Every Day Science by DR Muhammad Akram Kashmiri

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EVERYDAY SCIENCE

For Competitive Examinations

By

DR. MUHAMMAD AKRAM KASHMIRI

Chairman

Department of Chemistry Government College University, Lahore

A. H. PUBLISHERS
22 AI-Fazal Market, Urdu Bazar, Lahore Phone: 7325108
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

No part of this publication may be reproduced in any

form, without the prior permission

of the publisher

Legal Advisor

CH. M. ILYAS SANDHU

M A LL B Advocate

Published by Muhammad Fazal For A.H. Publishers

Revised and Enlarged

1st Edition

2nd Edition

3rd Edition

4th Edition 1

5th Edition

6th Edition

7th Edition

8th Edition

1993-94

1995-96

1997-78

999-2000

2001-02

2003-04
2004-05

2005-06
Printed by NAYYAR ASAD PRINTERS,

Lahore

Price Rs. 200.00

Under the ^upci vision of MUNAWAR AHMED

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The encouragement for writing this book had onginally come from the academy of
Administrative Sciences a premiei institution engaged in preparing candidates for
the CSS and other Competitive

Examinations The fust edition was sold in no time

Since then the demand foi the book has been peisistent

While bringing out the second edition I have taken the oppoitumty to add
substantial mateiial The subject at places has also received a more detailed
exposition An added featui e is the addition of selected question and then answeis
at the end of each chaptei, which will be found helpful by the students

Eveiyday Science is a compulsory paper in all Competitive Examinations - the


Provincial as well as at

the Fedeial level The fust addition had leceived a

tiemendous i espouse The present revised and enlaiged edition, it is hoped will be
found even moie mstiuctive and mteiestmg and will piove hopefully rewaidmg foi
candidates of vaiious competitive examinations

Prof Dr Muhammad / i i, n Kashmn i


PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

The third edition has been completely revised. It includes solved


question papers of the competitive examinations, improved
question _ answers and modern handy lucrative charts. The present
edition is a capsule of Everyday Science Syllabus. Believe

it or not!
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Akram Kashmiri

Chairman

Department of Chemistry Government College, Lahore.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

Everyday Science is a Compulsory paper in all competitive examinations at


provincial as well as federal levels. The students going in for these
examinations have long felt the need for a standard publication on Everyday
Science that meets the requirements of the prescribed syllabi, encapsulates
latest scientific information in diverse fields of enquiry within the scope of a
compact volume and is entertaining as well as instructive It is with these
considerations in view that the present book has been prepared. I believe that
the book will fill a considerable void

A special feature of the book is that it presents a brief history of science with
special reference to the contribution of Muslim Scientists, thus providing a
comprehensive though concise historical perspective to modern scientific
thought.

I arn grateful to the Academy of Administrative and Social Sciences, a


premier institution engaged in preparing candidates for the C.S.S., and other
competitive examinations for the encouragement given to me in the writing
of this book and for arranging to publish it.

It is earnestly hoped that the present book will prove highly rewarding for
candidates of Central and provincial Civil Services. Suggestions for further
improving the quality of the book are solicited.
Prof. Dr. Muhammad
ONTENTS
Chapter 1 SCIENCE

• Introduction

• History of Science

• Achievement of Some giants of Science in Chronological Order

• Islamic Science

• Ready - Reckoner of Contributions of Muslim Scientists

• Some Famous Muslim Scientists

• Subject-wise Ready-Reckoner of Muslim Scientists

• Nature of Science

• Impact of Science

• Limitations of Science

• Exercise

Chapter 2 THE UNIVERSE

• Introduction

• The Origin: The Big Bang

• The Structure: Galaxies

• Solar System

• Constellation Zodiac

• The Sun

• The Moon

• The Earth

• The Most Amazing Objects


Page# (1-30)
1
1

12

19
21
22
25
25

(31-84)
31
31
32
34
38
40
41
42
43

• Structure of the Earth 45

• Earth’s Atmosphere 47

• The Greenhouse Effect 51

• Global Warming 51

• Ozone Depletion 52

• Acid Rain 53

• Map Reading 54

• Earthquakes 56
• Eclipses 60

• Total Solar Eclipse 61

• The Mystery of Stonehenge 64

• Day-Night and Seasons 65

• Volcanoes 67

• Universe 69

• Minerals ’ 71

• Exercise 77

Chapter 3 ENERGY (88-120)

• Introduction 88

• Sources of Energy 91

• Fossil Fuels _/ 92

• Major Oil Producing Countries 93

• Global Search of Crude Oil 94

• Petroleum Products 95

• Natural Gas 96

• Hydel Power or Hydro-electric Power 97

• Solar Energy 98

• Nuclear Energy 99
• The nuclear reactor . Heavy Water

. Nuclear Safety , Nuclear Fusion

• Energy Conservation

• Radiation and Living Things

• Energy Terms

• Exercise

Chapter 4 PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

• Ceramics

• Semi-Conductors

• The Communication System: Radio, Telephone. Television

• Laser

• Telescope

• Fertilizers

• Pesticides

• Camera

• Camera Vs. Eye

• Plastics

• Computer

• Terms Used in Computers

• Glossary of Computers

• Exercise

Chapter 5 LIVING THINGS


• Tntroduction

• The Plant Kingdom

101

103

105

107
108
108
110
113

(121-172)
121
125

127

129

132

133

136

138

140

141

144

148

149

157

(173-237)
173

175

• The Animal Kingdom 178 . Origin of Life 181

• Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence 183

• Cells 184

• Animals Vs. Plants 186

• Microscope 188

• Diseases 192

• Bacteria 194

• Antibiotics 196

• Vaccines 199

• Hormones and Endocrine Glands 201

• Chromosomes • 204

• Genes 206

. Metabolism 208

. Balanced Food 209

• Vitamins 212

• Classification of Vitamins 212

• Exercise 219

Chapter 6 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY (238276)

• Introduction 238

• Systems of the Human Body 238 ’ . The Eye 249


. The Kidneys 251

• The Liver 252

. The Heart 253

. The Blood 255

. The Skin 256


The Teeth

• The Lungs

• The Brains

The Ear

• Kxercise Appendices

Solved Qxiestion Papers

Solve Question Paper 1993

Solve Question Paper 1994

Solve Question Paper 1995

Solve Question Paper 1996

Solve Question Paper 1997

Solve Question Paper 1998

Solve Question Paper L999

Solve Question Paper 2000

Solve Question Paper 2001

Solve Question Paper 2002

Solve Question Paper 2003

Solve Question Paper 2004

258
258
260
261
262
277

(295-456)
297
318
344
375
401
427
437
440
445
449
453
457

Chapter 1

SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION
The word ’Science’ is derived from the Latin (Roman) word ’Scientia’ or ’Scire’
which means knowledge. Science deals with the understanding of natural
phenomena and the relations between them and its end is the rational interpretation
of facts of existence as disclosed to us by our faculties and senses. The hypotheses
of Science, according to a great thinker, Karl Pearson are formed on the basis of
the observed facts, which, when confirmed by criticism and experiments are
turned into the ”Law of Nature”. In the words of J. Arthur Thomson,” Science is
the well-criticised body of empirical knowledge declaring in the simplest and
Tersest terms available at the time what can be observed and experimented with,
and summing up uniformities of change in formula which are called laws
verifiable by all who can use methods.” Hypothesis, theory and law seems to be
the vertices of the triangle of science based on experiments and observations.

HISTORY OF SCIENCE
The history of science must include the history of the development of all aspects
of knowledge. If science is considered as a branch of tested knowledge obtained
by the accumulation of fact derived from observations and experiments then Myth
and Religion mainly dominated as modes for explaining the world among

1
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

early civilizations. Early Greek philosophers were the first to bring a change in
this concept. They excluded supernatural causes from their accounts of reality. By
the 3rd century B.C., Greek science was highly sophisticated and producing
theoretical models that have shaped the development of science ever since.
Although modern science is said to be the child of Greek science and the
Renaissance is believed to have been brought about mainly by the restoration of
the Greek Classics but still their work was not based on observation and
experiment; a real scientific approach. Therefore, Greek science itself was not
truly scientific. The Greeks were over-theoretical, for their science was an off-
shoot of philosophy.

With the fall of Greece to the Roman Empire, science fell from grace. Science was
almost unknown in Western Europe in the 5th century A.D. after the fall of the
Romans. Islamic culture alone preserved Greek knowledge and later transmitted it
back to the West. Muslim scholars were the first to make science meaningful and
practical in the real sense by introducing observation and experiment as
characteristic steps of scientific achievements.

During the time A.D 200-1200, when Europe was passing through the so-called :
”Dark Ages”, the whole World was ringing with the scientific achievements of
Muslim scholars like Avicenna and Averroes.

The spectrum of history of Science can be traced back in the following


chronological order:

MYTH AND SUPERSTITIONS BABYLONIAN SCIENCE EGYPTIAN


SCIENCE GREEK SCIENCE
SCIENCE

ALEXANDRIAN SCIENCE

ISLAMIC SCIENCE

WESTERN SCIENCE

MODERN SCIENCE
ACHIEVEMENTS OF SOME GIANTS OF SCIENCE IN THE CHRONOLOGICAL
ORDER

Name of the Scientist


Pythagoras

Aristotle

Archimedes (Italian)

Hippocrates

Johannes Kepler (German)

Galileo Galilei (Italian)

Life-Span

580-500 B.C.

384-322 B.C.

287-212 B.C.

190-120 B.C.

A.D. 1571-1630

A.D. 1564-1642
Scientific Contributions

i^^^m
He formulated basic laws of geometry.

He divided the Universe into two distinct regions. He also did the first systematic work on comparative
Biology.

He gave famous Archmedes Principle for Floating Bodies.

He gave importance to the position of stars and made comprehensive list on the relative shift in the position
of stars.

He was the first person to show that the planets move around the sun in elliptic orbits. He gave laws of
planetary motion.

He developed the Astronomical Telescope.


Isaac Newton (English)

Charles Darwin (English)

Albert Einstein (German)

A.D. 1642-1727

A.D. 1809-1892

A.D. 18791955

He gave Laws of motion and Laws of Gravitation. He was Professor of Mathematics.

He was naturalist. He revolutionised Biology. He gave the theories of Natural Selection in Evolution.

He was a physicist. He revised classical physics with his theory of General Relativity.

Phythagoras (570-497 B.C.)

He was born at Somos. He was a mathematician and an experimenter. He is


known to common man through a geometric theorem which carries his name. He
introduced the abstract idea of number. He regarded the Earth, the sun and the
Moon as spheres.

Socrates (469-399 B.C.)

He was born in Athens in the house of a sculptor. He was regarded as the wisest
philosopher of his time. His fields or interest were music, mathematics and
gymnastics. He gave meanings to goodness, justice and similar ideas, which seei i
so simple but are so difficult to define. Plato (428-347 B.C.) was his famous
disciple.

Aristotle (384-322 E.C.>

He was rhe son of a physician and disciple of Plato. He contributed mainly in the
fields of physics, biology and the humanities. He mentioned about 500 animals,
some with diagrams, gained by thin dissection. He described the development of
the embryo chicken,

detected the formation of the heart, and watch its beat while yet in the egg.

Isaac Newton (A.D. 1642-1727)

He was born in England on Christmas Day, 1642. His main fields of interests were
physics and mathematics. Laws of motion and Force of Gravity gave him an
immense popularity. He invented the calculus or ’flusion’s - finding the rate of
change of one variable with respect to another. He never married in his life. He
made a triangular prism and showed the dispersion of white light into seven
colours; red. orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet - this proved the
composite nature of white light.

Charles Darwin (A.D. 1809-1882)

He was born at Shreusbury, England in 1809. He enriched his observations by


collecting more facts, performing experiments, on breeding and variation in plants
and animals. He published his famous book ”On the origin of Species by means of
Natural Selection”, in
1859. The essential features of Darwin’s theory can be summed up in the
following points.

(1) There is always a tendency for over-reproduction in a species.

(2) All individuals of a specie are not exactly alike, i.e., there are variations.
He assumed that variations are inherited.

(3) There is intra-specific competition among individuals in a species and


among species. There is a struggle for existence.

(4) In the struggle for existence the favourable variations will survive and
the unfavourable will
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

be exterminated. This results in the Survival of the Fittest.

The favourable, variations will accumulate and this ’Natural Selection’ will lead to
gradual changes in the characters of a species towards better adaptation. This
gradual change, when it has proceeded for enough, will result in the origin of a
new species.

Galileo Galilei (A.D. 1564-1642)

He was born at Pisa, Italy in 1564. He gave the true method of physical research
by combining observation and induction with mathematical deduction tested by
experiments. He was the first man to point out that the path of a projectile would
be a parabola, resolving its motion into a horizontal component which keeps
constant, and a vertical component which follows the laws of falling bodies.

He was always fascinated in devising various instruments and pieces of machinery


- this led him to invent telescope in 1609. He detected the presence of black spots
on the moon as hills and valleys and spots of the Sun with his telescope. He also
discovered the principle of pendulum. His observations confirmed his belief that
the Earth rotates about its axis and moves around the Sun. It is interesting to point
out that the most modern version of Galileo’s telescope, known as Hubble Space
Telescope (cost $ 1.5 billion) was launched in the Earth’s orbit in April 1991-four
centuries after his discovery. This telescope will look into the past and the origin
of the Universe.

John Kepler (A.D. 1571-1630)

He was born at Wurtumburg, Germany in 1571. His main field of interest was
mathematics. He believed that all the natural laws could be expressed in terms of

existing mathematics. He framed three laws, known as Kepler’s Laws of Planetary


Motion.

Laws of Planetary Motion

(1) The planets move round the Sun in elliptical orbits with Sun as one of this
focci.

(2) The radius vector joining the planet and the sun sweeps equal areas in equal
times.
(3) The square of the periodic times of the various planets (including the Earth) are
proportional to the cubes of the semi-major axis of their respective orbits.

These law constitute the starting point of modern astronomy.

He also made a considerable contribution in the field of optics.

Albert Einstein (A.D. 1879-1955)

He was born in Germany in 1879. He had Jewish origin. His primary interests
were physics and mathematics. He specifically contributed in the following fields.

Special theory of Relativity

Inertia of Energy

Theory of brownian Movement

Quantum Law of Emission

There can vbe nothing at ”absolute rest” or at ”absolute motion” in the Universe.
This philosophy gave

J
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

birth to the theory of relativity which was a break through in the Kingdom of
Physical Sciences.

Einstein locked energy and mass into his famous equation, E = mc2 (Where ’E’ is
the energy, ’m’ is the mass and ’c’ is the velocity of light). He got the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1921 for suggesting applications of the Quantum Mechanics. The
special theory of relativity is basprl on the following points:

(1) The speed of light always has the same value.

(2) The laws of nature are the same for all bodies in uniform motions.

It Say* That:

(i) It is impossible to find out if two events happened

at the same time.

(ii) All motion is relative.

(Hi) An object in motion gets shorter in the direction of the motion.

(iv) Clocks in motion slow down.

(v) An object in motion has its mass increased because of the motion.

The Special Theory covers only uniform motion, whereas the General Theory
includes accelerated and rational motion as well.

ISLAMIC SCIENCE
When the people of the whole of Europe were living in a highly savage state, then
moral codes were degraded and then theology debased, the crescent of Islam rose
form the horizons to enlighten the faculties of understanding of Basic Laws of
Nature.

When the great Founder of Islam was born, the majority of mankind looked
upon the elements of Nature, the subject matter of science, as objects
possessing supernatural powers. They made idols, symbolizing different
elements, and worshipped them as gods and goddesses, either for protection from
evil or for attainment of certain objects. Thus all that was useful in the Heavens
and the Earth remained unexplored, and for thousand of years man did not realise
the sublime utility of the forces of Nature. It was reserved for the Book of Islam
to open Man’s eyes to the wonderland of Nature. Scientific activity in the Islamic
world started at a number of centres like Basra, Kufa, Baghdad and Cairo.
READ-RECKONER OF CONTRIBUTIONS OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS

Name of the Life-Span

• Muslim Scientist

Scientific Contributions

Natural History. He wrote


50 books to the study of a single animal, the horse.

2. | M. Bin Musa AI-Khawarzimi

Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography. He discovered zero and used decimal Notation.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan IGeber)

Practical Chemist.

Abu Ishaq Kindi

Mathematics, Astrology, Physics, Optics.

I
AI-Battani

A.D. 858-929

Astronomy and

Mathematics

6.
Zakariya AI-Razi

A.D. 865-925

Chemistry, Medicine,

Physician.

7.

Abu All Sina

A.D. 980-1037

Physician, Medicine.

(Avicenna)

8.

AI-Biruni

A.D. 973-1048

Mathematics.

9.

Ibn al-Baitar

Died A.D. 1248

Botany, Pharmacy.

10.

Ibn Rushid
A.D. 1126-1198

Physician, Astronomy,

(Averroes)
Philosophy

11.

Nasir-ud-Din I

A.D. 1201-1274

Mathematics, Optics,

al-Toosi

Astrology, Astronomy,

Geography.

12.

Abu Qasim

A.D. 936-1013

Surgeon, Physician.

Al-Zahrawi

13.

AI-Farabi

A.D. 874-950

Mathematics, Meta-

I physics, Musical theorist, I

Mystical thinker like

I Plato. He believed in the I


i.

immortality of the soul.

14.

M. Ibn Ibrahim

Died 733

Mathematics.
AI-Fzari

15.

Umar AI-Khayyam

Died A.D. 1131

Algebra: Solution of cubic

I equations and their classi- I

fication. He devised a

new calendar.
SCIENCE

16.

Habash AI-Hasib

Trigonometry, Astronomical tables. He was

the first to determine the

time by an altitude.

17.

Abdur Rahman Al-Sufi


A.D. 903-986

He compiled an illustrated catalogue of stars.

18.

AI-Ghazali

A.D. 1058-1111

Some wrote a treatise on

I the motion and nature of |

the stars.
19.

AI-Farghani

He wrote a comprehensive treatise on

astronomy.

20.

Al-Zarqali

He gave an account of the trigonometical knowledge of his time.

21.

Qutb-ud-Din Al-Shirazi

Died A.D. 1266

He discovered the possibility of the rotation of the Earth.

22.

AI-Nasavi

He introduced the decimal

system.

23.

Abdul Latif

A.D. 1162-1231

Medicine, Anatomy.

24.

Ibn Zuhr > • (AvenzoarJ

Medicine: He was a physician


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

SOME FAMOUS MUSLIM SCIENTISTS

(1) Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi

He was born (A.D. 780-847) in Khawarizm. He was one of the greatest scientist of all
times and contributed richly in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Geography. He
was considered as an authority on mathematics. He composed the oldest works on
arithmetics, algebra and astronomical tables. He actually systematised the Greek and
Hindu mathematical knowledge. His celebrated work on algebra entitled ”Hisab al Jabr
Wai Muqabala” translated in Latin, was used as the principal mathematical text-book
until the 16th century by European universities. He was an astronomer of outstanding
ability. He was also a geographer of repute and laid the foundation of geographical
science in Arabic. He has been called ”the principal figure in the early history of Arabic
Mathematics”. He wrote a great treatise on Aljebra containing analytical solutions of
quadratic equations. He authored the following important books:

fi) Hisab Al Hindi

(ii) Al Jama-Wat Tafri

(Hi) Kitab al Amal bil Asturlab

(iv) Kitab Ama of Asturlab

(v) Kitab Surat al Ard

(2) Jabir Ibn Hayyan

Jabir Ibn Hayyan (A.D. 721-815) known as Geber in the WTest, was a great practical
chemist of his time. He prepared a large number of important chemicals like, Nitric Acid,
Sulphuric Acid and Hydrochloric Acid. He is considered as god-father of modern
chemistry, He became famous for his various chemical techniques and


SCIENCE

processes like, calcination, reduction, sublimatio’1’ distillation, melting and


crystallization. Several of bis chemical treatises were translated into several Europe*1
languages. He gave sound views on methods of chemi£a research, and a theory on the
geological formation ° metals. He prepared basic lead carbonate, arsenic a antimony from
their sulphides; dealt with refinement metals, preparation of steel, dyeing of cloth and
leathfe”1 ’ He authored the following important books:
(i) Kitab al Rahmah

(ii) Kitab alTajmi

(in) Book of Seventy

(iv) Composition of Alchemy

(3) Abu Ishaq Kindi

Al-Kindi was born in Basrah in the beginning ° the 9th century A.D. He was a great
physicist, known ^s Al-Kindus in the West. He wrote a treatise On geometrical and
physiological optics. He al^° endeavoured to ascertain the laws that govern the fall °f
bodies. No less than 265 works are ascribed to him D* which at least fifteen are on
meteorology, eight on mu0ic and several on specific weights, tides, optics and on tPe
reflection of light. His important treatises are:

(i) De Aspectibus (ii) De Medicinarum Compsitarum Gradibus

(4) Zakariya al-Razi

Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi (A.P1


865-925) was a Persian Muslim and a great physician V? profession. He is better known
as Rhazes in the We^tHis other fields of interest were physics and chemisti’?1 He was
the most brilliant pillar of Islamic medicine alor^ with Ibn Sina. He also contributed in
the fields of music’
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and ethics. He earned the title of the Father of
Paediatrics by writing his monograph on ”Diseases in children”. He believed in five
eternal principles in metaphysics namely Creator, Soul, Matter, Time and Space. He was
also an excellent teacher of medicine. He made an attempt to classify chemical
substances. He was the first scientist to classify substances into vegetables, animals and
minerals.

His famous books are:

(i) Arabian Medicine

(ii) Al Hawi

(Hi) Kitab Al Mansuri

(iv) Al Judari Wai Hasbah

(v) Kitab AlAsrar

(vi) Barr-ul-Saat

(vii) Kitab Al-Asrar

(viii) Fi Jamal il Musuqi

(5) Abu Ali Sina

Abu Ali Hussain Ibn Abdullah Ibn Hasan Ibn Ali Ibn Sina was born in A.D. 980 at
Afshinah near Bukhara (Turkistan). He is considered as the greatest intellectual giant of
the Middle Ages. He contributed to medical science, philosophy lo^ic, mathematics,
astronomy and music. He was an unforgetable physician of all times. He is better known
a Avicenna in the West. His most famous book ’Al Qannun fil Tib’, known as Canon in
l!atin, was translated in many languages and it remained the sole textbook of medicine
for several hundred years in Western Universities. He was unparallel versatile genius. It
is said that he wrote no less than 230 books and treaties. He fell victim to a disease in
which he was a specialist and breathed his last at the age of 57 in A.D.
1037. The Canon of a Avicenna, consisting of

approximately a million words, is the most influential text-book ever written. For six
centuries it dominated the medical schools of Asia and Europe. He was the first to use
catheters made of the skins of various animals, and he mentioned intravesical injections
by means of a silver syringe.

His famous books are:


(i) Ash-Shfa (ii) An-Najat (Hi) Nafia

(v) Isharrat

(6) Al-Biruni

Abu Rayhan Muhammad Al-Biruni was born near the town of Khawarizm in A.D. 973.
He was simultaneously a physician, astronomer, mathematician, physicist, geographer
and historian. He was a born writer ad he never had a pen out of his hand. He learnt
Sanskarit language in order to investigate Indian knowledge. He explained the problems
of advanced trigonometry. It was he who discovered that light travels faster than sound.
He accurately determined the weight of 18 stones in physics. He gave an understanding
to the terms of longitudes and latitudes. He died at the age of
75 years in A.D. 1048. He was the author of the following famous books.

(i) Tahqiq Al-Hind (ii) Qamun Al-Masudi (Hi) Asrar Al-Baqiya (iv) Kitab Al-Saidana

(v) Kitab Al-Jawahar (vi) Al-Tafhim


(7) Ibn Al-Haitham

Abu Ali Al Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham, better known as Alhazan in the West, was born at
Basrah in A.D. 975. He was an outstanding mathematician, physiologists and optician.
He is more known for his optical works which were translated into Latin. He explained
the refraction of light rays through transparent objects, discovered magnifying lenses, and
the function of retina as the seat of vision. He identified gravity as a force, a theory which
was later on developed by Newton. He died in Cairo in A.D. 1039. He observed the semi-
lunar shape of the image of the Sun during eclipses on a wall opposite a fine hole in the
window-shutters-the first record of the camera obscura. His famous books are:

(i)

(ii)

(Hi)

(iv) (v)

Uyunul Ariba fi Tabaqaat il Atibba

Kitab Al Manazir

On Twilight Phenomena

Mizanul Hikma

Configuration of the Universe

(8)

Ibn Al-Baitar

Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Al-Baitar was born in Malaga (Spain) at the end
of the 12th century. He was a great Spanish Muslim botanist and pharmacist. He made a
complete collection of plants and herbs extending from Spain to Syria. HP discovered
many new plants and extracted medical drugs from them. His work was considered an
authority in plants and he gave new orientation to the classification and nomenclature of
plant kingdom over which modern botany is based. He died in Damascus in A.D. 1248.
He was the author of the following famous books:

(i) Kita Al-Jami fi Adwiya Al Mufzada (ii) Jami (Hi) Mughani

(9) Ibn Rushd


Abdul Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmed Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd was born in Spain in
A.D. 1126. He is better known as Averroes in the West. He contributed in philosophy,
mathematics, medicine, astronomy, logic and Islamic Jurisprudence. He was an authority
on Fiqh. He investigated astronomy at length and discovered the sunspots. He died in
A.D. 1198. His famous books are:

(i) Hidayat Al-Mujtahid Wa Nihayat Al Muqtasid

(ii) Kitab Fi Karkal Al Falak

(Hi) Tahafut Al-Tahafut

(iv) Kitab Fasl Al Maqal

(v) Kitab Al Lashf Al Manahij

(10) AIMawardi

Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib, Abul Hasan AIMawardi was born at Basrah in A.D. 1058.
He was a learned jurisconsul and political economist. He was an expert on diverse
subjects like religion, ethics, literature and politics. He died in A.D. 1123. He was author
of the following famous book.

