - just facts and figures. Science cannot tell us what we should do. It is
we who have to decide what to do; the science will tell us how to do it and what
will happen when we have done it.
EXERCISE
Q. Name some important discoveries of PreScienee era?
Ans. Fire and Language are the most important discoveries of Pre-Science era.
Q. What has been the main sequence for the development of Science over the years?
Ans. The main sequence for the development of science goes around three stages,
namely Imagination, Creation and Application.
Q. What were the special characteristics of Muslim Scientists?
Ans. Greek Science was mainly theoretical because it was not based on
observation and experiments. Muslim scientists gave science its real meaning by
switching over to its practical aspects: observation and experiment. They
realised from the inquiring spirit of the Holy Qur’an, that science could not
be advanced by more speculation, its only wire progress lay in the
practical interrogation of Nature. The essential characteristics of their
method were experiments and observations. The solution of a problem, regarding
Mechanics, Hydrostatic or Optics, was always obtained by performing an
experiment, or by an instrumental observation. It was this that made them the
originators of Chemistry which led them to the invention of all kinds of
apparatus for distillation, fusion, Filtration, etc. They developed
divided instruments like Quadrant and Astrolabe in Astronomy.
Ans. A. Mathematics:
B: Chemistry
Jabir Ibn Hayyan gave sound views on methods of chemical research, and a theory
on the geologic formation of metals. He prepared basic lead carbonate. Arsenic
and Antimony from their sulphides; dealt with refinement of metals, preparation of
steel, dyeing of cloth and leather. A number of his works on chemistry have been
published by Berthelot.
Abul Qasim explained the preparation of drugs by sublimation and distillation. Al-
Razi made an attempt to classify mineral substances into vegetables, animals and
minerals. Al-Jahiz tried to classify mineral substances and Abu Mansur Muwaffaq
described the preparation and properties of mineral substances. The Arabs
manufactured inks, lacquers, solders, cements, imitation pearls and jewels. The
Arabs are also credited with having invented gunpowder.
.J
Hasan Al-Rammah wrote a treatise on military science, containing pyrotechnic recipies in
which special attention has been paid to the preparation and purification of saltpetre,
C: Medicine
Medicine is one of the branches of science to which the followers of Islam have made
quite a great contributions. Medical literature of Medical Muslims shows that they knew
the contagious nature of certain diseases like smallpox and measles. They discovered the
capillary system and the circulation of blood.
establish posology (the science of doses) on a mathematical basis. Zakariya Razi knew
that the pupil contracts to light, jaundice is caused by obstruction of the bile passages and
that disorders of the bladder are accompanied by blood in the urine.
Abu Qasim Al-Zahrawi, a great surgeon and the author of the famous medical
Encyclopedia, the Kitab Al-Tasrifs described and gave the diagrams of no less than 200
surgical instruments. Ibn sina was the first to use catheters made of the skins of various
animals, and he mentioned intravesical injections by means of a silver syringe. He was
the master-mind and considered as the chief authority in medicine for almost seven
ceturit.,.
Q. What period is called the Dark Ages in Europe? Explain with reference
to the development of science.
A. The period extending from the second to the tenth centuries. A.D. is regarded as the
Dark Ages in Europe. During this period Europe made little or no progress in science for
nearly a thousand years. These middle ages are known as the Dark Ages because of their
darkness in the fields of science, philosophy and other branches of knowledge. The
people of that continent were living in a completely disorganised state. It was this time
when the degradation of the human intellect was most widespread over Europe.
Throughout the Dark ages in Europe, science remained in obscurity and subordination.
Almost every material phenomenon was attributed to the will of a spirit. In all fields of
life, there was want of reasoning, thinking and looking into things. Ideas in all spheres of
life were so much based on superstitions that an average European, ”fever-striken or
overtaken by accident, ran to the nearest saint-shrine to be cured by a miracle”. The
clouds of Dark Ages began to dissolve with the rise of the crescent of Islam.
A. Habash Al-Hasib edited three astronomical tables and he was the first to determine the
time by an altitude. Abu Said Al-Darrir wrote a treatise on the drawing of the meridian.
Al-Battani compiled a catalogue of the stars and determined various astronomical co-
efficients with great accuracy. Umar Khayyam devised a new calander which was
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
extraordinarily accurate. Al-Zarqali proved the movement of the solar apogee and
invented Astrolabe. Al-Ghazali wrote a treatise on the motion and nature of the
stars. Ibn Al-Haitham observed the semi-lunar shape of the image of the sun
during eclipses on a wall opposite a fine hole in the window-shulters-the first
record of the camera obscura. The followers of Islam established astronomical
observatories all over the realm of Islam from Spain to India.
Chapter 2
THE UNIVERSE
INTRODUCTION
The branch of physical science which deals with the nature of the Universe, its
overall structure and origin, is called cosmology. Until the 17th century, the
Universe was thought to be static, infinite and unchanging: this is called the
Steady-State Theory. However, Edwin Hubble (1889-1953), an American
astronomer showed in 1920s that the space between the galaxies is increasing and
the Universe is therefore expanding like a balloon that is being inflated. The
known Universe is finite and its edge lies at a distance of about 1024 km.
According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe came into existence about 15 to
20 billion years ago when a cataclysmic explosion took place. The Echo of this
bigbang can still be heard in the form of microwave radio signal from space. This
is also called as the 3K microwave background radiation first detected by Arno
Penzias and Robert Wilson for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize. Before
the birth of our Universe, there was no time, no matter and no space. All the
energy and matter of the future cosmos were concentrated in a single point of
energy. All the forces were unified in this single point and were in perfect
harmony. By someway this harmony was disturbed and this triggered a
catastrophic
31
THE UNIVERSE
explosion, filling our space with every particle of matter hurled away from every
other particle Thus, this is how our Universe exploded into life; and matter, space
and time came into being.
spherical, elliptical and irregular. Our galaxy is spiral, contains 10” stars with a
diameter of 105 light years -md it is called the Milky Way. According to Greek
legend, the pearly band of the milky way stretching across the
sky is milk split from the breast of the godess Juno. The nearest spiral galaxy to
the milky way is Andromeda Galaxy; it is 2,200,000 light years away from us.
This is our galactic neighbour along with Large Magellanic Cloud which is
170,000 light years away. The arms of the spiral galaxy are called the galactic
arms. A collection of galaxies is called cluster.
There are two main theories of the Universe: Open Universe or Closed Universe.
Some physicists believe that our Universe will expand forever. Other are
convinced that expansion of our Universe will slow down and finally start
contracting ultimately resulting in the Big Crash or Crunch. If there is sufficient
matter in the Universe, gravity will eventually win and begin pulling
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
the galaxies together again, causing the Universe to experience a reverse of the big
bang the big crunch. After this a new Universe may come into being with totally
different laws of nature; this is the cyclic theory.
SOLAR SYSTEM:
Solar system is a tiny part of a galaxy and consists of the sun and all the objects
that travel around it. It includes the Earth and eight other planets, along the
satellites that travel around most of them. It further includes Asteroids,
Meteoroids, Comets, Interplanetary dust and Interplanetary plasma. The planets
are described in detail below:
Mercury:
It is the second smallest planet in this solar system and is closest to the Sun. Its
mean distance from the Sun is 0.387 astronomical units. Its equatorial diameter is
4,880 km. It takes 88 Earth days to complete one revolution around the Sun.
Mercury looks a lot like the Moon, covered with holes called Craters. There are
great soaring cliffs on the surface of Mercury, called scarps. It has no moon.
Venus:
It is called as Earth’s Twin in size and mass. Venus is hotter than Mercury. The
planet is wrapped in thick clouds of gas called carbon dioxide which traps the
Sun’s heat like the windows of a greenhouse. Venus is
0.723 A.U. away from the Sun. Its revolution period is
225 days. Its equatorial diameter is 12,104 km. It also has
no moon.
THE UNIVERSE
Earth:
It is the most wonderful planet of the Universe. It is one A.U. away from the sun.
Its equatorial diameter is
12,756 km. The Earth is the largest of the terrestrial planets. Seen from space, the
Earth is a beautiful ball of colours - blue oceans, white clouds, and brown
continents. It has a Moon.
Mars:
It is in direct contrast to venus with its hot and opaque atmosphere. Mars is a
barren desert. It is covered with red dust, that is why we call Mars, the Red Planet.
There is no water on Mars. It is 1,524 A.U. away from the sun. Mars orbits the sun
once after every 687 days. Its equatorial diameter is 6,787 km. Mars has two
moons, called Phobos and Deimos.
Jupiter:
It has a dense, cloudy atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. It is actually the largest
planet of the solar system. Its diameter is 143,000 km. Jupiter orbits the Sun once
after every 11.86 years. It has sixteen moons.
Saturn:
It is the second largest planet. Its special feature is the superb rings of Saturn
which have the appearance of a large, extremely thin and flat circular sheet. It is
9,539 A.U. away from the Sun and its revolution period is
29.46 years. Its diameter is 120,000 km. It has at least 22 moons.
Uranus:
It has mostly hydrogen and helium atmosphere. It is 19.18 A.U. away from the
Sun. Its diametre is 51,800
iylaiVi »7ilWJi*<l 3 if M «i
km. Its revolution period is 84.01 years. It has fifteen moons. Uranus is big and
gives greenish glow.
Neptune:
It is similar to Uranus. It is 30.06 A.U. away from the Sun. Its diameter is 49,500
km. Its revolution period is 164.8 years. Neptune has only two known moons.
Pluto:
It is the most distant and the smallest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 400
km. Pluto orbits the Sun once every 248.4 years. It has a very low temperature. It
has only one moon called Charon.
SOLAR SYSTEM
•^^^^••••••II^B^BBBNBBIIIMIBI^H
•T^^^^^^^^^^I^H^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HHIHHj^^^^^B
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Jupiter
6.
Pluto
7.
8.
Pluto
THE UNIVERSE
9.
Mercury
10.
Venus
11.
Pluto
12.
Saturn
13.
Neptune
14.
Mars
15.
The Greenish Planet
Uranus
16.
Earth
17.
18.
19.
20.
Pluto
21.
Jupiter
22.
Venus
23.
24.
25.
The Planet often called the Morning Star
Venus
26.
27.
The Gaseous Planets
28.
The Planet with most eccentric orbit
Pluto
29.
Pluto
30.
Earth
CONSTELLATION ZODIAC
Constellations:
Zodiac:
Celestial Equator:
•^BaMaareffljBjaTTfaKfffMfB^aaWaaaBi
•^^^^^^^•••••••••••••^^Bi^^^^^^^B
•^BH^-v^n
No.
^«W^^B^^MM^^_^W^_^_W^_^*_«_^>^^^_»
Name
^^M^VB-BBKB^MHBH^^^H-l^«
Sun Enters
1.
•
March 21
2.
April 20
3.
May 21
4.
5.
July 23
6.
August 23
7.
September 23
8.
October 24
9.
November 22
10.
December 22
11.
January 20
12.
February 19
•OTq:M»7AVgJWiai’M;i
THE SUN
The Sun is the central part of the solar system. Its surface can be studied in detail
from the Earth. The Sun is very big almost a million miles across - and hot. Its
important features are described below:
••iiawirog-Pa
Hydrogen
90%
Chromosphere
15 million C°
2xlrj30 tons
Helium
8%
II
Heavy Elements
2%
Photosphere
[
6000 C°
r
Distance from Earth
Average Density
1.4gm/c.c.
1. The Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and it contains matter in the plasma state
which is the”*’ fourth physical state of matter.
2. Most of the mass (99.86%) of the solar system is concentrated in the Sun, which
thus exerts the gravitational force that holds the other objects together.
3. Source of energy in the sun is due to Nuclear Fusion. This process involve? the
conversion of hydrogen into helium. About 616 million tons of hydrogen is
converted into 612 million tons of helium in one second.
4. Every square meter of Sun’s surface emits 64 million watts into space.
5. Solar wind, solar flares and sunspots are important events of the Sun.
THE MOON
It is the only natural satellite of the Earth. The Moon is at a distance of 3,85,000
km from the Earth’s surface. Its important features are as follows:
1 The period of rotation of the Moon is equal to its period of revolution around
the Earth. This period is 29 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes and 11.47 seconds.
2 It is 81 times lighter than the Earth and the object weigh less on the Moon.
5. Craters are the most conspicuous and most plentiful of all luruHwairface
features.
6. Only 59% of the Moon surface is visible directly from the Earth.
10. The average temperature of the Moon ranges from 180° to 110°C.
THE EARTH
It is the most wonderful planet of the solar system. It is a water-drenched planet.
Special features are described below:
1. It is also about 4.6 billion years old but the life started on Earth about 3.5 to 4
billion years ago.
2. Its rotation period is 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds and revolution period
365 ’/4 days.
3. The mass of the Earth is 6 x 1021 tons and average density is 5,52 gm/c.c.
5. The Earth has the iron core, the rocky mantle and dynamic crust. It is made up
of Tectonic plates.
7. The atmosphere has about 3100 cubic miles of water in the form of clouds
which is responsible for producing different seasons.
8. Latitude and longitude coordinates are drawn on the map to locate the position
of a place on the surface of the Earth.
9. The Earth’s surface is rich in silicone, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium and
oxygen elements.
Asteroids:
Asteroids are small rocky objects. These are orbiting the Sun between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter. There are several thousand of them in the asteroid belt (140
million miles wide) of the solar system. Asteroids, are also called as minor planets.
The word asteroid means ’starlike’ but actually the asteroids are more planet like
than ’starlike’. Ceres asteroid was the first to be discovered in 1801, and is also the
largest (680 miles across). The origin of the asteroids is partly connected to the
remains of a planet that fell apart, Not all the asteroids orbit the Sun in the asteroid
belt. Some asteroids wander closer to the Sun, sometimes passing near the Earth.
These are called Earth-Grosser or Apollo-asteroids. In the past, some of these
asteroids may have collided with the Earth.
A meteorite is a tiny chunk of material floating in space that can enter the Earth’s
atmosphere and become a meteor. A meteor or a ”falling star” is the streak of light
that you can see in the night sky. A meteor will burn up or vaporise from frictional
heating as it enters the atmosphere. A burning meteor is popi/.-riy referred to as a
’shooting star’. Most meteors burn up before they reach the ground. If they do
i^ach the ground, they become meteorites. The Earth gets a constant meteor
shower, about 5 to 10 meteors in an hour. Meteors usually become visible at about
70 mile from the Earth’s surface. Larger bodies may not completely burn up in
Earth’s atmosphere and survive the trip through the atmosphere to Earth. They
may weigh as much as 60 tons. They are formed by the disintegration of a comet
or are the left-overs from the birth of the solar system.
Comets:
Comets are bodies made up of the ice and dust that move around the Sun, most of
them in highly elliptic orbits. As a comet approaches the Sun, a somewhat
transparent envelope and dust called the coma appears around the smpll compact
icy nucleus. The nucleus and coma comprise the comet’s head. If the comet comes
within the astronomical units of the Sun, it may, develop a luminous tail. The
comet’s head may be as large as 500,000 miles across. Comets circle the Sun in
one of three types of orbits; elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic. Comets with
elliptical orbits are periodic
THE UNIVERSE
comets, they will continually orbit the Sun as do the planets. The origin of comets
is unknown.
Halley’s Comet:
The most famous comet is Halley’s Comet, named after Edmund Halley, the first
British astronomer to calculate its orbit in 1705. It visits the Sun every 76 years
after. It last visited the Sun in 1986 but it passed very far from the Earth, so, its tail
could not be seen with the naked eye. It will return in the year 2062.
Introduction:
Geologists have shown that the structure of the Earth consists of a series of layers
namely the Crust, the Mantle and the Core (outer and inner); the Earth is more or
less like an onion. The d; .’ision of the Earth into Crust, Mantle and Core is based
*, the fact that the three zones have different chemicf.^ iimpositions. The series of
concentric layers beconn pi ugrt«sively densei towards the centre. As the pieces of
Lh^ Earth are put together, it has been discovered that the outermost
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
layer, the crust on which we live, is constantly in motion. The interior picture of
the Earth has been revealed by studying earthquakes. Earth’s magnetic field,
meteorites, chains of islands and volcanoes. On the outside of the Earth is a thin
crust - its depth no more than a postage stamp struck on the outside of a football.
Underlying this, is a Mantle, which makes up more than
82 percent of the volume of the Earth. Deeper still, we come to a very dense and
very hot core. The major parts of the Earth are discussed below:
Lilhosphere
Asthenosphere Mesospt
nn r» j.ei cent of the volume of the Earth, and is part of the rigid
1. The Crust:
It is the outermost layer of the Earth. The crust consists of continental crust and
oceanic crust. The average thickness of the oceanic crust is 5-9 km (3-5’/2 miles)
and it varies comparatively throughout the world. But the continental crust has the
much higher average thickness of 30-40 km (181/2 - 25 miles) and varies even
more. The most abundant elements of the Earth’s crust are Silicon and
Aluminium.
2. The Mantle:
The Mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2900 km (1800
miles) and accounts for about 82% of the Earth’s volume. The mantle is further
divided into Lithosphere (70 km deep), Asthenosphere (200 km deep) and
Mesosphere (2500 km) depending upon their chemical composition and density.
3. The Core:
The core extends from the base of the mantle to the Earth’s centre and accounts for
about 17% of the Earth’s volume. The core comprises of two distinct parts. The
outer core is liquid at a temperature of about
3000 °C and the inner core is solid. The main constituent of the core is iron along
with some lighter elements like sulphur, silicon, carbon hydrogen and oxygen.
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Introduction:
The atmosphere refer to the protective blanket of gases which are surrounding the
Earth. It is able to sustain life on Earth and saves it from the hostile environment
of outer sphere. The atmosphere is a source of oxygen (essential for life) and
carbon dioxide
J3!«:M»7iVgC1HI3L’[MJ
300
Aurora
ktesosphere
Stratosphere
•Ki*ui?ira;ffl3a
(essential for plant synthesis). The atmosphere also forms an insulating blanket
around the Earth. Without it the temperature at the equator would rise to 120 °C
during the day and drop to as low as - 50 °C at night. It burns up meteors that
would bombard the surface of the Earth from space. Without air, there would be
no lightening, no clouds, no wind, no rain, no snow and no fire.
Origin:
It is now widely accepted that the Earth’s atmosphere originally was very different
from its present state and the changes were brought about by biological activity.
Nitrogen
78.08
Oxygen
20.95
Minor
Argon
0.934
Carbon dioxide
0.033
Trace
Neon
Helium
Traces
Methane
Hydrogen
A
atmosphere is found within approximately 30 km of the Earth’s surface. The total
mass of the atmosphere is nearly 5.5 x 1015 tons. There is about 3100 cubic miles
of water present in the atmosphere.
The atmosphere exerts pressure and the average atmospheric pressure at sea level
is said to be 760 mm Hg. This pressure is called Atmospheric or standard
THE UNIVERSE
Earth’s Thermostat
The atmosphere of the Earth can be compared to the glass of a greenhouse: both
allow the Sun’s visible rays to enter and warm the land, plants, water and air, yet
retard the escape of heat. As radiation’s from the Sun enter Earth’s atmosphere, a
portion of it is reflected back into space or absorbed directly by the atmosphere.
About half of the radiant energy reaching Earth from the Sun, because of its
shorter wavelength, can pass through the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface. But
the longer waves of heat (Infrared radiations) that radiate back toward space are
absorbed and reradiated by water vapours, carbon dioxide, other gases and clouds
and hence the atmosphere warms up by chapping the heat. This is called
Greenhouse Effect. The gases which contribute more towards the Greenhouse
Effect are mainly carbon dioxide, methane, Nitrous Oxide and Chloro Fluoro
Carbons (CFC): these gases are also called as greenhouse gases. Humans have
disrupted the natural carbon cycle by burning fossil fuels for energy and by
clearing forests to food and house growing populations. Industrial and agricultural
emissions raise atmospheric carbon by about seven billion metric tons a year.
Roughly half is absorbed by the oceans Mnd by vegetains and soils.
Global Warming:
Greenhouse gases are building up in the atmosphere in such a way as to trap the
Earth’s heat, gradually raising the average temperature of the planet. If this
continues, we can expect some devastating shifts
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
in climate within next fifty years. An intensification of the greenhouse effect over
the next half century could produce average world temperature from 1.5 to 4.5
degree Celsius higher than they are today. That would induce the melting of the
polar icecap and increase in the worlds sea levels from 10 inches to five feet. Now
fertile regions would be scorched into deserts, and Arctic plains could become
suddenly arable. Most climate models show that in some regions - Northern
Scandinavia, Siberia, and Canada, for example - more rain would fall and more
trees and crops grow. But in today’s great mid-continent breadbasket regions,
warming would lead to the drying of soil in summer. Destructive droughts, such as
that of 1988 in North America, would strike more often until the Great plains of
Ukraine turn semidesert. Storms such as hurricanes and tornadoes might become
more violent.
Forests would decline and change under the temperature rise, and wild-life would
have to migrate if it could - or perish. The permafrost Arctic tundra would thaw,
deep peatlands would decompose, and vast new amounts of carbon dioxide and
methane could be released.
Ozone is an allotropic form of Oxygen in which there are three atoms in each
molecule. It is a gas and occurs naturally in the stratosphere of ”Ozone layer”.
This Ozone layer protects us from high energy ultraviolet radiation of the Sun,
which will otherwise kill living things. Ozone is used as a sterilizing agent in
hospitals because it is disinfectant. The life could not start on the land surface of
the Earth until the Ozone layer developed. Man made chemicals are eating away at
THE UNIVERSE
the atmosphere’s Ozone layer, a crucial shield without which ultraviolet rays
would cause widespread skin cancer and damage to much needed crops.
The existence of a vast ’Ozone Hole’ was noted over Antarctica in 1985, of the
size of the Untied States and the depth of Mount Everest. This antarctic hole
develops every year in September and October. During that period the Ozone
contents of the stratosphere over the pole diminishes by 40 percent. A continuing
deterioration of the Earth’s Ozone shield would expose human beings to increase
ultraviolet radiation, the cause of many serious skin diseases. It will also reduce
yield of many crops, especially cabbage, squash and soyabean. The main culprit
for the depletion of Ozone layer is said to be Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFC).
Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs) are gases, cheap and non-polluting at the ground
level, and these are used to perform dozens of important functions in
manufacturing and in everyday life. They are used in aerosol cans, refrigerators
and airconditioners. They are also essential ingredients in the manufacture of
polyurethane foams and in cleaning tiny electric components.
Acid Rain:
Acid rain means in common language the presence of excessive acids in rain
water. It has been one of the effects of air pollution. When we burn fossil fuels for
energy, they produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide gases which are highly
soluble in water. During rain these oxides react with large quantities of water
vapours of the atmosphere to form acids like sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, nitric
acid and nitrous acid which then return to the Earth’s surface, with rain water or
may remain in the atmosphere in clouds and logs.
EVERYPAY SCIENCE
MAP READING
Map:
Equator:
It is a great imaginary circular line drawn on the surface of the Earth which divides
it into two equal halves. This line is perpendicular to the axis of the Earth. The
upper half pointing toward north is called the Northern Hemisphere and the one
pointing towards south is called the Southern Hemisphere.
The Poles:
An imaginary line which passes through the centre of the Earth around which it
rotates, is called the axis of the Earth. One end of the axis is called the north pole
and the other south pole. These two poles are also called as the magnetic poles.
THE UNIVERSE
Latitude:
Meridian:
It is great imaginary circle drawn round the Earth that passes through the poles and
divides the Earth into two equal halves. The specially designated zero meridian
that passes through Greenwich, England, is called the Prime Meridian. The half
pointing towards west is called eastern hemisphere.
Longitude:
I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
EARTHQUAKES
Introduction:
The Earth’s Lithosphere is divided into 15 major Tectonic Plates of various sizes.
These plates float on the partially molten Asthenosphere below, and it is because
they are floating that they have the freedom to move horizontally. The theory of
plate tectonics assumes that each plate behaves as a rigid unit, deforming only at a
its edges. The edges, or margins can diverse, converge or slide past one another.
But there is a very little change it any in the middle of a plate. Actually, some of
the Earth’s most dynamic features, such as volcanoes and earthquakes, define the
boundaries of the main plates.
Cause of an Earthquake:
The plate boundaiies are the most tectonically active parts of the Earth - they are
where most mountain building, earthquakes and volcanoes occur. An earthquake
occurs when the edges of two plates suddenly slide past each other along a fault
line. The seventy of an earthquake is measured on the Richter Scale; it is
logarithmic, 30 each additional point represents a tenfold increase in severity. The
key to plate tectonic is that the surface of the Earth exists in a state of equilibrium
and it provides a global framework that successfully explains many of the
structural and geophysical phenomenona on the Earth’s surface ranging from
mountain building and earthquakes to continental drift. Even though the
mechanics of earthquakes are understood, accurate prediction of their occurrence
has remained beyond reach.
THE UNIVERSE
&f
Year
Gentries Hit
1.
1906
7.7
3,000
2.
3.
1908
1920
4.
1923
5.
1927
6.
1935
7.
1939
8.
1948
9.
1960
10,
1964
11.
1970
12.
1971
13.
1976
14.
1976
15.
1976
16.
1980
17.
1985
18.
1988
7.9
142,810
7.7
200,000
8.1
30,000
7.6
32,700
6.9
- 5,390
95
5,700
9.2
131
7.9
67,000
6.7
58
8.1
8,000
7.6
22,780
7.4
655,000
7.1
2,590
8.1
9,500
6.8
25,000
Eft^l
l^BHI
^^•WSIWTSIwiiTw^^HH
•OB
••
•MI^IH
19.
•^•••^•^•I^^B
1989
•^^••^^•••••^••••••^^•^^^MHBi^^
M^HHMIM
7.0
^^^•••V^Hi
62
20.
1990
Wstern Iran
7.5
50,000
21.
1992
Landers, California
7.3
22.
1993
Latur, India
6.2
9,750
23
1994
Northridge, California
6.7
60
24.
1994
Noj-thern Bolivia
8.3
10
25
1994
8.3
10
26.
1995
Kobe, Japan
6.9
5,200
27.
2001
India, Pakistan, America, Maxico.
8.1
Several Thousand
1. African
2. Antarctic
3. Arabian
4. Australian
5. Caribbean
6. Cocos
7. Eurasian
8. Indian
9. Jun de Fuca
10. Nazca
12. Pacific
13. Philippine
14. Scotia
15. Somali
ECLIPSES
In nature, the shadows of heavenly bodies give rise to eclipses. Eclipses are of two
type; solar eclipse and lunar eclipse. The eclipses of the Sun and the Moon occur
as a result of the relative positions of the Moon, the Sun and the Earth.
Solar Eclipse:
An eclipse of the sun occurs when the Moon comes between the Earth and the
Sun. When the Moon moves to a position between the Sun and the Earth, it throws
shadow on Earth. This shadow consists of an umbral and a penumbra. People on
Earth who are in the unbral region cannot see the Sun at all. This is total eclipse of
the Sun. Those in the penumbral region can see only part of the sun, and we say
that they see a partial eclipse of the Sun. A total eclipse of the Sun is one of the
greatest spectacles of nature and results from one of the most fortunate
coincidences of nature. In round numbers, the Sun’s diameter is 400 times that of
the Moon, and the sun’s distance from Earth is also 400 times that of the Moon -
therefore, Moon’s disk appears large enogh to cover the Sun’s disk.
THE UNIVERSE
Lunar Eclipse:
An eclipse of the Moon occurs when the Earth comes between the Moon and the
Sun. When the Earth lies exactly between the Sun and the Moon, it throws shadow
on the Moon. This shadow is large enough to cover the whole of the Moon. A total
eclipse of the Moon thus occurs. However, as the Moon moves out of the umbral
region of the Earth’s shadow, its appearance, as seen from the Earth goes through
a series of partial eclipses.
Although lunar eclipses do not occur as often as solar eclipses, they are seen by
many more people. They occur during full Moon which is opposite the Sun and
can be observed at any one instant by all of the night half of the Earth.
penifmbra
umbra
first quarter
At full Moon, the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon, although not in the
same plane and the whole lunar disk facing the Earth is completely illuminated.
On the other hand, at new Moon, the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth,
usually not in the same plane, and the rays illuminate only the hemisphere facing
it,
leaving the side facing the Earth in complete darkness, making it invisible from
Earth. A total solar eclipse can happen only at the time of the new Moon, when the
Earth, Moon and Sun are lined up, with the Moon between the other two, its
nightside turned towards us.
The interval between two total solar eclipses with the largest duration of totality
(about 7 minutes) is called the Saros Cycle and is 18 years, The recent total solar
eclipse occured on July 11, 1991 and it was seen in Hawaii, Central America and
Brazil. A total solar eclipse may not be seen from all parts of the world but instead
it depends upon the latitude of the observer on the Earth. A total solar eclipse can
be observed within the umbra region, and a partial eclipse within the penumbra
region, a total solar eclipse passes over a particular spot on Earth once every 360
years on average.
The duration of the total solar eclipse depends upon the speed of rotation of the
Moon and revolution of the Earth. The Moon moves eastward in its orbit at about
3400 km (2100 miles) per hour while the Earth rotates eastward at the equator at
very nearly one-half that speed. Therefore, under the most suitable conditions a
total solar eclipse can last at a given point near the equator for about seven and
half minutes.
Any solar eclipse lets scientists make measurements that would be impossible at
ordinary times.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE ECLIPSES
1. Eclipse of the Century July 11, 1991.
6. The moon’s orbit around the Earth is inclined 5° to the plane of the Earch’s
orbit around the Sun.
10. The Sun has been concealed more than 100 times in this century alone.
12. Solar eclipse occurs at the new moon and not on the full moon.
13. A solar eclipse can therefore happen only when the new moon occurs near the
two points where the lunar and Earth’s orbit cross (called th^j nodes).
15. On average the Earth revolves round the Sun at the speed of 1000 miles per
minute.
Such a typical Innovation is the example of the Stonehenge to the Hubble Space
Telescope.- Over 4100
THE UNIVERSE
years ago, Neolithic people built a remarkable monument on the Salisbury plain in
what is now Southern England.
An Engineering feat alone, Stonheng stands as one of the wonders of the world.
With Stonehenge, they could predict eclipses, the exact days of the solatices, the
long term cycles of the moon and the Sun and other heavenly events.
The Earth’s axis is inclined at an angle of 661/2 degrees to the plane of its orbit
around the Sun or the axis is inclined at 231/2 degrees from the vertical. The Earth
makes two kinds of movements which take place simultaneously: Rotation and
Revolution. What causes day and night is simply the rotation or spinning of the
Earth on its axis. The Earth rotates from West to East as the other heavenly bodies
do. It would appear then that the sun rises in the East, travels across the sky and
sets in the West. At any moment of its rotation, half the surface of the Earth faces
the Sun and receives its light, while the other half is in total darkness. If the
Earth’s axis was not tilted to one side, every place would have 12 hours of
daylight and 12 hours of darkness. We know, however, that this is not so except
for places on or near the Equator because the Earth’s axis is inclined and hence the
distribution of day time and night time in a day is uneven. Any place along the
equator has nearly 12 hours of each day and night, (Singapore is an example),
whereas away from the Equator, the lengths of day and night vary according to
latitude and the prevailing seasons.
”EVERYDAY SCIENCE
At places north and south of the equator, day and night are unecmul in length
except during the equinoxes when all parts of the Earth have equal days and
nights. The sun remains overhead at the Equator on the spring and autumn equinox
and therefore days and nights are equal in length all over the Earth’s surface at this
time of the year. After spring equinox (March 21st) places north of the equator
begin to have longer days and shorter night. In the southern hemisphere, the
opposite of this takes place, and the days get shorter and the nights longer. Around
June 21st when the midday Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, places north
of the equator have long days and short nights. The length of the daylight
increases polewards, so that at the Arctive Circle (661/2 °N latitude) and beyond,
there is no night and daylight last for 24 hours. This is why these places are
usually referred to as the ”Lands of the Midnight Sun”. In winter, the conditions
are exactly reversed Therefore, it is possible to see the midnight Sun wiuim the
Arctic and Antarctic circle.
In places near the Equator, there is little difference between the temperatures at
different time of the years. This is because the Sun shines always overhead, or
almost so, throughout the year. These region therefore, do not really have the four
seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter - while places away from the equator
as England and New Zealand experience. On June 21st, the position of the Earth in
its orbit is such that the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun and the noonday Sun
shines vertically overhead at the tropic of Cancer (23’/•> °N). At the same time,
the southern half of the Earth is titled away from the Sun. This condition is
Summer Solastice. In the southern hemisphere, the opposite takes place. It is mid-
winter
VOLCANOES
Introduction:
A volcano is where magma erupts. Magma is the molten superhot material present
inside or beneath a volcano. At the time of volcanic gas. The lava can explode if
the gas bursts out, hurling blocks of rock out of the crater and the clouds of
fragments bill out or flow away. Lava comes out of the crater and from cracks in
the volcano and it flows downhill, following valleys, spreading out as it reaches
flat land.