(i) Al-Bayan-Wat-Tabiyan (ii) AI-Hawi

(Hi) NUKAT-Wa’1-Uyum (iv) Al-Iqna

(v) Al Ahkam-us-Sultaniyah

(11) Nasir Al-Din Toosi


Nasir Al-Din Toosi was born in A.D. 1201 in Toos. He contributed in the fields of
astronomy, mathematics, optic geography, medicine, philosophy, logic, music,
mineralogy and ethics. He was a versatile scholar and
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

astrologer. He go built the Maragha observatory for astronomical researches He was also
an expert on mathematics and he earned great popularity by writing ”The Ilkhanian
Tables”. This work is divided into four books namely, (i) CHINESE, GREEK, ARABIC
AND PERSIAN CHRONOLOGY (ii) MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS, (Hi)
EPHERMERIDE and (iv) ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. He died in Baghdad in
A.D. 1274. He wrote a treatise on the Quadrilateral, ”a work in which Trigonometry,
Plane and Spherical”, found its first methodically developed and deliberate expression.
His other famous books are:

(i) Kitab Al Tazkira Al Nasirya

(ii) Kitab Al Tahsil Fil Najum

(in) Kitab-i-si-Fasl

(iv) Qawaid Al-Handasa

(v) Kitab Shakl Al Qatta

(vi) Kitab AlFusul

(12) Abul Qasim Al-Zahrawi

Abul Qasim Al-Zahrawi, better known as Mamoon of the West, was born in A.D. 936 in
Spain. He was a great surgeon. He invented many surgical appliances, never known
before. He was a physician as well. He was an excellent dentist also and he could very
successfully set an artificial tooth in place of diseased. He gave perfection to the surgical
science. He died in A.D. 1013. He was the author of the following famous hook:

(i) Al-Tasrif

(13) Al-Battani
Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Al-Battani, a great Arab Astronomer and
Mathematician, was born around A.D. 858. He widened the scientific horizons of

Astronomy beyond the Greek’s metaphysical concepts. He was an excellent observer of


Lunar and Solar Eclipses. He had a great command in Trigonometry and he established
the relation between the sides and angles of a spherical triangle. He explained the
phenomenon of Equinoxes (the time when the Sun crosses the equator thus equalising the
length of day with night). He also prepared the Islamic Lunar Calendar. He died in A.D.
929. His famous book was ”Kitab Al-Zig”.

SUBJECT-WISE READY-RECKONER OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS


Sr. Subject

Names of Scientists who Contributes

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mathematics Geometry

Aljebra Trigonometry

Astronomy

AI-Kindi, AI-Khwarizmi, AI-Fazari and AI-Nasavi.

Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf, Banu Musa, Abul’Wafa, AI-Mahani, Abu Kamil, Al-Sijzi, AlBaghdabi, Abdul
Faraj, Abd-ul-Malik, AlShirazi, Muhammad Ibn-al-Hussain and Kamal-ud-Din Yunus.

AI-Khwarizmi, Abu Kamil, Umar Khayyam Abu Wafa and Umar Ibn Ibrahim.

Habash-al-Hasib, Ibn Yusuf, Nasir-ud-Din AI-Tusi, Al Zarqali and Hasan-alMarakushi, Al-


Battani.

Habash al-Hasib, Abu Said al-Darir, AlFarghani, Abdur Rahman al-Sufi, Ibn Yusuf, Ibn al-
Haitham, Umar Hayyam, AlGhazali, Al-Zarqali, Banu Amajur, AIKhwarizmi, Ibn-Rushd, AI-
Bitruji, Qutb-udDin, Al-shirazi, Al-lbn Umar-al-Katibi, AlHasan AI-Marakushi.
®^SBp*i

EVERYDAY SCIENCE

6.

7.

8.

Natural History (Botany and Zoology)

Chemistry

Physics

9.

10.

Optics

Geography

11.

Medicine

12.

Scientific Instruments

Abu Ubaidah, AI-Asma, Al-Jahiz, Muhammad AI-Dimhyari, AI-Bakri, Abdul Latif, AI-Ghafiqi, Ibn Sina,
Ibn Suri and AlIdrisi.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Jahiz, Abu Mansur Muwaffaq, Abdul Qasim, AI-Razi and Hasan AI-Rammah. ,

AI-Kindi, Banu Musa, Al-Jahiz, AI-Narizi, AI-Beruni, Ibn Sina, AI-Razi, Ibn Jami, AlKahin-al-Attar
Abdur Rehman Ibn Nasi, Qaisar-lbn Abi-al-Qasim

AI-Kindi, Ibn-al-Haitham, Nasir-ud-Din al Tusi, Al-Shirazi, Qutb-ud-Din, Kamal-udDin Farisi.

Ibn Sarafyun, AI-Mas’udi, Al-lstakhri, IbnHaukal, abdul fida, AI-Beruni, AI-Farghani, AI-Kindi, Abdul
Latif, Al-ldrisi, Hasan-alMarakashi.

AI-Kindi, Zakariya Razi, Ali Ibn Abbas, Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn-al-Haitham, Ibn al-Wafid, Ammar,
Ali Ibn Isa, Ibn Sina Ibn Zuhr, Abdul Latif, Ibn-al-Nafis and Ibn-al-Baitar, Abu Ali Sina, Abu Mansur
Muwaffaq.

Ibrahim al-Fazarum Muzaffar al-Tusi, AlBadi, AI-Asturlabi, Tabin Ibn Aflah, Qaisar Ibn abial-Qasim
Ibrahim Ibn Said al-Sahli Muhammad Ibn Hilal.

SCIENCE

CENTURY-WISE READY-RECKONER OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS


^^^KnHiTpn^^^^^B^^^^^^^BiTnTim^«uTn?niirn>ffTiTrKT^^^^^^^^^B
^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^H^^^HHYJ^Jj^mQI^n^^^^^^^^^^^^^l

8th

Abu-Ubaidah, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, AI-Khawarzimi, AlFazari, Abdur Rahman Al-Sufi.

9th

AI-Kindi, AI-Farghani, Zakari^-al-Razi, AI-Battani, AlMasudi, AI-Faraghni.

10th

Abu Ali Sina, AI-Biruni, Ibn AI-Haitham, Abul Qasim AlZahrawi, AI-Farabi.

U+

AI-Mawardi, Al-Zarqali, al-Khazini Ibn Zuhr, AI-Ghazali.

-2ih

Ibn AI-Baitar, Ibn Rushd, Ibn-ul-Baytar, Abdul Latif, Umar-al-Khayyam Hasan-al-Marakushi, Nasir-ud-
DIn al Toosi.

Nature of Science:

Science is used in a narrower sense to denote an ordered knowledge based on


observations and experiments, excluding such humanistic studies as language,
sociology, economics and political history. Science gives a comprehensive and
meaningful picture of what we perceive by senses in so far as it can be expressed
in terms of numbers, ratios, sizes, shapes, weights and motions and all the qualities
and units derived from these. Science could not be advanced by more speculation
as thought by the Greek philosophers. Its only sure progress lies in the partial
interrogation of Nature. The first step towards scientific achievement is that of
observation and experiment. It was by this step of observation and experiment that
the followers of Islam gave science its true characteristic which the pre-Islamic
world was totally unaware of. The essential
characteristics of the scientific method are experiments, observations and
inferences which happen to be parts of a spiral ladder of understanding science.
The conclusions drawn in science are always subject to revision in the light of
newly discovered facts.

SCIENTIFIC METHODS
Classical approach splits scientific methods into the following steps for the
establishment of the true identity of a fact.

(1) Perception:

(2) Inference:

(3) Comparison:

(4) Testimony:

It is the recognition and knowledge of the objects, produced by their contact with
various external sense organs such as those of sight, shearing, touch, taste, smell
and with internal sense organs such as the mind.

It is the knowledge of the objects through the apprehension of some mark


which is invariably related to the inferred objects.

It is the knowledge of the phenomenon or the object obtained by the establishment


of a relation between a name and the object so named, or between a word and its
connotation.

It is a method of establishing the identity of an object i.e., the knowledge of the


perceived and unperceived objects derived form the statement of authoritative
sources.
SCIENCE

The wheel of time has now changed the classical approach into the following steps
of modern scientific methods:

(1) RECOGNITION OF THE PROBLEM

(2) EXPERIMENTATION

(3) OBSERVATION OF FACTS AND THEIR GROUPING


(4) FORMATION OF HYPOTHESIS, AND

(5) VERIFICATION OF HYPOTHESIS AND FORMATION OF THEORY

IMPACT OF SCIENCE ON SOCIETY


Once considered odd and Alien, science has now become the part of everybody’s
life, Eveiy citizen is directly and vitally concerned with science. The development
of science has changed the life-style eating habits, nature of sports and recreations.
The impact of science on modern life can be discussed under the following
headings;

Importance of Science:

Science means knowledge and it has two objectives to enable men to do and to
know. Science has evolved out of philosophy, culture, mythology and religion. In
the past science has remained a pursuit of the learned but more recently, it has
become an important factor in determining the everyday life of the common man.
There is hardly any sphere of life where science is riot serving like curing
diseases., preserving our food, warming us in winter cooling us in summer,
building our houses transporting us on land and water and helps us day and night
in a hundred different ways.

A
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Scope of Science:

The spectrum of modern science now extends from Astronomy to Zoology, from
spiraling galaxies to the heart of atom, from microchips to the mechanisms of
human body and from non-living things to living ones. Every discipline of science
has developed so much that it needs to be further classified. Science deals with
interaction of bodies with outside forces. It tells us how the bodies react to forces
but it cannot tell how they respond. No branch of science however, deals with
consciousness, purpose, intention, will, wisdom and morality. Modern psychology
and even decision making is becoming scientific-Science has become a culture, an
attitude or simply a way of life.

Applications of Science:

Applications of Science are almost countless. It is making our lives comfortable


and happier. Electricity has appeared as the most popular and obedient form of
energy. Antibiotics have produced a revolution in controlling the spread of
disease. Modern ways of transportation has made all parts of the world more
accessible. Genetics, test-tube babies, levitating trains, superconductivity and
micro-computers are the emerging faces of the applications of science-these
discoveries have thrilled our lives in all dimensions. The biggest application of
science is that it is unfolding the secrets of nature which were locked in a mystery
for the last hundred thousand years.

Horrors of Science:

Science is a double-edged weapon. It is useful and good on one hand and


dangerous on the other. Population explosion, massive malnutrition, threat of
nuclear and biological weapons ani industrial pollution constitute the hit-list of
horrors of science. It has made
SCIENCE

man more powerful to destroy his fellows. The atomic and hydrogen bombs
continue to threaten human life, science has made life hectic, complicated, noisy
and full of violence. Inspite of these disadvantages, science can go a long way in
decreasing human misery and sorrow and increasing human happiness.

Limitations of Science:

Science cannot teach morals and so it cannot improve the ethical side of man’s
nature. Ethical moral values of life have always been governed by the strings of
religion throughout the ages. It cannot solve the problem of large scale crimes,
drug addiction and alcoholism. Science has no conscience, no feelings and no
sympathies - just facts and figures. Science cannot tell us what we should do. It is
we who have to decide what to do; the science will tell us how to do it and what
will happen when we have done it.

EXERCISE
Q. Name some important discoveries of PreScienee era?

Ans. Fire and Language are the most important discoveries of Pre-Science era.
Q. What has been the main sequence for the development of Science over the years?

Ans. The main sequence for the development of science goes around three stages,
namely Imagination, Creation and Application.
Q. What were the special characteristics of Muslim Scientists?

Ans. Greek Science was mainly theoretical because it was not based on
observation and experiments. Muslim scientists gave science its real meaning by
switching over to its practical aspects: observation and experiment. They
realised from the inquiring spirit of the Holy Qur’an, that science could not
be advanced by more speculation, its only wire progress lay in the
practical interrogation of Nature. The essential characteristics of their
method were experiments and observations. The solution of a problem, regarding
Mechanics, Hydrostatic or Optics, was always obtained by performing an
experiment, or by an instrumental observation. It was this that made them the
originators of Chemistry which led them to the invention of all kinds of
apparatus for distillation, fusion, Filtration, etc. They developed
divided instruments like Quadrant and Astrolabe in Astronomy.

Q. Discuss the contributions of Muslim Scientists in the development of


Mathematics, chemistry and Medicine.

Ans. A. Mathematics:

Mathematics is the fundamental branch of Knowledge and mother of all sciences.


Muslim scientists had a great deal of contribution to the development of this
arithmetic notation. The figures which appear at the top of these pages are signs
derived from Islam and not from the Roman numerals. They introduced zero
which gave a new impetus to mathematics as a science as a science

of abstract speculation. The conception of zero, connected as it is with the system


of positional numeration, is one of the chief contributions of Islamic science to the
West.

Some of the Muslim mathematicians, who played a very important role in


introducing the new system of numeration into Europe, may be mentioned as
Muhammad Ibn Ibrahim Al-Fazin, Al-Kindi, Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Nasavi, Al-
Nasavi introduced the decimal system in place of sexagecimal system. Sarton has
observed that ”at the beginning of the 12th century it was almost impossible to
become a full-fledged mathematician and astronomer without a good knowledge
of Arabic.

B: Chemistry

Jabir Ibn Hayyan gave sound views on methods of chemical research, and a theory
on the geologic formation of metals. He prepared basic lead carbonate. Arsenic
and Antimony from their sulphides; dealt with refinement of metals, preparation of
steel, dyeing of cloth and leather. A number of his works on chemistry have been
published by Berthelot.

Abul Qasim explained the preparation of drugs by sublimation and distillation. Al-
Razi made an attempt to classify mineral substances into vegetables, animals and
minerals. Al-Jahiz tried to classify mineral substances and Abu Mansur Muwaffaq
described the preparation and properties of mineral substances. The Arabs
manufactured inks, lacquers, solders, cements, imitation pearls and jewels. The
Arabs are also credited with having invented gunpowder.

.J
Hasan Al-Rammah wrote a treatise on military science, containing pyrotechnic recipies in
which special attention has been paid to the preparation and purification of saltpetre,

C: Medicine

Medicine is one of the branches of science to which the followers of Islam have made
quite a great contributions. Medical literature of Medical Muslims shows that they knew
the contagious nature of certain diseases like smallpox and measles. They discovered the
capillary system and the circulation of blood.

Al-Kindi wrote more than 20 ntfoks on ^ Medicine and made an extraordinary


attempt to

establish posology (the science of doses) on a mathematical basis. Zakariya Razi knew
that the pupil contracts to light, jaundice is caused by obstruction of the bile passages and
that disorders of the bladder are accompanied by blood in the urine.

Abu Qasim Al-Zahrawi, a great surgeon and the author of the famous medical
Encyclopedia, the Kitab Al-Tasrifs described and gave the diagrams of no less than 200
surgical instruments. Ibn sina was the first to use catheters made of the skins of various
animals, and he mentioned intravesical injections by means of a silver syringe. He was
the master-mind and considered as the chief authority in medicine for almost seven
ceturit.,.

Q. What period is called the Dark Ages in Europe? Explain with reference
to the development of science.

A. The period extending from the second to the tenth centuries. A.D. is regarded as the
Dark Ages in Europe. During this period Europe made little or no progress in science for
nearly a thousand years. These middle ages are known as the Dark Ages because of their
darkness in the fields of science, philosophy and other branches of knowledge. The
people of that continent were living in a completely disorganised state. It was this time
when the degradation of the human intellect was most widespread over Europe.
Throughout the Dark ages in Europe, science remained in obscurity and subordination.
Almost every material phenomenon was attributed to the will of a spirit. In all fields of
life, there was want of reasoning, thinking and looking into things. Ideas in all spheres of
life were so much based on superstitions that an average European, ”fever-striken or
overtaken by accident, ran to the nearest saint-shrine to be cured by a miracle”. The
clouds of Dark Ages began to dissolve with the rise of the crescent of Islam.

Q. Highlight the contributions of Muslim Scientists in the field of


Astronomy?

A. Habash Al-Hasib edited three astronomical tables and he was the first to determine the
time by an altitude. Abu Said Al-Darrir wrote a treatise on the drawing of the meridian.
Al-Battani compiled a catalogue of the stars and determined various astronomical co-
efficients with great accuracy. Umar Khayyam devised a new calander which was
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

extraordinarily accurate. Al-Zarqali proved the movement of the solar apogee and
invented Astrolabe. Al-Ghazali wrote a treatise on the motion and nature of the
stars. Ibn Al-Haitham observed the semi-lunar shape of the image of the sun
during eclipses on a wall opposite a fine hole in the window-shulters-the first
record of the camera obscura. The followers of Islam established astronomical
observatories all over the realm of Islam from Spain to India.

Chapter 2

THE UNIVERSE
INTRODUCTION
The branch of physical science which deals with the nature of the Universe, its
overall structure and origin, is called cosmology. Until the 17th century, the
Universe was thought to be static, infinite and unchanging: this is called the
Steady-State Theory. However, Edwin Hubble (1889-1953), an American
astronomer showed in 1920s that the space between the galaxies is increasing and
the Universe is therefore expanding like a balloon that is being inflated. The
known Universe is finite and its edge lies at a distance of about 1024 km.

The Origin: The Big Bang:

According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe came into existence about 15 to
20 billion years ago when a cataclysmic explosion took place. The Echo of this
bigbang can still be heard in the form of microwave radio signal from space. This
is also called as the 3K microwave background radiation first detected by Arno
Penzias and Robert Wilson for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize. Before
the birth of our Universe, there was no time, no matter and no space. All the
energy and matter of the future cosmos were concentrated in a single point of
energy. All the forces were unified in this single point and were in perfect
harmony. By someway this harmony was disturbed and this triggered a
catastrophic

31
THE UNIVERSE

explosion, filling our space with every particle of matter hurled away from every
other particle Thus, this is how our Universe exploded into life; and matter, space
and time came into being.

The Structure: Galaxies:

Galaxy is a fundamental unit of the Universe. It consists of several hundred


thousands of stars together with interstellar gas and dust. Thousands of million of
galaxies stretch out to the limits of the observable Universe. They fall into four
categories in shape; spiral,

spherical, elliptical and irregular. Our galaxy is spiral, contains 10” stars with a
diameter of 105 light years -md it is called the Milky Way. According to Greek
legend, the pearly band of the milky way stretching across the

sky is milk split from the breast of the godess Juno. The nearest spiral galaxy to
the milky way is Andromeda Galaxy; it is 2,200,000 light years away from us.
This is our galactic neighbour along with Large Magellanic Cloud which is
170,000 light years away. The arms of the spiral galaxy are called the galactic
arms. A collection of galaxies is called cluster.

The Future of the Universe: Open or Closed:

There are two main theories of the Universe: Open Universe or Closed Universe.
Some physicists believe that our Universe will expand forever. Other are
convinced that expansion of our Universe will slow down and finally start
contracting ultimately resulting in the Big Crash or Crunch. If there is sufficient
matter in the Universe, gravity will eventually win and begin pulling
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

the galaxies together again, causing the Universe to experience a reverse of the big
bang the big crunch. After this a new Universe may come into being with totally
different laws of nature; this is the cyclic theory.

SOLAR SYSTEM:

Solar system is a tiny part of a galaxy and consists of the sun and all the objects
that travel around it. It includes the Earth and eight other planets, along the
satellites that travel around most of them. It further includes Asteroids,
Meteoroids, Comets, Interplanetary dust and Interplanetary plasma. The planets
are described in detail below:

Mercury:

It is the second smallest planet in this solar system and is closest to the Sun. Its
mean distance from the Sun is 0.387 astronomical units. Its equatorial diameter is
4,880 km. It takes 88 Earth days to complete one revolution around the Sun.
Mercury looks a lot like the Moon, covered with holes called Craters. There are
great soaring cliffs on the surface of Mercury, called scarps. It has no moon.

Venus:

It is called as Earth’s Twin in size and mass. Venus is hotter than Mercury. The
planet is wrapped in thick clouds of gas called carbon dioxide which traps the
Sun’s heat like the windows of a greenhouse. Venus is
0.723 A.U. away from the Sun. Its revolution period is
225 days. Its equatorial diameter is 12,104 km. It also has

no moon.
THE UNIVERSE

Earth:

It is the most wonderful planet of the Universe. It is one A.U. away from the sun.
Its equatorial diameter is
12,756 km. The Earth is the largest of the terrestrial planets. Seen from space, the
Earth is a beautiful ball of colours - blue oceans, white clouds, and brown
continents. It has a Moon.

Mars:
It is in direct contrast to venus with its hot and opaque atmosphere. Mars is a
barren desert. It is covered with red dust, that is why we call Mars, the Red Planet.
There is no water on Mars. It is 1,524 A.U. away from the sun. Mars orbits the sun
once after every 687 days. Its equatorial diameter is 6,787 km. Mars has two
moons, called Phobos and Deimos.

Jupiter:

It has a dense, cloudy atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. It is actually the largest
planet of the solar system. Its diameter is 143,000 km. Jupiter orbits the Sun once
after every 11.86 years. It has sixteen moons.

Saturn:

It is the second largest planet. Its special feature is the superb rings of Saturn
which have the appearance of a large, extremely thin and flat circular sheet. It is
9,539 A.U. away from the Sun and its revolution period is
29.46 years. Its diameter is 120,000 km. It has at least 22 moons.

Uranus:

It has mostly hydrogen and helium atmosphere. It is 19.18 A.U. away from the
Sun. Its diametre is 51,800
iylaiVi »7ilWJi*<l 3 if M «i

km. Its revolution period is 84.01 years. It has fifteen moons. Uranus is big and
gives greenish glow.

Neptune:

It is similar to Uranus. It is 30.06 A.U. away from the Sun. Its diameter is 49,500
km. Its revolution period is 164.8 years. Neptune has only two known moons.

Pluto:

It is the most distant and the smallest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 400
km. Pluto orbits the Sun once every 248.4 years. It has a very low temperature. It
has only one moon called Charon.

SOLAR SYSTEM
•^^^^••••••II^B^BBBNBBIIIMIBI^H

•T^^^^^^^^^^I^H^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HHIHHj^^^^^B

1.

The Biggest Planet

Jupiter (Diameter 88,800 miles)

2.

The Smallest Planet

Pluto (Diameter 2500 miles)

3.

The Hottest Planet

Venus (Surface Temp. 480°C)

4.

The Coldest Planet

Pluto (Frozen Snowball, -230 °C)

5.

The Heaviest Planet

Jupiter
6.

The Lightest Planet

Pluto

7.

The Densest Planet

Earth (Density 5.5 gm/c.c.)

8.

The Farthest Away Planet

Pluto

THE UNIVERSE

9.

The Closest Planet

Mercury

10.

The Brightest Planet

Venus

11.

The Faintest Planet

Pluto

12.

The Planet with brightest rings.

Saturn

13.

The Blue Planet

Neptune

14.

The Red Planet

Mars

15.
The Greenish Planet

Uranus

16.

The most colourful Planet

Earth

17.

The Planet with Longest Day Time

Venus (225 Earth Days)

18.

The Planet with Shortest Day Time

Jupiter (Ten Hours)

19.

The Fastest Revolving Planet

Mercury (Speed 110,000 miles/hours

20.

The Slowest Revolving Planet

Pluto

21.

The Fastest Rotating Planet

Jupiter

22.

The Slowest Rotating Planet

Venus

23.

The Planet with maximum number of moons

Saturn (23 moons)

24.

The Planets with no moons.

Mercury and Venus


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

25.
The Planet often called the Morning Star

Venus

26.

The Rocky Planets

Earth, Mercury, Mars. Venus

27.
The Gaseous Planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, Pluto

28.
The Planet with most eccentric orbit

Pluto

29.

The planet discovered in 20th century

Pluto

30.

The only planet with life.

Earth

CONSTELLATION ZODIAC
Constellations:

Constellation is the configuration of stars especially at one’s birth. It consists of a


collection of stars which have definite pattern resembling in shape with some of
the familiar animals.

Zodiac:

Zodiac is an imaginary belt in the Heavens usually 18 degrees wide that


encompasses the apparent paths of all the principle planets except Pluto, has the
elliptic as its central line and is divided into 12 constellations or signs each taken
for astrological purposes to extend 30° longitude.
•<*wjMMa;Wii

Celestial Equator:

It is projection of Earth’s equator on to the celestial sphere. It is an imaginary


circle tilted at an angle of 23° to the plane of the Earth’s orbit (the elliptic or the
plane that defines the circle of the Zodiac). The celestial equator crosses the zodiac
at the equinoxes (the points on the celestial sphere where the Sun appears to be on
the first day of spring and the first day of autumn).

•^BaMaareffljBjaTTfaKfffMfB^aaWaaaBi
•^^^^^^^•••••••••••••^^Bi^^^^^^^B
•^BH^-v^n

No.
^«W^^B^^MM^^_^W^_^_W^_^*_«_^>^^^_»

Name
^^M^VB-BBKB^MHBH^^^H-l^«

Sun Enters

1.

Aries the Ram

March 21

2.

Taurus the Bull

April 20

3.

Gemini the Twins

May 21
4.

Cancer the Crab


June 22

5.

Leo the Lion

July 23

6.

Virgo the Virgin

August 23

7.

Libra the Balance

September 23

8.

Scorpio the Scorpion

October 24

9.

Sagittarius the Archer

November 22

10.

Capricorn the Goat

December 22

11.

Aquarius the Water Bearer

January 20
12.

Pisces the Fishes

February 19
•OTq:M»7AVgJWiai’M;i

THE SUN
The Sun is the central part of the solar system. Its surface can be studied in detail
from the Earth. The Sun is very big almost a million miles across - and hot. Its
important features are described below:
••iiawirog-Pa

Hydrogen

90%

Chromosphere

15 million C°

Mass of the Sun

2xlrj30 tons

Helium

8%
II

Diameter of the Sun

1.4 million km.

Heavy Elements

2%

Photosphere

[
6000 C°

r
Distance from Earth

149 million km.

Average Density
1.4gm/c.c.

1. The Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and it contains matter in the plasma state
which is the”*’ fourth physical state of matter.

2. Most of the mass (99.86%) of the solar system is concentrated in the Sun, which
thus exerts the gravitational force that holds the other objects together.

3. Source of energy in the sun is due to Nuclear Fusion. This process involve? the
conversion of hydrogen into helium. About 616 million tons of hydrogen is
converted into 612 million tons of helium in one second.

4. Every square meter of Sun’s surface emits 64 million watts into space.

5. The Sun has a 27-day solar rotation period and


11-year sunspot cycle.

5. Solar wind, solar flares and sunspots are important events of the Sun.

THE MOON
It is the only natural satellite of the Earth. The Moon is at a distance of 3,85,000
km from the Earth’s surface. Its important features are as follows:

1 The period of rotation of the Moon is equal to its period of revolution around
the Earth. This period is 29 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes and 11.47 seconds.

2 It is 81 times lighter than the Earth and the object weigh less on the Moon.

3. It is a poor reflector (7% reflection) as compared to Earth.

4. It has l/6th gravitational attraction as that of the Earth.

5. Craters are the most conspicuous and most plentiful of all luruHwairface
features.

6. Only 59% of the Moon surface is visible directly from the Earth.

7. It is rich in chromium, titanium, scandium, zirconium and yetterbium. Its


average density is
3.34 gm/c.c.

8- The Moon has no atmosphere.


9. The Moon has different shapes at different times of the month called phases of
the Moon.

10. The average temperature of the Moon ranges from 180° to 110°C.

THE EARTH
It is the most wonderful planet of the solar system. It is a water-drenched planet.
Special features are described below:

1. It is also about 4.6 billion years old but the life started on Earth about 3.5 to 4
billion years ago.

2. Its rotation period is 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds and revolution period
365 ’/4 days.

The V* day is added up to give one extra day in a leap year.

3. The mass of the Earth is 6 x 1021 tons and average density is 5,52 gm/c.c.

4. Its equatorial diameter is 12,756 km.

5. The Earth has the iron core, the rocky mantle and dynamic crust. It is made up
of Tectonic plates.

6. It has an atmosphere; 78% Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen.

7. The atmosphere has about 3100 cubic miles of water in the form of clouds
which is responsible for producing different seasons.

8. Latitude and longitude coordinates are drawn on the map to locate the position
of a place on the surface of the Earth.

9. The Earth’s surface is rich in silicone, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium and
oxygen elements.

10. Earth’s crust is believed to be a mosaic of about


15 large lithosphere plates and several minor ones that move as rigid units.

THE MOST AMAZING OBJECTS

Asteroids:
Asteroids are small rocky objects. These are orbiting the Sun between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter. There are several thousand of them in the asteroid belt (140
million miles wide) of the solar system. Asteroids, are also called as minor planets.
The word asteroid means ’starlike’ but actually the asteroids are more planet like
than ’starlike’. Ceres asteroid was the first to be discovered in 1801, and is also the
largest (680 miles across). The origin of the asteroids is partly connected to the
remains of a planet that fell apart, Not all the asteroids orbit the Sun in the asteroid
belt. Some asteroids wander closer to the Sun, sometimes passing near the Earth.
These are called Earth-Grosser or Apollo-asteroids. In the past, some of these
asteroids may have collided with the Earth.

Meteorites (Extraterrestrial Intruders)

A meteorite is a tiny chunk of material floating in space that can enter the Earth’s
atmosphere and become a meteor. A meteor or a ”falling star” is the streak of light
that you can see in the night sky. A meteor will burn up or vaporise from frictional
heating as it enters the atmosphere. A burning meteor is popi/.-riy referred to as a
’shooting star’. Most meteors burn up before they reach the ground. If they do
i^ach the ground, they become meteorites. The Earth gets a constant meteor
shower, about 5 to 10 meteors in an hour. Meteors usually become visible at about
70 mile from the Earth’s surface. Larger bodies may not completely burn up in
Earth’s atmosphere and survive the trip through the atmosphere to Earth. They
may weigh as much as 60 tons. They are formed by the disintegration of a comet
or are the left-overs from the birth of the solar system.

Comets:

Comets are bodies made up of the ice and dust that move around the Sun, most of
them in highly elliptic orbits. As a comet approaches the Sun, a somewhat
transparent envelope and dust called the coma appears around the smpll compact
icy nucleus. The nucleus and coma comprise the comet’s head. If the comet comes
within the astronomical units of the Sun, it may, develop a luminous tail. The
comet’s head may be as large as 500,000 miles across. Comets circle the Sun in
one of three types of orbits; elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic. Comets with
elliptical orbits are periodic
THE UNIVERSE

comets, they will continually orbit the Sun as do the planets. The origin of comets
is unknown.

Halley’s Comet:

The most famous comet is Halley’s Comet, named after Edmund Halley, the first
British astronomer to calculate its orbit in 1705. It visits the Sun every 76 years
after. It last visited the Sun in 1986 but it passed very far from the Earth, so, its tail
could not be seen with the naked eye. It will return in the year 2062.

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Introduction:

Geologists have shown that the structure of the Earth consists of a series of layers
namely the Crust, the Mantle and the Core (outer and inner); the Earth is more or
less like an onion. The d; .’ision of the Earth into Crust, Mantle and Core is based
*, the fact that the three zones have different chemicf.^ iimpositions. The series of
concentric layers beconn pi ugrt«sively densei towards the centre. As the pieces of
Lh^ Earth are put together, it has been discovered that the outermost
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

layer, the crust on which we live, is constantly in motion. The interior picture of
the Earth has been revealed by studying earthquakes. Earth’s magnetic field,
meteorites, chains of islands and volcanoes. On the outside of the Earth is a thin
crust - its depth no more than a postage stamp struck on the outside of a football.
Underlying this, is a Mantle, which makes up more than
82 percent of the volume of the Earth. Deeper still, we come to a very dense and
very hot core. The major parts of the Earth are discussed below:
Lilhosphere

Asthenosphere Mesospt

J h> Ue>s of the Earth. The crust on which we live represents a

nn r» j.ei cent of the volume of the Earth, and is part of the rigid

outer shell, the lithosphere

1. The Crust:

It is the outermost layer of the Earth. The crust consists of continental crust and
oceanic crust. The average thickness of the oceanic crust is 5-9 km (3-5’/2 miles)
and it varies comparatively throughout the world. But the continental crust has the
much higher average thickness of 30-40 km (181/2 - 25 miles) and varies even
more. The most abundant elements of the Earth’s crust are Silicon and
Aluminium.

2. The Mantle:

The Mantle extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2900 km (1800
miles) and accounts for about 82% of the Earth’s volume. The mantle is further
divided into Lithosphere (70 km deep), Asthenosphere (200 km deep) and
Mesosphere (2500 km) depending upon their chemical composition and density.

3. The Core:

The core extends from the base of the mantle to the Earth’s centre and accounts for
about 17% of the Earth’s volume. The core comprises of two distinct parts. The
outer core is liquid at a temperature of about
3000 °C and the inner core is solid. The main constituent of the core is iron along
with some lighter elements like sulphur, silicon, carbon hydrogen and oxygen.

EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Introduction:

The atmosphere refer to the protective blanket of gases which are surrounding the
Earth. It is able to sustain life on Earth and saves it from the hostile environment
of outer sphere. The atmosphere is a source of oxygen (essential for life) and
carbon dioxide
J3!«:M»7iVgC1HI3L’[MJ

ExosDhere-- Bus layer a extended to outer space

300

LAYERS Of-’ AIR


(lher?TK«phere-- The temperature {.oes up to icollv n Ihis layer

U-2 Spy plane

Aurora

ktesosphere

Stratosphere

’Troposphere- Weather phenomenon occur lie

Arttude |mtlesj Ihe atmosphere

A Each layer of the atmosphere has ite own characteristics

•Ki*ui?ira;ffl3a

(essential for plant synthesis). The atmosphere also forms an insulating blanket
around the Earth. Without it the temperature at the equator would rise to 120 °C
during the day and drop to as low as - 50 °C at night. It burns up meteors that
would bombard the surface of the Earth from space. Without air, there would be
no lightening, no clouds, no wind, no rain, no snow and no fire.

Origin:

It is now widely accepted that the Earth’s atmosphere originally was very different
from its present state and the changes were brought about by biological activity.

Composition of the Atmosphere:

The components of the atmosphere may be divided somewhat arbitrarily into


major, minor and trace elements.
Major

Nitrogen

78.08

Oxygen

20.95

Minor

Argon

0.934

Carbon dioxide

0.033
Trace

Neon

Helium

Traces

Methane

Hydrogen

The density of the atmosphere decreases sharply with increasing altitude as a


consequence of gas laws and gravity. Over 99 percent of the total mass of the

A
atmosphere is found within approximately 30 km of the Earth’s surface. The total
mass of the atmosphere is nearly 5.5 x 1015 tons. There is about 3100 cubic miles
of water present in the atmosphere.

Major Regions of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is divided into different regions of varying with altitudes;


Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Ionosphere. The
temperature may fall or rise with altitude.

Press are of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere exerts pressure and the average atmospheric pressure at sea level
is said to be 760 mm Hg. This pressure is called Atmospheric or standard
THE UNIVERSE

pressure. The atmospheric pressure decreases with the increase in altitude.

The Greenhouse Effect:

Earth’s Thermostat

The atmosphere of the Earth can be compared to the glass of a greenhouse: both
allow the Sun’s visible rays to enter and warm the land, plants, water and air, yet
retard the escape of heat. As radiation’s from the Sun enter Earth’s atmosphere, a
portion of it is reflected back into space or absorbed directly by the atmosphere.
About half of the radiant energy reaching Earth from the Sun, because of its
shorter wavelength, can pass through the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface. But
the longer waves of heat (Infrared radiations) that radiate back toward space are
absorbed and reradiated by water vapours, carbon dioxide, other gases and clouds
and hence the atmosphere warms up by chapping the heat. This is called
Greenhouse Effect. The gases which contribute more towards the Greenhouse
Effect are mainly carbon dioxide, methane, Nitrous Oxide and Chloro Fluoro
Carbons (CFC): these gases are also called as greenhouse gases. Humans have
disrupted the natural carbon cycle by burning fossil fuels for energy and by
clearing forests to food and house growing populations. Industrial and agricultural
emissions raise atmospheric carbon by about seven billion metric tons a year.
Roughly half is absorbed by the oceans Mnd by vegetains and soils.

Global Warming:
Greenhouse gases are building up in the atmosphere in such a way as to trap the
Earth’s heat, gradually raising the average temperature of the planet. If this
continues, we can expect some devastating shifts
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

in climate within next fifty years. An intensification of the greenhouse effect over
the next half century could produce average world temperature from 1.5 to 4.5
degree Celsius higher than they are today. That would induce the melting of the
polar icecap and increase in the worlds sea levels from 10 inches to five feet. Now
fertile regions would be scorched into deserts, and Arctic plains could become
suddenly arable. Most climate models show that in some regions - Northern
Scandinavia, Siberia, and Canada, for example - more rain would fall and more
trees and crops grow. But in today’s great mid-continent breadbasket regions,
warming would lead to the drying of soil in summer. Destructive droughts, such as
that of 1988 in North America, would strike more often until the Great plains of
Ukraine turn semidesert. Storms such as hurricanes and tornadoes might become
more violent.

Forests would decline and change under the temperature rise, and wild-life would
have to migrate if it could - or perish. The permafrost Arctic tundra would thaw,
deep peatlands would decompose, and vast new amounts of carbon dioxide and
methane could be released.

Ozone Depletion: Hole in the Sky:

A Crack in the Shield of Ozone Layer:

Ozone is an allotropic form of Oxygen in which there are three atoms in each
molecule. It is a gas and occurs naturally in the stratosphere of ”Ozone layer”.
This Ozone layer protects us from high energy ultraviolet radiation of the Sun,
which will otherwise kill living things. Ozone is used as a sterilizing agent in
hospitals because it is disinfectant. The life could not start on the land surface of
the Earth until the Ozone layer developed. Man made chemicals are eating away at
THE UNIVERSE

the atmosphere’s Ozone layer, a crucial shield without which ultraviolet rays
would cause widespread skin cancer and damage to much needed crops.

The existence of a vast ’Ozone Hole’ was noted over Antarctica in 1985, of the
size of the Untied States and the depth of Mount Everest. This antarctic hole
develops every year in September and October. During that period the Ozone
contents of the stratosphere over the pole diminishes by 40 percent. A continuing
deterioration of the Earth’s Ozone shield would expose human beings to increase
ultraviolet radiation, the cause of many serious skin diseases. It will also reduce
yield of many crops, especially cabbage, squash and soyabean. The main culprit
for the depletion of Ozone layer is said to be Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFC).
Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs) are gases, cheap and non-polluting at the ground
level, and these are used to perform dozens of important functions in
manufacturing and in everyday life. They are used in aerosol cans, refrigerators
and airconditioners. They are also essential ingredients in the manufacture of
polyurethane foams and in cleaning tiny electric components.

Acid Rain:

Acid rain means in common language the presence of excessive acids in rain
water. It has been one of the effects of air pollution. When we burn fossil fuels for
energy, they produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide gases which are highly
soluble in water. During rain these oxides react with large quantities of water
vapours of the atmosphere to form acids like sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, nitric
acid and nitrous acid which then return to the Earth’s surface, with rain water or
may remain in the atmosphere in clouds and logs.
EVERYPAY SCIENCE

Acid rain causes a number of adverse implications. It tends to increase acidity in


the soil, threatens human and aquatic life, destroys forests and crops reducing
agricultural productivity. Acid rain also corrodes buildings, monuments statues
and bridges, fences and railings. It creates a serious threat to human health also,
since it contaminates not only the breathing air but also the drinking water and
even food.

MAP READING

Map:

A map is drawing or representation of all or apart of the Earth’s surface upon a


plane sheet. Almost all geographical facts are represented by maps. The following
terms and parameters are used to understand the map for the location of any place
on the Earth’s surface.

Equator:

It is a great imaginary circular line drawn on the surface of the Earth which divides
it into two equal halves. This line is perpendicular to the axis of the Earth. The
upper half pointing toward north is called the Northern Hemisphere and the one
pointing towards south is called the Southern Hemisphere.

The Poles:

An imaginary line which passes through the centre of the Earth around which it
rotates, is called the axis of the Earth. One end of the axis is called the north pole
and the other south pole. These two poles are also called as the magnetic poles.
THE UNIVERSE

Latitude:

Latitude is a measurement on a globel or map, of location north or south of the


equator. It is measured from the equator to both poles in degrees and fractions
thereof; degree (0) equals 60 mintues (’) and minute equals 60 seconds ”for
example, we can say that Lahore is approximately situated on the globe at a
latitude of 32°
15’ 20” north. From the equator to either pole is about (l/4th circumference of the
earth), thus the greatest latitudes are 90° North and 90° South. In order to show
different latitudial positions, equidistant circles are plotted and drawn parallel to
the equator and to one another. These circles are known as parallels or parallels of
latitude, and they may be drawn in any convenient number on a given globe or
map.

Meridian:

It is great imaginary circle drawn round the Earth that passes through the poles and
divides the Earth into two equal halves. The specially designated zero meridian
that passes through Greenwich, England, is called the Prime Meridian. The half
pointing towards west is called eastern hemisphere.

Longitude:

Longitude is a measurement of location East or West of the degrees and fractions


thereof. Longitude is measured both 180° East and 180° West of the Prime
Meridian, the two together making the full 360° of the Earth’s circumference, For
complete location, both latitude and longitude are needed. For example, a point
described as 40° N, 30° W is located on the 40th parallel north of the equator and
on the 30th meridian west of the prime meridian.

I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

EARTHQUAKES

Introduction:

The Earth’s Lithosphere is divided into 15 major Tectonic Plates of various sizes.
These plates float on the partially molten Asthenosphere below, and it is because
they are floating that they have the freedom to move horizontally. The theory of
plate tectonics assumes that each plate behaves as a rigid unit, deforming only at a
its edges. The edges, or margins can diverse, converge or slide past one another.
But there is a very little change it any in the middle of a plate. Actually, some of
the Earth’s most dynamic features, such as volcanoes and earthquakes, define the
boundaries of the main plates.

Cause of an Earthquake:

The plate boundaiies are the most tectonically active parts of the Earth - they are
where most mountain building, earthquakes and volcanoes occur. An earthquake
occurs when the edges of two plates suddenly slide past each other along a fault
line. The seventy of an earthquake is measured on the Richter Scale; it is
logarithmic, 30 each additional point represents a tenfold increase in severity. The
key to plate tectonic is that the surface of the Earth exists in a state of equilibrium
and it provides a global framework that successfully explains many of the
structural and geophysical phenomenona on the Earth’s surface ranging from
mountain building and earthquakes to continental drift. Even though the
mechanics of earthquakes are understood, accurate prediction of their occurrence
has remained beyond reach.
THE UNIVERSE

NOTABLE EARTHQUAKES OF THE


20TH CENTURY

&f
Year

Gentries Hit

Severity on Richter Scale


Deaths

1.

1906

f-,n Francisco, California

7.7

3,000

2.
3.

1908
1920

4.

1923

5.

1927

6.

1935

7.

1939

8.

1948

9.

1960

10,

1964

11.
1970

12.

1971

13.

1976

14.

1976

15.

1976

16.

1980

17.

1985

18.

1988

Messina, Italy 7.0 110,000

Gansu and Shaanxi, 8.3 200,000 China

Tokyo, Japan 7.9 142,810

Qinghai, China 7.7 200,000

Quetta, Pakistan 8.1 30,000

Erzincar., Turkey 7.6 32,700

Fukui, Japan 6.9 ’ 5,390

Southern Chile 9 5 5,700


Southern Alaska 9.2 131

Northern Peru 7.9 67,000

San b ernando, California 6.7 58

Mindanao, Philippines 8.1 8,000

Guatemala . 7.6 22,780

Tangshan, China 7.4 655,000

EL Arnam, Algeria 7.1 2,590

Michoacan, Mexico 8.1 9,500

Armenia 6.8 25.000

7.9

142,810

7.7

200,000

8.1

30,000

7.6

32,700

6.9

- 5,390

95

5,700

9.2

131

7.9
67,000

6.7

58

8.1

8,000

7.6

22,780

7.4

655,000

7.1

2,590

8.1

9,500

6.8

25,000
Eft^l

l^BHI

^^•WSIWTSIwiiTw^^HH

•OB

••
•MI^IH

19.
•^•••^•^•I^^B

1989
•^^••^^•••••^••••••^^•^^^MHBi^^

Loma Prieta, California

M^HHMIM
7.0
^^^•••V^Hi

62

20.

1990

Wstern Iran

7.5

50,000

21.

1992

Landers, California

7.3

22.

1993
Latur, India

6.2

9,750

23

1994

Northridge, California

6.7

60

24.

1994

Noj-thern Bolivia

8.3

10

25

1994

Kuril Islands, Japan

8.3

10

26.

1995

Kobe, Japan

6.9

5,200

27.

2001
India, Pakistan, America, Maxico.

8.1

Several Thousand

MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES OF THE CRUST OF THE EARTH

1. African

2. Antarctic

3. Arabian

4. Australian

5. Caribbean

6. Cocos

7. Eurasian

8. Indian

9. Jun de Fuca

10. Nazca

11. North Amerir.»n


THE UNIVERSE

12. Pacific

13. Philippine

14. Scotia

15. Somali

16. South American

NOTABLE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS OF THE 20TH CENTURY


1. 1902 Soufriers, St. Vincent

2. 1902 Mount Pelee, Martinique

3. 1902 Santa Maria, Guatemala

4. 1907 Ksudach, Kamchatka, Russia

5. 1911 Taal, Luzon, Philippines

6. 1912 Katmai/Novarupta, Alaska

7. 1914 Lassen Peak, California

8. 1919 Kelut, Java, Indonesia

9. 1930 Merapi, Java, Indonesia

10. 1932 Quizapu, Chile

11. 1943 Paricutin, Mexico

12. 1951 Lamins^on Pnmia \To- - ’”SM-JP-I

13. 1956 Bezymyannaya, Kamchatka, Russia

14. 1963 Surtsey, Iceland

15. 1963 Agung, Bali, Indonesia

16. 1980 Mount£. :’ -!»uh, wasmngton

17. 1982 EL Chichon, Mexico

1 8. 1985 Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia

1 i-9. 1991 Pinatubo, Luzon, Philippines

1 20 1991 Cerro Hudson, Chile.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

ECLIPSES
In nature, the shadows of heavenly bodies give rise to eclipses. Eclipses are of two
type; solar eclipse and lunar eclipse. The eclipses of the Sun and the Moon occur
as a result of the relative positions of the Moon, the Sun and the Earth.

Solar Eclipse:

An eclipse of the sun occurs when the Moon comes between the Earth and the
Sun. When the Moon moves to a position between the Sun and the Earth, it throws
shadow on Earth. This shadow consists of an umbral and a penumbra. People on
Earth who are in the unbral region cannot see the Sun at all. This is total eclipse of
the Sun. Those in the penumbral region can see only part of the sun, and we say
that they see a partial eclipse of the Sun. A total eclipse of the Sun is one of the
greatest spectacles of nature and results from one of the most fortunate
coincidences of nature. In round numbers, the Sun’s diameter is 400 times that of
the Moon, and the sun’s distance from Earth is also 400 times that of the Moon -
therefore, Moon’s disk appears large enogh to cover the Sun’s disk.
THE UNIVERSE

Lunar Eclipse:

An eclipse of the Moon occurs when the Earth comes between the Moon and the
Sun. When the Earth lies exactly between the Sun and the Moon, it throws shadow
on the Moon. This shadow is large enough to cover the whole of the Moon. A total
eclipse of the Moon thus occurs. However, as the Moon moves out of the umbral
region of the Earth’s shadow, its appearance, as seen from the Earth goes through
a series of partial eclipses.

Although lunar eclipses do not occur as often as solar eclipses, they are seen by
many more people. They occur during full Moon which is opposite the Sun and
can be observed at any one instant by all of the night half of the Earth.
penifmbra

umbra

TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE


Introduction:
The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is elliptic and it is inclined 5 degrees to the
plane of the Earth’s elliptic orbit around the Sun which means that orbits of the
Moon arid Earth are not in the same plane. Half of the Moon’s orbit is above or
north of the elliptic, while the other half is below or south of it. Moreover, the
equator of the Moon is inclined 6 degrees to the plane of its elliptic orbit,
therefore, about 59 percent of the Moon’ surface is visible at different times from
the Earth. As seen from the Earth, the Moon passes through a series of phases very
27.3 days - waxing from new Moon, through first quarter, to full Moon, then
waning to last quarter and new moon again (see diagram).
Hi I Sun » bghl

Phase* of the Moon


crescent moon

positions of the Moon in its orbt round the Eartll

shapes of the Moor we can see lion the Earth

first quarter

At full Moon, the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon, although not in the
same plane and the whole lunar disk facing the Earth is completely illuminated.
On the other hand, at new Moon, the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth,
usually not in the same plane, and the rays illuminate only the hemisphere facing
it,

leaving the side facing the Earth in complete darkness, making it invisible from
Earth. A total solar eclipse can happen only at the time of the new Moon, when the
Earth, Moon and Sun are lined up, with the Moon between the other two, its
nightside turned towards us.

The interval between two total solar eclipses with the largest duration of totality
(about 7 minutes) is called the Saros Cycle and is 18 years, The recent total solar
eclipse occured on July 11, 1991 and it was seen in Hawaii, Central America and
Brazil. A total solar eclipse may not be seen from all parts of the world but instead
it depends upon the latitude of the observer on the Earth. A total solar eclipse can
be observed within the umbra region, and a partial eclipse within the penumbra
region, a total solar eclipse passes over a particular spot on Earth once every 360
years on average.

The duration of the total solar eclipse depends upon the speed of rotation of the
Moon and revolution of the Earth. The Moon moves eastward in its orbit at about
3400 km (2100 miles) per hour while the Earth rotates eastward at the equator at
very nearly one-half that speed. Therefore, under the most suitable conditions a
total solar eclipse can last at a given point near the equator for about seven and
half minutes.

Any solar eclipse lets scientists make measurements that would be impossible at
ordinary times.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE ECLIPSES
1. Eclipse of the Century July 11, 1991.

2. Rectilinear Propagation of Light.

3. Speed and formation of Shadows.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

4. Different phases of the Moon.

5. At least one and 7 is maximum no of solar eclipses in a year.

6. The moon’s orbit around the Earth is inclined 5° to the plane of the Earch’s
orbit around the Sun.

7. Shadows are like geometric cones.

8. Umbra and penumbra are the regions of Shadows.

9. Most fortunate coincidence of Nature a factor of


400.

10. The Sun has been concealed more than 100 times in this century alone.

11. First Solar Eclipse was observed about more than


4000 years ago.

12. Solar eclipse occurs at the new moon and not on the full moon.

13. A solar eclipse can therefore happen only when the new moon occurs near the
two points where the lunar and Earth’s orbit cross (called th^j nodes).

14. Maximum lunar eclipses are two.

15. On average the Earth revolves round the Sun at the speed of 1000 miles per
minute.

THE MYSTERY OF STONEHENGE


The arrow of time tells us that the lust for sizzling beauty and strong desire for
understanding the order of this Universe by men have travelled together over the
centuries. And it is the fibre of innovation which has brought revolutions over the
years.

Such a typical Innovation is the example of the Stonehenge to the Hubble Space
Telescope.- Over 4100
THE UNIVERSE
years ago, Neolithic people built a remarkable monument on the Salisbury plain in
what is now Southern England.

An Engineering feat alone, Stonheng stands as one of the wonders of the world.

With Stonehenge, they could predict eclipses, the exact days of the solatices, the
long term cycles of the moon and the Sun and other heavenly events.

DAY-NIGHT AND SEASONS


The Earth’s Rotation: Formation of Days and Nights:

The Earth’s axis is inclined at an angle of 661/2 degrees to the plane of its orbit
around the Sun or the axis is inclined at 231/2 degrees from the vertical. The Earth
makes two kinds of movements which take place simultaneously: Rotation and
Revolution. What causes day and night is simply the rotation or spinning of the
Earth on its axis. The Earth rotates from West to East as the other heavenly bodies
do. It would appear then that the sun rises in the East, travels across the sky and
sets in the West. At any moment of its rotation, half the surface of the Earth faces
the Sun and receives its light, while the other half is in total darkness. If the
Earth’s axis was not tilted to one side, every place would have 12 hours of
daylight and 12 hours of darkness. We know, however, that this is not so except
for places on or near the Equator because the Earth’s axis is inclined and hence the
distribution of day time and night time in a day is uneven. Any place along the
equator has nearly 12 hours of each day and night, (Singapore is an example),
whereas away from the Equator, the lengths of day and night vary according to
latitude and the prevailing seasons.
”EVERYDAY SCIENCE

At places north and south of the equator, day and night are unecmul in length
except during the equinoxes when all parts of the Earth have equal days and
nights. The sun remains overhead at the Equator on the spring and autumn equinox
and therefore days and nights are equal in length all over the Earth’s surface at this
time of the year. After spring equinox (March 21st) places north of the equator
begin to have longer days and shorter night. In the southern hemisphere, the
opposite of this takes place, and the days get shorter and the nights longer. Around
June 21st when the midday Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, places north
of the equator have long days and short nights. The length of the daylight
increases polewards, so that at the Arctive Circle (661/2 °N latitude) and beyond,
there is no night and daylight last for 24 hours. This is why these places are
usually referred to as the ”Lands of the Midnight Sun”. In winter, the conditions
are exactly reversed Therefore, it is possible to see the midnight Sun wiuim the
Arctic and Antarctic circle.