Types of Volcanoes:
Classification:
There are about 1300 potentially active volcanoes in the world. Common places of
active volcanoes are Hawaii, Phillipine, Indonesia, Mexico, Java, New Zealand,
Japan and Iceland. The volcanoes of Hawaii are probably the most thoroughly
studied in the world.
Scientists have learned that the Earth is slowly cooling as heat escapes from the
deep interior to the surface. Spreading ridges are the Earth’s greatest volcanic
mountain chains, and from where the surface is splitting apart. Predicting the
behaviour of most volcanoes is difficult because decades or centuries may pass
between eruptions, and the buildup to an eruption may take place in only days or
months.
Volcanoes are our most direct link to the inside of the Earth. They are a source for
samples of material that normally lie deep beneath our feet, and they give us a
feeling for the degree of restlessness inside the Earth. More than 8 percent of
Earth’s surface has been formed by volcanic activity of one kind or another
Volcanism is a major process in the evolution of rocky planets and moons.
UNIVERSE
IS MADE UP OF THE FOLLOWING SCHEME
Mixtures
It is the purest and simplest form of matter and can be defined as a substance which can not be split up into two or more simple substances. Total No. of
known elements is 109.
It is the purest but complex form of matter and can be defined as a substance formed by the combination of two or more elements in definite proportions.
It is that mixture in which the resultant material consists of a single phase. Solutions are also homogeneous mixtures.
It is that mixture in which the resultant material consists of more than one phase. Sand and water constitute a Heterogeneous mixture.
It is the smallest particles of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction. It may and may not exist independently.
It is the smallest particle of a compound and can take part in a chemical reaction. It is the combination of two or more atoms and it always exists
independently.
Electrons
It is negatively charged particle. It’s mass is very small as compared to the mass of an atom of Hydrogen.
Protons
It is positively charged particle. It’s mass is nearly equal to the mass of an atom of Hydrogen.
Neutrons
is a neutral
It is a neutral particle. It’s mass is nearly equal to the mass of an atom of Hydrogen.
QUAKES
AND
LEPTONS
• •IiaiJiMMqTWl
MINERALS
Definition:
Classification:
Minerals can be classified in term of structure and composition. These are
classified into 13 groups, some of which are described below:
1.
Oxide
I Bauxite
Australia, France
Famaica, Brazil
2.
Hydroxide
Brucite
i-
Magnesium Hydroxide
Canada, U 3 A.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
3.
Halides
j
Rock salt
Sylvite
Cryolite
chloride Sodium-
Aluminum flouride
4.
Carbonates
Limestone
Marble
Dolomite
5.
Nitrates
Nitre
Potassium nitrate
U.S.A., Pakistan
6.
Borate
Borax
Sodium tetraborate
7.
Sulfates
Gypsum
Calcium Sulphate
Pakistan
8.
Tungstates
Wolframite
Calcium tungstate
U.S.A., Australia
Bolivia, Europe
9.
Chromates
Chromite
Iron Chromate
|
THE UNIVERSE
Occurrence:
Minerals result from a sequence of complex processes that began with chemical
differentiation of the solar system to form planets and that ended, in many cases,
with crystallization in rocks or bodies controlled by trivial local factor. The
occurrence of minerals, therefore involves a general understanding of
geochemistry, geophysics and peterology as well as special factors involved in the
formation of ore deposits.
COMMON MINERALS
i.
Bauxite
Aluminium Hydroxide
Aluminium
Q_
Beryl
Beryllium Silicate
Beryllium
h_
Brucite
Magnesium Hydroxide
Magnesium
^
Calcite •
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium
5.
Carnotite
Uranium
6.
Cassiterite
Stannous Oxide
Tin
LL
Cerargyrite
Silver Chloride
Silver
8.
Chalcopyrite
Copper
^_
Chromite
Chromium
10. I
Cinnabar
i ” ~~~~
Mercuric Sulphide
Mercury
11.
Corundum
Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium
12.
Cuprite
Copper Oxide
Copper
13.
Dolomite
Magnesium
14.
Enargite
Copper
15.
Epsomite
Magnesium Sulphate
Magnesium
16.
Galena
Lead Sulphide
Lead
17.
Gypsum
Calcium Sulphate
Calcium
18. I
Hematite
Ferric Oxide
Iron
•M3;«»y.iV«wiai?Ma
19.
Lime Stone
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium
20.
Limonite
Ferrous Hydroxide
Iron
21.
Malachite
Copper
22.
Marble
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium
23.
Pyrolusite
Manganese Dioxide
Manganese
24.
Quartz
Silicon Dioxide
Silicon
25.
Rock Salt
Sodium Chloride
I
Sodium
26.
Rutile
Titanium Oxide
Titanium
27.
Siderite
Iron Carbonate
Iron
28.
Sheelite
Calcium Tungstate
Tungsten
29.
Syfvite
Potassium Chloride
Potassium
30.
Wolframite
Tungsten
• i;iaiKMwa:na
Minerals possess magnetic and electrical properties. Some of them show the phenomenon
of Luminescence. Few Minerals containing Uranium and Thorium are radioactive. Most
of the minerals are hartf. An empirical scale of the hardness of mineral or mineral like
materials originally consisting of 10 values is called the Mohs scale. The numerical order
of increasing hardness: 1-talc, 2-gypsum, 3-Calcite, 4-Fluorite, 5Apatite, 6-Orthoclase, 7-
Quartz, 8-Topaz, 9-Corundum,
10-Diamond.
GLOSSARY OF COSMOLOGY
Light Year:
Astronomical Unit:
This is the distance between the Earth and the Suu (150 million km). This unit is used to
measure distances between the heavenly bodies within the solar system. Pluto is 39 A.U.
away from the Earth.
Black Hole:
Local Groups:
It is a cluster of about thirty known galaxies including the Milky Way. >
V
Supernova:
An exploding star. At the end of its phase as a Red Giant, a heavy star explodes as a
supernova shinning briefly as brighuy as a thousand million stars Recent supernova was
observed on the night of Feb. 23, 1987 (Supernova 1987 A) - it was the brightest one to
appear in terrestrial skies since 1604. This occurred in Large Magellanic cloud.
Neutron Star:
A star at the end of its evolutionary process that has become highly compressed by
gravitational forces. During the collapse, its electrons combine with protons to
make neutrons, and the collapse halts when the neutrons are packed together.
Pulsar:
It is a rotating neutron star that emits short regular pulses of radiation (x-rays and
gamma-rays) that appear as flashes of light. Pulsars are like lighthouses in the sky.
Nebula:
Nebulae.
Quasars:
Quasars are very distant and immensely bright objects, which are thought to
represent the nuclei of active galaxies. These are extra-galactic sources of high
energy electromagnetic radiations.
Protostarts:
, Patches of gas and dust inside a nebula collapse under gravity forming dark
regions called protostars. As the protostars continue to collapse, they become
denser and hotter. Eventually, they may become hot enough for nuclear-fusion
reactions to start and thus turn into stars.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
*,
Ans.
EXERCISE
What is a shooting star?
A shooting star is a meteor that comes from space, burning out in the Earth’s
upper atmosphere.
About how many stars can you see on a realy clear night with the naked eye?
The total number of star visible with the naked eye cannot be more than 6000 - but
it is seldom possible to see more than 2500 at any one time,.. since faint stars near
the horizon are bound to be
lost.
Ans. Stars twinkle for two main reasons. The intensity of brightness of the stars
decreases and increases because of line-of-sight effect. Moreover, there are
disturbance in the gases of the atmosphere around the Earth. Different layers of
gases also have different temperature which bring visual changes.
Ans. The Orion Nebula, as seen from he Earth, is a star forming cloud about 1,600
light years away. Ultraviolet light from-the hot, young stars ionizes the gas in the
nebula, causing it to glow.
Q. Which planet in our Solar System has beautiful rings around it?
Ans. It is the Saturn planet. The celebrated rings of the giant Saturn are composed
of thousands of rippling, spiraling bands from 6 to’ GO miles in width.
Q. What is Oort Cloud?
Q.
Ans. These are northern polar lights which are caused by electrified particles sent
out by the Sun. These charged particles from the sun cascade down into the
Earth’s upper air. Being charged, they are attracted to the magnetic poles, which is
why auroras are best seen from higher latitudes. They are particularly common
around the peak of the sunspot cycle. This phenomenon occurs in the
therrnosphere about 65 miles above sea-level.
Q. Why does a total Solar Eclipse can happen only at the time of the new Moon?
Ans. A total Solar Eclipse - a situation when the bright surface of the Sun is fully covered
by the Moon - can happen only at the new Moon, when the Earth, Moon and Sun are
lined up with the Moon between the other two, its nightside turned towards us.
Ans. Because, the period of rotation of the Moon is equal to its period of
revolution around the Earth. It is also called the synchronous rotation of the
Ans. Beethoven, Chopin, Goethe and Ibsen are the craters on the mercury.
Ans. The average temperature on the surface of the Moon ranges from _ 180°C to
110°C. These extreme temperatures appear because there is no atmosphere around
the Moon.
Ans. It is Febi uary. The interval between successive new Moons is 291/?. days and there
are only 28 days in February - 29 in leap year - so there might not be n new moon during
this month.
Q. What \\iil he the colour of the sky if viewed from other planets.
Ans. If you look at the sky from the Moon, it appears completely black because the Moon
has no atmosphere. From Mars - it appears, orangish red because the planet is wrapped in
a thin atmosphere of carbon dioxide gas.
f
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. Actually there is no colour of the Sky -but it is the blue part of the white light
of the sun which gets scattered by the dust particles hanging in the atmosphere.
This is called the Tyndal Effect.
Q. Why does the Sun appear organish-red at the time of sunrise or sunset?
Ans. At sunrise and sunset, we see the Sun through a greater thickness of air
because it is low in the sky. The colours of the spectrum are gradually scattered.
Red and orange are the last to be scattered through the atmosphere around us and
therefore the Sun appears orangish - Red.
Ans. A rainbow is the appearance of the band of seven colour spectrum on the
horizon. Although the Sunlight appears to be white but it is really made of
different colours. A rainbow is formed when this white light gets dispersed by
passing through million of falling spherical raindrops which act as series of
prisms.
Ans. It is the name of the , first commercial communication satellite which was
launched by U.S.A. in 1965.
spheroid, because it s flattened at the pols and bulges out at the equator It is more
like an orange than like a ball. It circumference is 25,000 miles. The polar
diameter of the Earth is 26 miles shorter than the equotorial diameter.
THE UNIVERSE
As. It is the 21st of June of every year - it is the time of summer Solastice.
Ans. The Sun rises at the north pole on the 21st of march and this pole remains in
light till the 23rd of September. We can see the Sun even at night for some months
at places near north pole like Norway, Greenland and Northern Russia.
Q. Name some calendars which have been used by different peoples of the world
from time to time?
Ans. It travels at a speed of 1,86,000 miles per second in air and it can travel
around the world seven and a half times in one second.
Q. What s Greenwich?
Ans. It is the name of a place located on south bank of the River Tames and it is
borough of Greater London.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. Greenwich mean time was established in 1884. The Greenwich meridian is used to
measure time zones for the world. The Earth is divided into 23 full time zones and two
half-zones. Each full zone is 15° longitude wide and each half zone is 7’/2 longitude
wide.
Ans. One of the most famous and the freshest impact crater on Earth is the Arizona’s
(U.S.A). Meteor Crater. About fifty thousand years ago, a 300,000 ton piece of nickel-
iron punched a hole, three quarters of a mile across in Arizona-Colarado Plateau. One of
the largest and oldest craters lies on the West side of Ungava Peninsula in Northern
Qubec (Canada). It is 2 miles in diameter and 1,200 feet deep.
on the surface of the Earth? Ans. There is about 340 million cubic miles of liquid
o.
Name some countries through which the Equator passes?
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Give the Latitude, Longitude and altitude of the City of Lahore.
Latitude
Longitude
Altitude
Latitude Longitude
32°(N)
74°(E)
213 metres (698 feet)
30°(N)
67°, 30 (E)
Ans. The Dead Sea is the World lowest sea. Its surface is 400 metres below the
Mediterranean.
Ans. The four main Mountain Ranges of the World are; Himalyan (Asia), Alpine
(Western Europe), Rocky (U.S.A.) and Andes (South America).
Ans. It is a lawless border area in Southeast Asia touching Thailand, Laos and Myanmar
where warlords fight for control of drug routes.
Q. What is Bermuda Triangle?
Ans. This is the name given to a triangular area of the Western Atlantic Southeast coast
of the United States, extending from Bermuda in the north to southern Florida, and then
north to a point through Bahamas past Puerto Rico to about 40°
i OT a; vt »7iVgJM I 3 k’ M ^
west longitude and then back again to Bermuda. This area has occupied a
disturbing and almost unbelievable place in the world’s catalogue of unexpected
mysteries. It continues to remain a saga of unexplained disappearances.
Ans. There are 15 mam tectonic Plates which make the dynamic crust of the Earth.
San Adreas Fault appears along the length of California where North American
and Pacific plates meet. Continental drift is now explained in terms of plate
tectonics.
Q. What is an Epicenter?
Ans. It may be defined as the pressure which the atmosphere exerts on the surface
of the Earth at sea-level and 0°C. It is measured by means of an instrument known
as Barometer, devised in 1644 by Evangelista Torricilli. Its different equivalent
unit are:
= 760 torr
= 14 696 16 in-2
^^^^^^^^BB^^^^S^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^^^W
^^^^^^^^^H^^^^l^^^^l^^^^^^^^C^^^B
PHH^^^^^^B^BBHBl^^^^^^B^IB^^^^HHHBi^^H
760 mm Hg
100°C
Om
^^M^^H^^VBi^B^lM^MMMl
100°C
1010 mm Hg
100°C
1000m
96.6°C
1260 mm Hg
115°C
2000 m
93.4°C
1510
120°C
3000m
80.1 °C
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. Topaz, Emerlad, Jade, Opal, Sapphire, Garnet, Amethyst and Diamond.
substance-calcium carbonate
Q. Ans.
Q. Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q. Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
The largest known deposits of copper are in the world are found on the northern
edge of the Atlama desert in Chile.
The total number of known elements in this world is 109 and these elements are
arranged in the periodic Table to study their properties.
ENERGY
Introduction:
Energy is one of the fundamental ideas in Physics. It is the name given to the
ability to do work. Energy is needed to do all types of work - you even need
energy to throw a ball into the air and catch it. Work and Energy are measured in
the same units. When an object continues to stay at rest or to keep moving, we call
this Inertia. People often confuse Energy, Power and Force. Force is a push or pull
on an object or body. If you want to start or stop something moving, you need to
push or pull it. These pushes and pulls are called Forces. Forces are needed to
overcome, or beat, intertia. Forces are produced by energy change. The amount of
work is determined by the strength of the force used and the distance through
which it moves. Power measures the rate at which Work is done.
Units of Energy:
There are various units for the measurement of energy. In the metric system,
energy is measured in Joules. Other popular units are Erg, Foot-pound, Electron
Volt, Calorie and Btu. Calorie is the unit of heat energy and is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water through 1C.
It is more commonly used in biological sciences.
ENERGY
Energy and Mass are locked in the Einstein’s Famous equation: E = mc2, where E
is the energy, ’m’ is the mass and ’c’ is the velocity of light. This equation shows
that mass and energy are interconvertible but the conversion of a very small mass
will give a very large amount of energy. Energy can be considered a concentrated
form of matter, and matter a concentrated form of energy. Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but it can change into different intercovnertible forms under
different conditions. More popular forms of energy are Potential, Kinetic, heat,
Solar, Electrical, Mechanical, Tidal, Wind, Geothermal and Nuclear.
ENERGY CONVERSION CHART
Emission of 8-particles
Photosynthesis
Endothermic Reaction
Radio Waves
Chemical to Electrical
Radiation to Electrical
Thermal to Electrical
Mechanical to Electrical
Nuclear to Electrical
Radiation to Chemical
Thermal to Chemical
,>
PMiSwHEHmifli
Chemiluminescence* Phosphorescence**
Electrical to Thermal
Electrical to Mechanical
Chemical to Thermal
Mechanical to Thermal
Nuclear to Thermal
Chemical to Mechanical
* The emission of light during a chemical reaction, e.g. the oxidation of yellow phosphorous. The light
emitted by the fire fly or glow warm and luminous combustion are examples of this very common
phenomenon.
** A form of luminescence in which a substance emits light of one wavelength after having absorbed
electromagnetic radiation of a shorter wavelength. Unlike fluorescence, phosphorescence may continue for
a considerable time after excitation.
Renewable energy sources are those which will replenish themselves naturally in a
relatively short time and will therefore always be available. Examples are, geothermal,
solar, tidal, wind and hydro-electric.
Non-renewable energy sources are those which cannot be used again and again. Typical
examples are Fossil Fuels.
•afliaittva
Sources of Energy:
All the movement on the surface of the Earth requires energy. The ultimate source of all
kinds of energy come from the Sun. Sun provides the energy needed to produce the food.
A car moves by the energy supplied by petrol and petrol comes from oil, which provides
the energy for most of the world’s transport. Sources of Energy can be divided into two
main classes.
Electricity is the most common and popular form of energy which is actually itself made
from energy released by burning coal or oil or by using nuclear fuel or water power. Each
of these four sources of energy is called a primary source. Electricity is a secondary
source, because it is produced from a primary source. Some major and minor sources of
energy can be grouped as under.
= 778.26 Foot-pound
1.
Fossil Fuels
Major
2.
Hydel Power
Major
3.
Nuclear Energy
Major
4.
Wind Power
Minor
5.
Tidal Energy
Minor
6.
Solar Energy
Minor
j Geothermal Power
Minor
Fossil Fuels:
The power of sunlight captured millions of years ago by plants and animals that
died and buried in huge deposits is now being burned as Coal, Petroleum and
Natural Gas, these are called fossil fuels. The Earth has only limited supply of
fossil fuels. The amount used has now been almost doubled because of the high
demand of energy. Scientists are seeking new sources of energy to replace
shrinking fossil fuels. Fossil fuels consist of the following major materials.
1. Coal:
Over millions of years, layers of rotting plants were pressed more and more tightly
together. Peat, lignite and eventually coal were formed. Anthracite, the oldest and
hardest coal, is 400 million years old. It provides about 30% of all the energy used
in the world. It can be used for the production of electricity and steel.
2. Petroleum:
The word petroleum literally means rock oil. It is a thick dark oily liquid
containing admixture of hundreds of organic corn} ounds (hydrocarbons).
Petroleum furnishes almost’,.;,. ,f the energy used in the world. Oil
was formed in a similar way to coal Plants and animals that lived in the seas sank
down the sea-bed when they died. They were further crushed under layer of mud,
and gradually turned into oil. The oil then followed upwards until it reached layers
of hard rock and became trapped under the rock.
Crude oil production continues to remain as one of the major industries of any
country Ex-USSR, U.S.A., Venezuela, Kuwait, Algeria, Iran and Saudi Arabia are
regarded as the pillars of Petroleum Club. The major oilproducing nations of the
Middle East - Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, Qatar and the United Arab
Emiratesring the Persian Gulf and naturally assume the shape of a drop of oil in
the world map.
The price of crude oil per barrel crossed $ 40, for the first time in history in 1990.
The impact of this unprecedented price-hike on Pakistan and other countries and
particularly those of the third world is appalling, Pakistan today produces only 30
percent of its oil requirements.
ENERGY
A worldwide scramble to finds new oil fields continues. Modern technology has
made it a little easier. Three dimension seismography allows geologists to get a
moi e precise, detailed picture of the folds and ripples in the Earth’s crust and
pinpoint rock formations that can yield crudes oil. In 1990, geologists added
nearly 100 billion barrels to the world’s proven oil reserves to more than one
trillion barrels. Alaska and Siberia are the places included in the hit list of the
geologists for crude oil deposits. Siberia may prove another Middle East in future.
Petroleum Products:
Crude petroleum is the starting material not only for the fuels used for
transportation and energy production but also for petrochemicals, feedstocks,
solvents, lubricants, asphalts and many other specialities like kerosene oil and
petrol. It is however, not easy to do the separation of the individual components
from the crude petroleum which is done at an Oil-refinery. Therefore, petroleum is
first refined, that is separated into useful products, by distillation into fractions of
different boiling ranges, conversion of the less desirable components into more
valuable product, and treatment of fractions in various ways to remove undesirable
components.
LPG:
The liquified petroleum gases (LPG), methane, ethane, propane and butanes, are
used chiefly as fuel.
Solvents:
The petroleum ethers, ligroins, naphthas, and mineral point spirits boil from 30 to
140°C and are used as solvents.
Gasoline:
Transport Oils:
Other commercial fractions of petroleum are kerosene oil, turbine fuel, and jet fuel
(b.p. 175 °C -
275°C), gas fuel, fuel oil and diesel oil (b.p. 250° -
400 °C), and lubricating oil. A desirable characteristic of diesel fuel is a low
spontaneous ignition temperature.
Paraffin:
Greases:
Pitch and asphalt are residual products used as protective coatings and as binding
agents for fibre and crushed rock. If these residues are distilled to dryness,
Petroleum coke is obtained, which can be calcined to a practically pure carbon that
is valuable for the manufacture of carbon electrodes.
3. Natural Gas:
As the oil is formed under tlie bed of the Earth’s surface by the biodegradation of
plants and animals, it also gives off a large amount of natural gas. This is also the
chief source of hydrocarbons. Natural gas varies greatly in composition.
Unprocessed gases contain 60-
80% methane, 5 to 9% ethane, 3-18% propane and 2-14% higher hydrocarbons.
Most of the natural gas is used for fuel, Although an increasing amount is being
used as raw material for the synthesis of large number of important organic
compounds. Partial combustion of natural agents
for rubber and synthetic rubbers. Natural gas is also used for the production of
electricity.
Natural gas is the cheapest and most efficient source of energy in Pakistan and the
first field was discovered at Sui in 1952. The natural gas of Pakistan has a high
methane content, usually 70-90 percent. It is being used by industry, for power
generation and for domestic purposes. It’s production was 10 thousand million
cubic metres in 1982-83 and is increasing by finding more gas-rich places. Natural
gas is playing a vital role in the economic development of Pakistan by providing a
cheap fuel for industry.
Electricity can also be produced at a power station without burning coal or oil.
This is done with the help of building dams at elevated areas where there is plenty
of rainfall. A large dam built across a river stores a huge amount of water as a
lake. The power station can turn the potential energy of water into kinetic energy,
and then convert this energy into electrical energy by using a generator.
at which new generating capacity can be introduced. At present the total installed
generation capacity is about
7760 MW and the forecasts indicate that by the end of the century the demand will
be more than three times the present demand and that requirement for dependable
power will increase by at least 10,000 MW.
Kalabagh Dam project can generate 3600 MW when completed. The project is
located on river Indus,
100 miles MAP storage capacity on final completion, if Kalabagh Dam falls a prey
to politics, chances of hydel power generation will be doomed.
Solar Energy:
The Sun is a huge source of energy. The amount of energy reaching the Earth from
the Sun could be more than produced by million of power stations. A large amount
of heat can be produced by using mirrors to direct and concentrate the Sun’s rays.
A solar furnace in Southern France collects enough of the Sun’s energy to melt
metals. Flat-plate collectors are used to heat buildings and water. Sunlight can also
be converted into electricity by solar cells or photovoltaic cells. Each cell is made
of layers of a material that produces electrical energy when light shines on it.
Many watches and calculators are powered by solar cells. Large solar cells’ are
used to provide electrical energy in places that are far away from normal
electricity supplies. Solar cells provide nearly all the electric power for artificial
satellite and space vehicles. Cars and even light aircraft can be powered by solar
energy. Radio telephone in Saudi Arabia is powered by solar energy.
ENERGY
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Friend or a Foe
Introduction:
Nuclear energy is the most powerful form of energy in the Universe. Only this
form of energy can meet the demands of more tfian 5 billion people living on the
Earth. About 30 nations use nuclear energy to generate l/6th world’s electricity.
There are about 530 nuclear power reactors in operation and another 96 are under
construction in the world. There are two ways of producing nuclear energy and
both ways release an enormous amount of heat. One way it, lu s>piit the nucleus
of an atom. This prnreofs i« called Nuclear Fission. The other way is to join
together ui luse, die nuclei of two atoms at u very hi^h temperature. This process
is called Nucleru fusion and this> is the basis of source of energy in the Sun.
Nuclear Fission:
neutron
electron
proton
nucleus
°^--^ ^X electron
To divide a nucleus into two parts requires the injection of energy, for example, by
bombardment of the nucleus with another particle under proper conditions this
bombardment will initiate an energy-producing chain reaction. In the fission
process, heavy nuclei, such as those of Uranium, are bombarded with neutrons and
split into two particles of mass in the ratio of roughly 3 to 2. The resulting fission
fragments hayejess mass than the original nucleus, with the excess mass appearing
as energy about 200 MeV per fission. Most of this kinetic energyis converted into
heat that is used to generate steam in a power plant.
ENERGY
The amount, of energy is often express”’5 In a unit knov-.:: do uie electron v-^t
;< ; L is defined as the amouix, i” ?r’;:5’v imparted to an electron by accelerating
it through a potential difference of one volt. One electron volt is a small amount of
energy, it takes
2.25 x 1025 eV to give 1 Kilowatt hour (KWH), which is equivalent to the energy
per hour of ten 10-watt light bulbs.
235
90
44
1
n ->•
Kr +
Ba +
2n
+ E
92
36
56
The subscripts represent the number of protons and the superscripts the total
number of proton and neutrons. Natural sample of Uranium contains 0.7% U235
and 99.3% U238. Uranium - 235 is more useful nuclear fuel.
The nuclear reactor is the device in which the fission reaction involving neutrons
and nuclear fuel is controlled for the production of heat energy. This heat energy is
eventually converted by means of Turbines and Generator to electrical energy for
commercial use. A nuclear power plant works in a similar way to an oil-fired
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
or coal-fired power station. The difference between the two types of power plants
is in the fuel they use to heat the boilers. Inside a nuclear power plant, energy is
released by nuclear fission in the core of a piece of equipment called the reactor.
The energy heats water in the boiler - the water boils and produces steam. This
steam turns the huge turbine wheels, and the turbines drive the generator that
produces the electricity.
Parts of a Reactor:
(i) The fuel, which may range from natural uranium, slightly enriched uranium
(3%), to highly emiched uranium. Most of the commercial ’•nnrtort, arc powered
by fuel containing 1.6 to *K* Uranium _ 235
(iv Amoiteiaiu; in fhp form of ordinary water, Heavy water, graphite, beiyllium or
beryllium oxide to slow down the neutrons produced during fission so that they
can be captured by fuel nuclei.
(Hi) A coolant, in the form of water, heavy water, helium gas, carbon dioxide or
liquid sodium, to extract fission heat for useful purposes.
Types of Reactor:
Light Water Reactor Boiling Water Reactor Pressurised Water Reactor Heavy
Water Reactor High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor
HEAVY WATER
A LAYMAN’S GUIDE
•
Deuterium was discovered by the American chemist, H.C. Urey and co-
workers in the early 1930s. The extra neutron makes the deuterium atom heavier
than the hydrogen atom, hence the term for deuterium oxide, heavy water. In
practical terms, heavy water weighs about 10 percent more than ordinary
water, heavy water and ordinary water also have different freezing and boiling
points. However they look the same and taste the same and in general their
properties are so similar that separation of two is a difficult task.
It is the use of this most efficient of moderating material that distinguishes the
Heavy Water Reactor system and offers a number of important advantages. One is
the use of natural uranium fuel as opposed to the enriched fuel that has to be used
in other major nuclear power system. The cost of fuelling a HW reactor is much
lower than that for any other type of commercial reactor. For the same unit of
power produced, a HW reactor requires only about half as much uranium as a
reactor that burns enriched fuel.
All naturally occurring compounds of hydrogen also contain some deuterium and
there are a number of ways in which the deuterium can be extracted. However, the
only process that has been used on a large scale is based on the exchange of
deuterium between water and hydrogen sulphide at different temperature.
Freezing point
ORDINARY WATER
32°F
0°C
212°F
100°C
HEAVY WATER
39°F
382°F
214.6°F
101.42°C
This process is based on the fact that deuterium migrates to the water steam at low
temperatures and to
the hydrogen sulphide gas at high temperatures. By a suitable arrangement of flow
in separating towers, deuterium can be extracted from feed of ordinary water. In
each tower the water flows clown through a series of perforated plates or trays,
while the hydrogen sulphide bubbles up through the trays. This promotes efficient
mixing. This process is then repeated in the second stage and in a further stage.
Enriched water from the third stage then passes to a finishing section where it is
distilled to a reactor grade products that is 99.75 percent pure D2O.
NUCLEAR SAFETY
Nuclear reactors produce million of tons of nuclear wastes. Nuclear wastes are the
radioactive byproducts of the fission pVocess. The proper disposal of the nuclear
waste continues to remain a global challenge. No country currently has a
permanent repository for
ItJTlWtiJ »7iY^HH IH V W ^
such materials and the waste, therefore, keeps piling up. Several methods of waste
disposal have been considered, including sealing wastes in concrete vessels to be
dumped in the oceans, irradiating them with neutrons to transmute isotopes into
harmless, launching them into space by means of rockets, or allowing them to melt
their way through Antarctic ice to rest on the bedrock. None of these has as yet
been put into practice, and all have drawbacks of one form or another.
A nuclear power plant cannot run for ever producing nuclear energy but they
generally have a life of 30 to 40 years after they started. Decommissioning is a
fancy word for disposing of nuclear reactors that are too old to run safely or
economically. Some 50 nuclear power plants in western nations are waiting to be
decommissioned in the next decade. Karachi nuclear power plant in Pakistan will
also have to be decommissioned soon while a new one is being built near
Chashma.
K*i[inBJ^^^B^B^^^^^B 3 PH ii M i r^^^^^^^Bii^rT^i>iiTiTfflinTrii^^BI
^^^^^^^^^^^•^B^^^^^^^^^^B^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
I ^-^^~~^~^
France
PV^»W^^_H^B^^^B^^MB_HBBBB^^^K
52.6
••••••^^^•^•••^^^^^^^^m^BMBM^^H^H
74.6%
Japan
29.3
27%
U.K.
11.2
21.7%
U.S.A.
98.3
19.1%
W.Germany
22.7
34.3%
China
Nil
Nil
ENERGY
France is rated as number one in the nuclear capacity as it produces about 15f/r of
its electricity from the nuclear power plants. A comparative chart is given below:
NUCLEAR FUSION:
Nuclear fusion is another way to get energy. Man has always copied nature and
now he wants to duplicate the nuclear process occurring in the Sun for the
production of energy. The word ’fusion’ means joining together. The energy
emitted by the stars is believed to result form the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to
form helium nuclei. Such reactions which occur at a very high temperature are
termed as thermonuclear reactions. Fusion processes are spontaneous only at
temperatures of the order of 108C or higher.
The conversion of hydrogen into helium takes place in stages. Two deuterium
nuclei are fused to form Helium-3, starting with the deuterium molecule. The large
amount of energy that is released results from the mass difference between two
deuterium nuclei and the helium-3 nucleus and a neutron.
Although methods for controlling the nuclear fission reaction have been developed
and used to produce useful power, similar control of nuclear fusion has not yet
been realized. The principle problem is the confinement of a fusible plasma at a
temperature sufficiently high for fusion reaction to proceed (108°C). A solution to
the problem is currently being sought by using two distinct methods, magnetic
confinement and laser induced fusion.
Dreams of nuclear fusion continue to attract the World top scientists the lure of
cheap, unlimited and
[EVERYDAY SCIENCE
W^H^B^^^~^B^^HI^-^B^«^»^-W^_-
pollution-free energy for the future, the success may lie fifty years ahead but once
harnessed, the electricity produced would be too cheap to metre.
Energy Conservation:
It is a process in which electricity is used more efficiently to save energy. This can
be clone by a number of ways designing better buildings, manufacturing better
electric bulbs, using air-conditioners sparingly and by changing the life-style. Asia
is in the midst of an electricity crisis brought on by booming growth and wildly
extravagant use of energy. Virtually every country in the region is facing a
potential capacity crunch Cheap, dependable electricity is vital for continued
economic expansions yet the cost of new power stations is staggering. Even if,
more power stations are built, without the promotion of more efficient use of
electricity, would do no good. It requires almost a revolution in the conservation
methodology.
A kilowatt-hour of electricity can light 100-watt lamp for 10 hours or lift a ton one
thousand feet into the air or smelt enough aluminum for a six-pack of soda cans or
heat water for a few minutes shower. But, by using electricity more efficiently,
more mechanical work can be taken out from the same kilowatt-hour.