The Earth’s Revolution: Formation of Seasons:

In places near the Equator, there is little difference between the temperatures at
different time of the years. This is because the Sun shines always overhead, or
almost so, throughout the year. These region therefore, do not really have the four
seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter - while places away from the equator
as England and New Zealand experience. On June 21st, the position of the Earth in
its orbit is such that the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun and the noonday Sun
shines vertically overhead at the tropic of Cancer (23’/•> °N). At the same time,
the southern half of the Earth is titled away from the Sun. This condition is
Summer Solastice. In the southern hemisphere, the opposite takes place. It is mid-
winter

and the days are shorter than the nights. By December


22nd, the Earth has travelled halfway along its orbit round the Sun and the North
Pole is now turned away from the Sun. The noonday Sun now shines vertically
overhead at the tropic of Capricorn (23’/a °N). At this time, known as the Winter
Solatice, the northern hemisphere is in the midst of its cold season. The days are
shorter and the nights ai e longer.

VOLCANOES
Introduction:

A volcano is where magma erupts. Magma is the molten superhot material present
inside or beneath a volcano. At the time of volcanic gas. The lava can explode if
the gas bursts out, hurling blocks of rock out of the crater and the clouds of
fragments bill out or flow away. Lava comes out of the crater and from cracks in
the volcano and it flows downhill, following valleys, spreading out as it reaches
flat land.

Types of Volcanoes:

Viscosity or stickiness of magma determines the type and the frequency of


volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes with runny magma of low viscosity tend to erupt
more often, and with smaller explosions. Volcanoes with sticky, pasty magma
erupt frequently but with enormous explosive energy. Viscous or pasty magma
mainly contains silica. Most of the volcanic eruptions can be steam-assisted
because volcanoes erupt through water. Gas is an important component of magma
and it largely consists of steam-and carbon dioxide. The temperature of the runny
magma can reach upto 1200°C. A lar^e amount of ash is also given out during the
volcanic eruption. Ash consists of pulverised rock and lava.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Classification:

Volcanoes can be classified as Active, Dormant or Extinct. A volcano is


considered active if it has erupted within the last few hundred years, dormant if it
has erupted within the last several thousand years and extinct if it has not erupted
within the last ten thousand years or more.

Common Places of Volcanic Activity:

There are about 1300 potentially active volcanoes in the world. Common places of
active volcanoes are Hawaii, Phillipine, Indonesia, Mexico, Java, New Zealand,
Japan and Iceland. The volcanoes of Hawaii are probably the most thoroughly
studied in the world.

Cause and Prediction of Volcanoes:

Scientists have learned that the Earth is slowly cooling as heat escapes from the
deep interior to the surface. Spreading ridges are the Earth’s greatest volcanic
mountain chains, and from where the surface is splitting apart. Predicting the
behaviour of most volcanoes is difficult because decades or centuries may pass
between eruptions, and the buildup to an eruption may take place in only days or
months.

Volcanoes as Windows into the Earth:

Volcanoes are our most direct link to the inside of the Earth. They are a source for
samples of material that normally lie deep beneath our feet, and they give us a
feeling for the degree of restlessness inside the Earth. More than 8 percent of
Earth’s surface has been formed by volcanic activity of one kind or another
Volcanism is a major process in the evolution of rocky planets and moons.

UNIVERSE
IS MADE UP OF THE FOLLOWING SCHEME

Greeks Concept of Matter

Classical Concept of Matter


Passage of Time
HRffljESEHmE!
Substances

This is the Purest form of Matter

Mixtures

This is an impure form of Matter and it consists of complex materials.

It is the purest and simplest form of matter and can be defined as a substance which can not be split up into two or more simple substances. Total No. of
known elements is 109.

It is the purest but complex form of matter and can be defined as a substance formed by the combination of two or more elements in definite proportions.

It is that mixture in which the resultant material consists of a single phase. Solutions are also homogeneous mixtures.

It is that mixture in which the resultant material consists of more than one phase. Sand and water constitute a Heterogeneous mixture.

It is the smallest particles of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction. It may and may not exist independently.

It is the smallest particle of a compound and can take part in a chemical reaction. It is the combination of two or more atoms and it always exists
independently.

Electrons

It is negatively charged particle. It’s mass is very small as compared to the mass of an atom of Hydrogen.

Protons

It is positively charged particle. It’s mass is nearly equal to the mass of an atom of Hydrogen.

Neutrons
is a neutral

It is a neutral particle. It’s mass is nearly equal to the mass of an atom of Hydrogen.

QUAKES

AND

LEPTONS

• •IiaiJiMMqTWl

MINERALS
Definition:

It is a widely used general term referring to the nonliving constituents of the


Earth’s crust in the crystalline form which include naturally occurring elements,
compounds, and mixtures that have a definite range of chemical composition and
properties. These are usually inorganic in nature. Some typical examples are
Bauxite. Saprolite, Dolomite, Chromite and Gypsum, Crystallinity implies that a
mineral has a definite and limited range of composition, and that the composition
is expressible as a chemical formula. Almost all inorganic substances that are used
by or of value to humans are derived from minerals. Over 3,000 minerals are
currently known, and about 50 new discovered each year. Most gems are minerals.

Classification:
Minerals can be classified in term of structure and composition. These are
classified into 13 groups, some of which are described below:
1.
Oxide

I Bauxite

Hydrated Aluminum Oxide

Australia, France

Famaica, Brazil

2.

Hydroxide

Brucite

i-

Magnesium Hydroxide

Canada, U 3 A.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

3.

Halides
j

Rock salt

Sylvite

Cryolite

Sodium Chloride Potassium

chloride Sodium-

Aluminum flouride

Pakistan U.S.A., Europe U.S.A., USSR

4.

Carbonates

Limestone

Marble

Dolomite

Calcium Carbonate Calcium-Carbonate Calcium-Magnesium Carbonate

Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan

5.

Nitrates

Nitre

Potassium nitrate

U.S.A., Pakistan

6.

Borate

Borax

Sodium tetraborate

U.S.A., Europe, Maxico

7.

Sulfates

Gypsum

Calcium Sulphate
Pakistan

8.

Tungstates

Wolframite

Calcium tungstate

U.S.A., Australia

Bolivia, Europe

9.

Chromates

Chromite

Iron Chromate
|

USSR, Turkey, Zimbabwe

THE UNIVERSE

Occurrence:

Minerals result from a sequence of complex processes that began with chemical
differentiation of the solar system to form planets and that ended, in many cases,
with crystallization in rocks or bodies controlled by trivial local factor. The
occurrence of minerals, therefore involves a general understanding of
geochemistry, geophysics and peterology as well as special factors involved in the
formation of ore deposits.

COMMON MINERALS

i.

Bauxite

Aluminium Hydroxide

Aluminium
Q_
Beryl

Beryllium Silicate

Beryllium

h_
Brucite

Magnesium Hydroxide

Magnesium

^
Calcite •

Calcium Carbonate

Calcium

5.

Carnotite

Potassium Uranium Vanadate

Uranium

6.

Cassiterite

Stannous Oxide

Tin
LL
Cerargyrite

Silver Chloride

Silver

8.

Chalcopyrite

Copper Iron Sulphate

Copper

^_
Chromite

Iron Chromium Oxide

Chromium

10. I

Cinnabar

i ” ~~~~

Mercuric Sulphide

Mercury

11.

Corundum

Aluminium Oxide

Aluminium

12.

Cuprite

Copper Oxide
Copper

13.

Dolomite

Calcium Magnesium Carbonate

Magnesium

14.

Enargite

Copper Arsenic Sulphide

Copper

15.

Epsomite

Magnesium Sulphate

Magnesium

16.

Galena

Lead Sulphide

Lead

17.

Gypsum

Calcium Sulphate

Calcium

18. I

Hematite

Ferric Oxide

Iron
•M3;«»y.iV«wiai?Ma

19.

Lime Stone

Calcium Carbonate

Calcium

20.

Limonite

Ferrous Hydroxide

Iron

21.

Malachite

, Copper Carbonate Hydroxide

Copper

22.

Marble

Calcium Carbonate

Calcium

23.

Pyrolusite

Manganese Dioxide

Manganese

24.

Quartz

Silicon Dioxide

Silicon

25.

Rock Salt

Sodium Chloride
I
Sodium

26.

Rutile

Titanium Oxide

Titanium

27.

Siderite

Iron Carbonate

Iron

28.

Sheelite

Calcium Tungstate

Tungsten

29.

Syfvite

Potassium Chloride

Potassium

30.

Wolframite

Iron Manganese Tungstate

Tungsten

• i;iaiKMwa:na

Physical Propertieg_of Minerals:

Minerals possess magnetic and electrical properties. Some of them show the phenomenon
of Luminescence. Few Minerals containing Uranium and Thorium are radioactive. Most
of the minerals are hartf. An empirical scale of the hardness of mineral or mineral like
materials originally consisting of 10 values is called the Mohs scale. The numerical order
of increasing hardness: 1-talc, 2-gypsum, 3-Calcite, 4-Fluorite, 5Apatite, 6-Orthoclase, 7-
Quartz, 8-Topaz, 9-Corundum,
10-Diamond.
GLOSSARY OF COSMOLOGY
Light Year:

It is the distance travelled by light travels at 3 x


105 km per second (1,86,000 miles per second) and so one light year is approximately
9,461,000 million km (5875000 million miles), this ”unit is used to measure distances
between galaxies.

Astronomical Unit:

This is the distance between the Earth and the Suu (150 million km). This unit is used to
measure distances between the heavenly bodies within the solar system. Pluto is 39 A.U.
away from the Earth.

Black Hole:

A hypothetical region of space having a gravitational pull so great that no matter or


radiation, not even light, can escape from it. Such regions are believed to form when a
massive star collapses, having used up all its nuclear fuel. Black hole usually lies at the
centre of a galaxy.

Local Groups:

It is a cluster of about thirty known galaxies including the Milky Way. >
V

Supernova:

An exploding star. At the end of its phase as a Red Giant, a heavy star explodes as a
supernova shinning briefly as brighuy as a thousand million stars Recent supernova was
observed on the night of Feb. 23, 1987 (Supernova 1987 A) - it was the brightest one to
appear in terrestrial skies since 1604. This occurred in Large Magellanic cloud.
Neutron Star:

A star at the end of its evolutionary process that has become highly compressed by
gravitational forces. During the collapse, its electrons combine with protons to
make neutrons, and the collapse halts when the neutrons are packed together.

Pulsar:

It is a rotating neutron star that emits short regular pulses of radiation (x-rays and
gamma-rays) that appear as flashes of light. Pulsars are like lighthouses in the sky.

Nebula:

A region of dust and gas in a galaxy. It is usually a spectacular remnant of a


supernova. The Crab Nebula was the remnant of a supernova seen in 1054 A.D.
Stars are also formed within clouds of dust and gas called

Nebulae.

Quasars:

Quasars are very distant and immensely bright objects, which are thought to
represent the nuclei of active galaxies. These are extra-galactic sources of high
energy electromagnetic radiations.

Protostarts:

, Patches of gas and dust inside a nebula collapse under gravity forming dark
regions called protostars. As the protostars continue to collapse, they become
denser and hotter. Eventually, they may become hot enough for nuclear-fusion
reactions to start and thus turn into stars.

Q.
Ans.

Q.

*,
Ans.
EXERCISE
What is a shooting star?

A shooting star is a meteor that comes from space, burning out in the Earth’s
upper atmosphere.

About how many stars can you see on a realy clear night with the naked eye?

The total number of star visible with the naked eye cannot be more than 6000 - but
it is seldom possible to see more than 2500 at any one time,.. since faint stars near
the horizon are bound to be

lost.

Q. How is twinkling of Stars explained?

Ans. Stars twinkle for two main reasons. The intensity of brightness of the stars
decreases and increases because of line-of-sight effect. Moreover, there are
disturbance in the gases of the atmosphere around the Earth. Different layers of
gases also have different temperature which bring visual changes.

Q. What is Orion Nebula?

Ans. The Orion Nebula, as seen from he Earth, is a star forming cloud about 1,600
light years away. Ultraviolet light from-the hot, young stars ionizes the gas in the
nebula, causing it to glow.

Q. Which planet in our Solar System has beautiful rings around it?

Ans. It is the Saturn planet. The celebrated rings of the giant Saturn are composed
of thousands of rippling, spiraling bands from 6 to’ GO miles in width.
Q. What is Oort Cloud?

Ans. Ir. is a reservoir of comets outside the solar system.

Q. What is the difference between a star and a planet?

Ans. Star is self-luminous heavenly body while planet is rocky-luminous body.


Planets, however reflect light.

Q.

What are aurora?

Ans. These are northern polar lights which are caused by electrified particles sent
out by the Sun. These charged particles from the sun cascade down into the
Earth’s upper air. Being charged, they are attracted to the magnetic poles, which is
why auroras are best seen from higher latitudes. They are particularly common
around the peak of the sunspot cycle. This phenomenon occurs in the
therrnosphere about 65 miles above sea-level.

Q. Why does a total Solar Eclipse can happen only at the time of the new Moon?

Ans. A total Solar Eclipse - a situation when the bright surface of the Sun is fully covered
by the Moon - can happen only at the new Moon, when the Earth, Moon and Sun are
lined up with the Moon between the other two, its nightside turned towards us.

Q. Why do we see hut only one face of the Moon always?

Ans. Because, the period of rotation of the Moon is equal to its period of
revolution around the Earth. It is also called the synchronous rotation of the

Moon which keeps the same face towards the Earth.

Q. Name some craters on the Mercury?

Ans. Beethoven, Chopin, Goethe and Ibsen are the craters on the mercury.

Q. What is the average temperature variation on the surface of the Moon?

Ans. The average temperature on the surface of the Moon ranges from _ 180°C to
110°C. These extreme temperatures appear because there is no atmosphere around
the Moon.

Q. Is the Earth closer to the Sun in January or in July?


Ans. The Earth is about three million miles closer to the Sun in January - but the
seasons are due to the tilt of the axis, the centre of the Earth’s rotations, and not to
our changing distance from the Sun.

Q. Which month of the calendar year can lack a new Moon?

Ans. It is Febi uary. The interval between successive new Moons is 291/?. days and there
are only 28 days in February - 29 in leap year - so there might not be n new moon during
this month.

Q. What \\iil he the colour of the sky if viewed from other planets.

Ans. If you look at the sky from the Moon, it appears completely black because the Moon
has no atmosphere. From Mars - it appears, orangish red because the planet is wrapped in
a thin atmosphere of carbon dioxide gas.
f
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q. Explain the blue colour of the Sky.

Ans. Actually there is no colour of the Sky -but it is the blue part of the white light
of the sun which gets scattered by the dust particles hanging in the atmosphere.
This is called the Tyndal Effect.

Q. Why does the Sun appear organish-red at the time of sunrise or sunset?

Ans. At sunrise and sunset, we see the Sun through a greater thickness of air
because it is low in the sky. The colours of the spectrum are gradually scattered.
Red and orange are the last to be scattered through the atmosphere around us and
therefore the Sun appears orangish - Red.

Q. What is a Rainbow and how it is formed?

Ans. A rainbow is the appearance of the band of seven colour spectrum on the
horizon. Although the Sunlight appears to be white but it is really made of
different colours. A rainbow is formed when this white light gets dispersed by
passing through million of falling spherical raindrops which act as series of
prisms.

Q. What is an Early Bird?

Ans. It is the name of the , first commercial communication satellite which was
launched by U.S.A. in 1965.

Q. Is our Earth <i perfect sphere?

Ans. The Earth is not a true sphere but an oblate

spheroid, because it s flattened at the pols and bulges out at the equator It is more
like an orange than like a ball. It circumference is 25,000 miles. The polar
diameter of the Earth is 26 miles shorter than the equotorial diameter.
THE UNIVERSE

Q. Name the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.


Ans. Oxygen and Silicon are the two most abundant elements present in the
Earth’s crust.

Q. Which day of the year is the longest in the northern Hemisphere?

As. It is the 21st of June of every year - it is the time of summer Solastice.

Q. Which countries can experience 6 months day and 6 -months Night?

Ans. The Sun rises at the north pole on the 21st of march and this pole remains in
light till the 23rd of September. We can see the Sun even at night for some months
at places near north pole like Norway, Greenland and Northern Russia.

Q. Name some calendars which have been used by different peoples of the world
from time to time?

Ans. Julian, Gregorian, Chinese, Jewish and Muslim calendar.

Q. How fast does light travel?

Ans. It travels at a speed of 1,86,000 miles per second in air and it can travel
around the world seven and a half times in one second.

Q. What s Greenwich?

Ans. It is the name of a place located on south bank of the River Tames and it is
borough of Greater London.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q. What is Greenwich Mean Time?

Ans. Greenwich mean time was established in 1884. The Greenwich meridian is used to
measure time zones for the world. The Earth is divided into 23 full time zones and two
half-zones. Each full zone is 15° longitude wide and each half zone is 7’/2 longitude
wide.

Q. What Volcanoes are the most common in the

world? Ans. The Volcanoes of Hawaii are probably the most

common and thoroughly studied in the world.

They are helping scientists to get a better

understanding of how volcanoes on Earth, and on

other planets operate.

Q. Name some famous Meteor Craters on the surface of the Earth?

Ans. One of the most famous and the freshest impact crater on Earth is the Arizona’s
(U.S.A). Meteor Crater. About fifty thousand years ago, a 300,000 ton piece of nickel-
iron punched a hole, three quarters of a mile across in Arizona-Colarado Plateau. One of
the largest and oldest craters lies on the West side of Ungava Peninsula in Northern
Qubec (Canada). It is 2 miles in diameter and 1,200 feet deep.

Q. What is the total volume of the liquid vater

on the surface of the Earth? Ans. There is about 340 million cubic miles of liquid

water on the surface of the Earth.


THE UNIVERSE

o.
Name some countries through which the Equator passes?

Ans. Borneo, Sumatra. Kenya, Uganda, Brazil, Colombia and Equadore.

Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.

Q.
Give the Latitude, Longitude and altitude of the City of Lahore.

Latitude

Longitude

Altitude

Give the Pakistan?

Latitude Longitude

What is the dead Sea?

32°(N)
74°(E)
213 metres (698 feet)

Latitude and longitude of

30°(N)
67°, 30 (E)

Ans. The Dead Sea is the World lowest sea. Its surface is 400 metres below the
Mediterranean.

Q. Name the four main Mountain Ranges of the World?

Ans. The four main Mountain Ranges of the World are; Himalyan (Asia), Alpine
(Western Europe), Rocky (U.S.A.) and Andes (South America).

Q. Name some Top Resorts of the Carihhean?

Ans. Virgin, Antigua, Barbados, Grenad, Dominican and Peter Islands.


Q. What is Golden Triangle?

Ans. It is a lawless border area in Southeast Asia touching Thailand, Laos and Myanmar
where warlords fight for control of drug routes.
Q. What is Bermuda Triangle?

Ans. This is the name given to a triangular area of the Western Atlantic Southeast coast
of the United States, extending from Bermuda in the north to southern Florida, and then
north to a point through Bahamas past Puerto Rico to about 40°
i OT a; vt »7iVgJM I 3 k’ M ^

west longitude and then back again to Bermuda. This area has occupied a
disturbing and almost unbelievable place in the world’s catalogue of unexpected
mysteries. It continues to remain a saga of unexplained disappearances.

Q. How many Tectonic Plates make the Earth’s dynamic crust?

Ans. There are 15 mam tectonic Plates which make the dynamic crust of the Earth.
San Adreas Fault appears along the length of California where North American
and Pacific plates meet. Continental drift is now explained in terms of plate
tectonics.

Q. What is an Epicenter?

Ans. It is a term used in the investigation of Earthquakes and it is described as the


centre of the emergence of Seismic Waves which extend in all directions during ai
Earthquake.

Q. What is meant by the Richter Scale?

Ans. The severity of an Earthquake is measured by a scale called the Richter


Scale. This scale is logarithmic in nature, so each addition point represents a
tenfold increase in severity.

Q. What is Atmospheric Pressure? Give its different units?

Ans. It may be defined as the pressure which the atmosphere exerts on the surface
of the Earth at sea-level and 0°C. It is measured by means of an instrument known
as Barometer, devised in 1644 by Evangelista Torricilli. Its different equivalent
unit are:

One Atmosphere = 760 mm Hg

= 760 torr

= 14 696 16 in-2

= 1.0132 x 10G dyn cm’2

= 1.0132 Newton nr2

Q. Explain the variation of Atmospheric Pressure with Altitude und its


consequences in daily life.
Ans. The pressure of the atmosphere is not constant all around but it decreases
continuously as the altitude is increased. The boiling point of water is
100 °C at the pressure often found at sea level However, at higher altitudes the
pressure is less and therefore the boiling point of water is lower than 100 °C.
People who live where the atmospheric pressure is lower (at high altitudes) must
boil foods longer when cooking because water boils at lower temperature. It is due
to this reason that people living on mountains feel difficulty in cooking. The idea
that pressure affects the boiling point can be used to cook foods quicker by
increasing the pressure, special cooking pot called pressure cookers do this.

^^^^^^^^BB^^^^S^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^^^W

^^^^^^^^^H^^^^l^^^^l^^^^^^^^C^^^B
PHH^^^^^^B^BBHBl^^^^^^B^IB^^^^HHHBi^^H

760 mm Hg

100°C

Om
^^M^^H^^VBi^B^lM^MMMl

100°C

1010 mm Hg

100°C

1000m

96.6°C

1260 mm Hg

115°C

2000 m

93.4°C

1510

120°C

3000m

80.1 °C
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q. Differentiate clearly between cyclone, Hurricane and Tornado?

Ans. Cyclone: It is a rotary usually funnel-shaped atmospheric system having its


lowest pressure at the centre and is circulating mass of air and water-vapours. It
circulates in anti-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and reverses its
direction in the southern hemisphere.

Hurricane: It is a well-defined weather system of wind of more than 74 miles


per hour and pronounced rotary circulation at the surface.

Tornado: It is a violently rotating column of air, moving counter-clockwise at an


estimated speed of about 300 miles per hour.

Q. Name two minerals which are exported by Pakistan?

Ans. Gypsum and common salt.

Q. Give some commercial uses of Gypsum?

Ans. It is used in the manufacture of wall-board, cement, fillers in paper,


paint and soil industry.

Q. Name some Gem-minerals used in jewelry?

Ans. Topaz, Emerlad, Jade, Opal, Sapphire, Garnet, Amethyst and Diamond.

Q. Give different mineral names of the

substance-calcium carbonate

Ans. Chalk, Limestone, Marble and Pearl.


THE UNIVERSE

Q. Ans.

Q. Ans.

Q.
Ans.
Q. Ans.

Q.
Ans.

Q.

Ans.

Which area of the World is rich in copperdeposits?

The largest known deposits of copper are in the world are found on the northern
edge of the Atlama desert in Chile.

Name some naturally occurring and manmade elements.

Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sodium and potassium are some examples of


naturally occurring elements while Neptunium, Plutonium, Berkelium, Nobelium
and Lawerncium are examples of some man-made elements.

How many elements are known in this world?

The total number of known elements in this world is 109 and these elements are
arranged in the periodic Table to study their properties.

What is dry ice?

It is solid carbon dioxide at a temperature of -80 °C.

Name the elements which are liquid at room temperature?

Mercury, Bromine, Gallium, Cesium and Francium.

Name four elements which are gases?

Oxygen, Nitrogen, Helium, Hydrogen and Neon.


Chapter 3

ENERGY
Introduction:

Energy is one of the fundamental ideas in Physics. It is the name given to the
ability to do work. Energy is needed to do all types of work - you even need
energy to throw a ball into the air and catch it. Work and Energy are measured in
the same units. When an object continues to stay at rest or to keep moving, we call
this Inertia. People often confuse Energy, Power and Force. Force is a push or pull
on an object or body. If you want to start or stop something moving, you need to
push or pull it. These pushes and pulls are called Forces. Forces are needed to
overcome, or beat, intertia. Forces are produced by energy change. The amount of
work is determined by the strength of the force used and the distance through
which it moves. Power measures the rate at which Work is done.

Units of Energy:

There are various units for the measurement of energy. In the metric system,
energy is measured in Joules. Other popular units are Erg, Foot-pound, Electron
Volt, Calorie and Btu. Calorie is the unit of heat energy and is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water through 1C.
It is more commonly used in biological sciences.
ENERGY

Interconvertible Forms of Energy:

Energy and Mass are locked in the Einstein’s Famous equation: E = mc2, where E
is the energy, ’m’ is the mass and ’c’ is the velocity of light. This equation shows
that mass and energy are interconvertible but the conversion of a very small mass
will give a very large amount of energy. Energy can be considered a concentrated
form of matter, and matter a concentrated form of energy. Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but it can change into different intercovnertible forms under
different conditions. More popular forms of energy are Potential, Kinetic, heat,
Solar, Electrical, Mechanical, Tidal, Wind, Geothermal and Nuclear.
ENERGY CONVERSION CHART

Nature of Energy Conversion


Electronic Cells

Photoelectric Effect, Radio Aerial

Thermocouple, Thermoelectric Effect

Generators, Piezo-Electric Effect

Emission of 8-particles

Photosynthesis

Endothermic Reaction

Radio Waves

Chemical to Electrical

Radiation to Electrical

Thermal to Electrical

Mechanical to Electrical

Nuclear to Electrical

Radiation to Chemical

Thermal to Chemical

Electrical to Radiation (light)


o

,>

PMiSwHEHmifli

Chemiluminescence* Phosphorescence**

Resistance Heating Motors

Exothermic Reaction Friction

Nuclear Fission Muscular

Chemical to Radiation (light)

Kinetic to Radiation (light)

Electrical to Thermal

Electrical to Mechanical

Chemical to Thermal

Mechanical to Thermal

Nuclear to Thermal

Chemical to Mechanical

* The emission of light during a chemical reaction, e.g. the oxidation of yellow phosphorous. The light
emitted by the fire fly or glow warm and luminous combustion are examples of this very common
phenomenon.

** A form of luminescence in which a substance emits light of one wavelength after having absorbed
electromagnetic radiation of a shorter wavelength. Unlike fluorescence, phosphorescence may continue for
a considerable time after excitation.

Renewable Energy Sources:

Renewable energy sources are those which will replenish themselves naturally in a
relatively short time and will therefore always be available. Examples are, geothermal,
solar, tidal, wind and hydro-electric.