We can also save energy by recycling programmes. Our food wastes can be
recycled into products such as animal feed, soil amendment materials, and even
fuel for power plants.
It is the radiation that radioactive substances emit that has the potential to be
harmful. The degree of harm to ^ people depends on how they are exposed to
radioactive materials, whether for example they touch them or eat them as food, on
the rate of radioactive decay in the material, and on the type of radiation. The main
way that radiation loses energy in materials is through ionization. In biological
tissue, ionization can lead to abnormal chemical reactions and molecular changes,
which can destroy a cell or change how it functions. In particular, damage to the
genetic material in a cell can lead to uncontrolled proliferation of the cell which
may result in cancer, or in reproductive cells, ionization may give rise to
hereditary disease in the children of the individual.
ENERGY
Damage Caused
0-100rems
100-200 rems
200-600 rems
600-1000 rems
1000-5000 rems
Modestly depressed whie-cell count. Not immediately fatal, long term risk of cancer.
Heavily depressed white-cell count, blotched skin and acute bowl syndrome in 4 to 6 weeks, 80-
100% chance eof death.
Detection of Radiation:
Generally, we cannot see, hear, feel, taste or smell radiation. Then how do we
know that it is there? This is clone with Geiger counters. These are instruments
that extend our senses so that we can see or hear the effects of radiation.
ENERGY TERMS
Barrel:
One U.S. Gallon = 4.456 Litres One U.K. Gallon = 3.785 Litres
Biomass:
Biogas:
Efficiency:
The ratio of useful work or energy output to total work or energy input.
Megawatt:
Quad of Energy:
Reserve:
That portion of a resource that has been actually discovered but not yet exploited
and which at present is technically and economically extractable.
Gasohol:
Synfuels:
(Synthetic Fuels): Fuels synthesised from sources other than crude oil or natural
gas and are used in place of them or their derivatives, primarily for transportation
and heating boiler. Gasohol is synfuel.
Electromagnetic Energy:
Acre-Foot:
It is a unit of volume and is used to measure irrigation water, runoff volume, and
reservoir capacity One Acre ft = 1.233 x 10*H nr5
It is a bigger unit of energy used in addition to SI unit. One kWh = 3.6 x 10(i
Joules.
Q-
EXERCISE
Differentiate clearly among energy, Force, Work, Power and Pressure?
All these terms are sometimes synonymously used by the layman but every term
has a separate scientific meaning which is explained as follows:
Energy:
It may be defined as the property of a system that is a measure of its capacity of
doing work. It is measured m Joules, Energy can have various forms like, heat,
light, potential, Kinetic and electrical.
Force:
Force may be defined as Push or Pull. Force is needed to break the inertia of a
system. It is measured in Newtons.
Work:
It is the rate of doing work in a unit time. It is pressure measured in watts and
kilowatt (KW). It is the force exerted on a unit area. If a force of one Newton acts
on one square metre. It results in pressure of one Pascal.
Q. Define Newton?
Ans. Newton is the unit of force. One Newton is the force needed to move one-kilogram
mass one metre per second faster every second.
Energy Calculations: In a typical example, a Toaster oven uses 800 watts of power
for 2 minutes, Energy used is:
E = power x time
E = 800 x 2
Ans. Electricity is the popular form of energy and it is fundamental to modern life. It
is a uniquely valuable, versatile and controllable form of energy, which can be
asked to perform many tasks efficiently.
Ans.
Q.
Energy may change in form but it cannot be destroyed. A power station does not create
the electrical energy that we use in our homes. The power station actually changes the
chemical energy of the fuel into electrical energy. When the electricity so produced is
used up, it is not destroyed but instead it changes into another form of energy, such as
heat or light.
Ans. The total installed capacity of the country power network is about 7.760 megawatts
and is increasing each year. It was 113 MW in 1948.
Ans. To overcome the power crises in the country, a private Power cell has been
established to explore and engage additional resources in the power generation. It
is now working on the Hub Project. It will carry a generation capacity of 1200
MW.
Q, What is a Turhine?
Ans. Each element has its own characteristic number of protons and an equal
number of electrons. If you change these numbers, you change the element
involved. However, the number of neutrons in the atoms of a given element are
able to vary. Atoms that have the same nuclear charge but a different number of
neutrons are called Isotopes. Two famous isotopes of Uranium element are
Uranium-235 and Uranium-237.
Q. What are the main fissionable materials involved in the production of Nuclear
Energy?
Ans. These are Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239. The later is superior to the
former as a nuclear fuel.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Ans.
How do you compare Fission with Fusion for the production of Nuclear Energy?
The process of Nuclear Fusion should be preferred over Fission for the
production of Energy for two main reasons. It involves cheaper and abundant raw
materials and pollution free waste products.
How much energy will he produced by the nuclear Fission of one gram of Uranium-
235?
It will generate about 2 x 10 7 k. calories of heat. This much heat can be produced
otherwise by the combustion of 3 tones of coal. One kilogram. Uranium-235 is
equivalent in energy content to
18,700 tons of TNT.
What is KANUPP?
KANUPP Stands for Karachi Nuclear Power Plant - it produces about 0.2% of the
total electricity produced in Pakistan.
Homes are protected against overloaded circuits by automatic switches that open
whenever the current into the wires becomes dangerously large one of the most
common types of automatic
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. Circuit breakers are now installed in many new homes in place of fuse boxes.
A circuit breaker is more convenient than a fuse because the automatic switch can
be closed again by pushing a knob.
Q. What are Windmills?
Ans. Windmills have been used to produce electricity since the early 1900s. It is
easy to produce electricity from a wind generator. This is simply a windmill that
converts the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy.
Q. What is Geothermal Energy?
Ans. It is the utilization of the heat of the Earth. Cold water is pumped down a
pipe into the Earth and is heated up by hot rocks. Another pipe brings the hot
water or steam to the surface. The steam comes out at high pressure and is used to
drive steam turbines for the generation of electricity.
Q. What is meant by reprocessing?
Ans. It is a process in which the fissionable product is recovered from the spent
nuclear reaction fuel by chemical dissolution. It generates highly radioactive
wastes that must be solidified for final disposal. ^
Q. Name some Petrochemicals?
Ans. Petrochemicals are the substances which are obtained during the refining of
crude petroleum.
ENERGY
Ans. Some of the fractions from an oil refinery are given below with their
boiling points: Petrol b.pt. Kerosene b.pt. Diesel b.pt. Lubricating oil b.pt.
Bitumen b.pt.
Q. What is Biomass?
40-75°C
125-175°C
175-250°C
250-300°C more than 350°C
Ans. It is source of energy that comes from plants and animals CO;,, and oil are
forms of biomass energy, because they come from plants and animals that lived
million of years ago. Dried seaweed is an example of biomass. Another example is
dried animal clung, which is used in many countries in Africa and Asia as a fuel
for cooking.
Q. What is Energy Conservation?
Ans. It is the process in which energy is used most efficiently without any wastage
in home appliances. It can be done as follows:
Ans. The air contains millions of tiny, fast moving particles. Waves of energy pass
through the air, too. This kind of energy, called electromagnetic energy is made of
vibrations of electricity and magnetism. That is a whole range of different
electromagnetic waves.
Chapter 4
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
CERAMICS
DEFINITION:
Varieties of Ceramics:
More common varieties of ceramics are detailed below. Raw materials for various
ceramics are clay, Feldspar, Quartz Sand, Iron.
ISr. Variety or Group Typical Examples No.
1.
Whitewares
Glass
Dinnerware, Chemical and electrical porcelain (Sparkplugs, Saniraty ware and Floor tile).
5.
6.
7.
8.
Porcelain Enamels
Refractories
Abrasive materials
Cement, lime
Pottery:
The raw materials for structural ceramics are incredibly abundant. Spectacular
abundance of silicon in sand and in many minerals make it a cheap, unlimited
resource, combined with other materials, for ceramics. The most common material
is silicon, about 28% of the Earth’s crust by weight. It is found in sand and other
silicates. Nitrogen, another super-ceramic ingredient, is
78% of the atmosphere (by volume). Carbon, also used, is plentiful, too. By
contrast, iron needed for steel makes up only 5% of the Earth’s crust. \
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
Glass:
Composites:
2. New integrated circuits that use ferroelectric ceramics store data in a computer
permanently whenever power is switched off.
3. Ceramics have proven to be ideal host for the fluorescent ions needed in lasers.
Ruby is used for laser materials.
Jfc
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
coated with titanium nitride, a ceramic that extends the cutting life 5-fold
over steel.
INTRODUCTION
Electricity is fast moving electrons. It is the most popular form of energy and it
can be easily converted into all other kinds of energies. Materials can be
classified into the following three categories when, electricity is passed
through them.
(1)
Conductors
Those materials which allow the electricity to pass through them easily without
much resistance are called conductors. Most metals like copper, aluminum, iron,
silver, gold and their alloys are conductors.
(2) Insulators
Those materials which do not allow the electricity to pass through them are called
insulators. They actually offer a very high resistance to the flow of electric current.
Typical examples of insulators are rubber, mica, glass, plastic, wood and paper.
(3) Semi-Conductors
Those materials which allow the electricity to pass through them only partially,,,
are called semiconductors. Their conductance lies, in between the conductors and
insulators. Typical examples are silicon, Germanium and Selenium. \
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Definition:
DOPING
It is a process in which slight impurities are added into the pure semiconductors to
boost up their conducing properties. N-type and P-type semiconductors are
obtained in this way.
N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTORS
When pure silicon and germanium semiconductor crystals are dopped with
electron-donor impurities like arsenic and antimony, N-type semiconductors are
formed. In these substances, electrons act ag charge carriers.
I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTORS
When pure silicon and germanium semiconductor crystals are doped with
electron-deficient impurities like Boron and Indium, P-Type semiconductors are
formed. The conduction in such substances takes place due to motion of holes
which behave like positive charges.
General Characteristics:
’ desired properties.
Super-Conductivity:
Radio:
The term radio covers the radiation and detection of signals propagated through
space as electromagnetic waves to convey information. Like all other
electromagnetic waves, a radio wave is made up of electric and magnetic fields
vibrating mutually at right angles to each other in space. Radio-signal intensity,
like light intensity, decreases as the distance from the source increases. Radio-
waves are transmitted with the help of Antenna. A transmitting antenna is a device
that projects as much as possible of the radio-frequency energy generated by a
transmitters into space. Frequency of the radio-waves is measured in Hertz. The
frequency of one cycle per second is written as one Hertz. The radio-frequency
spectrum is divided into a number of bands from very low frequencies to super
high frequencies. For information to be transmitted, it must be attached to a radio-
frequency carrier-wave, which is then transmitted in a given frequency channel.
The carrier wave and information can be picked up by a receiver turned to this
channel. The process by which the information is attached to the carrier-wave is
known as modulation.
Telephone:
The telephone is a device for reproducing sound at a distance from its source by
means of the transmission of an electrical signal. The word refers both to the
familiar handset and to the huge telephone system that makes possibly person-to-
person communications throughout most of the world. There are approximately
400 million telephones world-wide. The telephone now in use is similar to the
original device patented by Alxander Graham Bell in 1876 and
1877. The sound waves are converted into electrical oscillations, which can be
sent long distance and travel about 900,000 times faster than sound. These
oscillations are then converted back into sound waves at
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
the receiving end. In modern telephone, the speaker talks into the mouthpiece,
behind which is a transmitter. Vibrating air molecules produced by the speech
generate vibrations in a thin aluminum diaphragm. These vibrations are
transmitted to a small piston, which is the cover for a metallic box filled with
small granules of carbon. Sound waves are converted into electrical signals which
are converted back to sound waves against the receiving end, the ear piece.
Television:
It is based upon the transmission of visible, moving images by electrical means. In
’closed circuit’ television the transmission is by line, in ’broadcast’ television it is
by radio-waves. In either case, light waves are converted into electrical impulses
by a television camera and reconverted into a picture on the screen of a cathode-
ray tube in the receiver. The transmitter consists of equipment for broadcasting
modulated radiofrequency electromagnetic radiations representing a complete
television signal, which includes sound, vision and synchronizing signals. The
receiver is based on the superheterodyne principle, the sound and vision signals
being fed to separate intermedicate frequency amplifiers, detectors, and out-put
stages. A picture is made up of small dots called picture element. A picture
contains about 525 lines and the beam reads these lines
30 times per second. It, therefore, produces 30 complete . pictures per second.
LASER
Definition:
step with each other. In a beam of laser light, all the photon have the same
wavelength and move in step, travelling along like a well drilled army. The
mechanism relies on a process known as Stimulated Emission and the word laser
is derived from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission.
Energy is first pumped into laser material, raising most of the electrons return to a
level just above the ground state. Initially only a few atoms will spontaneously
radiate photons.
Two silvered end mirrors, one partially transparent reflect the radiation back and
forth repeatedly, inducing a chain reaction of photon emission. All the electrons
return to the ground state almost simultaneously and a powerful pulse of laser light
emerges from the partially transparent end.
Parts of a Laser:
The essential components of a typical laser are (i) the active medium such as a
ruby rod or carbon dioxide gas; (ii) a method of introducing energy into the active
medium, such as a flash lamp; and (Hi) a pair of mirrors is placed on each side of
the active medium, one of which \ transmits part of the radiation that strikes it.
\
x A typical laser using Ruby rod as an active medium has a pulse duration of 20
nsec. with power of 10 MW and the laser beam has a wavelength of 694 nm.
lash tube
Ruby Crystal
A Typical Laser
4. Laser light can be used to initiate thermonuclear reactions which occur only
at a very high temperature.
5. Laser light can be focused very accurately on a point, this can cut steel and
surgeons can use laser light to perform very delicate operations.
8. Lasers are used for range-finding and target designation, and are being
developed as both
TvERYPAY SCIENCE |
TELESCOPE
Introduction
The glass lens has probably tought us more about ourselves and our surroundings than
any other invention. Telescopes are used to see far-away objects clearly which are
brought nearer.
GALILEO GALILEI was the first to make an astronomical telescope in 1609. Since then
various kinds of telescopes have been developed.
FOCAL POINT
Kinds of Telescopes
This is the simplest telescope invented by Galileo Galilei. It consists of two lenses.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
The object is a larger convex lens that produces small, bright real image which is viewed
through the eyepiece, placed at the end of a narrow lens, serving to magnify the image.
The second lens is called the eyepiece. Refracting telescopes are simple but their strength
is limited by the size of the lenses inside. The World’s largest refracting telescope has a
lens that measures one meter across.
Astronomers usually use reflecting telescope. These contain curved mirror as well as
lenses. The mirrors are able to collect more light than the lens. The mirror in the
reflecting telescopes are concave. This means that its surface is shaped like a dish and
curves inwards.
When a telescope is pointed at an object, light rays from the object are collected, or
focused, by the mirror. The rays are then reflected onto one or more other mirrors before
being reflected into the eye-piece, so that the image can be viewed.
(3) Radio Telescope
It is an instrument used in radio astronomy to pick-up and analyze the radio frequency of
electromagnetic ,radiation of the extra-terrestrial sources. The two principal radio-
telescopes are:
FERTILIZERS
Definition:
Fertilizers are the inorganic salts which contain elements essential for plant growth and
which are
•^
V
•yjqrt-i./.ygHni^iH’*
introduced into the soil to obtain increased amount of crops regularly. Nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium containing minerals are especially important for
normal plant life and’are called as Primary Plant Nutrients. Secondary plant
nutrients are calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. Trace elements like iron, copper,
boron, magnesium, zinc and molybdenum are also among the 12 elements
considered essential for plant growth. Fertilizers are of various kinds like.
•MiUilittliaMiHMttEl
These are naturelly available organic and inorganic materials like plant matter, farm yard, manures, animal matter, rock
phosphates and chile saltpeter.
•!i!«iaiHMMiauiH3aa
These are synthetically produced organic and inorganic materials like urea, ammonium nitrate etc.
•JIHiMHttHUIPlHillHrmi
These are synthetically produced materials rich in nitrogen like ammonium sulphate.
••jinM-jiiiisiiiia
These are synthetically produced materials rich in phosphorous like calcium superphosphate and calcium
dihydrogen phosphate.
CLASSIFICATION:
Fertilizers can be classified according to their mode of operation in the soil. They
are as follows:
1. Direct Fertilizers:
These fertilizers which are directly assimilated by the plants are called direct
fertilizers. For example superphosphate, nitrates and ammonium compounds.
These contain nutrient elements in the form of mineral salts which can be absorbed
directly.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
2. Indirect Fertilizers:
These are the substances which are introduced into the soil mainly to improve its
mechanical, chemical or biological properties. Ground dolomite and limestone are
used to reduce soil acidity, and gypsum is used to improve the properties of soils
with a high salt content are the examples of indirect fertilizers.
3. Complete Fertilizers:
These contain all the principle ingredients for the growth of plants in the combined
form, so that an additional fertilizer is not necessary. Guano is an example of
complete fertilizers.
I 1-
2.
To give an additional supply of tonic and good food, so that may grow more healthy and produce a better
yield.
they
3.
They help to maintain the pH value of the soil in the vicinity to 8 and thereby facilitate optimum growth
and health.
of 7
4. Incomplete Fertilizers:
These fertilizers contain only one or two needed elements such as ammonium
phosphate or Potassium nitrate. They supply only a part of the requirements.
5. Mixed Fertilizers:
6. Micro Fertilizers:
These contain the elements boron, manganese, zinc and copper needed in very
small amounts to stimulate the plant growth.
PESTICIDES
Definition:
”The generic name pesticide refers to any substance, organic or inorganic, used to
destroy or inhibit the action of plant or animal pests”. Pest is the term which is
normally used for an organism which interferes in someway with man. Virtually
all pesticides are toxic to man to some degree. They vary in biodegradability. The
number of pesticides is numerous.
Classification:
Mode of Action:
Organic Esters
Alkyl-
Compounds
IJ
erythrocyanate
Cyclic
Non Cyclic
Phosphate
Cyclopropang
Carbonic
Tnazines
Chlordane
DOT
TEPP
Allethrip
Carbaryl
Haptachlor
DDDE
Ethyl
Cmetms
itmicarb
Pyrimidines
pyrophos
phate |
Tepa |
I Aldrm
ODD
Dimethate
Pyrethrin
Beygon
Disldrm
Methoxy-
Malathiane
Savin
Rotenone I
chlot
I
I
FnHrm
I
Lmdane
Naphthalene
Pentach
lotophenol
tead arsenate
I p-dichloro
I benzen
Captan
I
More Common Household Pests
Mosquitoes, Flies, Bedbugs, Cockroaches, Silverfish, Booklice, Clothmoths, Crickets, Carpet beetles
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Other Terms:
Several terms, used in the classification of pesticides based on the mode of their
action, are of interest. Some of these terms include:
Fumigants:
Chemicals used in enclosed space and which act by producing fume or vapours
with lethal properties. (Methyl bromide and ethylene dibromide).
Repellants:
Systemics:
These are the chemicals which are absorbed by the roots or leaves of the plants
and get translocated to various parts of the plants. Therefore, the whole plant
becomes lethal for the target pests (Schradan).
CAMERA
Introduction:
Lens:
The lens or objective is the heart of the camera. It may be made up of one single
element or combination of
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
elements. The lens refracts the light that comes from an object, and focuses it as a
sharp image on the film.
Shutter:
The shutter is like a small gate that opens for a very short time to let the light in,
before closing again. Two types of shutter are used namely roller-blind or focal
plane shutter.
Aperture:
The aperture is the hole that is made when the shutter opens. A diaphragm is a
device that controls the size of the aperture through which the light enters. Many
cameras use an iris diaphragm mounted between the components of a lens. It
consists of a set of thin metal blades mounted in ring around the lens sosas to form
an adjustable hole in the centre.
Htm Ci’lftrlqe
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
Viewfinder:
It consists of a wire-frame and a hole, a short distance back from it, through which
the operator looks. An optical viewfmder often combined with a rangefinder, is
essentially a small, low-power telescopic device in which the image is formed so
as to define the view. A third type is the reflex screen, in which the image formed
by the camera objective is projected onto a ground-glass screen.
Film:
The film inside the camera is sensitive to light. It is coated with photosensitive
chemicals which change their state when light shines on them These chemicals
change more quickly on some films than on others.
i
CAMERA VS EYE
The construction of an eye and a camera has great similarities as : hown in the
following table. Unlike a photographic film, the resolving power of the
photosensitive layer of the eye, the retina, is not uniform over its entire surface.
PLASTICS
Definition:
Plastics are synthetic organic materials of high molecular weight that can be
shaped in almost any form under heat. Modern age can be easily called as plastic
age because almost all the articles of daily use can be made from plastics. They
may be coloured or colourless. The word plastics comes from the Greek word
”Plastikos” which means able to be molded. The first synthetic material was
”Celluloid”, a mixture of cellulose nitrate and camphor, invented in 1868. It
was used as a substitute for Ivory. In 1909, ii second synthetic material,
”Bakelite” was invented by the Belgian-American chemist Leo Hendrik
Backeland by heating phenols and formaldehyde. Plastics are also called as
polymeric materials, while polymer is a macromolecule formed by the chemical
union of several identical units called monomers.
a.
Light Weight
c. Transparent
i. Non-resistant
b.
Electrical
d Water Resistant
to heat
Insulators
f. Hygienic and
u
Chemical
Non-allergenic
ii. Non-resistance to I
Resistant
g. Fungus Resistance
sunlight
Classification:
^^^^^3^^^^^^^^^^Bn^^fflJ^^^^MHKK^El^^M^^M
^•IMH^HHMI^BMHl^iBM^M^
Thermosettmg Plastics
^•^^•^•^^•^•^•••^••^•^^•^^^^^^•^
These are those plastics which can be melted only once. After melting, they harden
^^^_^_^^__ .. .__ __ _
Bakehte, Melamine,
Sihcone, Urethane
Thermoplastics
These are those plastics which can he melted again and again much like the wax in a candle.
Polyethylene, Nylons, Acrylic, Polystyrene PVC, Teflon, ABS and Cellulose nitrate.
Preparation of Plastics:
The following steps are involved in making plastics. Catalysts and high
pressures are used.
Uses of Plastics:
1. Flexibility, abrasion resistance, low cost and heat stability of PVC plastic make
it very popular in daily life. PVC is used for producing films and sheets which
serve the purpose of packing
• •Jrtt]»IHHM«]»it»J13CM=i
materials. Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory
equipment.
4. Polyesters are used for making clothes like Dacron, Terylene and Tetron.
5. Teflon is used in tank and pipe lining, filter media and pump components.
Teflon plastic is a polymer - Poly Tetra Fluoro ethylene (PTFE), which is the trade
name that come from the well known Dupont Co. of France. It is the most inert
plastic. It has special properties - it can neither be assimilated nor does it react
with chemicals, it does not absorb anything nor does it swell. Teflon coated pans
are very popular among the housewives because of its quality that nothing sticks
to it. It is also very easy to clean, The teflon coating on the pans is very thin just
about 40-50 microns. At a temperature slightly above
300°C, teflon can soften and above 400°C., it becomes a gas at this stage and can
be dangerous. If the pan gets excessively heated then it gets deploymerised,
meaning, that teflon becomes tetrafluorethylene, solid gas and it gets toxic.
Teflon-wares are rated as fancy, useful and modern.
\
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Perishable Plastics:
The basic building blocks of plastic are simple carbon based molecules known as
monomers, derived from natural-gas and coal. With the help of catalysts we
connect monomers to form long molecular chains, known as polymers. There are
about 60,000 different plastics struggling for a place in the market. The biggest
problem with them is their proper disposal because of their nonbiodegradability,
but recently perishable plastics have been made. This new plastic, called
polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate, is produced by a naturally occurring bacteria. This
bacteria convert glucose to PHBV, which they store much as humans store fats.
The material can be degraded in aerobic conditions to water, carbon dioxide, and
humus by naturally occurring bacteria and fungi. This plastic has durability,
stability and is water resistant comparable to conventional thermoplastics.
Commercialization of this product will help solve the garbage mess.
COMPUTER
Definition:
Purpose of Computers:
Classes of Computers:
The basic difference between them is that digital computer counts, and analogue
computer compares.
In the digital computer, physical quantities take on discrete value; usually numbers in the binary notation. These
quantities change with time by the occurrence of simple arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multipli cation or
division) or logical operations on the representation of the numbers. Digital computers operate through combination of
open and closed circuits.
Basic Parts of a Computer:
The basic components of all computers are the same and they are discussed below:
(A) Input Device: Data enters through it. It is actually the keyboard.
(B) Central Processing Unit (CPU): Once the data is entered, it is transferred to
the central processing unit. This unit is like the brain of a computer and it consists of
three parts;
(i) The Control Unit: It controls all the functions performed by the various parts of
computer.
(ii) The Memory Unit: It stores vital information such as computer language codes.
Memory of a computer is divided into two parts: Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read Only Memory, (ROM).
Binary Notation:
Digital computers store data in binary notation, which reduces all numbers, text and
formulae to a series of Os and Is. Thus each element in a complete memory need only
represent either the digit O or digit 1.
Computer Language:
Computer Virus:
It is a small but deadly programme like a parasite that lurks in the darkest recesses of a
computer waiting for an opportunity to spring to life. It is basically an electronic
information disorder. A computer virus carries in its instructional code, the recipe for
making perfect copies of itself; a self-replicating programme, which, when logged into a
host computer, takes temporary control of the computer’s disk operating system. Then,
whenever the infected computer comes in contact with an uninfected piece of software, a
fresh copy of the virus pasbe-. into the new programme. Thus the infection can be spri,< ’
from computer to computer by unsuspecting useis ^ ”<o either swap disk or send
programmes to one another over telephone lines. Once a computer has been infected by a
virus, the invader can sometimes be eradicated by a special programme that searches out
and erases each bit of foreign material. The computer has to jAbe shut down and its
memories purged.
W’’
It is relatively a new phenomenon and has been iround for the last two decades.
The discovery of ”computer virus has been named as artificial intelligence.
1. Boot Infectors
2. System Infectors
3. Programme Infectors
4. Data Infectors
These kinds include about 350 viruses in total. The one invented by two Pakistani
brothers was called
the ”Brain Virus”. The basic purpose of this creation was protection against
piracy.
The components of the computer system can be broken into two categories:
namely hardware and software. Hardware is that plastic made part of the computer
which houses electronic materials. It also includes knobs and other containers.
Software is that delicate part of computer which contains electronic circuits, chips
and transistors.
Peripherals:
Peripherals are other devices which are connected to the computer like, Keyboard,
Video-display, screen, printers and other different types of data-storage devices.
Microcomputers:
These are business and research oriented computes that cost much less than
mainframes but can perform many of the same tasks, though not always on
[PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
Ua^•^•••••im-^--
the same scale. The basic building blocks of a microcomputer are located on a
single chip of silicon, the size of your fingertip. These computers consist of
thousands of microscopic transistors and circuits that are attached on the silicon
wafer. Technically, a microcomputer consists of a microprocessor, a memory and
a display circuit.
Microprocessor:
Transistor:
GLOSSARY OF COMPUTERS
Access time. It i’s the time required for a computer to locate and transfer data to or
from a storage device.
Architecture. Relates to the way in which software and hardware are designed and
constructed to achieve the objectives like ease of maintenance, ability to control
several applications at once, cost and speed etc.
Artificial intelligence. This refers to the use of computers in such a way that they
person various operations and at the same time take decisions as the human beings
do.
Assembler. The program which converts source language statements of low level
languages into equivalent machine language,
Auxiliary storage (Backing Storage). Storage located outside the central processor
but connected to it. It can be a magnetic disk, a magnetic drum etc.
BASIC. A high level programming language. It is an easy to learn tool for the
beginners. The mode of the language is conversational, the acronym stands for
Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.
Binary. The number system using base 2. It has only two digits 0 (zero) and 1
(one).
A six bit internal code that has 64 character choices, also called BCD.
Bus. A group of circuits that provide the communication path between the various
elements of a digital computer.
Card punch. Output device that converts data from a binary format in main storage
to coded hole patterns is a punched card.
Central Processing Unit (CPU). Nerve centre of the digital computer system and it
co-ordinates and controls the activities of all the other units. It consists of three
hardware sections: main memory, arithmetic unit and a control section.
Channel. A horizontal strip running the full length of the magnetic tape and is used
for recording data.
Character. Any of the written language symbols letters A.Z; numbers 0-9 and
special symbols.
Curson. The flashing light on the computer screen which specifies the current
printing position.
system.
Direct Access Storage (DAS). These are the secondary storage devices like disk,
drum etc. These can be used to read/write a record directly without reading or
rewriting the entire file.
Face. That side of the punched card which bears the punching.
Feed. To cause the data to be entered into a computer through the input device for
processing.
Hard copy. A print out from the printer, soft copy is the one that is stored in the
computer memory.
Hardware. Refers to the physical equipment and devices that make up the
computer, like central processor, storage devices and peripheral devices.
Hollerith code. This is the coding system used for punched cards.
EVERY DAY SCIENCE
Hopper. A device which holds punch cards and presents them to a feed mechanism
for reading or punching.
Input. The process of conveying information to the computer through some input
device.
Light pen. A highly sensetive photo electric device used for editing of data on
CRT.
Line printer. A printer which prints out one line at a time. Chain printers and drum
printers are the examples.
Memory. The area inside a computer frame (primary memory) and auxiliary
storage where data and instructions are stored.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
Multi processing. Pertains to computer system that uses more than one Central
processing unit.
of a second, it is a
Printer. An output device that prints results stored in the main memory.
access.
Read Only Memory (ROM). An area of memory that can only be read and not
written on by a user.
£
Teletypewriter. A cheap input/ouput device that uses paper tape and is a part of a
small computer system.
Terminal. A device often consisting of key board and a visual display unit which
is connected to a computer. It can be used for remote entry and receiving
information.
Time shared service. The use of a remote central computer and sharing it with
other users.
Word. Fixed size storage areas which store, binary equivalents of decimal
numbers. Instructions are also stored in words.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
EXERCISE
Compare the conductivities of Aluminum, Copper and Iron metals?
silver.
All these metals are good conductor of electricity, however their conductivity
decreases in the following order
Silver Copper Aluminum Iron
Conductivity decreases
tin metal protects the steel from being corroded by the food in the can.
Ans. There are certain metals which are very unreactive and are not corroded at
all. These metals are called Noble metals. Typical examples are silver, Gold and
Platinum. These noble metals are used in jewellery,
Ans. Alloys are usually made by melting two or more suitable metals together, and
then allowing the molten mixture to cool down and harden. This is done to get
desired properties from the metals. Alloys behave very differently from the mixed
metals in properties. Most of the corrosion problems are slowed down using metal
alloys. Some famous alloys alongwith their characteristics are described below in
the form of a chart:
Ans. Stainless steel is the be’sfe known example of the corrosion resistant alloy. Jt
belongs to the family of steels - alloys of iron ”With other metals. Iron is alloyed
with 10-25% chromium to form stainless steel. This converts the iron which rusts
so easily and is quite brittle into a stronger and rust-resistant substance.
•a;w»iiiMM«ua»jiai’Ma
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B
^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^H^^^^^m^^^^^^^^^^H
^^~
Corronel
.^__^m^_^«^_^^_«iB««»<^H^-
Nickel,
Molybednum
and Iron.
y^HH^BB^^BW^H^BBM^BB^^HHIH
Very resistant to acids
•V^^M^B^^MBM^^^^MMm^BB
Reaction Vessels
in the Chemical
Industry
Solder
good conductor
of electricity
Burmabright-S
Aluminum,
Magnesium and
other metals.
very resistant to
salt water
It is used in
decks of the
ships
Amalcap
It can be mixed
sets hard
in 24-hours.
It is used in
It is used in
making Jet
engines.
Amalgam
Mercury with
Zinc, Sodium
or Lithium.
A silver-white
porous crystalline
mass.
catalysts.
Q. Differentiate clearly between Pig Iron, Cast iron, Wrought Iron, Steel and
Stainless Steel.
Ans. Pig Iron, Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, Steel and Stainless Steel are all
commercial forms of Iron. Each one is described separately below:
*
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Pig Iron:
In metal terminology ”pig” is a bar or ingot of cooled metal. It is the basic raw
material for steel and cast iron. It is actually an impure form of iron and contains
1% Silicon, 0.03% Sulphur, 0.27% Phosphorous, 2.4% Magnesium, 4.6% Carbon
and the rest is iron. It is a product of blast furnace.
Cast Iron:
It is a generic name for a group of metals that basically are alloys of carbon and
silicone with iron, it is also an impure form of iron. It contains
2-3% carbon and 1.5% other impurities like silicone, phosphorous, manganese and
sulphur.
Wrought Iron:
It is the purest form of iron. Carbon seldom exceeds 0.25% and Manganese
content is held at
0.06% maximum. Wrought iron is readily fabricated by standard methods and is
quite corrosion resistant.
Stainless Steel:
It is a special alloy of iron with chromium and nickel. These metals greatly
increase, their ability for corrosion-resistance, it is used in making slip hulls, auto-
bodies, machinery and machine parts, cables, abrasives and chemical equipment.
Steel:
It is an alloy of iron and 0.25 - 2% carbon. It is made from molten pig iron by
oxidising out the excess cai bori and other impurities.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
Ans.
Brass: It is an alloy of copper with zinc; copper 80% and zinc 20%. It has two
varieties - Red Brass (15% zinc) and yellow Brass (34-37% zinc). It is used for
making hose nozzles, oil guages, air cocks, jewelary and stamping dies.
Bronze:
It is an alloy of copper with tin-copper 90% and Tin 10% special bronze also
called aluminum Bronze contains 5-10% aluminum. It is used in making springs,
spark-resistant tools, electrical hardware, vacuum driers, blenders and rain cocks.
German Silver:
It is an alloy of copper with nickel and zinc. The proportions of these three metals
in the alloy can be (2:1:1) or (5:2:2).
Q.
(i) Feldspar
(ii) Quartz
(Hi) Mica
Ans.
(i)
(ii)
Feldspar: It is one of the mineral which make up granite and it has pink or grey
crystals. It is resistant to heat, water and other chemicals. It is used in making
porcelain and glazes for pottery.
Ans. Pure silicon is obtained by heating silicon dioxide with carbon. It is used to
make the chip in the computer.
Q. Name the main Ores of Aluminum, Iron, Tin, Titanium and Gold.
Metal Ore
Aluminium Bauxite
Iron Haematite
Tin Cassiterite
Titanium Rutile
Q. What s Doping?
type or p-type depending upon the electrical nature of the ”holes” or energy
deficits in the crystalline lattice. In the n-type, there is a flow of electrons and
Arsenic is an impurity while in the p-type, there is a flow of holes and Boron is an
impurity.
Q. What is Maser?
Ans. Ruby is a synthetic material made by the fusion of aluminum oxide and
traces of chromium oxide. It is produced by single-crystal growing techniques. It
is an important part of a laser machine and is called the medium.
Q. What is a Hologram?
Ans. Optic fibres are made from solid threads of special-glass they can bend
without breaking like human hairs. Sound and picture signals are changed into
pulses of laser light that travel along these fibres and serve the communication
system and in medicine (endoscope). Optic fibers are used to carry radio,
telephone, television and computer data.
Q. What is Abacus?
Ans. The Abacus is a simple/calculator that has been used for thousands ofyears. It
is still used in some parts of the wcirld today. Calculations are made by moving
the/beads along the wires.
Q. Describe a Pantograph?
Q. What is a Byte?
companies.
Ans. Radio waves are electromagnetic radiations made up of electric and magnetic
fields vibrating mutually at right angles to each other in space. Radio waves travel
with the velocity of light (1,86,000 miles/sec.)
Ans. Wavelength and frequency of radio-waves are held together by the following
relationship.
f=
= Frequency
X = Wavelength
= Velocity of light
Ans. Raijlio signal Intensity, like light intensity decreases- as the distance from the
source increases.
Ans. The essential parts of a radio are: Vacuum tubes, Transistors, Amplifier and
Oscillator?
Q. Why are short waves more commonly used in the communication system?
Ans. Short waves have the remarkable property of being able to cover great
distances by using an invisible layer in the upper atmosphere to ’bounce’ radio
signals back and fourth to reach the Earth.
This wave-range (10-100 meters wavelength) is therefore, highly significant for all
sorts of telecommunications in widely separated locations.
Ans. The antenna is an essential part of a radio transmission and reception system.
Transmitting antenna is a device that projects the radio frequency generated by a
transmitter into space. Antennas have directional properties.
Q. What is Modulation?
Ans. The process of attaching information to the carrier wave is called Modulation
which involves the variation of one of the carrier-frequency characteristics such as
its amplitude frequency or its duration.
Q. What is meant by SOS and Mayday calls?
Ans. These are distress frequency Radio signals given out by ships and aircrafts at
the time of trouble. SOS calls are given by ships and stand for ”save our souls”. It
is a Morse code signal which started in 1927. Mayday (french: maiclez ”help me”)
calls are given by the aircrafts at a frequency of 121.5 megahertz.
Ans. FM, stands for Frequency Modulation. It involves varying the frequency of
the carrier in accordance with the\amplitude of the information signal.
Ans. The essential parts of a Television set are, cathode ray tube or picture tube,
scanner or
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. Persistent of vision or visual memory is a property of the eye. Motion in the
scene is represented by showing a series of still pictures (24/sec.) - this is essential
to convey the illusion of motion.
Q. Explain Scanning?
Ans. The scene is broken down into many small pieces called picture elements.
The process of breaking down the scene into picture elements and reassembling
them on the screen of the television receiver is known as scanning. There are about
one hundred thousand picture elements in one scene. The area of a scene is
scanned in l/30th part of a second.
Ans. The basic principle is to use sound vibrations to control a larger source of
power and creating a variable resistance in electrical circuit. This is done by
making an electric current vary in intensity precisely as air varies in density during
the production of sound.
Q. What are the essential parts of a Telephone? Ans. The essential parts of a
telephone:
the working of a
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
Ans. The speaker talks into the mouthpiece, behind which is a transmitter.
Vibrating air currents produced by the speech generate vibrations in a thin
aluminum diaphragm. These vibrations are transmitted to a small piston, which is
the cover for a metallic box filled with small granules of carbon. Electrical contact
is made only through the carbon, which is reasonably a good conductor of
electricity. Vibrations of the membrane/piston causes the electrical resistance of
the carbon grains to vary. This results in variations in the amount of electricity
passing through the circuit, and hence through the conducting line.
Q. What is an Earpiece?
Ans. Earpiece is an important part of the telephone at the receiving end. A sound
membrane is made to perform vibrations similar to the one induced in the
earpiece.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
The dial or touch-tone of a telephone sends out an electrical code that establishes
the correct connection.
The telephone must operate as a part of complete electric circuit, and so it needs a
power source, a conductor and a switch. The power source is a storage battery of
about 50 volts.
The electrical signals of the telephone are transmitted over long distances in a
number of
1
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
QAns.
Q.
ways eg; through cables, radio-relays, microwaves and most recently by optical
light waves.
Ans. Aperture:
Shutter:
It makes sure that light only strikes-the^film when you want to take a photograph.
It covers the aperture until you press the shutter releaser, then it opens and closes
letting light. Expensive cameras have a shutter speed control. It changes the length
of time for which the shutter is open.
Ans. It essentially consists of light proof box, aperture, shutter, lens and film.
Q. When were lenses invented? Name some appliances that use lenses?
Q.
Ans.
Ans.
Q. Ans.
A photographic film is a roll of thin, clear plastic (celluloid) coated with light
sensitive chemicals (chemicals which are changed by light). The film is covered
with an emulsion of silver bromide. It is converted to metallic silver by the
chemical action during developing. Developers produce a black deposit of fine
particles of metallic silver on those portions of the film that has been exposed to
light thus giving a negative image.
By placing the finished negative over a piece of sensitive paper similar to film, and
exposing to light, the light sensitive silver salts on the paper are affected in a
similar way to those in the original film. Those portions of the negative that were
darkest let through least light, and thus give the whitest portions on the developed
paper. The negative image is thus reversed, and a corrt’<-(
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
image or photograph is obtained on the paper, which is then fixed and washed with water
as before.
Chapter 5
LIVING THINGS
Introduction:
Matter can be classified into living and non-living things. Living things have life which is
a delicate and complex process of genetic material in all cell nuclei. All living things
must contain, Protoplasm; a material absolutely necessary to perform all functions of life.
Protoplasm is the total contents of the living cell. Cells are the smallest building blocks of
all living organisms which include both plants and animals. All living things contain
carbon as an essential element. Characteristics of living organisms are as follows:
1.
Respiration
2.
Nutrition
3.
Growth
4.
Reproduction
5.
Response
Excretion
7.
Movement
Life began in oceans millions of years ago and has travelled a long way from sea
animals to amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The sciences which deal with
living organisms are called Biological Sciences. Some more common biological
sciences are described below:
^^^••••^^^•”•^•”^ Botany
Zoology
Biochemistry
Physiology
Hygiene
Pathology
Entomology
Microbiology
Cytology
Science dealing with structure and functions of cells and their components.
Histology
Human Biology
JILwMtillMcEl
Classification:
There are nearly half a million species of plants on the Earth. With the exception
of few, all of them need three basic ingredients to survive: air, light and water,
plants are found in almost every type of habitat. They take their own food using
simple raw materials and energy from the sun. Plants require water to grow. They
cannot get this water unless it is available in the soil. Plants obtain water from the
soil through their roots. It then passes up the stem to the leaves and flowers. The
plant does not take all the water available in the soil. Much of the remaining water
evaporates into the surrounding air. The plants can be divided into the following
categories:
Non-Green Plants:
This is a group of plants having simple plant body without root, stem and leaves.
They do not contain chlorophyll and hence do not involve photosynthesis. They
can grow without the aid of sunlight and seem to popout of the ground overnight.
Typical examples of nongreen plants are bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Green Plants:
These are those plants which contain chlorophyll and cariy out photosynthesis.
There are two categories of green plants: non-flowering and flowering plants.
A
CLASSIFICATION READY RECKONER
LIVING ORGANISMS
i
Plant Kingdoms
Animal Kingdoms
Non-Green Plants
Green Plants
Bacteria Fungi Viruses
tebrates
vertebrates
nges
rms Cn
ibs
\
lose
tcts
1
Spo
I
j
r~j
Fishes Amphibians Reptiles | Mammals] Birds
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EVERYDAY SCIENCE
dioxide in the air and water in the soil to make thenfood. The leaves distribute
water from the roots and transport food made in the leaves to the rest of the plant.
Stem:
This supports the leaves and flowers. It contains tubes to carry water and food
around the plant, and it stores food.
Roots:
These hold the plant in the ground, absorb water and mineral salts from the soil,
and in some cases the root is edible.
Invertebrate:
These are those animals which do not posses backbones. These are usually smaller
in size but larger in number. About 95 percent of the whole animal kingdom is
composed of inveitebrate animals. More familiar example^; are insects, crabs,
worms and spiders. Some of the important families of invertebrate animals are
cliscussed\below.
LIVING THINGS
Insects:
Insects have an external skeleton called exoskeleton which provides support and
protection. They consist of the head, the thorax and the abdomen, and on the
middle part are found three pairs of jointed legs. They are the most numerous and
widespread group of animals on Earth. They are found in almost every sort of
habitat, from deserts to lakes, and from soil to the air. The most characteristic
feature of insects is their ability to fly. Insects eat many different types of food and
they have well-developed senses that tell them everything they need to know about
their surroundings. Some typical examples of insects are mosquitoes, fleas,
grasshoppers, ants, aphid, moth, silverfish, dragonfly and earwing.
Most insects lead independent lives, coming together, with other of their kind only
for eating. However, some insects can only survive in complex societies. Ants are
interesting social insects which live in large colonies either underground or in
loose mounds.
Vertebrates:
These are those animals which possess segmental backbone or vertebral column.
Vertebrate animals are generally much bigger in size as compared to invertebrate
animals. Animals like cats, dogs, snakes, frogs, birds and fish are familiar
examples of vertebrates. Some of the important families of vertebrate animal are
discussed below:
Fishes:
Fishes are cold-blooded vertebrate animals whose bodies are covered generally
with scales. They are a varied group of animals that have colonized the world
oceans, lakes and rivers. They are specially adapted to
j^W^
live and breath in water, although some can spend limited amounts of time on dry
land. Fishes breath by extracting dissolved oxygen from the water, using a series
of internal gills over which water continually passes.
Dolphins and porpoises are warmblooded mammals. Over million of years, they
developed from land mammals. They are closely related to each other as well as
being linked to those other well-known creaturesthe great whales. Although they
live in the sea, they breathe air. Usually dolphins have beaks and more noticeable
dorsal fins than porpoises which are smaller, and their teeth are spade shaped, not
pointed like dolphin’s teeth. Dolphins are almost as clever as humans.
Reptiles:
The reptiles are scaly, cold-blooded vertebrate animals which lay eggs with hard,
protective shells. They seem to have descended from warmer part of the world.
Snakes, crocodiles, tortoises, lizards and alligators are familiar examples of
reptiles. Reptiles crawl on their bellies or creep on short legs. All reptiles breath
air and have backbones or spinal cords. Most of them reproduce by laying eggs,
but some bear live youngs. Turtles are the oldest of the living reptiles.
Amphibians:
Birds:
Birds are warm-blooded vertebrate animals whose body is covered with feathers,
birds descended from reptiles and lay shelled eggs. All birds have wings, but all
birds don’t fly. They are the -fastest animals on Earth. Theie are about 8,600 kinds
of birds. Birds have adapted to feed on all manners of food.
Mammals:
ORIGIN OF LIFE:
Some of the important statements of scientists are reproduced below about the
origin of life:
”The trees and plants and animals, The oceans, air and mountains, The moon, the
stars and galaxies, They share-both birth and origin”
”The origin of life appears at the moment to be almost a miracle, so many are the
conditions which would have had to have been satisfied to get it going”.
”It is clear that there is no viable theory of the chemical origin of life”.
”There are no valid grounds for insisting that evolution is the only explanation for
the variety of living form”.
”To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus
to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light could have been
formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree”
- Charles Dai-win.
”Updating Darwin, scientists are showing that evolution sometimes leaps rather
than creep and that life itself is stranger, more adaptive and more precarious than
we ever dreamed”.
Introduction:
Life is a set of dynamic chemical processes; when they stop, so does life, and the
chemicals that once made up a body reduce themselves to a sludge. Living
creatures are clearly complex web of chemical pathwayschains of chemical
reactions in which a product of one becomes the starting point for another. Living
things display seven characteristics; excretion, growth, irritability, locomotion,
nutrition, reproduction and respiration. A very general definition of life is what
living creatures do.
Origin:
Bacteria were the first living organisms and hence the oldest, they were born about
three and a half billion years ago. Plants, animals and other multicellular bodies
were the next to come in the life cycle. But how bacteria came into existence in the
first place, is still a mystery to biologists. However, according to the chemical
evolution theory it is believed that simple molecules like methane, ammonia and
hydrogen cyanide were first converted into amino acids and then to the proteins,
and finally thousands of years, after, a cell was formed from the primeval soup.
All living organisms must invariably contain carbon and life is organic in nature.
Sugars, fatty acids, the building blocks of DNA and more things are needed to
build a bacterium, A bacterium, though simple by comparison with amoeba or a
human body cell, is till a pretty complicated thing. Every present living thing
seems to have descended from bacteria but they may still not be the first link just
the oldest surviving one. The precursors of bacteria could have been simple self-
replicating proteins. In a short conclusion, life is the most unique event of the
Universe.
Extraterrestrial Intelligence:
Extraterrestrial intelligence means search for life on other planets. Most of the
world scientists are of the opinion that life definitely exists on other planets but it
will take a long time to prove it.
We are made up of cells, which are made of molecules, which in turn are made of
atoms, themselves made of elementary particles. Nuclei are manufactured m the
stais, molecules in interstellar space. If we trace back along our genealogical line,
well before the apes, the first living things-cells we must go back to the
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
molecules, the atoms, the nucleons, back to the beginning of the universe
15 billion years ago.
No matter how far back into the universe we look, we find the same elements:
atoms, molecules, stars, galaxies. It can be shown that the laws of physics have
remained unchanged through 15 billion light years. It is this homogeneity in the
way that universe behaves that allows us to think that life is not an improbable
phenomenon, but a normal property of matter at the highest levels of its
organization. So we can suppose that life appears when conditions permit and
where Earthlike features exist, there is also the possibility that Earth-like life could
arise too.
CELLS
Introduction:
The fact that both plants and animals are made up of cells is the basis of the cell
theory. Each cell consists of two parts known as nucleus and cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm is the large part of a cell which is a jellylike material and it contains
water, food and dissolved gases, the cell contents are held together by a thin skin
called a cell membrane. Embedded in the middle of the cytoplasm is a darker
structure which has a rough surface. This is called the nucleus. This nucleus
contfols
the anabolic (Constructive) activities and the cytoplasm controls the catabolic
(destructive) activities.
Cell membrano
Nucleus Cytopla^rr
1. Ribofcomes: The ribosomes manufacture protein molecules by following
blueprints encoded in messenger^ RNA. The ribosomes have complex
structure. \
\\
3. Nucleus: The nucleus contains the hereditary material, DNA, which carries
instructions for the operation and perpetuation of the cellular machinery.
Complex molecular processes are involved in replicating the DNA.
ANIMALS VS PLANTS
i.
2.
3.
Points of Similarities
Smallest building blocks of animals are cells.
Animals range from Unicellular to more complicated organisms consisting of multicellular bodies.
Plants also range from unicellular to more complicated organisms consisting of multicellular bodies.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Points of differences
Animals are heterotrophic
Animals take oxygen and release carbon dioxide gas. Animals are free to move from one place to the other.
Animal cells have no cell walls but they have cell membranes.
There is no chloroplast in
animal cells.
Plant cells have cell walls made up of cellulose to protect and surround the cell and cell membrane
13.
14.
15.
16.
Plastids are usually absent in animal cell. Metabolism forms toxic wastes which are removed by excretion.
MICROSCOPE /
Introduction: /
The microscope is an instrument for producing enlarged images of objects that are too
small to be seen by the eye unaided, Such images may be viewed directly or with a
viewing screen or photographic apparatus. Objects for n;’roscopy may be either
transparent or opaque. Microscope may be simple or compound.
Simple Microscope:
aberration are principally involved. The simplest form of low-power magnifier is a single
biconvex or plano-convex lens.
Compound Microscope:
The basic idea of the compound microscope is to use two or more lenses, arranged in
such a way as to form an enlarged image of an object. A compound optical microscope is
an instrument that produce a magnified image of a small object; as small as bacteria.
Compound microscope has an objective lens (the lens closet to the object being viewed)
and an eyepiece so mounted that they may conveniently be moved relative to the
specimen to focus the image.
A typical compound microscope consists of a mirror that reflects light from an external
source through a condensed lens system that concentrates and uniformly illuminates an
object on stage. An objective lens system produces a real image of the object that is then
seen by the eye to lie in a plane. The magnification obtained is equal to the product of the
magnifications produced by the objective and eyepiece lenses. The value of a microscope
lies in its ability not only to magnify objects but also to make their fine details visible.
These two features depend for the most part on the quality of the lens that forms the
primary image. Microscope objective lenses may be classified according to either their
focal length or their type and degree of corrections.
Many modern versions of the microscope have now been developed for specific
purposes. Some of these can be named as under:
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Compound Microscope,
A, FA epicco; B, Draw tube; C, Body tube; D, Nosepiece (revolving); E, Objective F, Fine adjustment; G,
Coarse adjustment; H, Arm; I,
I LIVING THINGS
(ii) Ultramicroscope
It is the most modern and sophisticated version of the microscope. It came into
commercial use in 1935. There are many differences between optical and electron
microscopes. Instead of glass lenses, electromagnetic lenses are used. Unlike this optical
microscope, in which the lenses are of fixerl focus and the distance between specimen
and objectiv/e is varied,-the electron microscope has variable-focus lenses, and the
distance between specimen and object/we lens and separation of the lenses remain
constant.
The optical microscope is usually operated so that the image is a virtual one, and in the
electron microscope the final image is invariably real and is visualized on a fluorescent
screen or recorded for study on a photographic plate.
In the optical microscope, the image is formed by absorption of light in the specimen. In
the electron microscope the image results from the scattering of electrons by atoms in the
specimen.
For practical reasons of image stability and brightness, the microscope is often operated
to give a final magnification of 1000-50,000 magnitudes on the
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
•HMK’MlilflTcEl
screen. It is possible to see small viruses and large molecules with the help of electron
microscope.
DISEASES
Introduction:
When everything is functioning properly in the animal body, all systems of the body are
synchronized, working in a state of harmony that is characterised as healthy. If the
functions of” cells or organs are disrupted enough to cause signs or symptoms of
abnormal conditions, the organism is said to be diseased. All diseases can be considered
to some degree both genetic and environmental in their pathogenic characteristics.
Diseases can be caused by pathogens, namely bacteria, spirochete viruses, fungi,
amoebae, parasites and worms. Diseases can be infectious or non-infectious.
Infectious Diseases:
These are those diseases which are caused by the attack of an organism outside the body
conveyed into human body in different ways. These can be transmitted by air, water or
skin.
Cholera:
Air
Whooping Cough, TB
Water
Cholera, Jaundice
Skin
Mosquito Bite
Malaria, Yellow Fever Filaria (Elephentiasis)
Animal Bite
Rabies, Plague
Miscellaneous
Influenza, Measles
Blood \
Hepatitis, Aids
Malaria: j
Malaria/is transmitte’ from human to human by the bite of/infected female anopheles
mosquitoes. Symptoms a/e, chills, fever and sweating. Four species of the genus/
Plasmodium are responsible for human malaria. The most common parasites are;
Plasmodium vivax, flaciparum, malaria and ovale. The mosquito becomes infected by
taking blood containing the sexual forms of the parasite. Red blood cells are ruptured in
this process. The incubation period varies considerably (8-20 days).
Typhoid Fever:
Typhoid fever is caused by the gram negative rod salmonella typhi, which enters the
patients via gastrointestinal tract. Infection is transmitted by consumption of
contaminated food or drink. The incubation period is 5-14 days.
\
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
BACTERIA
Definition:
Bacteria are microscopic unicellular free-living organisms that multiply very fast.
These are among the smallest and most widespread of all living things. They have
plant origin but they do not have chlorophyll and nuclear membrane. They may
live alone or in groups called colonies. Most of the bacteria are helpful but some
are harmful. Disease causing bacteria are called pathogens.
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Coccus
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Spherical
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Vibrios
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Bacillus
Rod shaped
Spirillus
Spiral Shaped
Although, bacteria were observed almost three hundred years ago, their
significance in the production of disease was established by Louis Pasteur, a
French chemist, in 1856. The average diameter of a bacterial cell is about one
millimicron. Most bacteria reproduce asexually by means of binary fission. In
asexual reproduction, sexes are not needed i.e., there is no male or female
involved.
LIVING THINGS
Classification of Bacteria:
There are four basic forms of bacteria with reference to their shape and
appearance. Many attempts have been made to evolve a satisfactory classification
of the bacteria. A simple but useful working classification is based on a
combination of overall shape and reaction to Gram stain; into Gram positive and
Gram negative.
Streptococcus
Gonococcus
Staphylococcus I
Meningococcus
Peptococcus
Influenza bacillus
Anthra bacillus
Plague bacillus
Diphtheria bacillus \
Proteus
Tetanus bacillus \
Salmonella Providenica
Some bacteria are aerobic (streptococcus) and require air to live while other
bacteria are anaerobic (clostridium, bacteria) as they do not require air to live.
Bacteria are among the oldest form of life. Scientists have discovered that they can
teach bacteria to manufacture other substances by changing their genetic material.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B
••^^^•^^•^^^•^••i^^^^^^^^^^’ ”
Cholera
Vibrio Cholerae
Typhoid Fever
Salmonella typhi
Pertussis
Haemophilus pertussis
Plague
Yersinia pestis
Shigellosis
Shigella dysenteriae
ANTIBIOTICS
Definition:
The term antibiotic means ”against life”. Antibiotics are defined as chemicals
produced by microorganisms that has the capacity in small concentrations to
inhibit the growth of other microorganisms or to destroy them. The most important
groups of antibiotic-producing organisms are the bacteria, lower fungi or molds,
and antinomycytos. Antibiotics belong to very diverse class of chemical
compounds. The drugs work against bacteria, fungi and other microbes that
damage human tissues. They are selectively toxic - that is, they are harmful to
pathogenic (disease-causing) microbes but do not normally damage human cells.
ilWIMcldiiiimyi
antibiotics are now synthetically also produced, therefore they are also
called as Antimicrobials.
Classification of Antibiotics:
Bactereostatic Antibiotics:
These are those antibiotics which merely inhibit the growth of micro-organisms.
Typical examples are Tetracyclene, Erythromycine, Linomycin and
Chloraniphenicol.
Bactericidal Antibiotics:
/ These are those antibiotics which kill microorganisms. Typical examples are
Penicillins, Streptomycin, Kanamycin, Cefoxitin, Cefamadole, Cefotaxime,
Ampicillin and Cefobid.
Some Typical Antibiotics and their Characteristics
Typical Antibiotic
Penicillins
Characteristics
Strictly speaking, Penicillin is not any one substance but is the name given, to salts of a series of organic
acids. Of all the natural Penicillins, Penicillin-G is still recognised as the best.
Tetracyclines
Streptomycin
Cephalosporins
It is useful for killing both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Ampicillin and Amoxicillin and
Mezloxillin are modern versions of penicillin-G.
Tetracyclines are broad spectrum antibiotics. These are a large group of drugs with common, basic
chemical structure, antimicrobial activity, and pharmacologic properties. These are active against both
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
It is an antibiotic belonging to a family of Amino glycosides of which the members are neomycin,
kenamycin, gentamycin, amikacin, tobramycin and sisomicin. It is more effective against gram-negative
bacteria and is useful in treatment of T.B, meningitis and pneumonia.
This belongs to B-Lactam drugs related to penicillins. Their mode of action is also similar. These have
successive generation of antibiotics. Typical examples are: cephalexin, cefobid, cefoxicitin, cefotaxime and
cefamandole.
Most of the antibiotics are not effective against the diseases caused by viruses.
Almost all the antibiotics are slightly toxic and hence should be taken with a lot of
care. These drugs are commonly associated with outward reactions like
hypersensitivity, direct toxicity like nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Some are
given orally and other intramuscularly.
LIVING THINGS
VACCINES
Definition:
Immunization:
It is the process of protecting the body against disease by means of vaccines or
serums. Vaccines provide immunity by causing the body to manufacture
antibodies, which fight against disease. Serums furnish immunity by adding
antibodies directly to the blood. Immunization may be active or passive.
Characteristics of Vaccines:
(1) Vaccines may be oral or intramuscular, most are injected into the body.
(2) Vaccines are safe and reliable but they are not perfect.
(3) Most vaccines begin to provide a person with immunity about two
weeks after being administered.
(4) A single dose of some vaccine provides a lifelong protection against infection.
(5) Some vaccines require several doses to produce immunity and then must be
reinforced at regular intervals with booster doses.
(1) Measles:
(2) Mumps:
(3) Rabies:
multiplies there and then migrates along the different nerves to the salivary glands.
It is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system. Hydrophobia is a
typical symptom. The human diploid cell rabies vaccine is used for its prevention.
Vaccines in Preparation:
AIDS and MALARIA.
HORMONES:
More than 80 hormones are known. Out of these more than 50% are steroids
whereas the remaining harmones are non-steroidal in nature. Hormones are
chemical substances produced by the cells of one part of an organism and
transported by the fluids of the organism to another site where they exert specific
action.
Hormones are organic in nature and are synthesised in the endocrine glands and
then discharged directly in the circulatory system. They serve as chemical
messengers or regulators. They cause the reactions to speed up or slow down. In
this way they control growth, metabolism, reproduction and many other functions
of the body and mind.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Sex Hormones:
Male sex hormones are called androgens. They are secreted by the Testes. These
hormones are responsible for development of the sex organs. The female sex
hormone are called Estrogens. They are produced mainly in the ovaries. They
control the female sexual functions, such as menstrual cycle and the development
of breasts and other secondary sexual characteristics. Sex hormones belongs to
steroid family of organic compounds and these can also be synthetically produced.
The activity of the sex hormones is controlled by the hormones that are produced
in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Pituitary
\,
Thyroxin
Thyroid
Insulin
Pancreas
Cortisol
Adrenal
Testosterone
Testes
Progesterone Estradiole
Ovaries
Pituitary Gland:
It is about the size of a pea, and is attached to the brain by a stalk, just below the
point where the optic nerves join the brain. It has two parts called the anterior and
posterior lobes. It is often called the Master gland because the hormones it releases
influence the workings of many of the other endocrine glands.
Thyroid Gland:
The gland is made up of two parts and is shaped like a bow. Its secretion effects
physical and mental development in children and adults.
Pancreas:
The gland is shaped like a tongue. It lies just below the stomach. It produces
Insulin which helps to control the level of sugar in the blood.
Adrenal:
In males there are a pair of testes which are contained in a sac at the base of the
abdomen and outside the body.
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ovaries:
There are a pair of small organs -in the lower abdomen of a female which aije
called ovaries.
CHROMOSOMES
Introduction:
The nucleus of each cell contains a number of very small thread like structure
called chromosomes. The term chromosome was introduced into the scientific
vocabulary by Waldeyer in 1888. Each chromosome consists of hundreds of
molecules of nucleoprotiens called genes. In the nucleus of the cell, the
chromosomes are present as two identical sets which pair off, each pahconsisting
of two identical chromosomes. Chromosomes are hereditary material.
Chemical Composition:
The chemical constituents of chromosome are: (i) Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) (ii)
Ribo Nucleic Acid (RNA)
(Hi) Histones
In large scale population surveys, e.g., to detect the effects of occupational hazards
on chromosomes in relation to various environmental factors like cold, heat,
chemicals and dust.
(v) In new fields involving separation of ’X’ and ’Y’ bearing sperms.
The human chromosomes carry all the information we require to live, grow and
reproduce. But hidden somewhere may be a gene that ensures a preprogrammed
death.
• yi3:M»7^Y*flMiaMM:l
GENES
Introduction:
Genes are natural units of hereditary material stored in chromosomes and this is
the physical basis for the transmission of the characteristics of living organisms
from one generation to the other. The term ’gene’ was introduced by Johannsen in
1909. Genes can be imagined as being strung together like beads to form the
threadlike chromosome. Genes can also predict diseases, A genetic linkage map
was published in 1987 of the entire human genome covering the 23 pairs
associated with genetically based human illnesses.
More important properties and functions of the genes are described below:
(4) Genes are very important for synthesis of various proteins and enzymes of the
cell.
Number:
HMi?M<;ii?BEl
Chemical Basis:
DNA is the chemical basis of genes and is indeed the hereditary material, Genes
act through controlling the protein constitution of cells.
Classification of Genes:
Structural Gene
Super/Gene
/ •
It is a group of genes which encode a number of functionally related protein.
_A
j It exercises control over a set of contiguous structural genes and collectively constitutes an operon.
Regulator Gene
Temporal Gene
Architectural Gene
It guides the exact localization of enzymes and protein in various cellular organelles.
Pleiotropic Gene
I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE |
METABOLISM
Introduction:
Metabolism is a term that embraces all of the chemical changes that occur in the
cells of living organisms, enabling them to grow, to maintain their identity and to
reproduce. All living things need energy for survival which is provided by food.
Each chemical change in metabolism is catalyzed by a specific protein called an
Enzyme. The chemical processes of metabolism perform several key functions.
They provide the energy necessary for work - not only the mechanical work that
involves the use of muscles, but also the chemical work required to build
complicated molecules like DNA, RNA and proteins. Metabolic reactions also
convert food into forms that can be stored until needed. Metabolism is
characterised by two basic sets of reactions.
Catabolism:
ATP:
synthesis of bigger organic molecules (proteins) takes place from smaller chemical
components formed in the catabolic processes which are also called as
interconvertible intermediates. Catabolic routes have cleaXly defined beginnings
but no unambiguously identifiable end products; anabolic routes, on the other
hand, lead to clearly distinguishable end products from diffuse beginnings. There
are two important cycles involving the metabolic process namely (i) The Krebs
cycle and (ii) The Urea cycle.
BALANCED FOOD
Food:
The food materials are complex mixture of chemical substances and only those
substances which when eaten and absorbed by the body for the production of
energy, promotion of growth, repair of tissues or regulation of these processes are
termed foods. The
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
chemical component of the food which perform these functions are termed
Nutrients. Therefore, no material can be called a food till it contains at least one
nutrient. Different types of nutrients of food are discussed below:
^^TunTjH^HHHj^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B
•^^^^^^^^^^^^•^^H^^H
Carbohydrates
Provide Energy
Fats
Butter, Cheese
Provide Energy
Proteins
Minerals
Vegetables, Fruits
Water
Water, Fruits
Vitamins
Fruits, Vegetables
Carbohydrates: \
x,
These are organic compounds which contain^ carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They
provide about half of the required energy and thus maintain the temperature of the
body. Typical examples include the sugars, glucose and sucrose and the
polysaccarides, starch and cellulose. Oxidation of carbohydrates gives carbon
dioxide and water and liberates energy which is used by the body.
Fats:
Oils and fats are members of a larger group of naturally occurring compounds
named Lipids. Chemically, oils and fats are thglycerides of fatty acids. They may
have pant or animal origin. The fat has a higher calorific value as compared to
carbohydrate and proteins. It has been established that consumption of saturated
fats raises the level of cholesterol and
LIVING THINGS
triglycerides in the blood while the complete digestion of fatty foods produces
glycerol and a mixture of long chain fatty acids.