Non-Renewable Energy Sources:

Non-renewable energy sources are those which cannot be used again and again. Typical
examples are Fossil Fuels.
•afliaittva

Sources of Energy:

All the movement on the surface of the Earth requires energy. The ultimate source of all
kinds of energy come from the Sun. Sun provides the energy needed to produce the food.
A car moves by the energy supplied by petrol and petrol comes from oil, which provides
the energy for most of the world’s transport. Sources of Energy can be divided into two
main classes.

Primary Sources and Secondary Sources:

Electricity is the most common and popular form of energy which is actually itself made
from energy released by burning coal or oil or by using nuclear fuel or water power. Each
of these four sources of energy is called a primary source. Electricity is a secondary
source, because it is produced from a primary source. Some major and minor sources of
energy can be grouped as under.

1 Calorie = 4.186 Joules

1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 252 Calories

= 778.26 Foot-pound

1.

Fossil Fuels

Major

2.

Hydel Power

Major

3.

Nuclear Energy

Major

4.

Wind Power

Minor
5.

Tidal Energy

Minor

6.

Solar Energy

Minor

j Geothermal Power

Minor
Fossil Fuels:

The power of sunlight captured millions of years ago by plants and animals that
died and buried in huge deposits is now being burned as Coal, Petroleum and
Natural Gas, these are called fossil fuels. The Earth has only limited supply of
fossil fuels. The amount used has now been almost doubled because of the high
demand of energy. Scientists are seeking new sources of energy to replace
shrinking fossil fuels. Fossil fuels consist of the following major materials.

1. Coal:

Over millions of years, layers of rotting plants were pressed more and more tightly
together. Peat, lignite and eventually coal were formed. Anthracite, the oldest and
hardest coal, is 400 million years old. It provides about 30% of all the energy used
in the world. It can be used for the production of electricity and steel.

Energy Profile for Pakistan:


1947
1987

Production of Electricity in Pakistan

Coal 59%, Hydro 3%, Oil 38%

Coal 9%, Hydro 13%, Oil 40%, Gas 48%

2. Petroleum:

Black Gold or Liquid Gold:

The word petroleum literally means rock oil. It is a thick dark oily liquid
containing admixture of hundreds of organic corn} ounds (hydrocarbons).
Petroleum furnishes almost’,.;,. ,f the energy used in the world. Oil

was formed in a similar way to coal Plants and animals that lived in the seas sank
down the sea-bed when they died. They were further crushed under layer of mud,
and gradually turned into oil. The oil then followed upwards until it reached layers
of hard rock and became trapped under the rock.

Major Oil producing Countries:

Crude oil production continues to remain as one of the major industries of any
country Ex-USSR, U.S.A., Venezuela, Kuwait, Algeria, Iran and Saudi Arabia are
regarded as the pillars of Petroleum Club. The major oilproducing nations of the
Middle East - Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, Qatar and the United Arab
Emiratesring the Persian Gulf and naturally assume the shape of a drop of oil in
the world map.

The price of crude oil per barrel crossed $ 40, for the first time in history in 1990.
The impact of this unprecedented price-hike on Pakistan and other countries and
particularly those of the third world is appalling, Pakistan today produces only 30
percent of its oil requirements.
ENERGY

Global Search for Crude Oil:

A worldwide scramble to finds new oil fields continues. Modern technology has
made it a little easier. Three dimension seismography allows geologists to get a
moi e precise, detailed picture of the folds and ripples in the Earth’s crust and
pinpoint rock formations that can yield crudes oil. In 1990, geologists added
nearly 100 billion barrels to the world’s proven oil reserves to more than one
trillion barrels. Alaska and Siberia are the places included in the hit list of the
geologists for crude oil deposits. Siberia may prove another Middle East in future.

Petroleum Products:

Petroleum is a complete liquid mixture of a variety of organic compounds. The


chief components are hydrocarbons, which may be aliphatic, alicyclic, or aromatic
in varying proportions. In addition to carbon and hydrogen petroleum contains 1 to
6% of sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen present as organic compounds.

Crude petroleum is the starting material not only for the fuels used for
transportation and energy production but also for petrochemicals, feedstocks,
solvents, lubricants, asphalts and many other specialities like kerosene oil and
petrol. It is however, not easy to do the separation of the individual components
from the crude petroleum which is done at an Oil-refinery. Therefore, petroleum is
first refined, that is separated into useful products, by distillation into fractions of
different boiling ranges, conversion of the less desirable components into more
valuable product, and treatment of fractions in various ways to remove undesirable
components.

LPG:

The liquified petroleum gases (LPG), methane, ethane, propane and butanes, are
used chiefly as fuel.

Solvents:

The petroleum ethers, ligroins, naphthas, and mineral point spirits boil from 30 to
140°C and are used as solvents.

Gasoline:

It is the fraction boiling between 06C to 200 °C.


I EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Transport Oils:

Other commercial fractions of petroleum are kerosene oil, turbine fuel, and jet fuel
(b.p. 175 °C -
275°C), gas fuel, fuel oil and diesel oil (b.p. 250° -
400 °C), and lubricating oil. A desirable characteristic of diesel fuel is a low
spontaneous ignition temperature.

Paraffin:

It is the mixture of solid saturated hydrocarbons that crystallizes from various


high-boiling fractions.

Greases:

Greases are made by dispersing metallic soaps in hot lubricating oils.

Pitch and Asphalt:

Pitch and asphalt are residual products used as protective coatings and as binding
agents for fibre and crushed rock. If these residues are distilled to dryness,
Petroleum coke is obtained, which can be calcined to a practically pure carbon that
is valuable for the manufacture of carbon electrodes.

3. Natural Gas:

As the oil is formed under tlie bed of the Earth’s surface by the biodegradation of
plants and animals, it also gives off a large amount of natural gas. This is also the
chief source of hydrocarbons. Natural gas varies greatly in composition.
Unprocessed gases contain 60-
80% methane, 5 to 9% ethane, 3-18% propane and 2-14% higher hydrocarbons.
Most of the natural gas is used for fuel, Although an increasing amount is being
used as raw material for the synthesis of large number of important organic
compounds. Partial combustion of natural agents

for rubber and synthetic rubbers. Natural gas is also used for the production of
electricity.

Natural gas is the cheapest and most efficient source of energy in Pakistan and the
first field was discovered at Sui in 1952. The natural gas of Pakistan has a high
methane content, usually 70-90 percent. It is being used by industry, for power
generation and for domestic purposes. It’s production was 10 thousand million
cubic metres in 1982-83 and is increasing by finding more gas-rich places. Natural
gas is playing a vital role in the economic development of Pakistan by providing a
cheap fuel for industry.

Hydel Power or Hydro-Electric Power:

Electricity can also be produced at a power station without burning coal or oil.
This is done with the help of building dams at elevated areas where there is plenty
of rainfall. A large dam built across a river stores a huge amount of water as a
lake. The power station can turn the potential energy of water into kinetic energy,
and then convert this energy into electrical energy by using a generator.

Shortage of energy is the most serious handicap restricting Pakistan’s development


programmes. In
1987-88 the total primary energy consumption in Pakistan was around 36 million
tons of oil equivalent (MOTE) of this, about two third was met from commercial
energy resources. This was largely based on the use of non-renewable sources of
energy mainly hydrocarbons. Despite the transformation in the energy profile
since the birth of the country in 1947 the hydro contribution which is a renewable
source of energy is still only l’3f/r Tarbela and Mangla dams alone are unable to
meet the requirement of the country. The demand for electricity is growing rapidly
and is outstripping the rate
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

at which new generating capacity can be introduced. At present the total installed
generation capacity is about
7760 MW and the forecasts indicate that by the end of the century the demand will
be more than three times the present demand and that requirement for dependable
power will increase by at least 10,000 MW.

Kalabagh Dam project can generate 3600 MW when completed. The project is
located on river Indus,
100 miles MAP storage capacity on final completion, if Kalabagh Dam falls a prey
to politics, chances of hydel power generation will be doomed.

Solar Energy:

The Sun is a huge source of energy. The amount of energy reaching the Earth from
the Sun could be more than produced by million of power stations. A large amount
of heat can be produced by using mirrors to direct and concentrate the Sun’s rays.
A solar furnace in Southern France collects enough of the Sun’s energy to melt
metals. Flat-plate collectors are used to heat buildings and water. Sunlight can also
be converted into electricity by solar cells or photovoltaic cells. Each cell is made
of layers of a material that produces electrical energy when light shines on it.
Many watches and calculators are powered by solar cells. Large solar cells’ are
used to provide electrical energy in places that are far away from normal
electricity supplies. Solar cells provide nearly all the electric power for artificial
satellite and space vehicles. Cars and even light aircraft can be powered by solar
energy. Radio telephone in Saudi Arabia is powered by solar energy.
ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Friend or a Foe

Introduction:

Nuclear energy is the most powerful form of energy in the Universe. Only this
form of energy can meet the demands of more tfian 5 billion people living on the
Earth. About 30 nations use nuclear energy to generate l/6th world’s electricity.
There are about 530 nuclear power reactors in operation and another 96 are under
construction in the world. There are two ways of producing nuclear energy and
both ways release an enormous amount of heat. One way it, lu s>piit the nucleus
of an atom. This prnreofs i« called Nuclear Fission. The other way is to join
together ui luse, die nuclei of two atoms at u very hi^h temperature. This process
is called Nucleru fusion and this> is the basis of source of energy in the Sun.

Nuclear Fission:

At present, nuclear energy commonly refers to energy production by nuclear


fission because this is currently the only commercially feasible metkod. Chemical
energy is locked up inside atoms and molecules. An atom is made up of three
different kinds of particles - protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and
neutrons are crowded into the nucleus.near the centre of the atom. The electrons
go round and round the nucleus along precise pathways. The nucleus is the small
and dense central core of the atom. It is constructed of a tightly packed array of
positively charged protons and neutral or uncharged, neutrons. The nucleus is held
together by nuclear forces, which differed from such other forces as gravity or
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

electromagnetic force in their strength and in their dependence on the arrangement


of particles.

neutron

electron

proton

nucleus

°^--^ ^X electron

To divide a nucleus into two parts requires the injection of energy, for example, by
bombardment of the nucleus with another particle under proper conditions this
bombardment will initiate an energy-producing chain reaction. In the fission
process, heavy nuclei, such as those of Uranium, are bombarded with neutrons and
split into two particles of mass in the ratio of roughly 3 to 2. The resulting fission
fragments hayejess mass than the original nucleus, with the excess mass appearing
as energy about 200 MeV per fission. Most of this kinetic energyis converted into
heat that is used to generate steam in a power plant.
ENERGY

Energy Units for Nuciear Power:

The amount, of energy is often express”’5 In a unit knov-.:: do uie electron v-^t
;< ; L is defined as the amouix, i” ?r’;:5’v imparted to an electron by accelerating
it through a potential difference of one volt. One electron volt is a small amount of
energy, it takes
2.25 x 1025 eV to give 1 Kilowatt hour (KWH), which is equivalent to the energy
per hour of ten 10-watt light bulbs.

Typical Nuclear Fission Reaction:

A typical nuclear-fission reaction involves the combination of one neutron with


Uranium - 235 to yield isotopes of Krypton and Barium, 2 neutrons, and energy.

235

90

44
1

n ->•

Kr +

Ba +

2n

+ E

92

36

56

The subscripts represent the number of protons and the superscripts the total
number of proton and neutrons. Natural sample of Uranium contains 0.7% U235
and 99.3% U238. Uranium - 235 is more useful nuclear fuel.

The Nuclear Reactor or The Nuclear Power Plant:

The nuclear reactor is the device in which the fission reaction involving neutrons
and nuclear fuel is controlled for the production of heat energy. This heat energy is
eventually converted by means of Turbines and Generator to electrical energy for
commercial use. A nuclear power plant works in a similar way to an oil-fired
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

or coal-fired power station. The difference between the two types of power plants
is in the fuel they use to heat the boilers. Inside a nuclear power plant, energy is
released by nuclear fission in the core of a piece of equipment called the reactor.
The energy heats water in the boiler - the water boils and produces steam. This
steam turns the huge turbine wheels, and the turbines drive the generator that
produces the electricity.

Parts of a Reactor:

The principal components of a reactor are:--

(i) The fuel, which may range from natural uranium, slightly enriched uranium
(3%), to highly emiched uranium. Most of the commercial ’•nnrtort, arc powered
by fuel containing 1.6 to *K* Uranium _ 235

(iv Amoiteiaiu; in fhp form of ordinary water, Heavy water, graphite, beiyllium or
beryllium oxide to slow down the neutrons produced during fission so that they
can be captured by fuel nuclei.

(Hi) A coolant, in the form of water, heavy water, helium gas, carbon dioxide or
liquid sodium, to extract fission heat for useful purposes.

Types of Reactor:

Various types of nuclear reactors are:-

LWR BWR PWR HWR HTGR

Light Water Reactor Boiling Water Reactor Pressurised Water Reactor Heavy
Water Reactor High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor

HEAVY WATER
A LAYMAN’S GUIDE

Heavy water is a naturally occurring substance, it occurs in ”ordinary” water in the


proportion of approximately one part heavy water to 7,000 parts of ordinary or
light water.
Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water (H2O). heavy water is a similar
combination of deuterium and oxygen (D2O). Hydrogen exists in three forms (or
isotopes) which could be called Hydrogen 1,2 and 3 but instead have three
individual names. Hydrogen 2. which differs from hydrogen 1 by having a neutron
in its atomic nucleus, is called deuterium. Hydrogen 3, which has two neutrons in
its nucleus, is called tritium. This is a radioactive substance and does not occur
in the nature to any real extent.

Deuterium was discovered by the American chemist, H.C. Urey and co-
workers in the early 1930s. The extra neutron makes the deuterium atom heavier
than the hydrogen atom, hence the term for deuterium oxide, heavy water. In
practical terms, heavy water weighs about 10 percent more than ordinary
water, heavy water and ordinary water also have different freezing and boiling
points. However they look the same and taste the same and in general their
properties are so similar that separation of two is a difficult task.

Heavy water is used as a ”moderator” in Canadian

Nuclear Power Reactors. The moderator slows, or

Moderates”, the speed of the neutrons released during

fission of Uraium-235 atoms so that the incidence of

”ssion is increased. The neutrons maintain a self-

Pei’petuating chain reaction, producing continuous heat

to operate steam turbines and generate electricity.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Moderating materials that can be used in nuclearreactors include ordinary water,


heavy water, graphite and beryllium. A good moderator should be relatively stable
and a poor neutron absorber. To compare the efficiency of materials used as
moderators, a ”moderating ratio” is used. The moderating ratio of ordinary water
is
60, of beryllium is 150, of graphite is 220, and that of heavy water is 1700.

It is the use of this most efficient of moderating material that distinguishes the
Heavy Water Reactor system and offers a number of important advantages. One is
the use of natural uranium fuel as opposed to the enriched fuel that has to be used
in other major nuclear power system. The cost of fuelling a HW reactor is much
lower than that for any other type of commercial reactor. For the same unit of
power produced, a HW reactor requires only about half as much uranium as a
reactor that burns enriched fuel.

All naturally occurring compounds of hydrogen also contain some deuterium and
there are a number of ways in which the deuterium can be extracted. However, the
only process that has been used on a large scale is based on the exchange of
deuterium between water and hydrogen sulphide at different temperature.

Freezing point

ORDINARY WATER

32°F

0°C

212°F

100°C

HEAVY WATER

39°F

382°F

214.6°F

101.42°C

This process is based on the fact that deuterium migrates to the water steam at low
temperatures and to
the hydrogen sulphide gas at high temperatures. By a suitable arrangement of flow
in separating towers, deuterium can be extracted from feed of ordinary water. In
each tower the water flows clown through a series of perforated plates or trays,
while the hydrogen sulphide bubbles up through the trays. This promotes efficient
mixing. This process is then repeated in the second stage and in a further stage.
Enriched water from the third stage then passes to a finishing section where it is
distilled to a reactor grade products that is 99.75 percent pure D2O.

NUCLEAR SAFETY

Nuclear or Radioactive Waste:

Nuclear reactors release another kind of energy called Radioactivity. Radioactivity


is accompanied by the emission of powerful radiations which if escape into the
atmosphere, can cause serious damage to humans, animals and plants. It is due to
this reason that a nuclear reactor is sealed inside a shield of reinforced concrete.
Radiation comes in three varieties: Alpha particles, Beta particles and Gamma
Rays. Alpha particles are compact clusters of two protons and two neutrons that
carry away the excess energy. They are, in fact, nuclei of helium. B-particles are
fast moving electrons and gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation akin to light
but with very short wavelengths and very high energy. It is the radiation that
radioactive substances emit that has the potential to be harmful.

Nuclear reactors produce million of tons of nuclear wastes. Nuclear wastes are the
radioactive byproducts of the fission pVocess. The proper disposal of the nuclear
waste continues to remain a global challenge. No country currently has a
permanent repository for
ItJTlWtiJ »7iY^HH IH V W ^

such materials and the waste, therefore, keeps piling up. Several methods of waste
disposal have been considered, including sealing wastes in concrete vessels to be
dumped in the oceans, irradiating them with neutrons to transmute isotopes into
harmless, launching them into space by means of rockets, or allowing them to melt
their way through Antarctic ice to rest on the bedrock. None of these has as yet
been put into practice, and all have drawbacks of one form or another.

Decommissioning Nuclear Plants:

A nuclear power plant cannot run for ever producing nuclear energy but they
generally have a life of 30 to 40 years after they started. Decommissioning is a
fancy word for disposing of nuclear reactors that are too old to run safely or
economically. Some 50 nuclear power plants in western nations are waiting to be
decommissioned in the next decade. Karachi nuclear power plant in Pakistan will
also have to be decommissioned soon while a new one is being built near
Chashma.
K*i[inBJ^^^B^B^^^^^B 3 PH ii M i r^^^^^^^Bii^rT^i>iiTiTfflinTrii^^BI
^^^^^^^^^^^•^B^^^^^^^^^^B^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H

I ^-^^~~^~^

France
PV^»W^^_H^B^^^B^^MB_HBBBB^^^K

52.6
••••••^^^•^•••^^^^^^^^m^BMBM^^H^H

74.6%

Japan

29.3

27%

U.K.

11.2

21.7%

U.S.A.

98.3

19.1%

W.Germany

22.7
34.3%

China

Nil

Nil

ENERGY

Nuclear Capacity of Different Countries:

France is rated as number one in the nuclear capacity as it produces about 15f/r of
its electricity from the nuclear power plants. A comparative chart is given below:

NUCLEAR FUSION:

Nuclear fusion is another way to get energy. Man has always copied nature and
now he wants to duplicate the nuclear process occurring in the Sun for the
production of energy. The word ’fusion’ means joining together. The energy
emitted by the stars is believed to result form the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to
form helium nuclei. Such reactions which occur at a very high temperature are
termed as thermonuclear reactions. Fusion processes are spontaneous only at
temperatures of the order of 108C or higher.

The conversion of hydrogen into helium takes place in stages. Two deuterium
nuclei are fused to form Helium-3, starting with the deuterium molecule. The large
amount of energy that is released results from the mass difference between two
deuterium nuclei and the helium-3 nucleus and a neutron.

Although methods for controlling the nuclear fission reaction have been developed
and used to produce useful power, similar control of nuclear fusion has not yet
been realized. The principle problem is the confinement of a fusible plasma at a
temperature sufficiently high for fusion reaction to proceed (108°C). A solution to
the problem is currently being sought by using two distinct methods, magnetic
confinement and laser induced fusion.

Dreams of nuclear fusion continue to attract the World top scientists the lure of
cheap, unlimited and
[EVERYDAY SCIENCE
W^H^B^^^~^B^^HI^-^B^«^»^-W^_-

pollution-free energy for the future, the success may lie fifty years ahead but once
harnessed, the electricity produced would be too cheap to metre.

Energy Conservation:

It is a process in which electricity is used more efficiently to save energy. This can
be clone by a number of ways designing better buildings, manufacturing better
electric bulbs, using air-conditioners sparingly and by changing the life-style. Asia
is in the midst of an electricity crisis brought on by booming growth and wildly
extravagant use of energy. Virtually every country in the region is facing a
potential capacity crunch Cheap, dependable electricity is vital for continued
economic expansions yet the cost of new power stations is staggering. Even if,
more power stations are built, without the promotion of more efficient use of
electricity, would do no good. It requires almost a revolution in the conservation
methodology.

A kilowatt-hour of electricity can light 100-watt lamp for 10 hours or lift a ton one
thousand feet into the air or smelt enough aluminum for a six-pack of soda cans or
heat water for a few minutes shower. But, by using electricity more efficiently,
more mechanical work can be taken out from the same kilowatt-hour.

We can also save energy by recycling programmes. Our food wastes can be
recycled into products such as animal feed, soil amendment materials, and even
fuel for power plants.

Radiations and Living ThingsHow much is too much?

It is the radiation that radioactive substances emit that has the potential to be
harmful. The degree of harm to ^ people depends on how they are exposed to

radioactive materials, whether for example they touch them or eat them as food, on
the rate of radioactive decay in the material, and on the type of radiation. The main
way that radiation loses energy in materials is through ionization. In biological
tissue, ionization can lead to abnormal chemical reactions and molecular changes,
which can destroy a cell or change how it functions. In particular, damage to the
genetic material in a cell can lead to uncontrolled proliferation of the cell which
may result in cancer, or in reproductive cells, ionization may give rise to
hereditary disease in the children of the individual.

Measurement of Radiation Doses:


The damage caused to the human body by radiation depends upon the amount of
the dose. Small doses can cause minor diseases while high doses of radiation cause
gross destruction of tissue. There are many ways of measuring radiation. Exposure
to radiation is measured in small units like ’rad’ (Radiation-Absorbed Dose) and
’rem’, which is acronym for Roentgen Equivalent in Man. It is a measure of the
biological damage produced by a particular dose of radiation.

It is interesting to mention that a patient receives about one-fiftieth of a rem during


a typical X-ray exposure.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE I

ENERGY

Damage Caused to the Human Body When Exposed to Radiation:


Amount of Radiation Doses :

Damage Caused

0-100rems

100-200 rems

200-600 rems

600-1000 rems

1000-5000 rems

Nausea, Vomiting- not fatal

Modestly depressed whie-cell count. Not immediately fatal, long term risk of cancer.

Heavily depressed White-cell count, blotched skin, chance of death.

Heavily depressed white-cell count, blotched skin and acute bowl syndrome in 4 to 6 weeks, 80-
100% chance eof death.

Diarrhoea, fever, blood-chemical imbalance in 1 to 14 days. Virtually 100% chance of death.

Detection of Radiation:

Generally, we cannot see, hear, feel, taste or smell radiation. Then how do we
know that it is there? This is clone with Geiger counters. These are instruments
that extend our senses so that we can see or hear the effects of radiation.

ENERGY TERMS
Barrel:

It is a unit of crude petroleum, equal to 42 US gallons or about 306 pounds.

One U.S. Gallon = 4.456 Litres One U.K. Gallon = 3.785 Litres

BTU (British thermal unit):


The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of water
through one degree Fahrenheit.

Barrel of Oil Equivalent:

Energy equal to a barrel of crude oil 5.8 million Btu’s.

Biomass:

Living matter, plant and animal, in any form.

Biogas:

Gas given off by decaying dead animals or plants.

Efficiency:

The ratio of useful work or energy output to total work or energy input.

Megawatt:

A unit of power equal to 1000 kilowatts, or one million watts. A gigawatt is a


billion watts.

Quad of Energy:

A quadrillion Btu’s. The energy contained in eight billion gallons of gasoline, a


year’s supply for ten million automobiles.
ENERGY

Reserve:

That portion of a resource that has been actually discovered but not yet exploited
and which at present is technically and economically extractable.

Gasohol:

A mixture of 90 percent unleaded gasoline and 10 percent ethyl alcohol.

Synfuels:

(Synthetic Fuels): Fuels synthesised from sources other than crude oil or natural
gas and are used in place of them or their derivatives, primarily for transportation
and heating boiler. Gasohol is synfuel.

Electromagnetic Energy:

Electromagnetic energy is made of vibration of electric and magnetic fields.

Acre-Foot:

It is a unit of volume and is used to measure irrigation water, runoff volume, and
reservoir capacity One Acre ft = 1.233 x 10*H nr5

Kilowatt Hour (kWh):

It is a bigger unit of energy used in addition to SI unit. One kWh = 3.6 x 10(i
Joules.

Q-

EXERCISE
Differentiate clearly among energy, Force, Work, Power and Pressure?

All these terms are sometimes synonymously used by the layman but every term
has a separate scientific meaning which is explained as follows:
Energy:
It may be defined as the property of a system that is a measure of its capacity of
doing work. It is measured m Joules, Energy can have various forms like, heat,
light, potential, Kinetic and electrical.

Force:

Force may be defined as Push or Pull. Force is needed to break the inertia of a
system. It is measured in Newtons.
Work:

It may be defined as the product of force and distance, it is measured in Joules.


The amount of work clone depends on.

(i) The size of the force which is used.

(ii) The distance through which the object is moved.


Power:

It is the rate of doing work in a unit time. It is pressure measured in watts and
kilowatt (KW). It is the force exerted on a unit area. If a force of one Newton acts
on one square metre. It results in pressure of one Pascal.
Q. Define Newton?

Ans. Newton is the unit of force. One Newton is the force needed to move one-kilogram
mass one metre per second faster every second.

Q. What is Horse Power?

Ans. An engine which could do work equal to lifting


550 pounds one foot per second, is said to work at the rate of one horsepower. This unit
of power is used in U.K. and U.S.A.

Q. What is kilowatt-hour? Explain with an example?

Ans. A 100-watt light bulb lighted for one hour uses


100 - watt - hours of electricity. Since the watt-hour is a small unit, another unit is used to
1000 watt-hours. This unit is called a Kilowatthour. This much energy used counts one
unit in the electric Metre.

Energy Calculations: In a typical example, a Toaster oven uses 800 watts of power
for 2 minutes, Energy used is:

E = power x time

E = 800 x 2

E = 16000 watt - minutes.

1600 watt-minutes = 1600 x lkw/1000 w x 1 hour/60 minutes = 0.026 kw of electric


energy.

Q. What is the most popular form of energy?

Ans. Electricity is the popular form of energy and it is fundamental to modern life. It
is a uniquely valuable, versatile and controllable form of energy, which can be
asked to perform many tasks efficiently.

Ans.

Q.

Can we create or destroy energy?

Energy may change in form but it cannot be destroyed. A power station does not create
the electrical energy that we use in our homes. The power station actually changes the
chemical energy of the fuel into electrical energy. When the electricity so produced is
used up, it is not destroyed but instead it changes into another form of energy, such as
heat or light.