Proteins:
Proteins are long chain organic compounds consisting of several different kinds of
arnino acids. They are rich in nitrogen. They are mainly responsible for growth.
When digested by animals, proteins are hydrolyzed to the amino acids in the
digestive system. There degradation is brought about progressively by peptidases
which are the hydrolyzing enzymes. The amino acids thus produced are absorbed
into the blood stream and transported to the liver and various tissues in the body
where they become involved in several processes.
Minerals:
These are inorganic materials present in the food. Vegetables and fruits are good
sources of minerals. They help in growth and repair and control body processes.
Calcium and phosphorous are the most abundant elements in the body. Apart from
these, small amounts of several other trace elements are also found in the body
which are also essential to human life like Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Iron,
Iodine and Chlorine.
Water:
The human body contains about 65% water in various forms. It is essential for all
metabolic processes. It helps in growth and repair and controls the body processes.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Vitamins:
Tnese are also organic substances which are essential far the growth of the body
and are required in small amounts. Fruits and vegetables are good sources of
vitamins. They control body processes. Vitamins may be water soluble or fat
soluble. Important vitamins are A, B, (Bj, B2, BG, B12), C, D, E, and K. Each of
them performs definite functions.
VITAMINS
Introduction:
Classification of Vitamins:
The vitamins are divided into two broad categories, the fat-soluble group,
including A, D, E, K and the water-soluble group, made up of the B complex
andC.
LIVING THINGS
Vitamin A
I B1
[ B6
Vitamin D
i
B12
; Vstamin K
II
Vitamin C
Citrus fruits
Tomatoes,
Peppers
Viir- E
Wheat germ oil green vegetable, egg yolk, meat bread, dried beans.
Vitamin A:
Actually vitamin A itself is quite rare in foods; therefore most is derived form
carotene bearing plant sources. ’Carotene is present in green leafy vegetables and
yellow fruits. Milk, butter, egg, fish and liver oil are good sources of vitamin A.
The recommended daily
k
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
allowance is from 4000 IU to 5000 IU. Deficiency of vitamin A causes dryness of the
skin, tunnel vision and night blindness. Many children in developing countries are
permanently blinded by vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A can be stored as an ester in the
liver of adults, while an adequate diet, can store several years supply in this form. Small
children, without such reserves, are particularly susceptible to diseases. Mega doses of
vitamin A can be toxic. B-carotene can possibly acts as cancer inhibitor.
Vitamin D is the generic name for a family of about 10 sterols. The two most important
of these sterols are Ergocalciferol (Vitamin D2) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). The
human body can synthesize provitamin of D3 (7-dehydrocholesterol), which can be
converted photochemically to vitamin D3 by ultraviolet irradiation of the skin. Vitamin D
increases the utilization of calcium and phosphorous by the body. Deficiency in infants
and growing children can result in abnormal bone formation, a condition known as
Rickets. Natural sources of Vitamin D include liver, fish, liver of fish-eating animals,
egg-yolk and butter. The deficiency of Vitamin D can also cause parathyroid disorders.
Too much vitamin D can cause pain in the bones, nausea, diarrhoea, and weight loss.
Vitamin E:
There are several compounds with vitamin E activity and these are called tocopherols: the
most potent of these are alphatocopherol. The tocopherols belong to the family of phenols
which are antioxidants; vitamins E is a natural antioxidant that plays a role in the normal
physiology of animal bodies. Vitamin E slows down the oxidative damage done to the
human cells by the free
LIVING THINGS
radicajs. Vitamin E scavenges free redicals, In this way, it can act as antiaging agent.
Vitamin E scavenges free redical reactions which are culprits behind the progressive
cellular damage that results in the diseases and death that accompany at an advancing
age. Vitamin E promotes oxygenation, which is the healthful use to oxygen for
respiration, while limiting oxidation, the harmful rusting of cells caused by free radicals.
It also prevents fats and oils from turning rancid, and oxidises fats and oils and is thought
to be a cause of colon and breast cancer. Food sources which are rich in vitamin E are
green leafy vegetables, beans and wheat germ.
Chemically, vitamin K has a fused ring system and belongs to Quinone family. Many
compounds can have vitamin K activity. Vitamin K is necessary for the formation of
prothrombin, one of the enzyme precursors involved in blood clotting. Deficiency of
Vitamin K will increase the time required for clotting of the blood. Good sources of
vitamin K are spinach and other green leafy vegetables. It is also insoluble in water but
soluble in fats and fat solvents.
Vitamin B:
The B Complex: Actually, there is nothing like Vitamin B alone. What was once called
vitamin B has long since been recognised as a complicated mixture of organic
compounds. The term B complex is now used to designate a group of water-soluble
vitamins found together in many food sources. Member of the BComplex are:
The B complex vitamins are water soluble. The body has a very limited capacity to store
water-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins must be taken in at
I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
frequent intervals. Deficiency of vitamin B can cause beriberi, dermatitis and pellagra.
Hm^HHBHmiHHPMHB^^Hi
^•B^H^^^iiT^^^^ll^ji^WJ^TiljlfTO^^H^^^^^^H
Name
Sources
B, Thiamine
Niacin, B3
B,,, Pyriduxai
Biotin
Folic acid
Br2, Cyanocobalamine
Vitamin C:
Collagen is a substance that gives elasticity to the skin, cell and muscles. If our bodies are
deficient in vitamin C, it soon becomes apparent in skin toning, bad health, sagging loose
tissue, dropping muscles and premature aging. Vitamin C is also necessary for the
LIVING THINGS
utilization of iron. Vitamin C is not only good for the body and its iron and collagen, but
it is also a preventer of infectious diseases. Vitamin C is also called as Skin Food. \
In 1970, Linus Pauling, Winner of two Nobel Prizes, suggested that this vitamin could be
used as a weapon against the common cold. Vitamin C is also richly supplied to our
brains. The vitamin is depleted by stress, tobacco-smoking, alcohol, physical trauma,
burns, anxiety, antibiotics, cortisones, sulpha drugs and contraceptive pills, It is the most
unstable vitamin and easily lost during cooking and food storage.
FOOD NUTRIENTS
^Br^T^B ItnffBl
Major Nutrients
Apple
Apricot
Avocado
Banana
Cherrres
Dates
Fig
Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber
^KT’if’Ht-MK’iMiTrHJ
jtnffliiiitiii^nni
47
28
77
40
248
41
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
HlMiWdJIIfficEl
8.
Grapes
51
9.
Grapefruit
22
10.
Lemon
15
11.
Mango
74
12.
Orange
35
13.
Papoya
28
14.
Pomegranate
44
15.
Peaches
37
16.
Pears
46
17.
Pineapple
46
18.
Plums
38
19.
Prunes
161
20.
Raisins
i
Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B), Fiber
247
21.
Raspber ries
25
22.
Strawberries
26
23.
Tangerines
34
Q.
EXERCISE
What is a cell membrane?
of Rihosomes and
An.s. The nbosomes (endoplasmic reticulum) aie mainly associated with the
synthesis of proteins
Ans. A tissue is a collection of :ells having similar structure and functions. There
are five mam types of tissues in the body _ epithelial.
connective, muscular, nervous tissue and the blood.
Ans. There are three types of muscles - striated (Voluntary), unstriated (involuntary or
smooth), and cardiac muscles.
Ans. Fatigue is defined as progressive and temporary loss of irritability in a muscle due to
its continuous stimulation.
Ans. Flower is the reproductive part of a plant and its important parts are’
(i) Calyx
fii) Corolla
(Hi) Androecium
(iv) Gynaecium
Ans. Both terms are involved in the reproduction processes. Pollination may be defined
as a process in which the transfer of pollen takes place from male reproductive organ to
female reproductive organ in flowering plants, usually through some biological agency
(animals, birds, insects etc.) Fertilization is a process in which fusion of egg and sperm
takes place when they come close together.
Q. Define Transpiration?
Ans. It may be defined as a process in which excess amount of water absorbed by the
plant through its roots, is given off in the form of water vapours. It is not a case of simple
evaporation but it is regulated by protoplasm.
Ans. The essential parts of a plant are roots, stem, leaf and flower.
Ans. They are called Monocots and Dictos. The main basis of classification is that the
monocots have only one cotyledon in their seed pod. Dicotyledons have two.
Plants require water to grow. They cannot get this water unless it is available in the soil.
Plants obtain water from the soil through their roots. It then passes up the stem to the
leaves and flowers. The plant does not take all the water available in the soil. Much of the
remaining water evaporates into the surrounding air.
Ans. PHOTOSYNTHESIS:*
Photosynthesis is the process taking place in plants which uses carbon dioxide and water
to
Q.
Ans.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
RESPIRATION:
Respiration is the process in plants and animals which provides the energy foi all
other processes which must continue for the organism to live. Respiration is the
reverse of photosynthesis, in that it uses sugar and oxygen in the production of
energy and produces carbon dioxide and water as water products.
Ans. The carbon cycle, the water cycle, the rock cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the
energy cycle.
Ans. The plant kingdom is divided into three major groups - Algae. Bryophytes
and Tracheophytes.
LIVING THINGS
Kingdom
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Sub-Phylum
Vertebrate
Order
Primate
Family
Honimdae
Genus
Homo
Species
Sapiens
I
Q. What is meant by pH? Give some examples?
pH value
1 23456
891011 121314
Characteristics
Acidic
Neutral
Basic
= 7.4
= 0.9-1.0
= 7.5-80
=5P-65
X
Q. Define buffers and describe their importance in the human
body?
Ans. Buffers are aqueous solutions which resist changes in their pH when small
amounts of acids or alkalies are added to them. They act like shock-absorber
against the sudden changes in pH. Buffer solution is usually a mixture of weak
acid and its salt with a strong base. Buffer solution in the human body regulates
the pH of the body fluids and also controls the pH in chemical reactions catalyzed
by enzymes. A typical body buffer is a mixture of carbonic acid and sodium
bicarbonate.
Q. What is Haemoglobin?
in
Q.
Basal
digestion,
Define Osmosis?
Ans. Isotonic solutions have the same osmotic pressure as within the cell.
Hypertonic solution has the higher and hypotonic solution has the lower osmotic
pressure than within the cell.
Ans. Balanced diet is one which contains all the essential nutrients of food in
proper proportions so as to provide energy and nutritional requirements for growth
and reproduction.
upon the nature of his work. (i) Sedentary (2500 K Cal.) (ii) Light work (3000 K.
Cal.) (Hi) Moderate work (3500 K. Cal.) (iv) Heavy work (4000 K. Cal.)
Ans. BMR stands for Basal Metabolic Rate. It is the amount of energy required
just to maintain the body processes when a person is at complete rest.
JEVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans.
Q. What is Satiety?
Ans. Apatite is a desire for food and satiety is a lack of desire to eat more.
It is so, because it contains almost all the nutrients needed in a well-balanced diet,
except vitamin C.
Q. Ans.
Q.
Q.
In what ways Carbohydrates?
Ans. Fat contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and is composed of fatty acids.
Fats are utilized in the body for:
Q.
Q. Ans.
changes.
Ans. Animal proteins are considered as superior to vegetable proteins because they
are rich in essential amino acids and hence preferred. Animal proteins are called
first class and vegetable proteins, second class proteins.
Essential amino acids are those amino acids which cannot be synthesised by the
body and hence have to be included in the diet from outside. They are 8 in number
and their names are:
Ans. Egg proteins are best in quality and are taken as standard for comparing the
quality of other food proteins. Egg proteins are better digested, absorbed and
utilized by the body than proteins of meat or milk.
s
1
LIVING THINGS
Ans. Both, starch and glycogen are carbohydrates and polysaccharides but starch has
plant and glycogen has animal origin. Moreover, glycogen is more highly branched than
starch.
Ans. These are those substances which as such do not possess vitamin activity but on
conversion give
Q.
they
Ans. Lipids are ester like compounds of fatty acids which are insoluble in water but are
soluble in fat solvents. Lipids are classified into:
Q. What is Glycolysis?
Ans. It is a chemical process in which the break down of glucose occurs to pyruvic or
lactic acid.
Ans. Citric acid cycle is the common pathway for the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats
and proteins since it provides the complete oxidation of acetyl coenzyme A to carbon
dioxide and water.
Q. Define saponification?
Ans. Bile salts are sodium and potassium salts of glycocholates and these are powerful
emulsifying agents and therefore they lower the surface tension of the media and thus aid
in the absorption of fats.
high?
Ans. These are the following hormones: (i) Glucagon (ii) Epinephrme (Hi) Adrenal
cortex hormones (iv) Growth hormone and AGTH (v) Thyroid hormone
Ans. Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas in the human body. Chemically it
is a protein containing polypeptide linkages of amino acids. It regulates the blood
sugar level. Its specific biological functions in the human body are:
of the body except liver. (ii) It helps in glycogenesis. (Hi) It prevents glycogenolysis.
(iv) It inhibits gluconogenic enzymes,
Ans. Enzymes are biological catalysts and these are protein in nature.
Ans. Isoenzymes are the multiple forms of the same enzyme. Examples are: Lactate
dehydrogenase Alkaline phosphates
Ans. If the heat is liberated during the process (oxidation), it is called exothermic
reaction, and if heat is consumed during the process, it is termed as endothermic reaction.
Q. What are the main sources of energy liberation in the human body?
Ans. These are high and low energy liberation phosphates. The high energy phosphates
are ATP, creatine phosphate, ADP and acetyl phosphate. The low energy phosphates are
glucose-1-phosphate and glucose-6-phosphate.
Q. What is hypoglycaemia?
Ans. Hypoglycaemia is fall of blood sugar level below its normal limit. The symptoms of
hypoglycaemia are usually felt when blood sugar level falls below
40% mg.
Ans. Aminoacids take part in active growth process in growing children, pregnant and
lactating females and convalescents. These are utilized to replace daily wear and tear of
the body tissues and are essential constituents of cell protoplasm.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. Brain being very sensitive to blood sugar levels is mainly affected. There is mental
confusion, giddiness, visual disturbances, syncope, coma and convulsions.
Ans. It mainly occurs as neutral fat in the form of triglycerides of oleic (75%), plamitic
(20%) and stearic (5%) acid. There are some other forms of fat besides neutral fat, and
these are sterols (cholesterol), steroids and phospholipids. Lecithin, cephalin and
sphingomyelin are examples of phospholipids.
Q. What is Ketosis?
and insomnia.
Ans. Carbon from the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide is incorporated in green
plants by photosynthesis, and oxygen is produced as a byproduct. Sugar and starches are
produced during the process of photosynthesis form carbon dioxide and water in plants.
”When these plants are eaten by bacteria, the oxygen recombines with the organic
material to give carbon dioxide which is again set free of course, part of the glucose is
oxidised by the plant itself.
LIVING THINGS
Ans. Nitrogen cycle is actually the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the biosphere. It
involves the circulation of nitrogen compounds in nature through the various organisms
to which nitrogen is essential. Organic nitrogen compounds, in the soil are taken in by
plants, and are combined by the plants with other elements to form nucleic acids and
proteins. The result of animal waste and decay is to bring the nitrogen that the animals
had absorbed back into the soil in the form of simple nitrogen compounds. Bacterial
action of various kinds converts these into compounds suitable for use by plants again. In
addition to this main circulation, certain amount of atmospheric nitrogen is fixed
(combined) by the action of bacteria associated with the roots of leguminous plants, and
by the action of atmospheric electricity; while some combined nitrogen is set free by the
action of denitrifying bacteria.
Ans. Infection: It is said to have accused when a body is invaded by pathogens causing
disease.
I1
• M3;V«»7iVJMMi;Mm;i
LIVING THINGS
along with their hahitats? Ans. These are described in the following chart.
Kiwi
Bird
It is a flightless bird, has long bill, stout leg, rudimentary wings, and found in New Zealand.
Koala
Mammal
It is a Arboreal Marsupial mammal. It is about 2-ft, long, has large hairy ears, grey fur and sharp claws.
Found in Australia.
Kangaroo
Mammal
L
Marsupial mammal, Herbivorous, small head, large ears, long powerful thin legs, a long thick tail and small
forelegs. Found in Australia.
Emu
Bird
Swift running flightless bird, smaller and undeveloped wings. Found in Australia.
Platypus
I
Mammal
Small flat-footed aquatic mammal, fleshy bill (like a duck), dense fur, webbed feet, broad flattened tail. It is
one of only two mammals in the world which ley eggs. Found in southern and Eastern Australia and
Tasmania.
Crocodile
Reptile
Large Voracious . thick skinned long bodied aquatic reptile. Found ’m Africa.
Penguin
Bird
An erect short-legged flightless aquatic bird. Found in southern hemisphere, found in Antarctica.
Alligator
Reptile
Long aquatic reptile, broad head and a special pocket in the upper jaw. The tail is specially flattened for
swimming, and the nostril is placed high on the snout so that it can breathe even when lying partly
submerged in water. Found in lakes, swampes and rivers of southeastern North America.
Jaguar
Mammal
A large cat of Tropical America that is large and stockier than the Leopard and is brownish yellow or buff
with black spots.
Cobra
Reptile
Hooded snake, venomous, it expands the skin of the neck info a hood by the movement of anterior ribs, it is
found in the countryside and towns of the warm parts of Southern Asia.
Polar Bear
Mammal
Rhinoceros
Mammal
A large powerful herbivorous thickskinned mammal, has one or two upright horns on the snout. Found in
the savannahs of Africa.
Ostrich
Bird
It is a swift-footed 2-towed flightless bird. It is the largest bird. It has valuable wings and tail plumes.
Found in plains and deserts of Africa.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
DMEmMcgl
Walrus
r
Mammal
It is a marine mammal related to seals. It is hunted for the tough heavy hide and the worry tusks. Found in
the Northern Sea: Arctic ocean to the north. Atlantic ocean. It uses its tusks to scrope up shellfish from the
ocean floor.
Tapir
Mammal
It is a large inoffensive horse like animal. Found in swampy forests of Southeast Asia.
Hippopotamus
Mammal
It is a large Herbivorous 4-toed aquatic mammal. Extremely large head and mouth, bare and very thick skin
and short legs. Found in Africa.
Blue Whale
Mammal
Gorilla
Primate
It belongs to the group of ’great apes’. It is most closely related to man. Length is about 6 feet. Found in
African rain forests.
Chimpanzee
Primate
Panda
Mammal
A long tailed Himalayan carnivore, long black and white fur, found in mountains and bamboo forests of
Central China. It is not a bear.
Manatee
I
Mammal
It is a tropical aquatic herbivorous mammal measuring about 16 feet in length. Found in coastal sea waters
and rivers of western Africa, southeast U.S. West Indies and South America.
Shark
Fish
It is a very large marine fish, fusiform body, tough, rough grey skin, typical predator. Found in oceans
Worldwide.
Killer Whale
Mammal
It is the largest dolphin, carnivorous, eats warm blooded sea mammals, also called Orca. Found in all
oceans of the World. Kill whales usually hunt in groups called pods.
Chapter 6
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The word physiology is derived from the Greek words phusis (nature) and logos (a
discourse). This term is generally applied only to the study of the functions of
living beings. Human physiology deals with the study of man in terms of life
processes of the human body. The human body is made up of 206 bones, 600
muscles, 60 thousand miles of capillaries of blood and 60 trillion human cells - the
human body contains the most complicated mechanism, it is miraculous in
character. There are more than 5 billion people on the surface of the earth and not
a single person duplicates not even the twins. This is due to the unique assemblage
of countless human cells and their patterns and different structural sequences of
DNA molecules in each person.
The bony skeleton supporting the human body is constructed to strengthen the
muscles which produce movement in the body to give its shape. Bone is as strong
as mild steel and is lighter. There are 206 bones of various sizes in an adult. These
bones are connected together in such a manner so as to from joints or
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
General Build up of the Human Body and it’s Important Parts (Out Line)
BODY
Head
Trunk
Limbs
1.
2.
The Muscular System
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Skull
Frontal bone
Zygomatic bontH
•4**.
Nasal bone
Maxilla bone
Mandible
Collar bone
EVERYDAY
Eye
Nose
Tongue
Skin
Plasma
Red Corpucles
Colourless Corpuscles
Water
Veins
Arteries
Capillaries
Organs of he Abdomen
Oesophagus
Liver
Pancreas
Spleen
Stomach
Kidneys
Intestines
Bladder
articulations and are bound firmly together at these joints by strong white fibrous
bonds called Ligaments. In some parts of the body, where an elastic and yielding
substance is required, which is at the same time very strong, cartilage or gristle
takes the place of bone, as in the more prominent part of the nose. The Backbone,
vertebral column or spinal column is the central portion of the Osseous system, it
consists of a series of bones called vertebra and forms a kind of axis with which all
the other parts of the skeleton are connected.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
HUMAN SKELETON
The most devious division of the Human Body is into head. Trunk, and Limbs or Extermities. The Osseous
system consists of a large number of bones, which constitute the skeleton, and formal strong framework,
which supports and protects the softer structures of the body. ’
1. Occipital
2. Parietal
1. Occipital
2. Parietal
1. Occipital
2. Parietal
Face (14-Bones)
The face forms the front and lower portion of the skull.
2. Nasal bones
2. Lachrymal bones
2. Masillary bones
1. Mandible bone
2. Patal bones
1. Vomer bone
2. Turbinated bones.
TRUNK
(Spinal Column) It is the central portion of the osseous system. It is composed of a serie: of bones (33)
called vertebrae, and forms a kind of axis with which all the other parts of the skeleton are connected.
NECK:
7 Cervical Bones
BACK:
12 Dorsal Bones
LOINS:
5 Lumbar Bones
These are the seven highest vertebrae belonging to neck, and used in the movement of the neck.
The next twelve Vertebrae belong to the back and support the ribs. These are called as Dorsal bones.
The remaining five movable vertebrae belong to the Loins, and are called Lumbar vertebrae.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
•:iiii’if.ivi:j:t’*Mf«nticvi
SACRUM:
5 Sacral Bones
COCCYX:
4 Coccygeal Bones
The lowest lumbar vertebra rests on the broad surface of a kind of curved wedge, formed by the next 5
vertebrae fused together into one firm mass of bone. This wedge is called the Sacrum.
The lowest and narrowest part of sacrum is attached to the coccyx which consists of 4 imperfectly formed
vertebrae.
CLAVICLE: (Collar There are two collar bones, called clavicles, Bone) at the base of the neck
and in front of shoulders.
SCAPULA: (Shoulder There are two shoulder bones, each called a Bone) scapula, at the top of
the back. It is a large flat triangular shoulder blade.
It is a long flat, and soft bone to which the ribs are attached. The lower part of the Sternum is formed of
flexible mass.
RIBS:
The ribs form a kind of bony cage to protect the heart and lungs. These are 24 in number,
12 on each side, being attached at the back to the backbone.
PELVIS:
The sides of the Sacrum are united with the two large hip-bones, and form a basin-like cavity called the
Pelvis.
Humerus
It is the bone of the upper arm. It is very strong and consists of a long portion called the shaft, and two
enlarged extremities called the Heads.
Ulna
It is a bone of the fore-arm. It extends from elbow to Wrist, it is thick at its upper extremity which forms a
hinge joint.
Radius
It is the second bone of the fore-arms. It also extends from the elbow to the Wrist.
Carpa!
Metacarpal, Phalanges
^^-^-^^_^__^
Five long bones, called metacarpal bones form the plane of hand. Phalanges are finger bones. These are 14
for each hand.
^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Q^^^^^^^^^^H
HIHI^IH^I^BB^B^HHHHHI^H^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsal
Metatarsal Phalanges
Metatarsal bones are 5 in number and connected with the phalanges. Phalanges are Toe bones and are 14 in
number.
k
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
The bones of the skeleton are all surrounded by more or less flesh or muscle. Each
muscle is composed of bundles of fibres capable of contraction when required. Muscles
are of two types - voluntary and involuntary. The former are under the control of the will,
while the latter are not. Face and limbs contain voluntary muscles while that of the heart
and stomach contain involuntary kind. Those muscles which move the bones are
connected with them by strong white fibrous masses called Tendons. The erect position
of the human body is maintained by the combined influence of large number of muscles
acting at the same time.
It is a long system and involves mouth, oesophagus, the stomach, the liver, the pancreas,
the small intestine and the large intestine. Saliva is an alkaline fluid secreted in the mouth
and the digestion of food starts in the mouth itself. The oesophagus is the narrowest
portion of the alimentary canal. Gastric juice secreted by the stomach is made up of
hydrochloric acid, salts, pepsin and water. The changing of food into chyme by the
gastric fluid is called chymification. The average time to produce this change is from 3 to
4 hours. The food is then passed on to the small intestine and then to the large intestine.
Muscles play an important part in digestion. They keep the walls of the stomach and
small intestine moving. This mixes the food and digestive juices inside, speeding up
digestion (see the chart).
It is also termed as the sanitary system of the body. It comprises the kidneys, skin, lungs
and bowels. The system is designed to help get rid of the waste matter in the body when
all juices have been extracted
from the digested food. Lungs can also be added to this system. The kidneys, two in
number, are important blood-purifiers. They separate a poisonous substance called urea
from the blood.
This system comprises the lungs and the passages leading to them like larynx, trachea or
wind-pipe. Larynx or voice box is commonly known as Adam’s Apple and can easily be
felt in the throat. The lungs are the most complicated and important organs of respiration.
They consist of two elastic spongy masses. They contain a very large number of small air
cavities and are richly supplied with blood vessels. It is in the lungs where the blood is
aerated by being brought in contact with the air we breathe (see the chart).
It is the most important since it commands rest of the body what to do and how to work
together. While the central nervous system resides in the skull and the spine, the nerves
are spread all over the body. Nerves that carry the messages to the brain are called
Sensory Nerves and those carrying messages to the muscles are called Motor Nerves.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^•^^^••^^^^^Hl^^^^l
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
^mm^^^^m
Sr. No.
••••^^^^^^^••••^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Muscle
Common Name
Action of the Muscle
1.
Trapazius
Traps
Raises and lowers shoulder girdle; moves shoulder blades; moves head backwards and to the side.
2.
Sterno-cleido-mastoid
Neck
Bends head and neck to the side; rotates head and neck; draws head forward.
3.
Forearm Group; Brachioradialls, of Radialis Longus, Flexors and Extensors Radialis Brevis, Carpi Ulnaris, Pollicis Longus and
Brevis.
Forearm
Bends and straightens the wrist; bends and straightens the fingers and thumb.
4.
Brachialis anticus
Brachialis
upper arm.
5.
Biceps
Biceps
6.
Triceps
Triceps
Straightens the arm and draws it backward.
7.
Delt
Raises arm to horizontal position; each head lifts arm in particular direction... Anterior (front), Lateral (side), Posterior (rear).
8.
Pectoralis Major
Pecs
Draws the arms inward, forward and downward; rotates the arm inward; assists in the expansion of the chest.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
9.
Serratus Magnus
Serratus
Rotates the shoulder-blade downward; draws shoulderblades apart; assists in the expansion of the chest.
10.
External Obliques
Obliques
11.
Rectus abdominus
Abs
12.
Latissimus Dorsi
Lats
Draws the arm downward and backward, depresses the shoulder girdle; assists in forced inhalation; bends the trunk sidewards
13.
Back
Rotates the arm inward and outward; assists in swinging arm backward, rotates, rises and draws the shoulder blades together.
14.
Vastus Externus
Thigh
Straightens the leg.
15.
Rectus Femoris
Thigh
16.
Vastus Internus
Thigh
17.
Sartorius
Thigh
Bends the leg; flexes the hip joint; rotates the leg inward and outward.
18.
Biceps Femoris
Thigh Biceps
19
Gastrocnemius
Calf
20.
Frontal Calf
Mouth
pharynx
Liver
Transverse colon
Ana! canal
Oesophagus
Cardia Stomach
Pancreas
Jejunum
Descending colon
THE EYE
Introduction:
The organ of vision consists of the eyeball, which, with its muscles, blood-vessels,
nerves, fatty tissue and other protecting structures, completely fill the orbit or eye-
sucket. In front the ball of the eye is protected by movable folds of the skin or
integument called the eyelids. The upper eye-lid is larger and more movable than
the lower one, and it is chiefly by the elevation and depression of this lid that the
eye is opened and closed. The eye ball is moved by six muscles. The front of the
eye-ball is kept clear and moist by a saline fluid which is secreted continuously by
Lachrymal gland. The general form of the eye-ball is globular. The eye ball has
three distinct coats. The external consists of the sclerotic coat and the cornea, the
middle coat is formed by the choroitl membrane and the iris; the inner is termed as
Retina. The essential parts of the eye are explained below.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
The Cornea:
The cornea is a highly transparent tissue and is continuous with the sclerotic coat
covering the front of the eyeball. It is not supplied with blood-vessels but is well-
supplied with undifferentiated nerve ending.
The Iris:
The iris is the circular curtain, seen through the cornea, which gives the colour to
the eye. The colcared ring is situated in the middle of each eye. It can be brown or
blue. Its outer border is continuous with the choroid coat which like the sclerotic,
does not extend over the front of the ball.
The Pupil:
The iris diaphragm is perforated in its centre by a circular aperture which appears
as a dark spot called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil can vary from l/3rd to
l/20th of an inch, and the quantity of light admitted into the eye-ball is regulated.
The Lens:
It is the most important part of the eye and it is doubly convex body which
contains neither vessels nor nerves and is situated close behind the iris. It is made
of many concentric layers of fibrous cells, is approximately
65% water and 6f/c fat. and contains more proteins than any other tissue. The lens
is held in place by an elastic capsule. The lens gets thinner when we look into the
distance and fatter when we look at something close-up.
The Retina:
The retina is a delicate membrane which lies within the choroid coat. It consists of
an expansion of the fibres of the optic nerve, supported by an extremely
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
delicate connective tissue. The retina is made up of rods and cones which act as
photoreceptors. Rods are the rodshaped light receptors found mainly on the edge
and sides of the retina. They are sensitive to low intensity and in dim light. Cones
are the cone-shaped receptors situated mainly in the center of the retina, around
the yellow spot. They are sensitive to different light colours. Sharpness of the
image is also associated with cones. There are about 140 million receptors, 95r/f
rods and 5r/r cones. There are about 120 million nerve cells in the retina.
THE KIDNEYS
The human body contains two dark red-brown bean-shaped organs called the
Kidneys. These are situated at the back of the abdomen, one on each side of the
upper lumber vertebrae. They measure about 4 inches in length, 2 V* inches in
width, and l’/2 in thickness, their weight being about 4’/2 ounces each.
The kidneys are arranged with their concave surfaces directed towards the
vertebral column; and the right kidney which is usually shorter and thicker than
the left, is generally a little lower, probably on account of the downward extension
of the large right lobe of the liver. The kidneys are supplied with blood by the
renal arteries and the renal veins take blood away from them. Each kidney
contains about one million nephrnns, minute renal tubules each of which begins as
a dilate spherical capsule into which a complicated loop of capillaries enters. The
kidneys remove waste products like urea and uric acid from the blood and
maintain the electrolytic balance. The kidneys are connected to the bladder
through ureters.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Adrenal gland
Adrenal gland
Right Kidney
Pelvic ureter
Ureter
Urethra
THE LIVER
It is the largest gland of the body. It is located at the top of the abdomen. It
consists of two parts called lobes, the right and the left. The right lobe is
wellsupplied with blood vessels and it removes a large quantity of the impurities
from the blood which it has gathered from various parts of the body. The
substance of the liver is made up of small lobules, each about one
distinctly visible to the naked eye. The liver has hundieds of functions. Its most
important function is the secretion of the bile which is continuous, but is retarded
during fasting and increased on taking food. The liver also prepares glycogen,
which resembles starch and sugar in composition. The liver has the power of
arresting various poisonous substances which have found their way into the blood.
THE HEART
It is one of the most important organs of the human body. It is a hollow muscular
organ and’it forces the blood to pass through the whole system of blood vessels by
its strong contractions. It is situated nearly in the middle of the front and lower
part of the chest, just above the diaphragm. It is conical in shape and is placed with
its base uppermost, and with its apex downwards and towards the left. Its size is
about equal to that of the closed fist. It weighs about nine ounces in an adult. The
heart contains four cavities - the right and left Auricles and the right and left
Ventricles through which the blood circulates. The great blood vessels of the heart
are: (see the chart).
(i) Aorta: It is the largest artery leading direct from the left ventricle. It conveys
blood from the left side of the heart to all parts of the body.
(ii) Pulmonary Arteries: These are two other arteries leading direct from
the right ventricle, called the Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries. They convey
blood from he right side of the heart to the lungs.
(Hi) Inferior and Superior Venae Cava: These are
two large veins, communicating with the right Auricle. They collect blood from all
parts and carry it into the right cavity.
(iv) Pulmonary Veins: These are those two veins which communicate with the
left auricle. They collect the blood which has circulated in the lungs, and convey
it into the left cavity.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
The Auricle and Ventricle of each side of the heart communicate with each other,
so that the blood which has entered the auricle can pass into the corresponding
Ventricle.
The heart muscles are the strongest in the human body and they have their own
supply of blood in order to work, and this is provided by the coronary arteries,
which branch off the Aorta. Cardiac Veins return the used blood into the vena
cava. Its specialized cardiac muscle is responsible for its continuous rhythmic
conti’actions. The intrinsic heart rate is 100/minute.
THE BLOOD
The blood is a vital fluid connective tissue. It consists of an alkaline fluid
containing plasma, water, mineral salts, albumen and other nitrogeneous matter.
The colour of the blood is due to the presence of a nitrogeneous substance, called
haemoglobin in the red corpuscles. The blood corpuscles are of two types, the red
and the white or colourless. The red corpuscle are minute circular discs, concave
on both sides. They are so numerous in the blood that they mrke it a thick liquid.
The white or colourless corpuscles are a little larger than the red. Being composed
of a very soft, jelly-like substance (protoplasm) they readily change their form.
(1) It serves as a storehouse for nutrient matter absorbed from the foods, and
conveys the nutrients to all parts of the body.
(2) It transports the materials from which the secretions are formed to the
various glands which prepare them.
(3) It carries the oxygen gas to all the tissues when the process of oxidation
occurs, and the heat released maintains the high temperature of the body. Red
blood cells are the body’s oxygen carriers. Red bloods cells are constantly
being made in the body’s bone marrow.
(4) It collects up waste materials, and conveys them to the excretory organs
for separation and removal.
THE SKIN
The skin forms a protective coating over the whole body and act as a mechanical
barrier against the entry of bacteria. It consists of two layers, the Epidermis and
the Dermis:
The Epidermis:
The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf-skin covers every part of the dermis or true skin. It
is hard and horny, and composed of minute scales which are being continuously
worn away from the surface. Its thickness varies in different parts. The surface of
the epidermis contains
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
small openings called the pores of the skin-they are actually the openings of the
ducts of little glands which secrete the sweat or perspiration. The epidermis itself
carries no blood-vessels but few nerves, its main functions being simply to protect
the deeper layer of the skin.
The Dermis:
The dermis or true skin consists of fibres of connective and elastic tissues,
interwoven with minute blood vessels and nerve fibres.
The deeper portion of the dermis is looser in texture, and contains an amount of
fatty tissue.
Nails and hair are out-growths of the epidermis or cuticle, and both agree with it in
general structure. A nail is simply a thick layer composed of the thin horny scales
of the outer portion of the cuticle. Each hair consists of a root or bulb and a shaft
or stem.
(3) It acts as an excretory organ and removes waste materials from the blood.
THE TEETH
The permanent teeth of an adult number thirty two. They consist in each jaw, of
four incisors, two canines, four bicuspid, and six molar. The last of the molars are
called the wisdom teeth. Tooth is the hardest part of human body. Each tooth has a
crown, a neck and a root consisting of one, or more fangs. The crown is the part
which portrudes beyond the gum into the mouth The neck is that slightly
constructed portion which is embraced by the gum; and the fang or fangs include
all that part of the tooth which penetrates into the jawbone. The mass of a tooth
consists mainly of a hard substance called dentine or ivory. It is similar in
composition to the compact tissue of bone, but contain a much larger proportion of
mineral matter and i& consequently harder. The main use of the teeth is to
masticate the food. The dentine which forms the crown of the tooth is covered
with a substance called the enamel.
THE LUNGS
The lungs are spongy and elastic bags, comprising of air-tubes and cells, blood-
vessels and elastic tissue They fill the cavity of the thorax with the exception of
the space occupied by the heart, the great vessels, and the oesophagus,
consequently their general form coincides with dark venous blood by means of the
pulmonary arteries which proceed from the right ventricle. These arteries divide
and subdivide into smaller and smaller branches, penetrating every portion of the
organs, till at last they form capillary network which surround and lie on the walls
of the air sacs. The walls of the air-sacs are extremely thin, as are also the wall of
the capillary vessels, and thus the blood is brought almost in contact with the
inspired air. It is in
Apex of lung
Superior Lobe
Right Lung
Middle Lobe
Inferior Lobe
larynx
Ap«x of lungi
Right bronchus
Vestibule
Larynx Thyroid gland
Trachea
Left Lung
Superior Lobe
Inferior Lobe
these fine capillaries that the blood is purified and with oxygen and deprived of
carbon dioxide.
I
WPf
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
About 20 to 30 cubic inches of air passes in and out of the lungs in ordinary quite
breathing.
THE BRAIN
It is the great nerve centre of the body and it is large upper portion of a cerebro-
spinalaxis filling the cavity of the cranium. It mainly consists of soft-nerve
substance. The average^ weight of an adult human brain is about 3-pounds. The
surface of brain is covered with a very thin and delicate membrane called the pia
matter, which consists of a thickly meshed network of small arteries and veins
supported by connective tissue. The brain consists of several parts, the main of
which are:
(1) The Cerebrum (Greater Brain): It fills all the upper and frontal portion of the
cranium, and weighs about nine-tenth as much as the entire brain. The
cerebrum consists of two large hemispheres, the right and the left, separated
by a very deep fissure. The cerebrum is the chief
(2) The Cerebellum (Lesser Brain): It lies underneath the back portion of
the cerebrum. It also consists of two hemispheres, each composed of an external
layer of grey matter surrounding white fibrous substance. Its main
function appears to be the regulation or coordination of all muscular movements.
(3) The Pons Varolii: It is a broad band or bridge of nerve matter which connects
the right and left portions of the cerebellum, passing round the medulla.
(4) The Medulla Ohlongata: It connects the brain with the spinal
cord, it governs
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
THE EAR
The ear is another important sensing organ. The ear consists of three important
parts, mainly the External Ear, the Middle Ear and the Internal Ear. The Internal
ear is the essential part of the organ of hearing while the other two parts are
concerned merely in the collections and transmission of sound vibrations. The
outer ear consists of the Pinna - it is that part which projects from the side of the
head, and the auditory canal. The concave shape of the pinna is especially adapted
for the collection of sound waves which are reflected by it into the canal. It
consists of a cartilaginous framework, surrounded by a certain amount of fatty
tissue and a few small muscles, the whole being covered with integument.
The middle ear is a small irregular cavity in the temporal bone. It is separated from
the auditory canal by the tympanic membrane, and contains a chain of small bones
by means of which the vibration received by the drum are transmitted across the
cavity to the inner ear. The internal ear consists of very complex cavity hallowed
out of the bone, which contains a similar cavity bounded by the membraneous
walls. The bone of the internal ear consists of three parts; the vestibule, the
semicircular canals and the cochlea.
L
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
EXERCISE
Q. Differentiate clearly between Carnivores, Herbivores, Omnivores and Predators
with examples?
meat. Typical examples are lions, dogs, cats the shapes of their teeth is ideal for
the way they feed. Carnivores jaws can only move up and down. Their teeth sheer
meat with a scissors-like action.
Herbivores: These are those animals which eat plants. Typical examples are
sheep, cows and goats-the shape of their teeth is ideal for cutting and chewing
grass and other vegetables. Herbivore’s jaws can move sideways which helps the
grinding of the food.
Omnivores: These are those animals which can eat any kind of food. Their teeth
are suitable for eating both meat and plants. Man is a typical example.
Predators: These are those animals that live by preying upon other animal
species. Tiger is a typical example.
Ans. Enamel is the hardest substance in the human body. Flouride toothpaste helps
to prevent tooth decay. Fluoride hardens the enamel.
Ans. Basically there are two types of cell divisions namely Mitosis and Meiosis.
Q.
Ans.
Chromosomal Number
Result
Mitosis is the method by which body cells duplicate themselves for maintenance and growth of various tissues.
successive divisions.
Somatic Cells
Single
Remains same
2 Cells
Germ Cells
Two divisions
Reduced to half
Homologous
4 Cells
Q. What is Pollination?
Ans. It is the phenomenon of transfer of pollens from male reproductive organ to female
reproductive organ in flowering plants usually through biological agency or physical
means. Reproduction in flowering plants is chiefly sexual, It involves the union, or fusion
of the male and female reproductive cells. This is made possible by the transfer of pollens
from the anther to the stigma.
Q. How do we sweat?
Ans. The cooling system of human body is regulated by a part of the brain called the
Hypothalamus which acts as a sort of thermostat. When the body gets hot, the
hypothalamus activates the sweat glands to produce a watery fluid-sweat. The liquid is
released from the body through gland ducts. On evaporation, it provides a cooling effect.
As much as a gallon of sweat can be lost under the hottest of circumstances.
Ans. These are those glands which discharge their secretions by means of a duct. These
are also called as ducted glands. Typical examples of Exocrine glands are given
below alongwith their secretions.
Lachrymal
Sweat
Secretions
Tears
Sweat
•iLijflr.Jii’iiKKTMMPicM
Salivary
Saliva
Mammary
Milk
Liver
Bile
Sebaceous
Sebum
Ans. Ducts are small tubes which transfer the secretion of glands.
Ans. Epidemic: Where there is a terrible outbreak of a disease affecting great number
at one time and one place and are capable of travelling from one place to another.
Endemic: The disease is said to be endemic which is more or less constantly present in
a population or an area.
Chronic: A chronic disease begins slowly and persists over a longer time.
Q.
Innate: An innate disease is a non-communicable disease,
Ans. Goitre: It is a disease in which the enlargement of the thyroid gland takes
place, causing a marked swelling in front of the neck, which sometimes results in
pressure on the trachea. The cause may be the inability to utilize iodine.
Addison: It is caused by immune proteins called antibodies, attacking the adrenal glands,
resulting in hormone imbalances that lead to darkening of the skin, abdominal pain and
sometimes coma.
Multiple Sclerosis: It results from immune cells damaging the central nervous system
causing tingling, blindness and paralysis.
Juvenile Diabetes: It occurs when immune cells destroy cells of the pancreas, leading to
an inability to produce insulin - the hormone that helps the body to use glucose. Weight
loss, kidney failure and blindness can result due to this disease.
Ans. A disease causing organism always requires some period after reacting healthy
person to show the symptoms of the disease. This period is called incubation period.
Q. Define Obesity?
Ans. Obesity is basically an excess of disposed tissue which fat is stored. It is made of
predominantly °fat cells.
in
\
Q. Name some Immune Warriors?
Ans. These are those cells of the immune system which fight against pathogens.
These are macrophages, Helper T cells, Antibodies, B cells, MHC, antigens and
memory cells.
Ans. Allergies strike when the immune system overreacts to ordinarily harmless
substances like dust or the droplet of toxin in a bee sting, causing, inflammation.
Ans. Antiseptics are compounds that are applied to living tissues to kill or
prevent the growth of micro-organisms. Many common antiseptics are mild
oxidising agents like Hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate?
Ans. Mouth, Gullet, Stomach, Small Intestine and Large intestine. An adult’s
digestive system is about 10 meters long.
Ans. Carbohydrates spend the shortest time in the stomach, Fsts spend the longest.
Ans. Enzymes are biological’ catalysts which have multifunctions in the human
body. Digestive
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
juices contain enzymes which attack the starch chain and split it. Pepsin, tripsin
and ptyelin are typical examples. Enzymes have veiy specific jobs to do and have
enormous catalytic power.
Q. What is Chymification?
Ans. Chyme is a milky fluid. The changing of the food into chyme by the gastric
fluid is called chymification.
Ans. Addiction means that someone is so dependent on a drug that serious harm is
being done to the person and society.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Opiates are drugs made from the opium poppy. Opium is the dried milk of the
poppy. Plant opiates and man made opiates are sometimes collectively called as
opioids. Opiates are used as pain-killers.
These terms are common in drug use. Tolerance means the way the body gets used
to some kinds of drugs. Therefore, to get the same effect, the body needs an
increasing amount of the drug.
Cocaine: It is a white powder made from the leaves of the andean Coca shrub. It
is a powerful
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. The main functions of blood in the human body are described below:
Ans. It consists of two fractions namely: Cellular and plasma fractions. The cellular
fraction Contains Erythrocytes, Leucocytes and Platelets.
Ans. When blood is centrifuged, it splits up into two parts, a clear supernatent liquid
called serum and a thick solid red part is called plasma. Serum
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Q. What is Heme?
Ans. RBC’s are red blood cells and their normal life span is about 120 days.
Q.
What is Anaemia?
Ans. Anaemia is a clinical condition, which occurs due to subnormal Hb, and number of
RBC’s in the body. Iron deficiency is usually responsible for this.
Ans. It is blood without blood corpuscles, a colourless fluid produced by lymph nods and
concerned with body defence mechanism. Lymph is modified tissue fluid which is
carried by Lymphatic vessels. It is a secondary transportation system. The lymphatic
system also plays a role in the transportation of materials from one part of the body to
another. It seems to return components of the interstitial fluid to the bloodstream. The
lymphatic system is composed of veins and
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
capillaries but no arteries. Lymph capillaries are closed at one end. Lymph flow is
quite slow as compared to blood circulation.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Describe the following terms used in biological sciences: Immunity, Coma,
Transfusion and Adaptation?
Immunity: The resisting power of the body to the toxins of the invading bacteria,
shown by the presence in the blood of neutralising antioxins.
Liver is the largest organ in the human body and it has many functions. The most
important are:
(i) It produces blood clotting factors. (ii) It has powerful recuperative powers.
(Hi) It repairs and regenerates itself up to a point and can carry on its operations
when only 20 percent of its functioning ability remains.
4ns. There are five types of fibers that our body can use namely - Cellulose,
Hemicellulose, Lignin, Pectin and Gums.
Ans. Nitrogen cycle is the continous circulation of elemental nitrogen and its compounds
in the ecosystem by living organisms. It is also called Fixation of Nitrogen or Natural
Fixation. Industrial fixation is done to manufacture nitrogen fertilizers.
Ans. Harmful bacteria are disease-causing bacteria and are called pathogens. Helpful
bacteria do not cause disease but instead these are useful for health, for example,
streptococcus lactis produces the acid that allows milk curds to settle into butter milk and
many cheeses. Yogurt is made from skimmed milk and bacterial cultures. Bacteria can
also be used for the preservation of food.
Ans. Blood Pressure: It is a lateral pressure exerted by blood on the vessels walls
during its flow?
Pulse Pressure: Pulse pressure is the difference between Systolic and Diastolic pressure.
Ans. It is 72/minutes.
Q. Define ECG?
Ans. Kidneys control the amount of water in our body. They act as filters and contain
about 2500,000 tiny filters which help to clean the blood.
Ans. Hypoglycemia: A clinical condition in which blood sugar level is below normal.
Ans.
Q.
Define Proteins? How are these classified?
Ans. Proteins are nitrogen containing substances of high molecular weight formed
by a number of amino acids united by a peptide linkage. These are classified into
simple, conjugated and derived.
APPENDICES
Maa^k’UJM^i
SCIENTIFIC INVENTION AND DISCOVERIES
Discovery
Discovery
Aeroplane
Wright Brothers
Automobile
Daimler
Atom Bomb
Otto Hahn
Atomic Theory
Democritus
Atomic Number
Mosley
Airship
Graf Ferrdinand
Von Zeppelin
Bicycle
McMillan
Barometer
Torricelli
Balloon
Montgolfier
Electronic Theory of
Battery and Current
Volta
Cannon
Ermany
Cosmic Rays
R.A. Milikan
Electromagnetic Theory of
Cordite
Dewer
Light Marxwell
Crescograph
J.C. Bose
Cyclottron
Lawrence
Circulatin of Blood
Harvey
Calculating Machine
Pascal
Celestial and
goods Kodak
Terrestral Globe
Mercator
Film (Talking
Chloroform
Harrison
Cellophane J
.E. Brandenberger
Founder of
Celluloid
Alexander Parks
Homoeopathy Hahnemann
Cement
Joseph Aspidin
Chronometer
John Harrison
Discovery
Invention/ Discovery
Name of Scientist
Gas Light
W. Murdock
Motorcycle
Edward Butler
Generator
Picinotti
Neutron
Chadwick
Glider
George Cayley
Nylon Plastics
Carothers
Gum Powder
Roger Bacon
Photography
Hydrogen
Cavendish
(Colour)
Gabriel Lippman
Helicopter
Brequet
Photography
N.R. Finseen
Hovercraft
Cockrell
Printing Press
Caxton
Helium gas
Lockyer I
Positron
Anderson
Inert gasses
Ramsay
Paints
Shalimar
Induction Coil
Rohmkorff
Periodic Table
Mendeleev
Jet Engine
Frnk Whittle
Penicillin
Alexander Fleming
Law of Gasses
Gay Lussac
Quantum Theory
Plank
Zeiss
Radar Razor
Laser
T.H. Mainman
(Safety)
Laws of Gravitation
Revolver
Colt
Newton
Radio
Markoni
Laws of Heredity
Mendel
Radio Transmitter
Alexanderson
Lightening
Radioactivity
Bacquerel
Conductor
Benjamin Frankin
Radium
Madam Curie
Loudspeaker
Rice Kellogg
Refrigerator
James Harrison
Laws of Diffusion
Fick
Sewing Machine
Howe
Motor Car
Henry Ford
Submarine
Bushnell
Microphone
A. Grahm Bell
Seismograph
William Murdock
Microscope
Zacharis Janssen
Steam Engine
James Watt
Machine Gun
Gattling
Stethoscope
William Stockes
Malaria parasite
Ronald Ross
Spectacles
Venice
Military tank
Swinton
Telescope
Galileo
APPENDICES
Invention/ Discovery
Name of Scientist
Discovery
Telephone
A. Graham Bell
Theory of Evolution
Television
J.L. Baird
Charles Darwin
Transistor
William Shockley
Tank
Swinton
Typewriter
Christopher Sholes
Teleprinter
Smile Bandot
Telegraph Code
Velocity of Light
Fizean
Telegraph
William cook
Vitamin D
F.C. Hopkins
Theory of Relativity
Albert Einstein
X-Rays
Roentgen
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Fil:JJ3ill»][H»M
••ECTffi
^yMh£kbuHiitfW£jnj|HH
I^^^^MMB^^MM”^^”^^^^^
Algesimeter
Altimeter
Ammeter
Anemometer
It is an instrument used to measure the velocity of the wind and to find the direction of the Wind.
Barometer
Chronometer
It is a clock-like device that shows accurate measurement of time, generally used on ships in
navigation.
Cyamometer
Dasymeter
Galvanometer
Hydrometer
Hygrometer
It is an apparatus for measuring relative humidity in 3*mfc,phere.
Hyposometer
Keratometer
Lactometer
Manometer
Micrometer
Periscope
It is an optical instrument used for viewing objects above the eye-level of the observer. It is used
in submarines.
Pyrometer
Refractometer
Spectrometer
Seismograph
Sphgmomanometer
Telemeter
It is an apparatus for recording physical event happening at a distance.
Telstar
Viscometer
Voltmeter
It is an instrument used to measure potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
••••••••••••••••••^•^^^H
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^•TTTJvninTj^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
Map
It is a drawing to show the shape and features of a place on a two dimensional paper
Magnetic compass
Grid System
Grid Reference
Grid Reference
Important Latitudes
Tropic of cancer 23-1|2°N, Tropic of Capricorn 23-1/2°S Arctic circle 66-1 |2°N, Anarctic circle
66-112 °S.
It is 180° line of Longitude. The two sides of the line have a difference of one day.
Prime Meridian
The Earth takes one complete rotation on its axis (it is a line around which an object spins) in 24
hours and it forms days and nights. Because the axis of the Earth is inclined at an angle of 23-1/2°
from the vertical, therefore, distribution of day and night time is uneven.
The Earth makes one complete revolution round the Sun in about 365-1/2 day spume year. The
1/4 day is added up to give an extra day in a leap year, that is once every four years.
APPENDICES
Weather
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere. Elements of weather are; Temperature, Pressure,
wind, precipitation and Humidity.
Climate
Climate is the average weather conditions of a place over a long period of time. Different climate
zones of the world are; cold, temperate, subtropical and tropical.
Time Zones
Since there are altogether the Earth takes 24 hours takes one hour to turn 15°. therefore, differs
from the This difference is used to the world. Standard time Atlantic, Eastern, central, Alaska
Times.
mark the time zones in zones of America are Mountain, Pacific and
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Characteristic f Answer
adult.
body.
23. A male who is unable to reproduce. Aspermic
uterus.
milk,
column.
APPENDICES
EFFECTS ON EARTH
ROTATION OF THE EARTH:
The Earth is like the vast wheel which rotates around its axis from West to East
once in 24 hours. This motion of the Earth is called the Spinning or Rotation. The
most important effect of the Rotation of the Earth are as follows.
Effects
5.
6.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Sun appears to rise from the East and sets in the West.
n
Days and Nights are of unequal length.
2.
3.
The altitude of the Midday Sun varies different periods of the year.
at
The Earth revolves round the Sun and completes one revolution in 365.25 days.
This motion of the Earth is called Revolution and Annual Motion. Its important
effects are as follows:
Distance of the Earth form the Sun changes during the year.
Equinoxes are formed like Spring Equinox (Mar. 21) and Autumn Equinox (Sept.
22).
Solstices are formed like Summer Solstice (Jun. 21) and Winter Solstice (Dec. 22).
MVI 3:yj»ji\M&ii i a kH*i si
FANCY - PLACES
MJJ^IillUM
^^VjTg^HKj^Q^^^MS^^^^^^^^^^^Q^^^^^^^^^^I
^^^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
f^^^^^^^^^m
1.
Pearl of Africa
Uganda
2.
Cockpit of Europe
Belgium
3.
Japan
4.
5.
Paradise of Softwares
Silicon Valley
6.
Tear of India
Sri Lanka
7.
California
8.
Land of Opportunities
U.S.A.
9.
Khyber Pass
10.
Garbage of Europe
Greece
11.
Turkey
12.
Manchester of Pakistan
Faisalabad
13.
New York
14.
Florida
15.
Ireland
16.
Cuba
17.
City of Golden Gate
San Francisco
18.
Uncle Sam
U.S.A.
19.
Norway
20.
Nation of Immigrants
U.S.A.
21.
Switzerland
22.
23.
Bangkok
24.
Rome
25.
Finland
26.
Third World
27.
K-2
28.
Nicaragua
29.
Pearl of Siberia
30.
Mirror of India
New Delhi
SOME COMMON STAINS AND STAIN REMOVERS
Stain
Antiperspirants
asphalt
berry (fruit)
blood
chocolate
Coffee
grass
ink
lipstick
mildew
mustard
nail polish
perspiration
rust
scorch
soft drinks
tobacco
ammonium hydroxide
hydrogen peroxide
tetrachloroethylene
sodium hypochlorite
acetone
hydrogen peroxide
sodium hypochlorite
sodium hypochlorite
APPENDICES
DO YOU KNOW
1. You body needs five type of fiber: cellulose, Hemicellulose, Lignin, Pectin
and Gums.
4. The human eye can retain its last image after death.
6. The human body odour is the result of about 450 different volatile organic
compounds emanating through the skin,
12. a person’s memory holds about 100 trillion bits of information in its lifetime.
16. Lightning is one of the Nature’s grandest and most dangerous spectacles.
18. CFCs can f oat for about one hundred years in tne atmosphere undercomposed.
20. The genetic script inside human cells has been written by 2 billion years of
evolution.
SOLVED QUESTION
PAPERS
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS 1
Q.I. Which of the following statements are true and which are false.
(False)
2. Solar System
Solar system is the tiny part of galaxy and consists of the sun, objects that travel
around it i.e.; Earth and eight other planets along with satellites that travel around -
It further includes Asteroids, Meteoroids, comets, interplanetary dust and
Interplanetary plasma.
The Sun
Sun is the central part of the solar system. It is a very big - almost a million miles
across and hot.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Composition of Sun
- Hydrogen
- Helium
- Many elements
Temperature of Sun
- Photosphere
90%
8%
2%
15 million°C
6000°C
Features of Sun
(1) The sun is about 46 billion years old containing matter in the plasma state.
(2) Most of mass (99.86%) of the solar system is concentrated in sun thus holding other
objects together due to high gravitational force.
(3) Source of energy in sun is due to Nuclear Fusion i.e. conversion of hydrogen into
helium,
(4) Every square km. of Sun’s surface emitt 64 million watts into space.
(5) It has 27 day solar rotation period & 11 year sunspot cycle.
(6) Solar winds, solar flars and sunspots are its important events.
The Earth
Features of Earth
(1) It is also 4.6 billion years old but life started here about 3-4 billion years ago.
(2) Its rotation period is 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds and revolution period 365-
1/4 days.
(3) The mass of Earth is 6 x 1021 tons and average density is 5.52 gm/cc.
(5) The earth has iron core, the rocky mantle and dynamic crust. It is made up of Tectonic
Plates.
(7) The atmosphere has about 3100 cubic miles of water in the form of clouds which is
responsible for producing seasons.
(8) Latitudes and longitudes coordinates are drawn on the map to locate position on Earth
surface.
(9) The surface is rich in silicone, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium and oxygen element.
Satellite of Earth
Earth has only one natural satellite called Moon at a distance of 3,85,000 km from Earth
surface.
Features of Moon
The Planets
There are nine planets including earth. The salient features of others ai’e as follows.
1. Mercury
(4) Mercury looks a lot like Moon with holes called cratens.
2. Venus
3. Mars
(2) It is a barren desert covered with red dust so is called Red Planet.
4. »iupiter
7. Uranus
8. Neptune
9. Pluto
(1) It is the most distant and smallest planet with very low temp.
1. Asteroids
These are small rocky objects called minor planets floating round the sun
in space.
2. Meteorites
3. Comets
Solar System
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
Both allow the Sun’s visible rays to enter and warm the land, plants water and air,
yet retard the escape of heat. As radiation from the Sun enter the Earth’s
atmosphere a portion of it is reflected back into space or absorbed by the
atmosphere directly. About half of the radiant energy reaching Earth from the Sun,
because of its shorter wavelength, can pass through the atmosphere of Earths
surface. But the longer waves of heat (Infrared radiations) that radiate back
towards space are absorbed and reradiated by water vapours, carbondioxide, other
gases and clouds and hence the atmosphere warms up by the accumulation of the
heat. This is called Green House Effect.
The gases which contribute more towards the Green House effect are called
greenhouse gases.
Global Warming
(1) Green house gases are building up in the atmosphere in such a way so as to
trap the heat energy, gradually raising the average temperature of the planet. It can
raise average world temperature from 1.5 to 4.5 degree Celsius than todjiy. This is
called Global warming.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(2) That would induce the melting of polar ice caps and increase in world’s sea
level from ten inches to six feet.
(3) Fertile regions would be converted into deserts and Arctic plains could become
suddenly arable.
(4) Destructive droughts such as that of 1988 in North America, would strike more
often until the great plains would become semideserts.
(5) Storms such as hurricanes and tornadoes might become more violent.
(6) Forests would decline and change under the temperature rise, and wild life
would have to migrate if it could or perish.
sun rays
sunrays
ozone ’aye
(i) Mitosis
(1) It is a type of cell division in which chromosome number remain the same.
(3) All the somatic cells such as skin cells, bone cells, muscle cells etc. divide by
mitosis.
(ii) Haemophilia
(1) It is a disease in which the person have prolonged blood clothing time
resulting in excessive breeding from injury.
(1) Reflex actions are the responses to environmental changes both internal and
external and are immediate or automatic and are without intervention
of will. These reflexes maybe simple or conditioned e.g. watering of mouth on
seeing or smelling of food.
A REFLEX ARC
(3) The structural and functional basis of simple reflex is called reflex arc.
(4) Impulses are carried from receptors to sensory neurons to CNS from where
they are passed on via motor neurons to the effectors for necessary response.
(iv) METABOLISM
(1) Metabolism is a term that embraces all of the chemical changes that occur in
the cells of living organisms enabling them to grow, to maintain their identity and
reproduce.
(3) Metabolic reactions convert food into forms that can be stored until needed.
(4) These reactions provide energy for mechanical work of muscles and chemical
work to build complicate molecules like DNA, RNA and protein
(v) FISSION
(1) This is a process in which heavier unstable atoms are broken down to yield
energy.
(3) Energy by a nuclear fission reaction can be used as a source of heat to generate
steam in power plant.
(5) Heavy nucleas as uranium are bombarded with neutrons and split up into two
particles of mass ratio 3:2.
(2) These include metals, non metalsi, minerals and fossil feuls (coal, oil and
natural gas).
(3) Modern man is using these resources extensively and they may be depleted
very soon.
(4) It is high time that man should realise the consequences of depletion of
these in future and survival of mankind on planet earth.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
Q.3. Fill in the gaps with correct choice. In Five statements only.
(2) Chicken egg is composed of one million cells (one cell, 1000 cells, one million
cells).
(3) Visible light energy has the wave length of 400 -
700 nm. (100-300 nm, 400-700 nm, 800-1000 nm).
(4) The particle with positive charge but mass equal to electron is called positron.
(Neutron, Proton, Positron).
(7) Iron corrodes due to formation of Iron oxide. (Iron Sulphide, Iron Oxide, Iron)
r2.
DAM
BARRAGES
It doesn’t hold water for longer time so it is not built at great heights.
It is like a distributory for water channel. It can be used for irrigation only.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Barrages could not be built at great heights so lack power to move turbines to
produce electricity. They serve just as distributory for channels and cannot be used
for hydroelectric power.
Q.5. What are Plastics? Discuss their important properties which have
contributed to their extensive use in modern industry. Explain the
advance effects on Environment.
Plastics
Definition
”Plastics are synthetic organic materials of high molecular weight that can be
shaped any form on heat.”
In modern age almost all articles of daily use are made from it. They may be
coloured or colourless.
History of Plastics
The word plastics comes from Greek Plastikos which means ”able to be
molded.”
word
The first synthetic material was ”celluloid” a mixture of cellulose nitrate and
camphor invented in
1868. It was used as substitute for ”Ivory.” In 1909, a second synthetic material
”Bakelite” was invented by Belgian-American chemist Leo Hendrik Backeland by
heating phenols and formaldehyde. These are also called ”polymeric materials.”
Classification of Plastics
Resistant plastics
Decorative Plastics
2. INDUSTRIAL PLASTICS
These can be melted once, after melting they harden acquiring a permanent shape
Examples are:
Bakelite, Polyesters,
epoxy plastics
Thermo Plastics
Examples are:
Polyethylene and
Nylons
LIMITATIONS
Plastics being non-perishable, remain in their same position as are formed thus
polluting the environment.
(i) A 25 watts incadesent bulb provides much less light than 20 watts florescent
tubelight because florescent tube light produces gas which act as carrier and
disperse light in a better way.
(Hi) Wire in an electric bulb emits light when current passes through it because
filament of tungston which has high resistance, emitts photons.
(iv) Meat takes longer time to cook on mountain top than at sea level. At high
attitudes pressure is decreased and hence boiling point of water also decrease.
(v) More stirring is needed when sugar is dissolved in cold coffee than in hot
coffee.
In hot coffee, molecules of water has greater energy and they move far rapidly
than of cold one. That’s why, it needs less stirring.
Balanced Diet
”A balanced diet is one which contains all the essential nutrients of food in proper
proportions so as to provide energy and nutritional requirements for growth and
reproduction.”
Milk is the natures’ perfect food for babies. It is a well balanced food in fats,
proteins, carbohydrates and rich in vitamin A and D. Though somewhat low in
iron and vitamin C, mothers milk is the best for babies. Mothers milk also contains
certain antibodies which protect the infant from infectious disease. One should
keep a balanced diet chart, to have a good food providing required energy. To plan
a balanced diet, one should know amount of calories present in the food.
Raw
Energy
Pro
Fat
Carbo
Ca
Fe
VITAMIN
Food
(KCal)
tein
(g)
hydra-
(mg)
(mg)
B
(g!
tes
Eggs
163
6.7
4.3
52
14
10
0.08
Sugar
387
140
Beef
183
11.5
12.5
10
2.6
0.08
Fish
176
20
10
0
38
1.2
0.08
Apple
58
0.3-
0.4
15.0
0.3
90
0.04
A balanced diet for the whole week should be managed according to the nutrients
it contain. Nutrient lacking in one could be taken from other kind of food.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Dietary Guidelines
(1) One should avoid too much of fats which include Cholesterol because it may
cause problems in blood circulation. Cholesterol is directly involved in the
formation of gall stones. It is present in animal fats.
(2) One should avoid too much sugar, because it can raise Insulin level, causing
diabetes.
Components of Food
The basic components or nutrients that must Constitute a balanced diet are.
(1) Proteins.
(2) Fats
(3) Carbohydrates
(4) Minerals
(5) Vitamins.