What organisations are responsible for the supply of electricity in Pakistan?

Ans. The total installed capacity of the country power network is about 7.760 megawatts
and is increasing each year. It was 113 MW in 1948.

Q. What are the electricity production capacities of Mangla and


Tarbela Dam?

Ans. Electricity production capacities of Mangla Dam = 1000 MW Tarbela Dam =


1750 MW

Q. Give the names of the Dams which will be built in future?

Ans. Basha Dam (Capacity: 3,360 MW)

Kalabagh Dam (Capacity 3,600 MW)

Q- What are the additional advantages of Hydro Electric Power


Generation?

Ans. Hydro-electric power means production of electricity by making Dams. Its


additional advantages are:

(i) It is cheaper. di) It is pollution free.

Water can be used for Irrigation purpose.


Q. What is Huh Power Project?

Ans. To overcome the power crises in the country, a private Power cell has been
established to explore and engage additional resources in the power generation. It
is now working on the Hub Project. It will carry a generation capacity of 1200
MW.

Q, What is a Turhine?

Ans. It is a rotary engine actuated by the reaction or impulses or both of a current


of fluid; water or steam. Turbines are most efficient engines. Turbines transform
the kinetic energy of water and steam to mechanical energy.

Q. What are Isotopes?

Ans. Each element has its own characteristic number of protons and an equal
number of electrons. If you change these numbers, you change the element
involved. However, the number of neutrons in the atoms of a given element are
able to vary. Atoms that have the same nuclear charge but a different number of
neutrons are called Isotopes. Two famous isotopes of Uranium element are
Uranium-235 and Uranium-237.

Q. What are the main fissionable materials involved in the production of Nuclear
Energy?

Ans. These are Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239. The later is superior to the
former as a nuclear fuel.

Q. What is the percentage of Uranium-235 fuel for commercial reactor?

Ans. Commercial reactors are powered by fuel containing 1.6 _ 5.5%


Uranium-235. Nuclear

Q.

Ans.

Q.

Ans.

Q.

Ans.
Q.

Ans.

Ans.

submarines use more enriched fuel; 9.3% Uranium-235.

How do you compare Fission with Fusion for the production of Nuclear Energy?

The process of Nuclear Fusion should be preferred over Fission for the
production of Energy for two main reasons. It involves cheaper and abundant raw
materials and pollution free waste products.

What is Heavy Water.

It is deuterium oxide (D P). Hydrogen of water molecule is replaced by its heavier


isotope, Deuterium. Heavy Water is used as a corlant in nuclear power plants.

How much energy will he produced by the nuclear Fission of one gram of Uranium-
235?

It will generate about 2 x 10 7 k. calories of heat. This much heat can be produced
otherwise by the combustion of 3 tones of coal. One kilogram. Uranium-235 is
equivalent in energy content to
18,700 tons of TNT.

What is KANUPP?

KANUPP Stands for Karachi Nuclear Power Plant - it produces about 0.2% of the
total electricity produced in Pakistan.

What is an electric Fuse?

Homes are protected against overloaded circuits by automatic switches that open
whenever the current into the wires becomes dangerously large one of the most
common types of automatic
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

switches is called an electric fuse. An electric fuse contains a strip of metal.


Q. What are circuit Breakers?

Ans. Circuit breakers are now installed in many new homes in place of fuse boxes.
A circuit breaker is more convenient than a fuse because the automatic switch can
be closed again by pushing a knob.
Q. What are Windmills?

Ans. Windmills have been used to produce electricity since the early 1900s. It is
easy to produce electricity from a wind generator. This is simply a windmill that
converts the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy.
Q. What is Geothermal Energy?

Ans. It is the utilization of the heat of the Earth. Cold water is pumped down a
pipe into the Earth and is heated up by hot rocks. Another pipe brings the hot
water or steam to the surface. The steam comes out at high pressure and is used to
drive steam turbines for the generation of electricity.
Q. What is meant by reprocessing?

Ans. It is a process in which the fissionable product is recovered from the spent
nuclear reaction fuel by chemical dissolution. It generates highly radioactive
wastes that must be solidified for final disposal. ^
Q. Name some Petrochemicals?

Ans. Petrochemicals are the substances which are obtained during the refining of
crude petroleum.
ENERGY

Typical examples are, Ether, Benzene, Xylene, Toluene and Ethylene.


Q. Name some fractions from an oil refinery with their boiling points?

Ans. Some of the fractions from an oil refinery are given below with their
boiling points: Petrol b.pt. Kerosene b.pt. Diesel b.pt. Lubricating oil b.pt.
Bitumen b.pt.
Q. What is Biomass?
40-75°C
125-175°C
175-250°C
250-300°C more than 350°C

Ans. It is source of energy that comes from plants and animals CO;,, and oil are
forms of biomass energy, because they come from plants and animals that lived
million of years ago. Dried seaweed is an example of biomass. Another example is
dried animal clung, which is used in many countries in Africa and Asia as a fuel
for cooking.
Q. What is Energy Conservation?

Ans. It is the process in which energy is used most efficiently without any wastage
in home appliances. It can be done as follows:

(i) By using improvised/compact fluorescent electric bulbs.

(ii) By the efficient use of electricity. (Hi) By leading a simple life.

(iv) By using automated-control systems in appliances. Asia could save billions of


US dollars by conserving electricity.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q. What is Electromagnetic Energy?

Ans. The air contains millions of tiny, fast moving particles. Waves of energy pass
through the air, too. This kind of energy, called electromagnetic energy is made of
vibrations of electricity and magnetism. That is a whole range of different
electromagnetic waves.

Chapter 4

PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
CERAMICS

DEFINITION:

Ceramics include a wide range of inorganic, nonmetallic materials whose


manufacture requires heating at high temperature. Earthy raw materials used in its
manufacture contain predominantly silicon with its oxides and complex
compounds known as silicates.

Varieties of Ceramics:

More common varieties of ceramics are detailed below. Raw materials for various
ceramics are clay, Feldspar, Quartz Sand, Iron.
ISr. Variety or Group Typical Examples No.

1.

Structural Clay Products

Whitewares

Glass

Brick, tile, terra cota, glazed architectural brick

Dinnerware, Chemical and electrical porcelain (Sparkplugs, Saniraty ware and Floor tile).

All sorts of glass products


4.

5.
6.

7.
8.

Porcelain Enamels

Refractories

Abrasive materials

Aluminium Silicate Fibers

Cement, lime

A substantially vitreous inorganic coating with a glass-like fire-polished surface.

Alumina, Silicon Carbide and Silica.

Fused alumina, Silicon Carbide and related products.

Ultra particles and ceramic foams.

Portland cement, lime, plaster and gypsum products.

Pottery:

Pottery is also an important category of ceramics. It includes earthenware,


stoneware and porcelain. Main steps involved for pottery formation are Forming,
Drying and Firing. Porcelain is potassium-aluminum silicates

Cheap Raw Materials:

The raw materials for structural ceramics are incredibly abundant. Spectacular
abundance of silicon in sand and in many minerals make it a cheap, unlimited
resource, combined with other materials, for ceramics. The most common material
is silicon, about 28% of the Earth’s crust by weight. It is found in sand and other
silicates. Nitrogen, another super-ceramic ingredient, is
78% of the atmosphere (by volume). Carbon, also used, is plentiful, too. By
contrast, iron needed for steel makes up only 5% of the Earth’s crust. \
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Glass:

Glass is a ceramic material consisting of a uniformly dispersed mixture of silica,


soda ash and lime often combined with some metallic oxides.
Technically, glass is an amorphous, undercooled liquid of extremely high viscosity
which has all the appearance of a solid.

Composites:

Composite materials are defined as the combination of two or more mutually


macro constituents that differ in physical form and chemical composition. A
material that results when two or more materials, each having its own, usually
different characteristics, are combined in order to provide the composite with
useful properties for specific applications. Advanced composites are a class of
structural high performance fiberous forced plastic or metallic materials.
Fiberglass is an example of composite material.

Latest Applications of Ceramics:

1. Superhard ceramics make excellent cutting tools and bearing.

2. New integrated circuits that use ferroelectric ceramics store data in a computer
permanently whenever power is switched off.

3. Ceramics have proven to be ideal host for the fluorescent ions needed in lasers.
Ruby is used for laser materials.

4. A ceramic engine would have more efficiency.

5. Ceramics find increasing use as thin coatings on objects made of conventional


materials. These are

Jfc
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

coated with titanium nitride, a ceramic that extends the cutting life 5-fold
over steel.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

Electricity is fast moving electrons. It is the most popular form of energy and it
can be easily converted into all other kinds of energies. Materials can be
classified into the following three categories when, electricity is passed
through them.

(1)

Conductors

Those materials which allow the electricity to pass through them easily without
much resistance are called conductors. Most metals like copper, aluminum, iron,
silver, gold and their alloys are conductors.

(2) Insulators

Those materials which do not allow the electricity to pass through them are called
insulators. They actually offer a very high resistance to the flow of electric current.
Typical examples of insulators are rubber, mica, glass, plastic, wood and paper.

(3) Semi-Conductors

Those materials which allow the electricity to pass through them only partially,,,
are called semiconductors. Their conductance lies, in between the conductors and
insulators. Typical examples are silicon, Germanium and Selenium. \

SEMI-CONDUCTORS

Definition:

”Semi-conductor is a material, may be an element or a compound that conducts


electrical current less easily than does a metal such as copper or aluminum but
much better than an insulator such as glass or wood. Most metals have quite high
conductivity, while substances like diamond and mica have very low conductivity
due to high resistance. Between these extremes lie the semi-conductors. Typical
examples are silicon carbide. The resistivities of the semi-conductors range in
between 10-2 to 10!) Ohms/cm. Slight impurities (in traces) in the crystalline
structure are essential for semi-conductors. Arsenic is a typical impurity in
semiconductors or acceptors and the semi-conductor is designated n-type or p-type
depending on the electrical nature of the holes or energy deficits in the crystalline
lattice.

DOPING

It is a process in which slight impurities are added into the pure semiconductors to
boost up their conducing properties. N-type and P-type semiconductors are
obtained in this way.

N-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTORS

When pure silicon and germanium semiconductor crystals are dopped with
electron-donor impurities like arsenic and antimony, N-type semiconductors are
formed. In these substances, electrons act ag charge carriers.
I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

P-TYPE SEMI-CONDUCTORS

When pure silicon and germanium semiconductor crystals are doped with
electron-deficient impurities like Boron and Indium, P-Type semiconductors are
formed. The conduction in such substances takes place due to motion of holes
which behave like positive charges.

General Characteristics:

1. The functioning of semi-conductors involves the science of Solid State Physics.

2. The elements Silicon, Germanium and Selenium are semi-conductors.

3. The compounds Indium anti-monide, Lead telluride, Cadmium


sulphide and Gallium arsenide are well known examples of
semiconductors.

4. The most characteristic property of a semiconductor is a large increase in


its electrical conductivity with temperature, this increase occurs over certain
temperature ranges.

5. The properties of semi-conductor follow from the structure of the material.

6. Semi-conductors of Silicon, Germanium and Gallium phosphide with


high purity and controlled atomic structures are extensively tused in electronic
industry.

7. Semi-conductors can be doped with selected < impurities during


crystal growth to achieve

’ desired properties.

8. There are feWx organic semi-conducting compounds which contain


significant amount of
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

carbon- bonding and are also capable of supporting electronic conduction.


Anthracene and Ziegler-catalyzed acetylene polymers are examples.

9. Vaccum tubes have been replaced by transistors by the use of semi-conductors.

Super-Conductivity:

Super-conductor is a material that offers no resistance to electric current. Actually,


no material on Earth carries that properly at ordinary temperatures. Only when
materials are supercooled to very low temperatures they turn into super-
conductors. A typical example of a super-conductor is the high temperature (17 K)
ceramic made from a mixture of Lanthanum, Barium, Copper and Oxygen
discovered by Bendnorz and Muller in 1987. This awarded them Nobel Prize in
physics. Levitating trains and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging machines use
super-conductors.

THE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM


Introduction:

Communication is the process of giving and receiving information signal and


message. Over the centuries, human beings have had to communicate. The earliest
cave dwellers had to develop a language system in order to communicate.
Although many devices and methods have been used to communicate, the voice is
the most universal communication medium used by the people. Early means were
by gestures, drums, fire and smoke. The flag system was used primarily on ships
for communication purposes. Radio, Television and Telephone are electronic
communication media.
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Radio:

The term radio covers the radiation and detection of signals propagated through
space as electromagnetic waves to convey information. Like all other
electromagnetic waves, a radio wave is made up of electric and magnetic fields
vibrating mutually at right angles to each other in space. Radio-signal intensity,
like light intensity, decreases as the distance from the source increases. Radio-
waves are transmitted with the help of Antenna. A transmitting antenna is a device
that projects as much as possible of the radio-frequency energy generated by a
transmitters into space. Frequency of the radio-waves is measured in Hertz. The
frequency of one cycle per second is written as one Hertz. The radio-frequency
spectrum is divided into a number of bands from very low frequencies to super
high frequencies. For information to be transmitted, it must be attached to a radio-
frequency carrier-wave, which is then transmitted in a given frequency channel.
The carrier wave and information can be picked up by a receiver turned to this
channel. The process by which the information is attached to the carrier-wave is
known as modulation.

Telephone:

The telephone is a device for reproducing sound at a distance from its source by
means of the transmission of an electrical signal. The word refers both to the
familiar handset and to the huge telephone system that makes possibly person-to-
person communications throughout most of the world. There are approximately
400 million telephones world-wide. The telephone now in use is similar to the
original device patented by Alxander Graham Bell in 1876 and
1877. The sound waves are converted into electrical oscillations, which can be
sent long distance and travel about 900,000 times faster than sound. These
oscillations are then converted back into sound waves at
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

the receiving end. In modern telephone, the speaker talks into the mouthpiece,
behind which is a transmitter. Vibrating air molecules produced by the speech
generate vibrations in a thin aluminum diaphragm. These vibrations are
transmitted to a small piston, which is the cover for a metallic box filled with
small granules of carbon. Sound waves are converted into electrical signals which
are converted back to sound waves against the receiving end, the ear piece.

Television:
It is based upon the transmission of visible, moving images by electrical means. In
’closed circuit’ television the transmission is by line, in ’broadcast’ television it is
by radio-waves. In either case, light waves are converted into electrical impulses
by a television camera and reconverted into a picture on the screen of a cathode-
ray tube in the receiver. The transmitter consists of equipment for broadcasting
modulated radiofrequency electromagnetic radiations representing a complete
television signal, which includes sound, vision and synchronizing signals. The
receiver is based on the superheterodyne principle, the sound and vision signals
being fed to separate intermedicate frequency amplifiers, detectors, and out-put
stages. A picture is made up of small dots called picture element. A picture
contains about 525 lines and the beam reads these lines
30 times per second. It, therefore, produces 30 complete . pictures per second.

LASER

Definition:

Laser is a device that generates Veil organised” light or COHERENT light.


Ordinary white light is made up of many different colours. Each colour has a
different wavelength and the photons of each colour are out of
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

step with each other. In a beam of laser light, all the photon have the same
wavelength and move in step, travelling along like a well drilled army. The
mechanism relies on a process known as Stimulated Emission and the word laser
is derived from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission.

Mechanism of Stimulated Emission:

In Stimulated Emission, a photon emitted from an atom induces an electron in


another excited atom to fall immediately to a lower level and emit a photon
identical to itself. Stimulated emission can thus be used to increase the number of
emitted photons.

Energy is first pumped into laser material, raising most of the electrons return to a
level just above the ground state. Initially only a few atoms will spontaneously
radiate photons.

Two silvered end mirrors, one partially transparent reflect the radiation back and
forth repeatedly, inducing a chain reaction of photon emission. All the electrons
return to the ground state almost simultaneously and a powerful pulse of laser light
emerges from the partially transparent end.

Parts of a Laser:

The essential components of a typical laser are (i) the active medium such as a
ruby rod or carbon dioxide gas; (ii) a method of introducing energy into the active
medium, such as a flash lamp; and (Hi) a pair of mirrors is placed on each side of
the active medium, one of which \ transmits part of the radiation that strikes it.
\

x A typical laser using Ruby rod as an active medium has a pulse duration of 20
nsec. with power of 10 MW and the laser beam has a wavelength of 694 nm.
lash tube

Ruby Crystal

burst of laser light

A Typical Laser

Uses of Laser Light:


1. A laser can produce light of essentially single frequency.

2. Laser light is used in surveying and ranging.

3. Dentists use a laser to remove decay from tooth.

4. Laser light can be used to initiate thermonuclear reactions which occur only
at a very high temperature.

5. Laser light can be focused very accurately on a point, this can cut steel and
surgeons can use laser light to perform very delicate operations.

6. In eye-surgery, a retina that has become separated or detached from the


back of the eye can be welded back into place using a laser beam.

7. Laser sources allow reproduction of three dimensional images. This


technique is called Holography.

8. Lasers are used for range-finding and target designation, and are being
developed as both
TvERYPAY SCIENCE |

antisatellite and ballistic missile defense weapons

TELESCOPE
Introduction
The glass lens has probably tought us more about ourselves and our surroundings than
any other invention. Telescopes are used to see far-away objects clearly which are
brought nearer.

GALILEO GALILEI was the first to make an astronomical telescope in 1609. Since then
various kinds of telescopes have been developed.

FOCAL POINT

HOW THE EYEPIECE MAGNIFIES THE IMAGE

Kinds of Telescopes

There are tiiree main classes of the telescopes.

(1) Refracting Telescope

This is the simplest telescope invented by Galileo Galilei. It consists of two lenses.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

The object is a larger convex lens that produces small, bright real image which is viewed
through the eyepiece, placed at the end of a narrow lens, serving to magnify the image.
The second lens is called the eyepiece. Refracting telescopes are simple but their strength
is limited by the size of the lenses inside. The World’s largest refracting telescope has a
lens that measures one meter across.

(2) Reflecting Telescope

Astronomers usually use reflecting telescope. These contain curved mirror as well as
lenses. The mirrors are able to collect more light than the lens. The mirror in the
reflecting telescopes are concave. This means that its surface is shaped like a dish and
curves inwards.

When a telescope is pointed at an object, light rays from the object are collected, or
focused, by the mirror. The rays are then reflected onto one or more other mirrors before
being reflected into the eye-piece, so that the image can be viewed.
(3) Radio Telescope

It is an instrument used in radio astronomy to pick-up and analyze the radio frequency of
electromagnetic ,radiation of the extra-terrestrial sources. The two principal radio-
telescopes are:

(i) Parabolic Reflector. (ii) Fixed Radio Interferometers.

FERTILIZERS

Definition:
Fertilizers are the inorganic salts which contain elements essential for plant growth and
which are

•^

V
•yjqrt-i./.ygHni^iH’*

introduced into the soil to obtain increased amount of crops regularly. Nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium containing minerals are especially important for
normal plant life and’are called as Primary Plant Nutrients. Secondary plant
nutrients are calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. Trace elements like iron, copper,
boron, magnesium, zinc and molybdenum are also among the 12 elements
considered essential for plant growth. Fertilizers are of various kinds like.
•MiUilittliaMiHMttEl

These are naturelly available organic and inorganic materials like plant matter, farm yard, manures, animal matter, rock
phosphates and chile saltpeter.

•!i!«iaiHMMiauiH3aa

These are synthetically produced organic and inorganic materials like urea, ammonium nitrate etc.

•JIHiMHttHUIPlHillHrmi

These are synthetically produced materials rich in nitrogen like ammonium sulphate.

••jinM-jiiiisiiiia

These are synthetically produced materials rich in phosphorous like calcium superphosphate and calcium
dihydrogen phosphate.

CLASSIFICATION:

Fertilizers can be classified according to their mode of operation in the soil. They
are as follows:

1. Direct Fertilizers:

These fertilizers which are directly assimilated by the plants are called direct
fertilizers. For example superphosphate, nitrates and ammonium compounds.
These contain nutrient elements in the form of mineral salts which can be absorbed
directly.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

2. Indirect Fertilizers:

These are the substances which are introduced into the soil mainly to improve its
mechanical, chemical or biological properties. Ground dolomite and limestone are
used to reduce soil acidity, and gypsum is used to improve the properties of soils
with a high salt content are the examples of indirect fertilizers.

3. Complete Fertilizers:

These contain all the principle ingredients for the growth of plants in the combined
form, so that an additional fertilizer is not necessary. Guano is an example of
complete fertilizers.

Purpose of Fertilizers: They serve the following purposes:

I 1-

To supplement what has been eaten up by the plants.

2.

To give an additional supply of tonic and good food, so that may grow more healthy and produce a better
yield.

they

3.

They help to maintain the pH value of the soil in the vicinity to 8 and thereby facilitate optimum growth
and health.

of 7

4. Incomplete Fertilizers:

These fertilizers contain only one or two needed elements such as ammonium
phosphate or Potassium nitrate. They supply only a part of the requirements.

5. Mixed Fertilizers:

Fertilizers containing several ingredients and obtained by mechanical mixing of


various fertilizers are known as mixed fertilizers.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

6. Micro Fertilizers:

These contain the elements boron, manganese, zinc and copper needed in very
small amounts to stimulate the plant growth.

PESTICIDES
Definition:

”The generic name pesticide refers to any substance, organic or inorganic, used to
destroy or inhibit the action of plant or animal pests”. Pest is the term which is
normally used for an organism which interferes in someway with man. Virtually
all pesticides are toxic to man to some degree. They vary in biodegradability. The
number of pesticides is numerous.

Classification:

Pesticides may be classified in two ways. A classification more commonly in use


with biologists and agronomists designates the type of pest against which the
pesticide is used. The classification is, therefore, used in the following terms:
PESTICIDES

Insecticides: Chemicals which are used for the control of insects.

Rodenticides: Chemicals which kill rats and mice.

Herbicides: Chemicals which are used against weeds.

Fungicides: Chemicals which are used against moulds and fungi.

Mode of Action:

Generally the symptoms of chlorinated pesticides poisoning in insects and


vertebrates include loss of
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

movement, violent tremors which is followed by convulsions and death.


Organophosphate affects nervous transmission in both insects and mammals and
broadly speaking this occurs largely through the inhibition of acetyl cholinsterase
whose normal role is to eliminate acetylcholine formed during nervous
transmission.
Pesticides may also be grouped under general classes like:
I Chlorinated

Organic Esters

Alkyl-

Compounds

IJ

erythrocyanate

Cyclic

Non Cyclic

Phosphate

Cyclopropang

Carbonic

Tnazines

Chlordane

DOT

TEPP

Allethrip

Carbaryl

Haptachlor

DDDE

Ethyl

Cmetms

itmicarb

Pyrimidines

pyrophos

phate |

Tepa |

I Aldrm

ODD

Dimethate

Pyrethrin
Beygon

Disldrm

Methoxy-

Malathiane

Savin

Rotenone I

chlot

I
I

FnHrm

I
Lmdane

Naphthalene

Pentach

lotophenol

tead arsenate

I p-dichloro

I benzen

Captan

I
More Common Household Pests
Mosquitoes, Flies, Bedbugs, Cockroaches, Silverfish, Booklice, Clothmoths, Crickets, Carpet beetles
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Other Terms:

Several terms, used in the classification of pesticides based on the mode of their
action, are of interest. Some of these terms include:

Fumigants:

Chemicals used in enclosed space and which act by producing fume or vapours
with lethal properties. (Methyl bromide and ethylene dibromide).

Repellants:

Chemicals which repel the pests (Dimethylphathalate). Mospel is a commercial


example.

Systemics:

These are the chemicals which are absorbed by the roots or leaves of the plants
and get translocated to various parts of the plants. Therefore, the whole plant
becomes lethal for the target pests (Schradan).

CAMERA

Introduction:

A camera is a device for producing record on sensitive material of the image of a


person, object or scene formed by a lens or mirror system. The most popular type
of camera records a 24 x 36 mm image either on black-and-white or coloured
negative. The essential parts of a camera are discussed below:

Lens:

The lens or objective is the heart of the camera. It may be made up of one single
element or combination of
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

elements. The lens refracts the light that comes from an object, and focuses it as a
sharp image on the film.

Shutter:
The shutter is like a small gate that opens for a very short time to let the light in,
before closing again. Two types of shutter are used namely roller-blind or focal
plane shutter.

Aperture:

The aperture is the hole that is made when the shutter opens. A diaphragm is a
device that controls the size of the aperture through which the light enters. Many
cameras use an iris diaphragm mounted between the components of a lens. It
consists of a set of thin metal blades mounted in ring around the lens sosas to form
an adjustable hole in the centre.
Htm Ci’lftrlqe
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

• ATI a: v»TiV*«>” 3 ”«*g

Viewfinder:

It consists of a wire-frame and a hole, a short distance back from it, through which
the operator looks. An optical viewfmder often combined with a rangefinder, is
essentially a small, low-power telescopic device in which the image is formed so
as to define the view. A third type is the reflex screen, in which the image formed
by the camera objective is projected onto a ground-glass screen.

Film:

The film inside the camera is sensitive to light. It is coated with photosensitive
chemicals which change their state when light shines on them These chemicals
change more quickly on some films than on others.
i

CAMERA VS EYE

The construction of an eye and a camera has great similarities as : hown in the
following table. Unlike a photographic film, the resolving power of the
photosensitive layer of the eye, the retina, is not uniform over its entire surface.

PLASTICS
Definition:

Plastics are synthetic organic materials of high molecular weight that can be
shaped in almost any form under heat. Modern age can be easily called as plastic
age because almost all the articles of daily use can be made from plastics. They
may be coloured or colourless. The word plastics comes from the Greek word
”Plastikos” which means able to be molded. The first synthetic material was
”Celluloid”, a mixture of cellulose nitrate and camphor, invented in 1868. It
was used as a substitute for Ivory. In 1909, ii second synthetic material,
”Bakelite” was invented by the Belgian-American chemist Leo Hendrik
Backeland by heating phenols and formaldehyde. Plastics are also called as
polymeric materials, while polymer is a macromolecule formed by the chemical
union of several identical units called monomers.

a.
Light Weight
c. Transparent

i. Non-resistant

b.
Electrical

d Water Resistant

to heat

Insulators

f. Hygienic and

u
Chemical

Non-allergenic

ii. Non-resistance to I

Resistant

g. Fungus Resistance

sunlight

Classification:

Plastics can be classified into the following two categories:


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

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^•IMH^HHMI^BMHl^iBM^M^

Thermosettmg Plastics
^•^^•^•^^•^•^•••^••^•^^•^^^^^^•^

These are those plastics which can be melted only once. After melting, they harden
^^^_^_^^__ .. .__ __ _

Bakehte, Melamine,

Sihcone, Urethane

Polyesters and Epoxy plastics.