DIETARY DISORDERS
1. Starvation
In many parts of the world, people are unable to get enough food. As a result they
remain undernourished. They become weak and lose resistance against diseases.
2. Malnutrition
If the quality of food in terms of its variety is not carefully controlled, it leads to
malnutrition that is
3. Food Additives:
Some substances are added to food by food industries eg; food colourings,
preservatives and flavouring agents called food additives. They must be tested for
safety because some of them are quite harmful.
Apple
Vitamin A I
?’
Bread
Carbohydrates
J’
Meat
4-
Butter j
Fats
5-
Orange
Vitamin C
6-
Egg
Proteins
7’
Milk
Calcium
8.
Spinach
Vitamin A
2.
1.
Latitude is a
LONGITUDE
or
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
2.
1.
2.
From the equator to either pole there is about 1/4 circumference of the earth thus
greatest latitudes are 90° North and 90° South.
”Pig” is a bar of cooled metal. It is the basic raw material for steel & Cast iron.
It contains Silicone 1% Sulpher 0.03% Phosphors 0.27% Magnesium 2.4%
Carbon 4.6%
H20
cleaning action.
(vi) CHROMOSOME
1. These are thread like structures present in the nucleus.
1.
2.
It is measured 180° East and 180° West of prime meridian making angle of full
360° of Earth.
CAST IRON
Silicone 1.5%
Sulphur 1.5%
HEAVY WATER
GENE
These are unit of Inhei itance lying on chromosomes at specific sitc-s called
Locus.
What are warm blooded animals? Give any two examples. Explain three
traits in warm blooded animals.
Examples
1. Man
2. Whale
.ser
The mechanism of laser relies on a process known as stimulated emission and the word
LASER is derived from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission.
Applications of Laser
(1) In eye surgery a retina that has become separated or detached from the eye can be
welded back into place using laser beam.
LASER
ORDINARY LKiHT
Manometer Voltm
Q.ll. What are Computers? Name their Different classes. Briefly explain Soft
Ware & Hard Ware Computer.
QUANTITY
(i) Chemistry
(ii) Algebra
(Hi) Light
(iv) Sound
(v) Eye-Surgery
SCIENTIST
Al Beruni
Ibn Al-Haisham
(ii) A big astronomical observatory known as was established during the reign of Caliph
Mamoon.
(in) Adrenalin is secreted by Adrenal Cortex, (iv) Mars is planet nearest to earth. (v)
Moulds belong to group of plants called Fungi. (vi) CFC is abbreviation of Chloro
Flouro Carbon.
Q.I.
Ans.
(d)
(e)
(i) Q)
(a)
(false) (true)
In the Australian continent, days are longer than nights in June. (false)
The Basis of Cell Theory: It states that both plants and animals are made up of
cells.
(1) Nucleus
(2) Cytoplasm.
3. Cell Membrane: It is a thin skin that holds the cell contents together. It is
equipped with complex protein molecules that regulate the passage of
molecules into and out of the cell and act as sensors informing the cells of external
conditions.
Ribosomal RNA
Messenger RNA
Transfer RNA
(r-RNA) (m-RNA
(t-RNA)
7. Microtubules: It is a complex lattice work that gives form to cell and enables it
to systematically move change shape.
8. Lysosomes: They contain enzymes that break down unwanted material within
the cell.
9. Mitochandria: These are chemical factories that generate energy for the
cell through the controlled breakdown of food molecules.
centnol
golgiapparatus <•
luclear membrane
lipid droplets
Animal Cell
cell membiano
Endoplasme reticulum
Lyiosomes
* Vacuoles (Small)
Mitorliondria
ANIMAL CELL
10. Centrioles: These are 2 special rods/granules present near nucleus in a zone of
centrosome. it provides mitotic/meiotic spindles during cell division.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS]
system:
(2) Streams
(3) Wells
(4) Springs
(6) Reservoirs ,
(9) Sewers
(1) Sewage Waste Water: It contains organic matter which exerts a demand
on O2 resources of the receiving water. It is called as Biological Oxygen
Demand (B.O.D). The organic matter contains cal’bohydrates proteins, fats oils,
sewage has also variety of organisms (pathogen) which are infective to man.
(3) Industrial Waste Water: It contains raw materials, intermediate final and
by-products and chemicals. The pollutants are:
organic acids
Nitrogenous substances
fats
salts
bleaching agents
They have:
- animal wastes
- manure
- pesticides
- inorganic salts
- minerals
Non-specific
specific
Bacterial Viral
Protozoal Helminthic
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
fon-Sprpecific Diseases
acterBial Diseases
Chczolera
Typnphoid
Diaamrrhoea
elmin ithic
Purification of Water
Viral Disease
1. Polio
2. Trachemia
3. Infective hepatitis
Protozual
1. Amoeba Dysentery
large S Scale
Filtrat-tion ^hloranation
B. On small scale
1. Household
2. Well water
rain water
surface water
2. water Sampling
3. Water examination
4. Water collection
5a. Storage
by
chlorination i
8. Distribution
9. Surveillance
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Ans. Alloy: When two or more suitable metals are melted together and then the
molten mixture is allowed to col down and harden it is called as an Alloy.
This is done to get desired properties from the metals. Alloys behave differently
from the metals mixed. Most of the corrosion problems are slowed down by using
alloys.
Examples:
(1) Stainless Steel: Is the best known example of the corrosion resistant alloy. It
belongs to the family of steel-alloys of iron with other metals, here iron is
alloyed to get rust resistance substance.
(2) Amalgam: It contains Hg with Zn, Na, Li. It is a silvery white porous
crystalline mass, it is used in dental fillings silvering of mirrors and as
catalysts.
Significance: All plastics are made up of polymers and there are about 60,000
plastics.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
CH2 = CH2
high pressure OR
w
special catalyst(-CH2 - CH2 )n
ethylene, polythene)
2. Cellulose
Synthetics
1. Polyethylene
2. Terylene
4. Bekalite
5. Melamine
2. Cellulose -j
3. Starch J Carbohydrates
4. Wool
5. Silk
6. Cotton
(c) Balanced Diet: ”A food that contains all the nutrients in optimal quantity is
called as Balanced Diet”.
- Produce energy
- Promote growth
•aMMMiMMiiaaHMMaaJSiEi
Nutrient
Source
Function
1. Carbohydrates
Provide energy
2. Fats
Butter, Cheese
n
3. Proteins
4. Minerals
Vegetables, fruits
5. Water
Water, fruits
6. Vitamins
Fruits, vegetables
Ans.
(4) Cinnamon
(5) Peanut
(6) Saffron
(7) Almond
(8) Chillies
stem
fruit
Flower
fruit
fruit
leaf
fruit
structure
Blood Cell
structure
Psyche
Earth
(6)
(10) Q.8,
Ans.
The unit ”TON” to specify A.Cs is equal to 12,000. The unit of electricity kwhr is
the unit of power.
What are viruses? Describe their structure. Which of the following diseases
are caused by virus and which are caused by bacteria?
Dependence on Host Cells: As virus has no cellular structure and cell organelles
thus it is unable to make its own proteins and essential enzymes. It is therefore
completely dependent on its host cell for energy & replication. Outside living cell,
it is metabolically inactive. The
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
information contained in virus’s nucleic acid is used by a host cell to produce ne’w
viruses.
nucleic acid
outer
Capsid is ”antigenic” and contains receptors which enable a virus to attach to the
surface of its specific host cell. It consist of a number of
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
identical units called ”capsomers”. Capsid has 3 types of symmetry which is used in virus
classification:
(1) Icosa Hedral: Capsid has 20 equal sides and overall virus shape is spherical.
(2) Helical: Capsid is spiral which surrounds spiral shaped core of nucleic acid.
Virus may be spherical/elongated/filamentous/pleomorphic.
(3) Complex: Capsid which is neither of above type and overall virus shape is brick-like.
Types of Virus:
- Rubella virus
- Rota virus
- Ralies virus
- Mumps virus
- Measles virus
- Polio virus
- Heptatitis A virus
Disease
1. Polio
2. Diphtheria
3. AIDs
4.. Tetanus
5. Smallpox
6. Measles
(2) eg-
DNA Viruses
- Herpes virus
- Adeno virus
- E.B. virus
- Hepatitis B virus
(Bacterial/Viral)
viral
bacterial
viral
bacterial
virak
viral
Q.9.
Name the 3 major parts of human brain and the function they control. Make
a rough labelled diagram of the brain.
Human Brain:
It is the great nervous centre of the body and it is the large upper portion of
cerebro-spinal axis filling the cavity of the cranium.
3 Major parts of human brain and their functions: (1) The Cerebrum (Greater
Brain):
- Sensation
- Intelligence
_ Will
- Emotions
It governs those involuntary movements which constitute the acts of breathing and
swallowing.
Diagram of the Brain
central sulcus
Parietal lobe
lateral aulcua
Frontal lobe
occipital lobe
Superlateral Surface
Cinjjutot* sulcus
fornix
corpus caDosum
uncus’
Medical Surface
midbrain
1. Casien
2. Lactin
(b) Which organ of human body controls the amount of water and salt in
body.
Ans. Kidneys control the amount of salt and water. These are 2 in number - Right
and Left, present on the posterior abdominal wall, pear shaped and brownish red in
colour.
”Nephron” is their structural and functional unit. There are about 1 million
nephrons in each kidney.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
- Boumann’s capsule
- Loop of Henle
- Collecting duct
in 5 major groups,
(d)
1, Antibiotics ;
2. Corticosteroids
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each human cell. Out of these 22 are
”autosexual” that are same in both male and female while the 23rd pair is called as
”sex chromosomes” that is different in male and female.
CO2
(f) Name any 2 glands which secrete hormones in human body.
1. Pancreas (Insulin)
2. Thyroid (Thyroxin)
•aMMiaiMiiiaiiHMgiaaaaiEl
White Light:
Formation:
A rainbow is formed when this white light gets dispersed by passing through
millions of falling spherical raindrops which act as series of prisms.
Occurrence:
It usually occurs after a rainfall when there are numerous water drops hanging in
the atmosphere. Discovery:
This mechanism was discovered by ”Newton” who passed the white light
(polychromatic) through the prism and it broke out into seven colours. It is named
as spectrum.
VIBGYOR
= Violet
G
= Green
= Indigo
= Yellow
= Blue
= Orange
= Red
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Types of Spectrum:
1. Visible Spectrum:
/ORANGE\
/ YELLOW \
/ GREEN \
/ YELLOW \
INDIGO
\
VIOLET
2.
Invisible Spectrum: It is present above violet and below red colours regarding the
wavelength of light.
eg.
3.
4. Line Spectrum:
(a) Arteries
1. Arteries are the blood channels that carry oxygenated blood in them, away from
the heart, towards the
periphery.
2. The only exception is pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated blood from
right ventricle to lungs.
Veins
1.
blood
Veins are the channels that carry deoxygenated blood in them, towards the heart,
away from the periphery.
2. The only exception is pulmonary vein that carries oxygenated blood from lungs
to left auricle.
3. The great veins are superior and inferior vena cava that carry blood into right
atrium.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
9. Non-palpable.
”venous
NPN transistor
Semi-Conductors:
(1) N-type are made by doping electron rich metals like arsenic into pure silicon.
(2) P-type are made by doping electron deficient metals like Boron into pure
silicon.
Significance:
1. It is the lens which is narrower in the centre and broader towards the corners.
Static Current
Convex Lens
1. It is the lens which is narrower towards the corners and broader towards the
centre.
2. When a beam of light strikes a concave lens all the rays after passing
through it diverge.
3. Mostly real images except when the ray of light passes through it when object is placed
b/w optical centre & focus.
LVED QUESTION PAPE
Ans. Telephone: It is a device for reproducing sound at a distance from its source by
means of the transmission of an electrical signal.
Principle: The basic principle is using the sound vibration to control a larger source of
power and creating a variable resistance in electrical circuit. This is done by making an
electric current
varying in intensity precisely as air varies in density during the production of sound.
Mouthpiece
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ear Piece: It is at the receiving end. A sound membrane is made to perform vibrations
similar to the one induced in the ear piece.
Dial/Touch-Tone: It sends out an electrical code that establishes the correct connection.
Ans. EGO-SYSTEM:
Ecosystem is like a machine with certain inputs and outputs, while input is
according to the object of management.
(ECO
OIKOS
home)
Components:
ECO SYSTEM
A. Abiotic factors
(Non Living Things) (reosphere (soil) Hydro sphere (water) Atmosphere (air)
Igneosphere (sun)
Example:
Decomposing Bacteria
DIFFUSION
pefinition:
(2) If a crystal of KMnO, (solute) is placed in water (solvent) it is dissolved and its
molecules or ions move & get evenly distributed throughout the water.
r See Chapter 3
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(1) Gyptogerms «re non flowering plants (True). (2> Reserve food material
is usually stored as Glvcogen in plants. (False)
(True) (9) 21st of JUIH is the longest day of the year in the
tTrue)
(a) Doping:
”It is a process in which slight traces of impurities are adfled in the pure semi-
conductors to boost up their properties.” It fascilitates the flow of electrons.
(1) Kich m es
(2) Deficient in es
Examples:
(1) n type semiconductors are made by doping rich metals like aisemc into the
puie silicon.
(2) p-tvpe semi conductors are made by doping with deficient metals like Born
into pure silicon
(b) Immunization
Types:
1. Active Immunity.
2, Passive Immunity.
(c) Pasteurization
”It is a process which involves rapid heating of the milk under pressme to 125 -
150 ~C for a few seconds only which is then rapidly cooled and bottled ”
I Merits
1. It preserves: ,
- taste.
- flavoiu
- appearance
_EVERYDAY SCIENCE |
- digestibility
Origin
It was discovered by a French scientist ”Hours Pasteur” and is named after him.
(d) Modulation
”It is a process in which sound or vision are converted into electric pulse and are
catalogued with carrier wave of electro megnanetic radiation of transmission.”
Significance
Example
At Radio Station, the speaker speaks and his sound undergoes compression and
rarefaction, the receiver catches it and converts it into an ”electrical pulse” that passes
through cables. It is then converted into electromeganetic radiation that is transmitted
through the antenna of Radio Station in the environment.
From air, our home antenna receives these. EM radiations and convert them again into
sound waves that we can hear from our Radio-set.
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
(e) Catabolism
”It is the set of metabolic reactions in which break down of bigger organic molecules
(food) occurs into unstable smaller chemical components.”
Example:
- Carbohydrates
- fats
- proteins
Mechanism
Glucose
Amino Acids
Acetyl Co Enzyme
(ATP) TT
Anabolism
”It is a process in which the fissionable product is recovered from the spent
nuclear reaction fuel by chemical dissolution.”
Demerit
It generates ”Nuclear Waste” that is highly radio active and hazardous for health.
It has radio active Ba and Kr. It can be disposed off by:
- recycling
Ans. Blood:
Composition:
Blood
Plasma
(52-55%)
Carpuscles
(45-48%)
RBC(ii%) WBC
(Haemoglobin) (Protoplasm)
Platelets
98.3 °F (normal).
Plasma:
•MiaryijTivgaMiafiHa
Plasma
WE
90-
iter
•92’*)
Inoij Comp<
sol
8-1
ids
W/c
*anic lonents
.janic jnents
Or|
Comp
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
Blood Carpuscles
)RBC
Circular
Bioconcave
Non nucleated
7.2 diameter
NaH
- Plasma proteins
K+
Ca + +
Mg”
Plasma Proteins
- Albumin
- Globulin
- Fibrmgen
- Prothrombin
- Carbohydrates (Glucose)
RBC
Water
657,
sol
35
ids
>r/r
Hb
337f
/ (2) WBC /
Stroma
2%
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE1 WBC
Granulocytes
_, Eosinophils l-3’<r
Non granulocytes
Hymphocytes
20-45’*
Monocles 3-7^
(3) Platelets Oral biconvex non nucleated diameter: 2-4 microns. Count: 250,000 -
450,000/mnr’
Functions of Blood
(3) Act as a Medium for the transport of hormones, vitamins + other chemicals.
system.
(8) Maintenance of acid base equilibrium, due to buffering power by Plasma proteins.
(9) Defensive Action clue to
- WBC
- Anti bodies.
- Volume
- viscosity.
- helps in coagulation.
- helps in unity.
Q.5. Write short notes of 150 words each on any 2 of the following.
”These are the materials through which the electricity is passed partially and their
conductivity is in between conductors and insulators.” Their functioning evolve the
science of solid state physics.
Example
Conductors : Al, Cu
Doping
Are made by doping electron rich metals like arsenic into the pure si.
Are made by doping electron deficient metals like boron into pure Si.
currents. ^ \
smaller in size.
Types of Semi-Conductors
Microchip
It is a minute wafer of Silicon that can pass through an eye of needle and may
carry more than
10,000 circuits over it. It is used in computer.
Pure Silicon
(b) Pesticides
”These are the substances, organic or in organic, which are used to destroy or
inhibit the action of animal or plant pests.”
L
Pest
Mosquitoes, silverfish,
Cockroaches, Crickets,
Classification of Pesticides
(1) Fumigants used in enclosed space and act by producing fumes or vapours
with lethal properties. (Methyl Bromide & ethylene
^/ dibromide).
(2) RepeUants repel the pests due to their typical odour. (Dimethylphthalate) eg Mospel.
(3) Systemics are absorbed by the roots or leaves of the plant and get translocated to
various parts of the plant. Thus the whole plant act as a killing food for target pests,
(sehradan).
(2) Organo Phosphates affect nervous transmission in insects & mammals through
the inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase. Whose normal role is to eliminate acetyl
choline formed in nervous transmission.
- volatile
- non residual
biq degradable
D.D.T.
Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane)
”It is a device which generates well organised and coherent light, with essentially
a single frequency.”
Medical uses
(2) As it can be focused very accurately on a point thus surgeons can use it
in very delicate operations.
(3) In eye surgery, a detached retena can be welded back into place using a laser
beam.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Other uses:
ORDINARY LIGHT
It is an indisciplined light.
6. Incoherent light.
LASER
2. It is a powerful light.
rently distributed.
4 It is a concentrated light.
5. Disciplined light.
6. Coherent light.
7. Can be focused.
His real name was Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Ibn Al-Baitar. He was
born in Malaga (Spain) at the end of 12tli Century.
His work was considered an authority in plants and he gave new orientation to the
classification and nomenclature of plant kingdom over which modern botany is
based.
- Jami.
- Mughani.
(b) Al-Biruni
Abu Rayhan Muhammad Al-Biruni was born near the town of Khawarizm in 973
A.D.
He discovered that light travels faster than sound. He accurately determined the
weight of 18 stones in physics. He gave an understanding to the terms of
longitudes and latitudes.
He died at the age of 75 years in 1048 A.D. He was the author of following
famous books.
- Tahqiq Al-Hind.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
- Qanun Ai-Masudi
- Asrar Al-Baqiya
- Kitab Al-Saidana
- Kitab Al-Jawahar
- Al-Tafhim
Birth: Abu Ali Al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham, better known as Alhazan in the West was
born at Basrah in 975 A.D.
Scientific Contributions
He was an outstanding
- Mathematician,
- Physiologist, and
- Optician.
- He was more known for his optical works which were translated into Latin.
- He observed the semi-lunar shape of the image of sun during eclipses on a wall
opposite to five hole in the window-shutters.
Death
- Kital Al Manazir
| SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS |
- Mizamul Hikma
Ans.
The polar diameter of earth is 7900 miles while that of equator is 7927 miles.
The surface of the earth is not one solid part but is made up of 15 tectonic plates.
The crust of the Earth is under 2 types offerees.
Earth travels more distance at equator, therefore, its speed is slowed down.
Consequently the crust of Earth at equator is under more centrifugal force which
makes the earth to bulge out at equator. It is due to this reason polar diameter of
earth is less than that of equatorial diameter.
At sunset and sunrise we see the sun, therefore, the greater thickness of air because
it is low in the sky. The colours of the spectrum are gradually scattered. Red and
range are last to be scattered through the atmosphere therefore, sun appears
organised red.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Actually there is no cojlour of the sky. It colour depends upon scattering of white
light of sun by the dust particles hanging in the atmosphere. This is called
”Tyndall Effect.”
As Moon has no atmosphere thus it appears black when viewed from the Moon.
(d) Ozone layer in the upper atmosphere is necessary for our survival:
The solar radiations that reach the earth’s surface from the sun have to pass
through this ozone layer before reaching the earth.
The ozone layer checks the entry of harm radiations such as UV rays and prevent
their entry.
If these hazardous rays enter the atmosphere (through ozone hole) they cause.
»»iTOg*MM>reiii»h’iigsV38SEl
Earth has an axis that passes through its centre. It is titled to a certain extent and makes
an angle of
66.5° with a horizontal and 23.5° with a vertical.
Thus the reasons in the Northern and Southern hemisphere are opposite to each other.
- For Northern Hemisphere: Spring equinox: 21st March. Autumn equinox: 22nd
September. Summer Solastice: 21st June WinterJSelastice: 22nd December
/ For example in summer June is the longest day in Pakistan but the shortest day
for Australia. Although at /that time earth is 1 million miles away the sun as
compare to that in winter of Pakistan. Thus the control of seasons doesn’t depend
on distance between earth & sun but on direction of radiations of sun, that are
almost vertical over Northern Hemisphere and slanting over southern Hemisphere,
at that very time.
To balance the centripetal force with that of 1 force. Otherwise the vehicle may go
out of control.
Cobra
Blue Whale
Ostrich
Shark
Alligator
Panda
KIWI
1
Tortoise
Penguin Dolphin
Q.9. Name all the organs of human excretory system. Drew aq labelled
diagram and explain the functions of each organ.
Ans.
•Left Right
Left
1. Kidney
2. Ureter
3. Urinary Bladder
4. Urethra.
Renal Artery
Renal vein
Right Kidney
Urethra *
Urethra
» Left Kidney
Ureter
Urinary Bladder
» Urethra
(1)
Kidneys
There are 2 dark red-brovm, bean shaped kidneys situated at the back of the
abdomen, one on each side of
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
upper lumber vertebrae. Each kidney is 4” long, 2.25” broad and 1.5” thick. It
weighs 4.5 Ibs. Its concave surface is towards vertebral column. The right kidney
is usually shorter, lower & thicker than left due to downward extension of right
lobe of liver.
Renal Arteries (brs of Aorta) supply it blood while Penal Veins (Tributaries of
IVC) take away blood from them.
Each kidney has about one million nephrons. Eaeb_ nephron begins as a dilated
spherical end *Bowmam’s Capsule” which has tuft of capillaries at its month
called ”glomerulus”. Its later parts are:
- LoopofHenle
- Collecting duct.
It recieves waste products like urea and uric-acid from the blood and maintain the
electrolyte balance.
(2) Ureters
These are thin tubings that connect kidneys with urinary bladder. Each kidney has
one ureter which act as channel through which urine passes from kidney to bladder
for storage.
It is a bag like organ, meant to store the urine before voiding. It is present in lower
abdomen and pelvis. When it is filled to its maximum capacity, the urge to
micturate is initiated and thus the act of voiding of urine is under taken.
(4r) Urethra
\ It is the last part of excretory system through which the urine is excreted out of
the body. It is wide and short in females. While it is curved, thin and long in males
(J shaped).
(i) Circular aperture which appears as a dark spot in the eye called pupil.
The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is elliptic and it is inclined 5° to the plane of
Earth’s orbit around the sun. It means that the orbit of Moon and Earth are not in
the same plane.
The Equator of the Moon is inclined 6° to the plane of its elliptic orbit. Thus 59%
of Moon’s surface is visible at different times from the Earth.
As seen from the Earth, the Moon passes through a series of phases after every
27.3 days:
- first quarter.
- full Moon.
Last guarter
Sun light
New moon
Full moon
First guarter
At full Moon, the Earth is between the sun and the Moon and the whole lunar disc
facing the Earth is completely illuminated.
At new Moon, the Moon is between the sun and the Earth, and the rays illuminate
only the hemisphere facing it, learning the side facing the Earth in complete
darkness, making it invisible from the Earth.
(a) Hypoglycaemia
(1) It is the fall in blood sugar level below its normal limit. Normal Level:
(2) Its symptoms are felt when the blood sugar level falls below 40 mg%.
(3) Its effects are mental confusion gradiness visual disturbances syncope
Coma Convulsion
Hyperglycaemia
(l)It is the rise of blood sugar level above its normal limit.
(2) Its symptoms are felt when the blood sugar level rises above 140
(3)Its effects are blurring of vision weakness multiple infections calf pain
frequency of
therapy.
(1) It is a process taking place in plants which uses CO2 and water to make sugars.
(2) Reactants are CO2 and H2O.
(4) UV rays and chlorophyll are required for the reaction to occur.
(5) The sugar that is produced is transported from the leaves by phloem
vessels to all parts of the plant. It is used in
- respiration
- or stored as starch
C02 Chlorophyll
Sugar + O9
H20
U V. rays
Respiration
energy for all other processes which must continue for the organism to
live. (2)Reactants are sugar
H20.
Sugar + O
(c) Pollination
SOLVED QUESTIONS-PAPERS-
(2) It occurs by
(d) Herbivores
(1) These are the maminals that live by eating green fodder.
(2) Their teeth are designed to cut and chew leaves, plants and
fodder.
(4) Their digestive enzymes are specific to digest plant ood thus their appendix
is of large size.
Fertilization
(l)It is a process in which fusion of egg and sperm takes place when they come
closer.
Carnivores
(1) These are the animals that live by eating flesh.
enzymes are specific to digest flesh. They take green grass in case of GIT upset.
(e) Epidemic
1(1) It is a disease that attacks great number of people in one place at one time and
itself travels from place to place.
(2) It may be
- contagious
- Infections
(4) Example:
- Cholera.
- Food Poisoning
- Influenza
- Chicken pox
Endemic
(l)It is a disease that is always present to same extent in a particular locality,
certain areas or regions.
(2) It is due to
- insanitation
(4)Example:
Definition
”It is the ruthless and unplanned removal of trees which acts as green ioner to
protect the earth from erosion, provides habitat for wildlife, provides timber and
fuel to man ai>d plays role in soil and water conservation.”
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
^\
Ill-effects on mankind
Q.I.
Ans.
(a)
(g)
(h) (i)
(j)
Q.2.
Ans.
(a) (b)
Jabir Ibne Hayyan was the author of the book Kitab-ul-Manazir? (false)
We can receive T.V. sound signal on our F.M. radio sets, (false)
Famous Muslim botanist Ibn Al-Baiter lived during the period 700-900.
(false)
(d) Copper metal has the highest electrical conductivity, (silver, tungsten,
copper),
(j) Astronomers cannot be nominated for the noble prize, (physicists, economists,
astronomers).
Q.3. Define any five of the following terms? Ans. (a) Biogas:
Definition: It is a type of gas that is given off by dead and decaying animals, plants and
rubbish, sewage & manure in swampy areas.
Definition: It is the type of energy that is derived from the heat of earth (Geo-earth,
thermal - heat).
eg. A water is pumped down in a pipe into the depth of earth, it is heated up by the
hot rocks in the
core of earth, turned into a steam that is brought up by another pipe and is used to
produce energy. (c) Vaccine:
Measles vaccine.
(d) Antibiotic:
Definition: It is a chemical produced by microorganism that has a capacity in small
concentration to inhibit the growth (bacteriostatic) or to destruction (bactericidal) of the
other microorganism.
Cephalosporines, aminoglycosides.
(e) Ceramics:
Definition: These are the inorganic, nonmetallic materials manufactured at very high
temperature. It requires raw materials eg. clay, feldspar. Iron quartz sand.
Definition: It is a distance travelled by the light in one year. It is equal to 3 x 105 km/sec,
or
1,86,000 miles/sec.
•MttMiftwmiaKHH
SOLVED’QUESTION PAPERS
eg-
PLANT KINGDOM
Non-Green Plants
Green Plants
Non-Flowering
Plants
(Cryptogams)
M(
>a
>ses Fe
rn
Age
r
Vegetables Rice Trees Shrubs Fruits
Plant Kingdom:
There are about ’/2 a million species of plants on the Earth. They require 3 basic
ingredients to survive,
1.
2.
3.
air
light
water
They make their own food using simple raw materials and energy from the sun by
”photosynthesis”.
Non-Green Plants:
These plants have simple bodies without root, stem and leaves. They don’t contain
chlorophyll and hence don’t involve photosynthesis. They can grow without
sunlight.
Green Plants:
(ferns).
(b)
These are seed containing green plants. These have further 2 sub-types:
iYDAY SCIENCE
have
naked and
(ii) Angiosperms: These have seeds which are protected by a fruit or seed-
poad.
Q.5. What are Endocrine Glands? Name any two. From which part of the
body are the following secreted: Insulin, thyroxin, Adrenalin, Oestrogen,
Testosterone, Cortisol.
”These are those glands which pour their secretions directly into the blood
stream”.
Their secretions are called as ”Hormones” which are the chemical substances
produced by the cells of one part and transported by the body fluids to another site
of body where they exert their action. They serve as chemical messengers or
regulators.
They control growth, metabolism, reproduction and many other functions of body
and mind.
Hormone
Q.6.
Oestrogen
Testosterone
Cortisol
Ovaries Testes
Adrenal cortex
What does LASER stand for? Describe four different applications, clearly
stating their principle:
Ans. LASER:
Definition:
Principle of Laser:
A photon emitted from an atom induces an electron in another excited atom to fall
immediately to a lower level and einits a photon identical to itself. Thus stimulated
emission can be used to increase the number of emitted photons.
Energy is first pumped into a laser medium (ruby rod/CO2) by a flash lamp. It
raises the electrons just above the ground level. Initially only few atoms radiate
photons simultaneously. Two silvered end mirrors, one partially transparent reflect
the radiation back and forth repeatedly, inducing a chain reaction of photon
emission. All the electrons return to ground state simultaneously and a powerful
pulse of laser light emerges from a partially transparent end.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Flash lamp
Ruby rod
Flash lamp
A Typical Laser
Mirror
(partially
tramparent)
Applications of Laser:
(2) Laser can be focused very accurately on a point, this can cut steel and surgeons can
use that laser knife in very delicate operations.
(3) In eye-surgery, the detached retina, can be welded back into place by a laser
beam.
Q.7. Define Energy? What are its units in Metric system? Name 2 devices each in which
electrical energy is converted into Heat, Light, Sound, Mechanical Energy?
”It is an agent which causes some change in the state of physical systems”.
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPEF
E = me2
E = Energy
M = Mass
C = Velocity of light
This equation shows that mass can be converted into energy and vice versa.
Form of Energy
1. Heat
2. Light
3. Sound
4. Mechanical
Devices
(ii) Radio
(ii) Fan
Ans.
(a) LPG
scientific
(b) TNT
Trinitro Toluene
(c) RNA
(d) ATP
(e) RBC
(f) EGG
(g) PVC
Polyvinyl Chloride
(h) RAM
(i) CFG
Production: The burning of fossil fuel produces gases like SO2 which are highly
soluble in water. These oxides react with large quantities of water vapour of the
atmosphere to form acids, which return to earth surface
JVEOMQUESTION PAPERS
Adverse Effects:
Ozone: It is an allotropic form of oxygen which has three atoms of oxygen (Oa) in
each molecule. This enriched oxygen is present naturally in the stratosphere as
”ozone layer”. It is formed from diatomic Oxygen by an electric discharge or
exposure to UV radiation.
U.V
2O,
Ozone Depletion: Some man made chemicals are eating away that crucial shield of
Ozone by various chemical reactions that convoit it back to molecular 02. This is
called as O/one Depletion” or ”Hole in the Sky”. It was foi thf fi< ’ time noted
over Antarctica in 1985 of the size of I S \ mu the de^tli of Mount Everest. This
antaictir k«l« .develops, everv vr:u in September &
October. During that period O3 contents fall by 40% in stratosphere.
At ground level these gases are cheap & nonpolluting but in stratosphere they
deplete O3
High voltage
Ox + O
O2 + Ox
x+O
Effects of O3 Depletion:
Since O.H absorbs biologically damaging UV rays before it can reach the earth’s
surface thus Os depletion causes increased exposure to UV rays:
4. Global warming.
03 layer stratosphere
uv rays reflects
uv rays reflects
Green House Gases: These are the gass that contribute towards the building of
greenhouse effect, eg. CO2 CH4
1. Global Warming: Average global temperature would rise 1.5°C -> 4.5°C
during the nextf 4 years.
2. There will be more frequent flood due to the melting of polar ice, it would
submerge coastal cities.
5. Destructive Droughts.
7. Deforestation.
9. Deep peat lands would decompose & release amount of CO2 and CH4.
Green House
sunrays
Green House
sunrays
ozone lay
Control Unit
Unit
CPU: ”Central Processing Units”
(ii) Memory Unit: It stores vital reformation such a computer language codes. It
has 2 parts:
Q.ll. Draw clearly the vertical section of a human tooth, indicating various
parts. How are adult human teeth classified?
CROWN NECK
ROOT
> Cement
Periodontal membrane
Alveolar bone
Apical Foramen
A Human Tooth
TWO /NCISORS
i •,
FOUR INCISORS
SIX
• A •• MOLARS
4 Incisors
2 Canines
4 Premolars (bicuspids)
6 Molars (tricuspids)
Q.12. Briefly describe the principle and function of a camera? Mention its
essential parts alongwith brief comparison with an eye?
Ans. Definition:
Light that comes from an object is refracted by lens and then is focused as a sharp
image n the film. Shutter opens like a small gate to let the light in before closing
again. When the shutters opens, a hole is made called aperture through which the
light passes. Its size is controlled by a diaphragm. The operator looks through a
view finder while the view is defined by a range finder. Focussing is carried out by
varying the distance of the lens from the film.
2. Aperture
3 Shutter
4. Lens
5. Film
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
CAMERA
1.
2.
3.
4.
Eye
Camera
Iris
Opticnen
Ciliary body
Q.13. Explain briefly the formation of day and night. How do seasonal
variation occur on our earth?
The earth is like a vast wheel which rotates around its axis from west to east in
24 hours. This
Motion of earth is called spinning or rotation, its most important effect is the formation of
days and nights. -
As earth’s axis is tilted 66.5° to the plane of its orbit and 23.5° from the vertical, thus the
length of days and nights is not equal except for the places on or near the equator eg.
Singapore. Whereas away from the equator, the length of days and nights vary according
to latitude and the prevailing seasons.
At places north and south of equator days and nights are unequal in length except during
the equinoxes when all parts of the earth have equal days and nights.
After spring equinox (21st March) places north of equator begin to have longer days and
shorter nights. In the southern hemisphere opposite to that takes place.
After Autumn Equinox (September 22) places North of Equator begin to have longer
nights and shorter days.
Seasonal Variation:
Earth revolves around the sun and complete one revolution in 365.25 days and causes a
leap year after 4 years, This motion of earth is called revolution or annual motion. Its
most important effect is seasonal variation.
(ii)
Q.14.
Ans.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
[ SOLVED QUESTION PAPJRJ
Enzymes are biological catalysts which have multiple functions in the body.
The difference between electrical changes at the two ends of a conductor is called
potential difference.
The branch of zoology which deals with the study of insects is called entomology.
Fuels formed from animal and plant matter that lived thousands of years ago are known
as fossil fuel.
Light having larger wavelength than that of red colour is called infra red.
7.35.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(a) Thermoplastics
1. These plastics can be melted again and again like a candle wax.
1. It occurs when the earth comes between the moon and the sun.
2. When the earth lies exactly between moon & sun and its shadow
covers the whole of moon this is called total eclipse of the moon. At this
time earth lies in umbral region.
3. When the moon covers oxit of umbral region of eaith’s shadow, it goes through
series of partial eclipses
the following?
Thermosetting plastics
1. These plastics can be melted only once, after that they harden,
Solar Eclipse
1. It occurs when the moon comes between the earth and the sun.
a, c, b
penumbra
umbra
a c, b
penumbra
umbra
(c)
Asteroid
1. These are the small rocky objects that are orbiting the sun between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter, as an asteroid belt (140 million miles)
2. These are also called as minor planets, although asteroid m< ans ”starlike”.
Meteorite
1. These are the tiny chunk of material floating in the space that cai. enter the
earth’s atmosphere and become a meteor.
2. Meteor is also called as falling star, it is seen as a streek of light in the sky.
5. Asteroids passing near the earth are called as earth crosser/Apollo Asteroid.
(e) Endothermic
Reaction
1. These are those chemical reactions that require heat for their completion.
5. They may weigh upto 60 tons earth gets 501- meteors in an hour.
Exothermic Reaction
1. The- are
(f) Star
1. It is a self-luminous heavenly body.
Planet
6. It is a hot body.
rotation
revolution
6. It is a cold body.
7 It is seen as disc.
Nuclear Fission
4. It is difficult to do on earth.
4. It is easy to do on earth.
- He was an excellent dentist. He could place an artificial tooth in place of a diseased one.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE |
transparent objects.
- He observed semi-lunar shape of the image of the sun during eclipses on a wall opposite
a fine hole in the window-shutters.
Hikma.
- His most famous book ”Al-Qanun Fil Tib” known as ”Canon” in Latin remained
the sole text book of medicine for several hundred years in western universities.
Nafia Isharrat
1.
2.
3.
Crust
Mantle
Core
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
The earth is more or less like an onion. The three zones have different chemical
composition. The series of concentric layers become progressively denser towards
the centre.
1.
of:--
The Crust:
2.
The Mantle:
It extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2900 km and accounts for
82% of the earth’s volume.
2. Asthenosphere (200 km
3. The Core:
It extends from the base of the mantle to the earth centre. It accounts foi about
17r/f of the earth’s volume.
09.
”It is the protective blanket of gases which are surrounding the earth”.
Characters:
- It form insulating blanket around the earth, without which temp, at equator
will rise to 120°C during day and will drop to -150°C at night.
- It burns up meteors that would bombard the surface of earth from space.
Composition:
Major
N2
78.08
02
20.95
Minor
A, n
0.934
C02
0.033
Trace
Ne
He
I
Traces
CH,
H2
_ The Earth’s Atmosphere originally was very different from its present state and’the
changes are brought about by biological activity.
_ Over 99% of total mass of atmosphere is found within 30 Km. of the earth’s surface.
According to increasing altitude from the earth’s surface, major regions of atmosphere
are-
ra*i VA a wiiIMiriffljifErEl
1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Ionosphere
1. Greenhouse effect
2. Global warming
3. Ozone depletion
4. Acid Rain
Inner core
Outer core,
Meso sphere
Stheno sphere
Litho sphere
Sea level
Structure of Earth
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Structure of earth
, -’’ \qn_o_sphere~” ~ -. v
. ’ ^ ’’•_ «rm/”»cn*, ~~
Ans.
Types:
When the moon moves to a position b/w the sun and the earth, it throws shadow on earth.
This shadow consists of.
1.
2.
Umbra Penumbra
People on earth wlio are in the umbral region can’t see the sun at all. This total eclipse of
the sun. It can happen only at the time Of the new Moon when the earth moon and sun
are lined up, with the moon b/w the other two, its nightside towaids us.
Those in the penumfcral region can see only part of the sun. It is called as a partial
eclipse of the sun.
The total eclipse of the sun is one of the greatest spectacles of nature. The siin’s diameter
is tOQ times that of the moon and the sun’s distance from earth is also 400 times that of
the moon thus moons disk appears large enough to cover the sun’s disk.
The interval b/w two total solar eclipses is called as the saros cycle and is 18 years.
The recent total solar eclipse occurred on July 11,
1991 and it was seen in. Ha^ii, Central America and Brazil.
A total solar eclipse passes over a particular spot on earth every 360 years on average.
The duration of the total solar eclipse depends upon the speed of rotation of tb mo0n and
revolution of the earth.
Thus under the most suitable conditions, a total solar eclipse can last at a given point near
equator for about 7’/2 minutes.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Penumbra
Umbra
Solar Eclipse
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
”Non-renewable energy sources are those which cannot be used again and again”.
Fossil Fuels:
”The power of sunlight captured millions of years ago by plants and animals that died
and buried in huge deposits, is now being burned as coal, petroleum and natural gas,
these are called fossil fuels”.
Fossil:
1. Coal
2. Petroleum
3. Natural gas
1.
Coal:
Over millions of years, layers of rotting plants were pressed more and more tightly
together. Peat, lignite and eventually coal were formed.
Anthracite, the oldest and hardest coal is 400 million years old.
- Formation:
Plants and animals that lived in the seas sank down the sea-bed when they died, They
were further crushed under layer of rnud and gradually turned into oil. The oil then
flowed upward* until it reached layers of hard rock and became trapped under the rock.
- Major Oil Producing Countries: Russia Algeria UAE
- Petro-Chemicals:
These are the chemicals derived from fractional distillation of crude petroleum.
- Uses of Petroleum:
1. LPG: (Liquified petroleum gases) eg. Methane, ethane, propane, butane, are used
chiefly as fuel. (2) Solvents eg. ether, nepthtas. (3) Gasoline (4) Transport Oils eg. Jet
fuel, diesel oil, gas fuel. (5) Paraffin (6) Greases (7) Pitch and Asphalt use’ as pi otective
coating, binding agent. (8) Petroleum coke for carbon electrodes.
3. Natural Gas:
- Formation: As the oil is formed under the bed of the earth’s surface by biodegradation
of plants and animals, it also gives off large amount of natural gas.
ethane
5 _ 97f
3 - 18f/i-
2 _ 14c’/f
- Uses:
1. Used as fuel.
propane
higher hydrocarbons
2. Used as raw material for the synthesis of many Organic compounds eg. rubber.
Year
1947
1987
3. Thermoplastics: Definition:
”These are those plastics which can be melted again and again much like the wax in a
candle”.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
PVC
Teflon
ABS
Cellulose nitrate
””Examples:
Polyethylene ,
4ylons ,
Acrylic ,
Polystyrene ,
Uses:
1. PVC plastic is flexible, abrasion resistant, low cost and heat stable thus it is
used for producing film & sheet for packing materials.
Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory equipment.
6. Teflon is used in tank, pipe lining, filter media, pump components, artificial ear
ossicle.
”The main storage” is one of the four major physical components or hardware.
”M.-^n storage” was once maclj up of vacuum tubes and latei of magnetic cores.
Each lube or core
represent one ”bit”. It is now made up of tiny integrated circuits. Each such circuit
is made up of thousands of semicon-ductors. Each
(ii) RAM
It is a type of memory stored in a computer which both can be read from and
written to, is erased each time the computer is turned off.
(Hi)
Hardware
1. CPU
2. Main storage
3. auxiliary storage
4. input/output devices
computer can show. The more bytes a computer can store the more work it can do.
A computer memory is measured in bytes.
1 Mega byte =
1,048,576 bytes
ROM
It is a type of memory stored in a computer which can’t be written to, maintains its
contents all the times and is used to store the computer’s control
information.
Software
1. It consists of computer
programme.
1. electronic circuits
2. chips
3. transistors
Examples:
Uses:
PVC
Teflon
ABS
Cellulose nitrate
1. PVC plastic is flexible, abrasion resistant, low cost and heat stable thus it is
used for producing film £ sheet for packing materials.
Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory equipment.
6. Teflon is used in tank, pipe lining, filter media, pump components, artificial ear
ossicle.
Ans.
(i) BIT
”The main storage” is one of the four major physical components or hardware.
”M:’’n storage” was once mac.j up of vacuum tubes and latei of magnetic cores.
Each Lube or core
BYTE
represent one ”bit”. It is now made up of tiny integrated circuits. Each such circuit
is made up of thousands of semicon-ductors. Each
(ii) RAM
It is a type of memory stored in a computer which both can be read from and
written to, is erased each time the computer is turned off.
(Hi)
Hardware
1. CPU
2. Main storage
3. auxiliary storage
4. input/output devices
computer can show. The more bytes a computer can store the more work it can do.
A computer memory is measured in bytes.
1 Mega byte =
1,048,576 bytes
ROM
It is a type of memory stored in a computer which can’t be written to, maintains its
contents all the times and is used to store the computer’s control
information.
Software
1. electronic circuits
2. chips
3. transistors
PVC
Teflon
ABS
Cellulose nitrate
Examples:
Polyethylene ,
Nylons ,
Acrylic ,
Polystyrene ,
Uses:
1. PVC plastic is flexible, abrasion resistant, low cost and heat stable thus it is
used for producing film & sheet for packing materials.
Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory equipment.
6. Teflon is used in tank, pipe lining, filter media, pump components, artificial ear
ossicle.
Ans.
(i) BIT
”The main storage” is one of the four major physical components or hardware.
”M.”’n storage” was once madj up of vacuum tubes and latei of magnetic cores.
Each lube or core
BYTE
represent one ”bit”. It is now made up of tiny integrated circuits. Each such circuit
is made up of thousands of semicon-ductors. Each
(ii) RAM
It is a type of memory stored in a computer which both can be read from and
written to, is erased each time the computer is turned off.
(Hi)
Hardware
1. CPU
2. Main storage
3. auxiliary storage
4. input/output devices
computer can show. The more bytes a computer can store the more work it can do.
A computer memory is measured in bytes.
1 Mega byte =
1,048,576 bytes
ROM
It is a type of memory stored in a computer which can’t be written to, maintains its
contents all the times and is used to store the computer’s control
information.
Software
1. It consists of computer
programme.
1. electronic circuits
2. chips
3. transistors
Personal Computer
_ Multiple
Mainframe Computer
1.
local OR
area network.
Now a micro computer can also perform a task once reserved for mainframes.
Q.5. Explain any five of the following terms in not more than 4 lines each:
”It is the movement of water molecules from the lower solute concentration to the
higher solute concentration”.
It depends upon:
1. Temperature
”It is a process that can start from glycogen break down (glycogenolysis) or
glucose breakdown and both these meet at a stage of glucose -6- phosphate”.
During glycolysis 8 moles of ATP are produced due to the conversion of one mole
of glucose to 2 mole of pyruvic acid. 2 ATPs are utilized.
Glucose
Partial Oxidation
(Hi) Photosynthesis:
For ”photo synthesis” a plant requires CO2 + sunlight and chlorophyll. As earth is
rotating around its axis, thus sun rays doesn’t remain in the same direction all the
day, therefore plants changes their direction in order to get optional amount of
sunlight. This is called photo taxis”.
(iv) Transpiration:
”It is the loss of water from the plant in the form of water vapours, through
stomata”.
Formation:
•(v) Sponification:
It is a chemical process in which animal fat is made to react with caustic soda to
make a soap.
I.
j yj a A’t iTlYMiW 13 fl [*fJ
(ui;
Emulsion:
”If an oil such as corn oil is shaken vigorously with water, it is broken into smaller
droplets to form a homogeneous mixture called emulsion”.
Q.6.
Bucted
glands
Ans.
•L
•Examples:
(i)
I
Exocrine
Gland
•
1.
Lachrimal
srland
(ii)
2.
Sweat gland
•
3.
Salivary
(Hi)
Human blood is able to carry large amounts of oxygen because of the chemical
hemoglobin.
I
4.
Sebaceous
gland
(iv)
•Q.8.
ITMTT
(V)
V^lf
2.
Loloumb
(vi)
Watt
the ear.
I 4’
Ohm
(vii)
I ”K
Mho
Ampere
(viii)
The young plant inside a grain of wheat is called
1 ”’
Dyne
the plumule.
I
Celsius
• 9.
Joule
I 10.
Calorie
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
(x) The smallest branches of an artery lead into tiny blood vessels called
capillaries.
Q.7. What are exo crine glands? Give names of any four alongwith the name
of their secretion?
Ans. Definition:
Secretion
QUANTITY
Voltage/Potential’
Charge of electricity
Power
Resistance
Conductivity
current
Force
Temperature
Energy
Heat
Q.9.
Ans.
(i)
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Give scientific reasons in not more than 4 lines each for the following:
The atmospheric pressure decrease as the altitude increases. The boiling point of
water is 100 °C at standard atmospheric pressure. At the mountains this
atmospheric pressure is less, thus water boils at temperature lower than 100°C.
Therefore, meat takes longer time to be cooked. This can be overcome by using
pressure cookers.
Addition of salt in the ice lowers its freezing point and makes a cheap freezing
mixture for manual ice cream makers.
During the night plants don’t carry on photosynthesis i.e., they don’t release O2,
and only respiration is there which releases CO2. Thus it is not advisable to sleep
under trees in order to avoid excessive CO2 concentration in air.
(v) Green house operators paint their glass roofs white in summer.
In summer there is already much hot and white colour has a property of reflection
of light to a maximum
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPEF
extent as compared to other colours. Thus green house operators paint their glass
roofs white, in order to avoid over heating in their green houses.
Q.10. Which part/organ of the human body do the following belong?
Part/Organ
Ear
Connective Tissue
Ear
Muscle
Ans. Item
1; Eustachian Tube
2. Cartilage
3. Auricle
4. Tendon
5. Dendrites
fv) Animals which obtain their food from dead organisms are called
scavengers.
(x) The most abundant element in the human body is carbon. (C. H, O)
Q.12. Which of the following statement are false and which are true?
Ans.
(iv) Rainbow are produced by the reflection of light through rain drops, (true)
(v) Light switches in our homes are connected in parallel series, (true)
(x) Oil burns cleaner and is less damaging to the environment than coal as a fuel,
(true)
Ans.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
List A
Protein
Magnesium
Carotene
Bauxite
Haemitite
Casein
Pancreas
Quartz
CFC
Urea
ListB
Ozone Nitrogen
Q.14. Briefly describe the solar system. Name its members. Out line the main
characteristics of any 2 members?
Ans. Definition:
Solar system is a tiny part of a galaxy and consists of the sun and all the objects
that travel around it. Members of Solar System:
1. Sun
2. Planets
4. Asteroids
5. Meteoroids
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
6. Comets
7. Interplanetary dust
8. Interplanetary plasma
Definition:
Composition:
1. Hydrogen
2. Helium
1. Chromosphere
2. Photosphere Mass:
2 x 10 tons. Diameter:
1.4 gm/cc.
90%
8%
2%
15 million °C
6000°C
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
Age:
Source of Energy:
Matter:
The sun contains matter in the plasma state which is the fourth physical state of matter.
Movement:
The sun has a 27-day solar rotation period and 11year sunspot cycle.
Important Events:
1. Solar wind.
2. Solar flares.
3. Sunspots.
system. Age:
Life:
Mass:
6x 1021 tons.
Average Density:
1. Iron core
2. Rocky mantle
1. 78% N
2. 21% O2
plates.
1. ”Earth quakes have helped a great deal in deciphering the internal structure of
the earth”. Comment on this statement.
4. give a detailed description of global warming and its possible effects on life.
What measures have been taken by various nations to tackle this problem,
(iv) thermistor;
(in) semiconductor;
(v) transistor.
7. Writer short notes on FIVE of the following:
(v) Equinox is the time when the sun appears vertically overhead at noon at the equator;
(vi) Drought is a long period of rain; (vii) Joseph Aspdin is the inventor of cement;
(viii) Neurology is the science of nervous system;
(i) Newton;
(in) Watt;
(vii) Acre-foot;
(ix) Hertz;
(ii) Joule;
(iv) Volt;
(vi) Angstrom;
(viii) Becquerel;
(x) Cusec.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
Disease
(i) Rickets
(ii) Goiter
(in) Typhoid
(iv) Merismis
(v) Malaria
Cause
(i) Plasmodium
of
(c) Carburettor;
(e) Radiator.
(b) Battery;
(d) Dynamo;
(ii) Why is one’s breadth visible in cold but not in hot weather?
(v) Name the disease of the liver that causes a patient to turn yellow.
space having a gravitational pull so great that no matter or radiation can escape from it;
fungi;
as ;
(v) (vi)
(vii) The distance between the earth and the sun is called ;
(ix) The first computer virus invented by tow Paksitani brothers is called the ;
(v) Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics; (vi) Comet and Meteor; (vii) Barrage and
Dam;
Isotopes;
i
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Maximum Marks: 50
1. Fill in the blanks with the correct choice. Don’t reproduce the question write
only the correct answer in the answer book. (5 mark each)
is doped with
(e) The fine wire that glows inside an incandescent lamp is called
(f) The action which causes water to rise in plant roots is called
energy is
3. What are C.F.C’s? How do they effect the environment9 Name two
common household applicances in which they are used.
During revolution around the sun, the axis of the earth is tilted at an angle of 23%.
What effect if any does this have on the :
7. Name five man groups of vertebrates, giving one example and two
characteristics of each.
9. Most plants reproduce from seeds and spores, describe briefly five other ways in
which they can i eproduce.
(Imarks each)
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(a) why is high voltage preferred in long distance electric transmission systems?
(b) Why is air replaced with a mixture of Nitrogen and Argon in an electric bulb?
(d) Why would you expect a hypothetical ceramic engine to have greater efficiency
than an ordinary matallic engine?
(e) Why does a piece of iron sink in water, but a cork of the same size floats?
11. Which of the following statements are false and which are true. Don’t reproduce the
questions. Write only correct answer in the answer book.
(b)
(hislamine, interforon,
interleukins);
interfron, interleukins);
(d) An enzyme is a
nucleic acid);
(lepid, protein,
(e) The most abundant element in the earth crust is (oxygen, Nitrogen; Silicon);
(5 mark each)
(i) Barometer;
(in) Anemometer;
(v) Altimeter;
(vii) Hygrometer;
(ix) Hydrometer;
(ii) Ammeter;
(iv) Manometer;
(vi) Spectrometer;
(viii) Perimeter;
(x) Thermometer.
14. State the principle and explain working of any two of the following: (2.5 marks ach)
List A ListB
Mucus Anvil
Retina
ERYDAY SCIENCE
Haemophilia Chlorine
Cornea
Protein
Ear
Athlete’s foot
Pesticides
Chlorophyll
Pollen
Style
Vitamin K
Heart
Polymer
Trachea
Fungi
Carbohydrate
i
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS I
3. Explain the Solar System and the unifying characteristics which the Sun
and its planets have.
7. What is escape velocity? How the Satellites are launched and what are their
uses?
11. What are the deficiency effects of the following nutrients in the human body:
(a) Iron
(d) Vitamin A
(b) Iodine
(e) Vitamin D
(c) Fluorine
4. Fill in the blank. Write only the correct answers in the answer book. Don’t
reproduce the questions.
cell wall);
membrane);
(c) Mitosis is a type of cell division wherein the number of chromosomes in the
daughter cell are the (same, half, double);
(e) The
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
15. Which of the following statements are false or true. Write only true or false in
the answer book. Don’t reproduce the questions:
(d) Plasma is the fluid part of the blood in which the cells are suspended;
system;
carry equal marks. Illustrate your answer with diagram where necessary.
(c) Semiconductors.
2. Describe the various type of movements of the earth. What are the effects of these
movements? Draw simple diagrams to illustrate your answer. (4,6)
(2 each)
4. What is excretion? Name the excretory organs in man. Describe the structure and
function of human kidney for the excretion of urine. (1,2,7)
6. What are latitudes and longitudes? How can the central line of latitude and longitude
be used to find the location of a place? (4,6)
(1 each)
(g) LAN
0’) Registers.
(e) software
(h) Modern
(i) ALU
detail. (10)
contain
(e) Plant
to environmental stimuli.
control plant responses
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(f)
solar system.
11. What are plastics? Name their different types and processes by which they
are manufactured, Discuss the impact of the use of plastics on the environment.
(1,4,5)
12. Which of the following statements are Flase and which are True: (1 each)
(a) In the circulatory system two pulmonary arteries take blood from the left
ventricle to the lungs.
(b) Anaphase is the stage of mitosis during which the daughter chromosomes
move towards the poles.
(c) The Motor neurons carry nerve finpulses from he central nervous system to the
effectors.
13. Choose the correct answers. Don’t reproduce the questions. (leach)
(i) Speed of the wind is measured by: (a) Barometer (b) Hygrometer
(ii)
(a) Cartilage
(c) Tendon
(in) Polio is caused by a: (a) Bacteria (c) Fungue (e) None of these.
(iv) The coldest planet of the solar system is: (a) Earth (d) Venus
(c) Mars
(v) is a vitamin:
(b) Virus
(d) Pluto
(a) Citric acid
Note: Attempt any ten questions. All questions carry equal marks.
Scientists
(i) Umar Al-Khay\am. (li) Abu Ali Sina (in) Jabir ibn Hayyan. (iv) Ibn al Baitar (v)
Zakanya Al-Razi. Q. 2. (a) Differentiate clearly between Cyclone, Hurricane and
tornado, (b) (i) Name two minerals which are exported from
Pakistan.
(ii) Name some gem-minerals used in Jewellery, (in) What is dead sea. (iv) Why does the Sun
appears orange-red at the time
of Sunrise and Sunset, (v) Why does the total Eclipse can happen only at
Q. 3. (a) Name popular farms of Energy. Write five various scientific devices used to
convert one type of energy into another form of energy (b) Write meaning of the rollcming
units (i) Barrel (ii) Joule
(v) Ram and Cache memory. Q. 6. Describe briefly the principle and working of any
TWO of
the following:
(x) Barrage and Dam. Q. 8. Explain the scientific reasons for the following:
(in) Rainbow is produced in the sky after rain fall and sunlight.
(x) Mica is a non-conductor of electricity. Q. 10. What are Endocrine glands? Name
any four. From which
(v) Testosterone and (vi) Cortisol. Q. 11. (a) Name the important parts of a
Flower.
(b) Explain the Pollination and Fertilization processes. Q. 12. Write short notes on any
FIVE of the following:
(i) Ecosystem
(ii) CNG
(in) PVC
(iv) Hormones
(v) Antibiotics
(vi) Ceramics
(viii) Photosynthesis
(ix) ” Pasteurization
(x) Vaccine. Q. 13. What are the factors of water pollution? What type of
the methods to control pollution of water. Q. 14. Fill in the blanks with appropriate
words:
(in) (iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
The chemical name of washing soda is The main constituent of Sui gas is
Gla>.s JS a
Monomers of protein are Ascorbic acid is vitamin
Aids is caused by
planets.
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(xvii)
nucleus and
*##*#**#**
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
RECRUITMENT TO POSTS
GOVERNMENT, 2002.
(EVERYDAY SCIENCE)
(5 each)
(2 each)
Q.3.
Q.4.
Mi rn
eye,
essential parts. Discuss its working. Fill in th,e blanks with suitable words:
indicating all
(5,5) (1 each)
(a)
(b)
id)
(e) (f)
(g)
’j’
Ability of the air to absorb long heat waves from the earth after allowing the short waves from
sun to pass through it is known as Computei works on the principle introduced by the
Muslim scientist
Q.6.
Q.7.
Q. 8.
Q.1Q.
rVERYDAY SCIENCE
What is the solar system? Indicate the position of planet Pluto in it. State the characteristics that
classify it as: (5,1,4, (a) a planet (b) an asteroid
(1 each)
What are minerals? For most of the part miSnerals are constituted of eight elements, name any six
of them. State the six characteristics that are used to identify minerals.
(2,2,6)
Polymerization
Antibiotic
Gene
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
suitable
(2
if)
Software
What do you understand by the term ”Balanced Diet”? What are its essential constituents? State
the function of each constituent. (2,3,5)
Which of the following statements are true and which are false: (1 each)
(c) The left lung has two lobes while the right lung has three lobes.
(d) The pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the right atrium.
(f) Our galaxy milky way is shape& like a large thick concave lense with a large central bulge.
(g) DNA has a double helix structure while the RNA does not have a double helix structure
volcano.
Q.ll. What do the following scientific abbreviations stand for’’ (1 each (a> LASER (b)
RADAR >c> LPG
(x) DNA
Q.12. Give brief scientific reasons for any five of the following statements: (1 each)
(f) Places near the sea are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than places farther
inland
Q. 13. Name:-
(1 each)
(g) The gland responsible for the secretion of the hormone estrogen.
(h) An element used i81n the doping of silicon for the preparation of a p-type semiconductor.
(j) Major constituent of Biogas. Q. 14. What are Fertilizers? What do you understand by the
term
pollution? ’; (3,1.6)
(2) The cell structure that controls movements of material into and out of the cell is the:
(a) mitochondria (b) cell membrane
t&m
^^^^^^^^^^^^BA*7^ ;\’i ’7:VfriH Mt’T^r^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^l
(3)
(o The
the
(4)
(5)
(6)
< 7)
(8)
(9)
(10!
The number of natural Satellite orbiting around the planet Mars is:
(a) 1 (b) 2
ici 5 id) 14
hydrolysis defecation
mature stigma
Larynx
(d) fully mature Flowering stalk the Vocal Folds are part of the:
Laryngopharyn ”>
Blood glucose is raised by all of the following except: (a> glycogen (b) Insulin
the famous book Al-Qanoon was written by the Muslim scientistfa) Jabir-ibn-Hayyan
EVERYDAY SCIENC
(EVERYDAY SCIENCE)
Time • 3 hours. Maximum Marks : 100
3. Name: (1 each)
(b) (c)
(g) (h)
(c) A disease which is more common in men than in women and is hereditary in character.
(f) A Cvanobactermm.
sun.
What do the following scientific abbreviations stand for:(l each) (a) SONAR (b) SARS (c)
NTP
(k) BCG
What are pesticides1’ Discuss their classification commonly in use with agronomists ’2, 8)
10.
It.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(d) When a person can see nearer objects but not the diblant ones he is said to be suffering from .
(h) The movement of food through esophagus is by the muscular action known as .
Cortisol (2,2,6)
155
12.
(c) fats
2. A nanometer is :
3. The minimum speed of a Pentium II computer is: (a) 133MHz (b) 23 MHz
4. According to recent classifications the living organisms are divided into number of
kingdoms:
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
7. Seed is technically:
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 5 (d) 14
14.
iei y.E.M. and T.E.M. Which of the following statements are true and which are false: (1 each)
(a) Right kidney in man is slightly lower in position than the left kidney.
Base metal can be converted into gold by heating. Guava contains more vitamins C than orange. A light
year is a unit of time. Mercury is heavier than Lead.
A person is hurt more when he falls on hard ground than on soft ground.
(b)
If)
<g)
(h)
(i) U)
(b)
(c)
(d)
’e) „ , -.
What does LASER stand for? Describe its four different applications clearly stating their
principle. (2, 8)
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
i57
NOTE: Attempt any TEN questions All questions carry EQUAL marks. Draw diagrams where
necessary and write clearly.
1. Write short notes on any TWO of the following: (5 each) (a) Superconductivity (b)
Night Vision Technology
(c) Seismogragh
2. Briefly write down characteristics of: (5 each) (a) Mercury (b) Pluto
3. Name: (1 each)
(d) The vitamin whose deficiency causes a disease called Beri Beri
(f) A nuclear reaction in which two or more than two lighter nuclei are fused together to form a
relatively heavier one.
sensation of white light, (j) The defect of vision because of which a person
cannot see distant objects clearly.
4. What are fertilizers? What do you understand by the term NPK Fertilizer? How do fertilization
contribute to the pollution. (2, 2, 6)
5. Write briefly about any FIVE of the following: (2 each) (a) Nuclear radiation (b)
Theodolite
10.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
(e) Richter Scale (f) Aqua Regia (g) Iodized Salt Which physical quantities are
measured by the following units? (1 each)
(a) Rutherford (b) Torr (c) Fermi (d) SVED BERG Unit (e) Dioptre (f) Mho (g) Henry
(h) Maxwell (i) Becquerel (g) Kilo Watt Hour
What are the various sources of energy? How does energy is produced in the surface of
the sun? What will be the future of the sun? (4,4,2)
Which are the following statements True and which are False. (1 each)
(a) A six feet tall lady can see her full image in a three feet Plane Mirror
(b) Vanadium, a steel gray corrosion resistant metal occur naturally in oxide state.
(e) The falling of yellow leaves during Autumn is the seasonal time for plants to get rid
of accumulated wastes.
pressure is greatest (i) Heat reaches earth from the sun by means of
convection.
(j) Meningitis is the inflammation of liver. Differentiate between the following pairs.
(2 each)
(a) Periscope & Pyrometer (b) Cell & Batter) (c) Perimeter & Altimeter (d)
Pelage and Plumage (e) Smog and Smoke Fill in the blanks:
pairs
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
1459
11.
12.
13.
14.
(e) (f)
be charged again
Halos around the moon are formed because offiF the phenomenon of
Oil rises in a wick of oil lamp on account w«of a property of matter called
on .
(1) Rain water is more fertile than water from tube \w/ell.
(5)
The man-hole covers are generally round. Clothes of a moving dancer bulge.
Why are the scientists worried about the increase of carhrjon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere? Is there any possil_ble benefit for the mankind in case of global warming?
(£3,2) What do the following scientific abbreviations stand for?
(a) STP (b) ATP (c) PNP (d) LAN (et KWh
Match the columns A and B but write the answers sei - ial
1. Frank Whittle
2. Addison
3. Hahn
4. Mendel
5. Benjamin Franklin
7. Heisenberg
8. Fermi
9. Lawrence
(1 Column C
1.
2.
3.
Column B
Fission
Electricity
Genetics
Lightening conductor 4.
Semi conductor 6.
Uncertainty principle 6.
Jet engine 7.
Cyclotron 8.
Fusion 10.
Length
Stem Engine
15. Choose the best choice in the following statements (1 each)
plants are:
(a) N,P,K (b) N,C,P (c) HK/C (.2) The most abundant element m the human body is-
(4) Sea divers use a mixture of gases for breathing during diving The mixture is
(c) 20%02&40%N240%CO,
(a) Formic acid (b) Acetic acid (d Benzoic acid (d) Botanic acid