Thermoplastics

These are those plastics which can he melted again and again much like the wax in a candle.

Polyethylene, Nylons, Acrylic, Polystyrene PVC, Teflon, ABS and Cellulose nitrate.

There is another household classification of plastics also, it includes soft plastics,


hard plastics, transparent plastics, decorative plastics and resistant plastics, etc.

Preparation of Plastics:

The following steps are involved in making plastics. Catalysts and high
pressures are used.

1. Molding: It is like making waffles,

2. Casting: It is like baking a cake.

3. Laminating: It is like making a sandwich.

4. Extrusion: It is like squeezing toothpaste.

5. Calendering: It is like spreading butter.

Uses of Plastics:

1. Flexibility, abrasion resistance, low cost and heat stability of PVC plastic make
it very popular in daily life. PVC is used for producing films and sheets which
serve the purpose of packing

• •Jrtt]»IHHM«]»it»J13CM=i
materials. Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory
equipment.

2. Polyethylene is used in making films, transparent sheets, baskets, buckets,


hospital disposables, food containers and toys.

3. Polystyrene is used in housewares, packaging, toys and wall-tiles.

4. Polyesters are used for making clothes like Dacron, Terylene and Tetron.

5. Teflon is used in tank and pipe lining, filter media and pump components.

6. Expoxy plastics are used for repairing broken parts.

Teflon: Wonderful And Durable Plastic:

Teflon plastic is a polymer - Poly Tetra Fluoro ethylene (PTFE), which is the trade
name that come from the well known Dupont Co. of France. It is the most inert
plastic. It has special properties - it can neither be assimilated nor does it react
with chemicals, it does not absorb anything nor does it swell. Teflon coated pans
are very popular among the housewives because of its quality that nothing sticks
to it. It is also very easy to clean, The teflon coating on the pans is very thin just
about 40-50 microns. At a temperature slightly above
300°C, teflon can soften and above 400°C., it becomes a gas at this stage and can
be dangerous. If the pan gets excessively heated then it gets deploymerised,
meaning, that teflon becomes tetrafluorethylene, solid gas and it gets toxic.
Teflon-wares are rated as fancy, useful and modern.

\
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Perishable Plastics:

The basic building blocks of plastic are simple carbon based molecules known as
monomers, derived from natural-gas and coal. With the help of catalysts we
connect monomers to form long molecular chains, known as polymers. There are
about 60,000 different plastics struggling for a place in the market. The biggest
problem with them is their proper disposal because of their nonbiodegradability,
but recently perishable plastics have been made. This new plastic, called
polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate, is produced by a naturally occurring bacteria. This
bacteria convert glucose to PHBV, which they store much as humans store fats.
The material can be degraded in aerobic conditions to water, carbon dioxide, and
humus by naturally occurring bacteria and fungi. This plastic has durability,
stability and is water resistant comparable to conventional thermoplastics.
Commercialization of this product will help solve the garbage mess.

COMPUTER

Definition:

Computer, as a term typically refers to an automatic device capable of solving a


problem by executing a prescribed programme of series of instructions. Electronic
computers were first used in
1940s in a few research laboratories and by the late
1960s had become common place tools in data processing for government,
business and industry. Electronic computer can accept data, apply a series of
logical processes to it, and supply the results of these processes of information.
The computer is probably the most, versatile invention of all times.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Purpose of Computers:

Computers are used to perform complex series of mathematical calculations at


very great speed. This makes them of great use for a variety of purposes, such as
routine office calculations, control of industrial processes, and the control of
spacecraft flight paths. Their ability to perform these operations depends not only
on their mathematical capabilities, but also on their ability to store information and
retrieve specified bits of information in the appropriate circumstances.

Classes of Computers:

The two main types of computers are:


(i) The Analogue and

(ii) The Digital.

The basic difference between them is that digital computer counts, and analogue
computer compares.

The Analogue Computer


The Digital Computer
An analogue computer is device in which physical quantities like electrical potential, fluid pressure, mechanical motion
etc. are represented in a way analogous to the relation of the corresponding quantities to be solved. A widely used
analogue computer is the slide rule.

In the digital computer, physical quantities take on discrete value; usually numbers in the binary notation. These
quantities change with time by the occurrence of simple arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multipli cation or
division) or logical operations on the representation of the numbers. Digital computers operate through combination of
open and closed circuits.
Basic Parts of a Computer:

The basic components of all computers are the same and they are discussed below:

(A) Input Device: Data enters through it. It is actually the keyboard.

(B) Central Processing Unit (CPU): Once the data is entered, it is transferred to
the central processing unit. This unit is like the brain of a computer and it consists of
three parts;

(i) The Control Unit: It controls all the functions performed by the various parts of
computer.

(ii) The Memory Unit: It stores vital information such as computer language codes.
Memory of a computer is divided into two parts: Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read Only Memory, (ROM).

(in) Arithmetic Logic Unit: It does all the required calculations.

Binary Notation:

Digital computers store data in binary notation, which reduces all numbers, text and
formulae to a series of Os and Is. Thus each element in a complete memory need only
represent either the digit O or digit 1.

Computer Language:

Computer programmes are written in special languages. Automation of symbolic coding


process gives rise to procedure oriented languages like FORTAN, ALGOL, COBOL etc.
and Problem Oriented languages like t.PSS and APT. All these languages are designed as
to be automatically read into the computer.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Computer Virus:

It is a small but deadly programme like a parasite that lurks in the darkest recesses of a
computer waiting for an opportunity to spring to life. It is basically an electronic
information disorder. A computer virus carries in its instructional code, the recipe for
making perfect copies of itself; a self-replicating programme, which, when logged into a
host computer, takes temporary control of the computer’s disk operating system. Then,
whenever the infected computer comes in contact with an uninfected piece of software, a
fresh copy of the virus pasbe-. into the new programme. Thus the infection can be spri,< ’
from computer to computer by unsuspecting useis ^ ”<o either swap disk or send
programmes to one another over telephone lines. Once a computer has been infected by a
virus, the invader can sometimes be eradicated by a special programme that searches out
and erases each bit of foreign material. The computer has to jAbe shut down and its
memories purged.

W’’

It is relatively a new phenomenon and has been iround for the last two decades.
The discovery of ”computer virus has been named as artificial intelligence.

Kinds of Computer Viruses:

The following four kinds of computer viruses have been identified.

1. Boot Infectors

2. System Infectors

3. Programme Infectors

4. Data Infectors

These kinds include about 350 viruses in total. The one invented by two Pakistani
brothers was called
the ”Brain Virus”. The basic purpose of this creation was protection against
piracy.

Precautions for Protection:

The following points should be strictly followed to decrease the chances of


infection of the computers by viruses:

1. Do not use pirated programmes.

2. Do not share disks.

3. Do not copy software.

4. Do not let anyone touch your machine.

Terms Used in Computers:

Hardware and Software:

The components of the computer system can be broken into two categories:
namely hardware and software. Hardware is that plastic made part of the computer
which houses electronic materials. It also includes knobs and other containers.
Software is that delicate part of computer which contains electronic circuits, chips
and transistors.

Peripherals:

Peripherals are other devices which are connected to the computer like, Keyboard,
Video-display, screen, printers and other different types of data-storage devices.

Microcomputers:

These are business and research oriented computes that cost much less than
mainframes but can perform many of the same tasks, though not always on
[PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE
Ua^•^•••••im-^--

the same scale. The basic building blocks of a microcomputer are located on a
single chip of silicon, the size of your fingertip. These computers consist of
thousands of microscopic transistors and circuits that are attached on the silicon
wafer. Technically, a microcomputer consists of a microprocessor, a memory and
a display circuit.
Microprocessor:

Microprocessor is the brain of a microcomputer, it performs the calculations


received and returns the results in proper order. The microprocessor has a control
unit, that synchronizes the sequences of operations performed on the incoming
data, and arithmetic-logic unit that adds, subtracts, and recognises the data.

Transistor:

A transistor is a sandwich of semi-conductor materials with the same impurity in


the two outer, layers and a different impurity in the central layer providing current
carriers of opposite charges to those produced by the outer layers.

GLOSSARY OF COMPUTERS
Access time. It i’s the time required for a computer to locate and transfer data to or
from a storage device.

Accumulator. A local storage area, known as a register in the central processor. It


temporarily holds the results of computer processing operations.

Analog Computer. Analog computers are designed to perform arithmetical


functions upon numbers which are represented by some physical quantity e.g., in
electrical analog machines voltages are used to represent the input variable.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU). It is that part of the central processor which
organizes, controls and carries out arithmetic and logical processes.

Architecture. Relates to the way in which software and hardware are designed and
constructed to achieve the objectives like ease of maintenance, ability to control
several applications at once, cost and speed etc.

Artificial intelligence. This refers to the use of computers in such a way that they
person various operations and at the same time take decisions as the human beings
do.

Assembler. The program which converts source language statements of low level
languages into equivalent machine language,

Auxiliary storage (Backing Storage). Storage located outside the central processor
but connected to it. It can be a magnetic disk, a magnetic drum etc.

BASIC. A high level programming language. It is an easy to learn tool for the
beginners. The mode of the language is conversational, the acronym stands for
Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.

Batch processing. A technique to process data. Data to b processed are collected


into a group, called a batch, prior to processing.

Binary. The number system using base 2. It has only two digits 0 (zero) and 1
(one).

Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (BCDIC).

A six bit internal code that has 64 character choices, also called BCD.

Bit. It is abbreviation of binary digit. A single binary digit


0 or 1 is known as a bit.

Bus. A group of circuits that provide the communication path between the various
elements of a digital computer.

BYTE. A fixed number of adjacent bits that represent a meaningful written


language symbol. Most common byte size is eight bits.

Capacity, Number of characters that can be stored in a computer memory. If the


storage capacity is 16 K bytes then it is 16 x 1024 bytes.
Card reader. Input device for sensing the holes in the punched cards.

Card punch. Output device that converts data from a binary format in main storage
to coded hole patterns is a punched card.

Central Processing Unit (CPU). Nerve centre of the digital computer system and it
co-ordinates and controls the activities of all the other units. It consists of three
hardware sections: main memory, arithmetic unit and a control section.

Chain printer. A printer-that uses a rotating print chain.

Channel. A horizontal strip running the full length of the magnetic tape and is used
for recording data.

Character. Any of the written language symbols letters A.Z; numbers 0-9 and
special symbols.

Character printer. A printer which prints one character at a time.

Chip. A extremely small piece of silicon on which integrated circuits are


fabricated.
Compiler. A translator program used for problem oriented languages. It translates
source program instructions to actual machine language instructions. COBOL,
FORTRAN, PL/1 i.e all the high level languages, use compilers.

Computers. It is a machine which accepts data in a prescribed form, processes it


and gives the output in a specified form.

Curson. The flashing light on the computer screen which specifies the current
printing position.

. Data. A collection of unorganised facts.

Data processing. The preparation of source data, classifying, sorting, calculating


and outputting the data into meaningful form.

Debugging. A technique of detecting and correcting errors.

Debug-on-line. To detect and correct errors in a program from a remote console in


a multi-access

system.

Direct Access Storage (DAS). These are the secondary storage devices like disk,
drum etc. These can be used to read/write a record directly without reading or
rewriting the entire file.

EBCDIC. Acronym for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It is a


8 bit code that uses zones and digit areas to represent characters.

EDGE. This pertains to the 9 to 12 edge of the punched card.

Electro-thermal printer. A high speed printer.

Face. That side of the punched card which bears the punching.

Feed. To cause the data to be entered into a computer through the input device for
processing.

Field. A group of characters that collectively represents a record-a student roll


number, name, weight etc.are fields.

File. A collection of related records in an organised fashion. .


Flip-flop. A circuit that is always in one of the two states
0 or 1 and nature of the state is reversed on receipt of the input signal.

Format. The predetermined arrangement of data.

FORTRAN. Acronym for FORmula TRANslation. It is a high level language for


scientific and mathematical use.

Hard copy. A print out from the printer, soft copy is the one that is stored in the
computer memory.

Hardware. Refers to the physical equipment and devices that make up the
computer, like central processor, storage devices and peripheral devices.

High level languages. Refers to those programming languages in which on source


instruction is translated to several object instruction is translated to several object
instruction for example COBOL, FORTRAN, RPG and pL/1 etc.

Hollerith card. A punched card in which information is punched using Hollerith


code.

Hollerith code. This is the coding system used for punched cards.
EVERY DAY SCIENCE

Hopper. A device which holds punch cards and presents them to a feed mechanism
for reading or punching.

Information. Results of data processing.

Input. The process of conveying information to the computer through some input
device.

Interpreter. A language processor for high level programming languages that


translates the source code as the program is executed. It is the most common
language processor for BASIC.

K.A symbol for expressing storage capacity. K is equal to


1024.

Key board. A device which encodes characters by the depression of keys.

Light pen. A highly sensetive photo electric device used for editing of data on
CRT.

Line printer. A printer which prints out one line at a time. Chain printers and drum
printers are the examples.

Machine language. Refers to instructions written in machine code and are


executed directly by the central processor.

MAC mode. A method of using an operating system in which programs are


submitted from remote terminals. It is acronym for Multi access computing.

Magnetic disk. It is a secondary storage device consisting of thin flat circular


plates, coated with a magnetic material as a recording medium.

Memory. The area inside a computer frame (primary memory) and auxiliary
storage where data and instructions are stored.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Multi processing. Pertains to computer system that uses more than one Central
processing unit.

Multiple processor. A central processor containing two or more independent


arithmetic units and their associated control logic.
Nanosecond. One billionth unit of time in computer.

of a second, it is a

Non impact printers. High speed page printers.


1n

Picosecnd. One trillionth (10 ) of a second.

Primary memory. Same as primary storage or main memory.

Printer. An output device that prints results stored in the main memory.

Programmer. The person who prepares a set of

instructions, called a program.

Pseudocode. A code in which program instructions are written, making use of


symbolic representation of operation codes.

Random access. Same as direct

access.

Read Only Memory (ROM). An area of memory that can only be read and not
written on by a user.
£

Record. A collection of related data elements.


T
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Secondary memory. Same as auxiliary memory, secondary storage or backing


storage.

Software. Software is a term used in contrast to hardware. It refers to all programs


which can be used on a particular computer system.

Teleprocessing. Transmission of data to a computer from a remote terminal.

Teletypewriter. A cheap input/ouput device that uses paper tape and is a part of a
small computer system.

Terminal. A device often consisting of key board and a visual display unit which
is connected to a computer. It can be used for remote entry and receiving
information.

Time shared service. The use of a remote central computer and sharing it with
other users.

Transaction. An event that generates a fact and it becomes an input to a data


processing.

Unit record machine. An >.>lectro-mechanical machine which is used to process


data punched into cards.

Video display. Same as CRT.


/*

Word. Fixed size storage areas which store, binary equivalents of decimal
numbers. Instructions are also stored in words.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Word-processing. A system used in offices. It performs operations on words for


storing, editing and manipulating text.

Xerographic printer. A high speed printer that uses Xerographic techniques to


produce printed outputs.
Q.
Ans.

EXERCISE
Compare the conductivities of Aluminum, Copper and Iron metals?

silver.

All these metals are good conductor of electricity, however their conductivity
decreases in the following order
Silver Copper Aluminum Iron

Conductivity decreases

Q. Name some unreactive metals?

Ans. Gold, Silver, Platinum, Copper and Tin.

Q. What is corrosion? How can this be protected?

Ans. It is a chemical process in which a metal gets rusted or corroded. A metal


gets corroded whenever a chemical attacks its surface. Water, air and acids are
three of the most common corroding chemicals. When a piece of metal corrodes, it
first loses its shiny surface. Then, as more and more is eaten away, it loses its
strength. Metal corrosion is a big problem. Tin is more commonly used for coating
metal cans for protection against corrosion. The can is actually made up of steel
(which is mostly iron). This makes the -can strong and cheap. Moreover, the
lyTaTri »7iVg>M 19 k1 M ^

tin metal protects the steel from being corroded by the food in the can.

Q. Name some reactive metals?

Ans. Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium.

Q. What are noble metals? Give examples?

Ans. There are certain metals which are very unreactive and are not corroded at
all. These metals are called Noble metals. Typical examples are silver, Gold and
Platinum. These noble metals are used in jewellery,

Q. What are Alloys? Give their importance?

Ans. Alloys are usually made by melting two or more suitable metals together, and
then allowing the molten mixture to cool down and harden. This is done to get
desired properties from the metals. Alloys behave very differently from the mixed
metals in properties. Most of the corrosion problems are slowed down using metal
alloys. Some famous alloys alongwith their characteristics are described below in
the form of a chart:

Q. In what ways is stainless steel better than Iron?

Ans. Stainless steel is the be’sfe known example of the corrosion resistant alloy. Jt
belongs to the family of steels - alloys of iron ”With other metals. Iron is alloyed
with 10-25% chromium to form stainless steel. This converts the iron which rusts
so easily and is quite brittle into a stronger and rust-resistant substance.

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Corronel
.^__^m^_^«^_^^_«iB««»<^H^-

Nickel,
Molybednum

and Iron.
y^HH^BB^^BW^H^BBM^BB^^HHIH
Very resistant to acids
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Reaction Vessels

in the Chemical

Industry

Solder

Lead and Tin

Low melting and

good conductor

of electricity

It is used for making connections between electrical Wires

Burmabright-S

Aluminum,

Magnesium and

other metals.

Light weight and

very resistant to

salt water

It is used in

making the upper

decks of the

ships

Amalcap

Mercury, Silver and Tin.

It can be mixed

in cold state and

sets hard

in 24-hours.

It is used in

fillings for teeth.


Nimonic

Nickel and chromium.

It is not affected by corrosion even at high temperature.

It is used in

making Jet

engines.

Amalgam
Mercury with

Zinc, Sodium

or Lithium.
A silver-white

porous crystalline

mass.

It is used in dental fillings,

silvering of mirrors and as

catalysts.

Q. Differentiate clearly between Pig Iron, Cast iron, Wrought Iron, Steel and
Stainless Steel.

Ans. Pig Iron, Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, Steel and Stainless Steel are all
commercial forms of Iron. Each one is described separately below:

*
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Pig Iron:

In metal terminology ”pig” is a bar or ingot of cooled metal. It is the basic raw
material for steel and cast iron. It is actually an impure form of iron and contains
1% Silicon, 0.03% Sulphur, 0.27% Phosphorous, 2.4% Magnesium, 4.6% Carbon
and the rest is iron. It is a product of blast furnace.

Cast Iron:

It is a generic name for a group of metals that basically are alloys of carbon and
silicone with iron, it is also an impure form of iron. It contains
2-3% carbon and 1.5% other impurities like silicone, phosphorous, manganese and
sulphur.

Wrought Iron:

It is the purest form of iron. Carbon seldom exceeds 0.25% and Manganese
content is held at
0.06% maximum. Wrought iron is readily fabricated by standard methods and is
quite corrosion resistant.

Stainless Steel:

It is a special alloy of iron with chromium and nickel. These metals greatly
increase, their ability for corrosion-resistance, it is used in making slip hulls, auto-
bodies, machinery and machine parts, cables, abrasives and chemical equipment.

Steel:

It is an alloy of iron and 0.25 - 2% carbon. It is made from molten pig iron by
oxidising out the excess cai bori and other impurities.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Q. Differentiate between Brass, Bronze and German Silver.

Ans.

Brass: It is an alloy of copper with zinc; copper 80% and zinc 20%. It has two
varieties - Red Brass (15% zinc) and yellow Brass (34-37% zinc). It is used for
making hose nozzles, oil guages, air cocks, jewelary and stamping dies.
Bronze:

It is an alloy of copper with tin-copper 90% and Tin 10% special bronze also
called aluminum Bronze contains 5-10% aluminum. It is used in making springs,
spark-resistant tools, electrical hardware, vacuum driers, blenders and rain cocks.

German Silver:

It is an alloy of copper with nickel and zinc. The proportions of these three metals
in the alloy can be (2:1:1) or (5:2:2).

Q.

Identify the following materials and give their uses? i

(i) Feldspar

(ii) Quartz

(Hi) Mica

Ans.

(i)

(ii)

Feldspar: It is one of the mineral which make up granite and it has pink or grey
crystals. It is resistant to heat, water and other chemicals. It is used in making
porcelain and glazes for pottery.

Quartz: It is a crystalline form of silicon dioxide. It is resistant to heat, chemicals


and electricity. It is used in making pottery and glass.
(Hi) Mica: It has flat transparent crystals. It is resistant to chemicals. It has high
melting point and is an excellent insulator. It is used as an insulator in electric
irons. Powdered mica is the snow on greeting cards.

Q. How is pure silicon obtained?

Ans. Pure silicon is obtained by heating silicon dioxide with carbon. It is used to
make the chip in the computer.

Q. What is the main use of Limestone?

Ans. It is mainly used in the manufacture of cement.

Q. Name the main Ores of Aluminum, Iron, Tin, Titanium and Gold.

Metal Ore

Aluminium Bauxite

Iron Haematite

Tin Cassiterite

Titanium Rutile

Gold Native Gold

Q. What s Doping?

Ans, It is a process in which impurities are added to a semi-conductor to boost


up its efficiency. These impurities function as electron donors or s.
acceptors and the semi-conductor is designated n-

type or p-type depending upon the electrical nature of the ”holes” or energy
deficits in the crystalline lattice. In the n-type, there is a flow of electrons and
Arsenic is an impurity while in the p-type, there is a flow of holes and Boron is an
impurity.

Q. What is Maser?

Ans. It is a microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Optical


maser constitutes laser.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE |

Q. Who discovered Laser?

Ans. Gordon Gold discovered Laser in 1957.

Q. What is function of Ruby in Laser?

Ans. Ruby is a synthetic material made by the fusion of aluminum oxide and
traces of chromium oxide. It is produced by single-crystal growing techniques. It
is an important part of a laser machine and is called the medium.

Q. What is a Hologram?

Ans. A hologram is a special photograph that appears as three-dimensional picture,


it is made by using laser light. The word ”hologram” means complete picture.

Q. What is the importance of Optic Fibres?

Ans. Optic fibres are made from solid threads of special-glass they can bend
without breaking like human hairs. Sound and picture signals are changed into
pulses of laser light that travel along these fibres and serve the communication
system and in medicine (endoscope). Optic fibers are used to carry radio,
telephone, television and computer data.

Q. What is Abacus?

Ans. The Abacus is a simple/calculator that has been used for thousands ofyears. It
is still used in some parts of the wcirld today. Calculations are made by moving
the/beads along the wires.

Q. Describe a Pantograph?

Ans. It is an early analogue instrument. It is used for producing larger or smaller


copies, or models of plans.
I
Q. Define an Integrated Circuit?

Ans. An integrated circuit is a group of electronic parts joined together in a


protective case. Integrated circuits are often called chips, because they are made of
thin chips of a material called silicone.

Q. What is a Byte?

Ans. In most microcomputers, a Byte is a combination of eight bits. Each Byte


represents a numeral, a letter of the alphabet, a punctuation mark or anything else
the computer can show. The more bytes a computer can store, the more work it
can do. A computer’s memory is measured in bytes. A megabyte is 1,048,576
bytes.

Q. What are mainframes?

Ans. Mainframes are the largest computers usually

found in the head offices of banks and other large

companies.

Q. Name some input devices of the computer?

Ans. Keyboard, Keypad, Joystick, Mouse, Light pen and Modern.

Q. What is meant by word-processing?

Ans. Word-processing is a way of using a computer to produce perfectly typed


letters or stories when loaded with such a programme. Daisy - Wheel printers do
this job.

Q. Define bar code?


Ans. It is rectangular set of lines on the packet of a merchandise. These lines are
called a bar code. When the cashier passes a laser pen over the bar code, the price
appears on the screen.
I PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE |

Q. What are Radio Waves?

Ans. Radio waves are electromagnetic radiations made up of electric and magnetic
fields vibrating mutually at right angles to each other in space. Radio waves travel
with the velocity of light (1,86,000 miles/sec.)

Q. What is the relationship between wavelength and


frequency of radio waves?

Ans. Wavelength and frequency of radio-waves are held together by the following
relationship.

f=

= Frequency

X = Wavelength

= Velocity of light

Q. When did Radio Broadcasting Start?

Ans. Radio Broadcasting started in 1920.

Q. Name the scientists who played a great role in the development of


Radio?

Ans. HeinrichHertzT James Maxwell, Michael Faraday and Guglielmo Marconi.

• Q. How is Radio Signal Intensity affected by I distance?

Ans. Raijlio signal Intensity, like light intensity decreases- as the distance from the
source increases.

Q. How are Radio Waves Generated?


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Ans. Radio waves are generated by using a piezoelectric crystal oscillator.

Q. What are the essential parts of a radio?

Ans. The essential parts of a radio are: Vacuum tubes, Transistors, Amplifier and
Oscillator?

Q. Why are short waves more commonly used in the communication system?

Ans. Short waves have the remarkable property of being able to cover great
distances by using an invisible layer in the upper atmosphere to ’bounce’ radio
signals back and fourth to reach the Earth.

This wave-range (10-100 meters wavelength) is therefore, highly significant for all
sorts of telecommunications in widely separated locations.

Q. Differentiate between Transmitting and Receiving Antennas?

Ans. The antenna is an essential part of a radio transmission and reception system.
Transmitting antenna is a device that projects the radio frequency generated by a
transmitter into space. Antennas have directional properties.

The typical outdoor receiving antenna is constructed of several paralleled


horizontal metal rods of different lengths spaced one behind the other. Such an
array has directional properties, displaying maximum sensitivity on the line at
right angles to the metal rods. For local reception, a less elaborate antenna
suffices, such as the extendable telescoping rod provided in portable television
receivers.
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Q. Define Radio Bands?

Ans. The radio-frequency spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of bands


from very low frequencies to super high frequencies?

Q. What is Modulation?

Ans. The process of attaching information to the carrier wave is called Modulation
which involves the variation of one of the carrier-frequency characteristics such as
its amplitude frequency or its duration.
Q. What is meant by SOS and Mayday calls?

Ans. These are distress frequency Radio signals given out by ships and aircrafts at
the time of trouble. SOS calls are given by ships and stand for ”save our souls”. It
is a Morse code signal which started in 1927. Mayday (french: maiclez ”help me”)
calls are given by the aircrafts at a frequency of 121.5 megahertz.

Q>\ What is FM?

Ans. FM, stands for Frequency Modulation. It involves varying the frequency of
the carrier in accordance with the\amplitude of the information signal.

Q. Define Superheterodyne Principle?

Ans. In most modern radio receivers, reception is base on superheterodyne


principle. The incoming radio-frequency is mixed with the output of an oscillation,
the frequency of which is adjusted.

Q. What are the essential parts of a Television?

Ans. The essential parts of a Television set are, cathode ray tube or picture tube,
scanner or
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

electron beam gun, transistors amplifiers and oscillator.

Q. What is meant by Persistent of Vision?

Ans. Persistent of vision or visual memory is a property of the eye. Motion in the
scene is represented by showing a series of still pictures (24/sec.) - this is essential
to convey the illusion of motion.

Q. Explain Scanning?

Ans. The scene is broken down into many small pieces called picture elements.
The process of breaking down the scene into picture elements and reassembling
them on the screen of the television receiver is known as scanning. There are about
one hundred thousand picture elements in one scene. The area of a scene is
scanned in l/30th part of a second.

Q. Explain briefly the basic principle of Telephone?

Ans. The basic principle is to use sound vibrations to control a larger source of
power and creating a variable resistance in electrical circuit. This is done by
making an electric current vary in intensity precisely as air varies in density during
the production of sound.

Q. What are the essential parts of a Telephone? Ans. The essential parts of a
telephone:

Mouthpiece, Earpiece, Dialing system and complete electric circuit.

Q. Explain briefly mouthpiece?

the working of a
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

Ans. The speaker talks into the mouthpiece, behind which is a transmitter.
Vibrating air currents produced by the speech generate vibrations in a thin
aluminum diaphragm. These vibrations are transmitted to a small piston, which is
the cover for a metallic box filled with small granules of carbon. Electrical contact
is made only through the carbon, which is reasonably a good conductor of
electricity. Vibrations of the membrane/piston causes the electrical resistance of
the carbon grains to vary. This results in variations in the amount of electricity
passing through the circuit, and hence through the conducting line.
Q. What is an Earpiece?

Ans. Earpiece is an important part of the telephone at the receiving end. A sound
membrane is made to perform vibrations similar to the one induced in the
earpiece.

Q. What is the function of dial or Touch-tone?

Ans.

Q.

Ans.

Q.
Ans.

The dial or touch-tone of a telephone sends out an electrical code that establishes
the correct connection.

Is electricity needed in the working of the Telephone?

The telephone must operate as a part of complete electric circuit, and so it needs a
power source, a conductor and a switch. The power source is a storage battery of
about 50 volts.

What are the usual modes of transmission of telephone signals?

The electrical signals of the telephone are transmitted over long distances in a
number of

1
PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

QAns.

Q.
ways eg; through cables, radio-relays, microwaves and most recently by optical
light waves.

Explain briefly the working of a Camera?

An exposure is made by opening a shutter. Focussing is carried out by varying the


distance of the lens from the film by a suitable device. In order to get the correct
amount of light, aperture and shutter speeds are controlled.

Differentiate clearly between. Aperture and shutter of a Camera?

Ans. Aperture:

An aperture is made of diaphragm - it controls the amount of light entering. The


size of the aperture is described by the f-number. In bright light, a small aperture,
with a large f-number, should be used.

Shutter:

It makes sure that light only strikes-the^film when you want to take a photograph.
It covers the aperture until you press the shutter releaser, then it opens and closes
letting light. Expensive cameras have a shutter speed control. It changes the length
of time for which the shutter is open.

Q. Name the essential parts of a camera?

Ans. It essentially consists of light proof box, aperture, shutter, lens and film.

Q. When were lenses invented? Name some appliances that use lenses?

Ans. The Arabs and Chinese knew about lenses around


800 A.D. The appliances which use lenses are:

glasses, film projectors, cameras, microscopes, telescopes and binoculars.

Q. What are the essential steps in taking a photograph?


Ans. The essential steps in taking a photograph are Exposure, Fixing and
Positive formation?

Q.

Ans.

Ans.

Q. Ans.

Describe the function of photographic film in a camera?

A photographic film is a roll of thin, clear plastic (celluloid) coated with light
sensitive chemicals (chemicals which are changed by light). The film is covered
with an emulsion of silver bromide. It is converted to metallic silver by the
chemical action during developing. Developers produce a black deposit of fine
particles of metallic silver on those portions of the film that has been exposed to
light thus giving a negative image.

What is meant by Fixing?


It consists of the chemical action of s*bdium thiosulphate (HYPO) to give water


soluble compound which is then washed out with water, leaving a negative free of
light sensitive silver baits.

How is a Positive formed?

By placing the finished negative over a piece of sensitive paper similar to film, and
exposing to light, the light sensitive silver salts on the paper are affected in a
similar way to those in the original film. Those portions of the negative that were
darkest let through least light, and thus give the whitest portions on the developed
paper. The negative image is thus reversed, and a corrt’<-(
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

image or photograph is obtained on the paper, which is then fixed and washed with water
as before.

Chapter 5

LIVING THINGS
Introduction:

Matter can be classified into living and non-living things. Living things have life which is
a delicate and complex process of genetic material in all cell nuclei. All living things
must contain, Protoplasm; a material absolutely necessary to perform all functions of life.
Protoplasm is the total contents of the living cell. Cells are the smallest building blocks of
all living organisms which include both plants and animals. All living things contain
carbon as an essential element. Characteristics of living organisms are as follows:

1.

Respiration

Living organism respire; they inhale and exhale.

2.

Nutrition

They need food to provide energy for all life processes.

3.

Growth

They increase in weight and size.

4.

Reproduction

They produce off-springs which resemble themselves.

5.

Response

They are sensitive to internal and external influences or stimuli.


6.

Excretion

They yield waste products for disposal.

7.

Movement

They are able to move. It is slow in plants.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Life began in oceans millions of years ago and has travelled a long way from sea
animals to amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The sciences which deal with
living organisms are called Biological Sciences. Some more common biological
sciences are described below:
^^^••••^^^•”•^•”^ Botany

Branch of Biology that deals with study of plant Kingdom.

Zoology

Branch of Biology that deals with study of animal Kingdom.

Biochemistry

The study of chemical processes of living organisms.

Physiology

It deals with functioning of the various organs of living organisms.

Hygiene

It is the science of healtTi ahTHts-preservation.

Pathology

It is the science which deals with diseases. \.


_ \

Entomology

It is the branch of Zoology that deals only with insects.

Microbiology

The study of minute living organisms, including bacteria and protozoans.

Cytology

Science dealing with structure and functions of cells and their components.

Histology

Science of organic tissues of animals or plants.

Human Biology

It is the study of life and life supporting processes in human beings.

JILwMtillMcEl

Classification:

Living organisms show a great diversity in their character. Taxonomy is the


branch of biological sciences which put them into different categories of
organisms. The classification of animals go like this - Kingdom, Phylum, Class,
Order, Family, Genus and Specie.

The Plant Kingdom:

There are nearly half a million species of plants on the Earth. With the exception
of few, all of them need three basic ingredients to survive: air, light and water,
plants are found in almost every type of habitat. They take their own food using
simple raw materials and energy from the sun. Plants require water to grow. They
cannot get this water unless it is available in the soil. Plants obtain water from the
soil through their roots. It then passes up the stem to the leaves and flowers. The
plant does not take all the water available in the soil. Much of the remaining water
evaporates into the surrounding air. The plants can be divided into the following
categories:

Non-Green Plants:

This is a group of plants having simple plant body without root, stem and leaves.
They do not contain chlorophyll and hence do not involve photosynthesis. They
can grow without the aid of sunlight and seem to popout of the ground overnight.
Typical examples of nongreen plants are bacteria, fungi and viruses.

Green Plants:

These are those plants which contain chlorophyll and cariy out photosynthesis.
There are two categories of green plants: non-flowering and flowering plants.

A
CLASSIFICATION READY RECKONER

LIVING ORGANISMS

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Plant Kingdoms

Animal Kingdoms

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Green Plants
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tebrates

vertebrates
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Vegetables Rice Trees Shrubs Fruits

Man

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EVERYDAY SCIENCE

dioxide in the air and water in the soil to make thenfood. The leaves distribute
water from the roots and transport food made in the leaves to the rest of the plant.

Stem:

This supports the leaves and flowers. It contains tubes to carry water and food
around the plant, and it stores food.

Roots:

These hold the plant in the ground, absorb water and mineral salts from the soil,
and in some cases the root is edible.

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM


The animal kingdom consists of about one and a half million species. Animals can
be divided simply into two large groups on the basis of external resemblances,
homologous features and similarities between them and their development. These
groups are Invertebrates and Vertebrates.

Invertebrate:

These are those animals which do not posses backbones. These are usually smaller
in size but larger in number. About 95 percent of the whole animal kingdom is
composed of inveitebrate animals. More familiar example^; are insects, crabs,
worms and spiders. Some of the important families of invertebrate animals are
cliscussed\below.

LIVING THINGS

Insects:

Insects have an external skeleton called exoskeleton which provides support and
protection. They consist of the head, the thorax and the abdomen, and on the
middle part are found three pairs of jointed legs. They are the most numerous and
widespread group of animals on Earth. They are found in almost every sort of
habitat, from deserts to lakes, and from soil to the air. The most characteristic
feature of insects is their ability to fly. Insects eat many different types of food and
they have well-developed senses that tell them everything they need to know about
their surroundings. Some typical examples of insects are mosquitoes, fleas,
grasshoppers, ants, aphid, moth, silverfish, dragonfly and earwing.
Most insects lead independent lives, coming together, with other of their kind only
for eating. However, some insects can only survive in complex societies. Ants are
interesting social insects which live in large colonies either underground or in
loose mounds.

Vertebrates:

These are those animals which possess segmental backbone or vertebral column.
Vertebrate animals are generally much bigger in size as compared to invertebrate
animals. Animals like cats, dogs, snakes, frogs, birds and fish are familiar
examples of vertebrates. Some of the important families of vertebrate animal are
discussed below:

Fishes:

Fishes are cold-blooded vertebrate animals whose bodies are covered generally
with scales. They are a varied group of animals that have colonized the world
oceans, lakes and rivers. They are specially adapted to
j^W^
live and breath in water, although some can spend limited amounts of time on dry
land. Fishes breath by extracting dissolved oxygen from the water, using a series
of internal gills over which water continually passes.

Dolphins and Porpoises:

Dolphins and porpoises are warmblooded mammals. Over million of years, they
developed from land mammals. They are closely related to each other as well as
being linked to those other well-known creaturesthe great whales. Although they
live in the sea, they breathe air. Usually dolphins have beaks and more noticeable
dorsal fins than porpoises which are smaller, and their teeth are spade shaped, not
pointed like dolphin’s teeth. Dolphins are almost as clever as humans.

Reptiles:

The reptiles are scaly, cold-blooded vertebrate animals which lay eggs with hard,
protective shells. They seem to have descended from warmer part of the world.
Snakes, crocodiles, tortoises, lizards and alligators are familiar examples of
reptiles. Reptiles crawl on their bellies or creep on short legs. All reptiles breath
air and have backbones or spinal cords. Most of them reproduce by laying eggs,
but some bear live youngs. Turtles are the oldest of the living reptiles.

Amphibians:

Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrate animals which have descended from


fishes. Their young develop in water and breathe with theVaid of gills, but as they
mature, they develop lungs and live on land. When they are ready to reproduce,
they riiust return to water.

Common amphibians include frogs, toads, newts and salamanders.

Birds:

Birds are warm-blooded vertebrate animals whose body is covered with feathers,
birds descended from reptiles and lay shelled eggs. All birds have wings, but all
birds don’t fly. They are the -fastest animals on Earth. Theie are about 8,600 kinds
of birds. Birds have adapted to feed on all manners of food.

Mammals:

”i.anmals are warm-blooded, air-breathing vertebrate animals which suckle their


young ones. Young mammals are nourished on milk secreted by their mother’s
mammary glands. Most mammals bear live young, but some lay eggs. Common
mammals include elephants, dogs, cats, monkeys and tigers.

ORIGIN OF LIFE:

Some of the important statements of scientists are reproduced below about the
origin of life:

”The trees and plants and animals, The oceans, air and mountains, The moon, the
stars and galaxies, They share-both birth and origin”

”The origin of life appears at the moment to be almost a miracle, so many are the
conditions which would have had to have been satisfied to get it going”.

”Once thought to be a simple bag of chemicals, the cell is now understood to be an


elaborate . system of molecular machinery that surpasses a modern city in
complexity”.
”In Einstein’s conception of the Universe, a person is not an individual
experiencing successive events but a four-dimensional”.

”Space-time-worm” to which the concept of the passing of time cannot be


applied”.

”It is clear that there is no viable theory of the chemical origin of life”.

”There are no valid grounds for insisting that evolution is the only explanation for
the variety of living form”.

”To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus
to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light could have been
formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree”
- Charles Dai-win.

”Updating Darwin, scientists are showing that evolution sometimes leaps rather
than creep and that life itself is stranger, more adaptive and more precarious than
we ever dreamed”.

Introduction:

Life is a set of dynamic chemical processes; when they stop, so does life, and the
chemicals that once made up a body reduce themselves to a sludge. Living
creatures are clearly complex web of chemical pathwayschains of chemical
reactions in which a product of one becomes the starting point for another. Living
things display seven characteristics; excretion, growth, irritability, locomotion,
nutrition, reproduction and respiration. A very general definition of life is what
living creatures do.

Origin:

Bacteria were the first living organisms and hence the oldest, they were born about
three and a half billion years ago. Plants, animals and other multicellular bodies
were the next to come in the life cycle. But how bacteria came into existence in the
first place, is still a mystery to biologists. However, according to the chemical
evolution theory it is believed that simple molecules like methane, ammonia and
hydrogen cyanide were first converted into amino acids and then to the proteins,
and finally thousands of years, after, a cell was formed from the primeval soup.
All living organisms must invariably contain carbon and life is organic in nature.

Sugars, fatty acids, the building blocks of DNA and more things are needed to
build a bacterium, A bacterium, though simple by comparison with amoeba or a
human body cell, is till a pretty complicated thing. Every present living thing
seems to have descended from bacteria but they may still not be the first link just
the oldest surviving one. The precursors of bacteria could have been simple self-
replicating proteins. In a short conclusion, life is the most unique event of the
Universe.

Extraterrestrial Intelligence:

Extraterrestrial intelligence means search for life on other planets. Most of the
world scientists are of the opinion that life definitely exists on other planets but it
will take a long time to prove it.

We are made up of cells, which are made of molecules, which in turn are made of
atoms, themselves made of elementary particles. Nuclei are manufactured m the
stais, molecules in interstellar space. If we trace back along our genealogical line,
well before the apes, the first living things-cells we must go back to the
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

molecules, the atoms, the nucleons, back to the beginning of the universe
15 billion years ago.

No matter how far back into the universe we look, we find the same elements:
atoms, molecules, stars, galaxies. It can be shown that the laws of physics have
remained unchanged through 15 billion light years. It is this homogeneity in the
way that universe behaves that allows us to think that life is not an improbable
phenomenon, but a normal property of matter at the highest levels of its
organization. So we can suppose that life appears when conditions permit and
where Earthlike features exist, there is also the possibility that Earth-like life could
arise too.

CELLS
Introduction:

Cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is a fundamental


living unit. Cells are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope.

”Once thought to be a simple bag of chemicals, the cell is now understood to be on


elaborate system of molecular machinery that surpasses a modern city in
complexity”.

The fact that both plants and animals are made up of cells is the basis of the cell
theory. Each cell consists of two parts known as nucleus and cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm is the large part of a cell which is a jellylike material and it contains
water, food and dissolved gases, the cell contents are held together by a thin skin
called a cell membrane. Embedded in the middle of the cytoplasm is a darker
structure which has a rough surface. This is called the nucleus. This nucleus
contfols

the anabolic (Constructive) activities and the cytoplasm controls the catabolic
(destructive) activities.

Different Parts of Cell:

Essential parts of a cell are described below:


Cill membrane

Cell membrano

small temporary vacuoles

Nucleus Cytopla^rr
1. Ribofcomes: The ribosomes manufacture protein molecules by following
blueprints encoded in messenger^ RNA. The ribosomes have complex

structure. \

\\

2. Endoplasmic ^Reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum consists of a complex


of membranes that form internal compartments used in the synthesis and transport
of various compounds produced by the cell.

3. Nucleus: The nucleus contains the hereditary material, DNA, which carries
instructions for the operation and perpetuation of the cellular machinery.
Complex molecular processes are involved in replicating the DNA.

4. Nucleolus: The nucleolus is a factory for the partial manufacture of ribosomes.


D. Microtuhes: The microtubes form a complex lattice work that gives
form to the cell and enables it to systematically move and change shape.

6. Lyosomes: Lyosomes contain enzymes that break down unwanted material


within the cell.

7. Chloroplusts: The chloroplasts, found in plant cells, are complex chemical


factories that carry out photosynthesis.

8. Cellular Membrane: The cellular membrane is equipped with many complex


protein molecules that regulate the passage of molecules into and out of the cell
and act as sensors informing the cell of external conditions.

9. Mitochondria: The mitochondria are chemical factories that generate


energy for the cell through the controlled breakdown of food molecules.

ANIMALS VS PLANTS
i.

2.

3.

Points of Similarities
Smallest building blocks of animals are cells.

Animals range from Unicellular to more complicated organisms consisting of multicellular bodies.

Animals grow in number by reproduction.

Smallest building blocks of plants are also cells.

Plants also range from unicellular to more complicated organisms consisting of multicellular bodies.

They also grow in number by Reproduction.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Animals reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Points of differences
Animals are heterotrophic

Animals take oxygen and release carbon dioxide gas. Animals are free to move from one place to the other.

Animal cells have no cell walls but they have cell membranes.

There are small vacuoles in

There is no chloroplast in

animal cells.

Animal life is dynamic.

Animals need oxygen gas for their survival.

Animals do not carry a green pigment called chlorophyll.

Centrosome containing centrioj are present in animal cells.

Animals respond quickly to external stimuli

In animals, Meiosis resultsin only one functional egg

Plants also reproduce both sexually and asexually.

Plants are autotrophic.

Plants take carbon dioxide and

release oxygen gas.

They show restricted motion.

Plant cells have cell walls made up of cellulose to protect and surround the cell and cell membrane

There is a large Vacuole in plant cell.

There is chloroplast in plant cell.

Plant life is static.

Plants need carbon dioxide gas for their survival.

Chlorophyll is an important part of all plants necessary for photosynthesis.

ie Wo such substance is present in plant cells.

Plants respond slowly to stimuli.

In plants, instead of egg or sperms, micro gametes and


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

13.
14.

15.
16.

in female and 4 functional sperms in male.

Plastids are usually absent in animal cell. Metabolism forms toxic wastes which are removed by excretion.

Cellulose is altogether absent in animal cell.

Reserve food material is usually stored as Glycogen.

mega gametes are formed.

Plastids are usually present in plant cell.

Metabolic wastes are seldom toxic and not excreted.

The skeleton of the body is made up of cellulose.

Reserve food material is stored as Starch grains.

MICROSCOPE /
Introduction: /

The microscope is an instrument for producing enlarged images of objects that are too
small to be seen by the eye unaided, Such images may be viewed directly or with a
viewing screen or photographic apparatus. Objects for n;’roscopy may be either
transparent or opaque. Microscope may be simple or compound.

Simple Microscope:

A simple microscope, a single positive lens or lens combination, is often known as a


magnifier. The simple one-lenf. microscope may date from the middle of the
15th century, when low power magnifier were used for the examination of insects.
Maximum apparent magnificat ion is reached when the virtual image of the object he.s at
the nearest distance of distinct vision. Simple magnifiers suffer considerably from
aberrations that affect the peripheral parts of the field of view; curvature of the field,
distortion, and lateral chromatic
LIVING THINGS

aberration are principally involved. The simplest form of low-power magnifier is a single
biconvex or plano-convex lens.

Compound Microscope:
The basic idea of the compound microscope is to use two or more lenses, arranged in
such a way as to form an enlarged image of an object. A compound optical microscope is
an instrument that produce a magnified image of a small object; as small as bacteria.
Compound microscope has an objective lens (the lens closet to the object being viewed)
and an eyepiece so mounted that they may conveniently be moved relative to the
specimen to focus the image.

A typical compound microscope consists of a mirror that reflects light from an external
source through a condensed lens system that concentrates and uniformly illuminates an
object on stage. An objective lens system produces a real image of the object that is then
seen by the eye to lie in a plane. The magnification obtained is equal to the product of the
magnifications produced by the objective and eyepiece lenses. The value of a microscope
lies in its ability not only to magnify objects but also to make their fine details visible.
These two features depend for the most part on the quality of the lens that forms the
primary image. Microscope objective lenses may be classified according to either their
focal length or their type and degree of corrections.

Specialized Types of Microscope:

Many modern versions of the microscope have now been developed for specific
purposes. Some of these can be named as under:
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Compound Microscope,

A, FA epicco; B, Draw tube; C, Body tube; D, Nosepiece (revolving); E, Objective F, Fine adjustment; G,
Coarse adjustment; H, Arm; I,

Clip; J, Stage; K. Condenser; L, Iris-diaphragm; M, Mirror; N,

Inclination joint; O, Pillar; and P, Foot (horsehoe-shaped); of these

A, E, K, and M constitute the optical parts and the rest constitute

the mechanical parts.

I LIVING THINGS

(i) Stereoscopic binocular microscope

(ii) Ultramicroscope

(Hi) Metallurgical microscope

(iv) Phase-contrast microscope

(v) Ultraviolet and fluorescence microscope

(vii) Infrared microscope

(viii) Polarizing microscope

The Electron Microscope:

It is the most modern and sophisticated version of the microscope. It came into
commercial use in 1935. There are many differences between optical and electron
microscopes. Instead of glass lenses, electromagnetic lenses are used. Unlike this optical
microscope, in which the lenses are of fixerl focus and the distance between specimen
and objectiv/e is varied,-the electron microscope has variable-focus lenses, and the
distance between specimen and object/we lens and separation of the lenses remain
constant.

The optical microscope is usually operated so that the image is a virtual one, and in the
electron microscope the final image is invariably real and is visualized on a fluorescent
screen or recorded for study on a photographic plate.
In the optical microscope, the image is formed by absorption of light in the specimen. In
the electron microscope the image results from the scattering of electrons by atoms in the
specimen.

For practical reasons of image stability and brightness, the microscope is often operated
to give a final magnification of 1000-50,000 magnitudes on the
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•HMK’MlilflTcEl

screen. It is possible to see small viruses and large molecules with the help of electron
microscope.

DISEASES
Introduction:

When everything is functioning properly in the animal body, all systems of the body are
synchronized, working in a state of harmony that is characterised as healthy. If the
functions of” cells or organs are disrupted enough to cause signs or symptoms of
abnormal conditions, the organism is said to be diseased. All diseases can be considered
to some degree both genetic and environmental in their pathogenic characteristics.
Diseases can be caused by pathogens, namely bacteria, spirochete viruses, fungi,
amoebae, parasites and worms. Diseases can be infectious or non-infectious.

Infectious Diseases:

These are those diseases which are caused by the attack of an organism outside the body
conveyed into human body in different ways. These can be transmitted by air, water or
skin.

Cholera:

It is an acute diarrhoeal disease caused by vibrio cholera or related vibrios. A pandemic


of cholera is in progress. The infection is acquired by the ingestion of foocl or drink
contaminated by faeces from cases or carriers containing a large number of vibrios. The
vibrios grow in small intestine and produce a powerful exotoxin. Ah a reMilt massive
diarrhoea occurs which is fatal if untreated. The incubation period is 1-5 days. Cholera
vaccine gives only limited protection and is of no value in controlling outbreaks.

Air

Whooping Cough, TB

Water

Cholera, Jaundice

Skin

Mosquito Bite
Malaria, Yellow Fever Filaria (Elephentiasis)

Animal Bite

Rabies, Plague

Miscellaneous

Influenza, Measles

Blood \

Hepatitis, Aids

Malaria: j

Malaria/is transmitte’ from human to human by the bite of/infected female anopheles
mosquitoes. Symptoms a/e, chills, fever and sweating. Four species of the genus/
Plasmodium are responsible for human malaria. The most common parasites are;
Plasmodium vivax, flaciparum, malaria and ovale. The mosquito becomes infected by
taking blood containing the sexual forms of the parasite. Red blood cells are ruptured in
this process. The incubation period varies considerably (8-20 days).

Typhoid Fever:

Typhoid fever is caused by the gram negative rod salmonella typhi, which enters the
patients via gastrointestinal tract. Infection is transmitted by consumption of
contaminated food or drink. The incubation period is 5-14 days.

\
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Pertussis (Whooping Cough)

It is an acute infection by the respiratory tract caused by Bordetella pertussis. It is


transmitted by respiratory droplets from infected individuals. The incubation
period is 7-17 days.

BACTERIA
Definition:

Bacteria are microscopic unicellular free-living organisms that multiply very fast.
These are among the smallest and most widespread of all living things. They have
plant origin but they do not have chlorophyll and nuclear membrane. They may
live alone or in groups called colonies. Most of the bacteria are helpful but some
are harmful. Disease causing bacteria are called pathogens.

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Vibrios
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Curved rocks of bent cigars

Bacillus

Rod shaped

Spirillus

Spiral Shaped

Although, bacteria were observed almost three hundred years ago, their
significance in the production of disease was established by Louis Pasteur, a
French chemist, in 1856. The average diameter of a bacterial cell is about one
millimicron. Most bacteria reproduce asexually by means of binary fission. In
asexual reproduction, sexes are not needed i.e., there is no male or female
involved.
LIVING THINGS
Classification of Bacteria:

There are four basic forms of bacteria with reference to their shape and
appearance. Many attempts have been made to evolve a satisfactory classification
of the bacteria. A simple but useful working classification is based on a
combination of overall shape and reaction to Gram stain; into Gram positive and
Gram negative.

Streptococcus

Gonococcus

Staphylococcus I

Meningococcus

Peptococcus

Influenza bacillus

Anthra bacillus

Plague bacillus

Diphtheria bacillus \

Proteus

Tetanus bacillus \

Salmonella Providenica

Some bacteria are aerobic (streptococcus) and require air to live while other
bacteria are anaerobic (clostridium, bacteria) as they do not require air to live.
Bacteria are among the oldest form of life. Scientists have discovered that they can
teach bacteria to manufacture other substances by changing their genetic material.

Diseases Caused by Bacteria:

Some infectious diseases caused by bacteria are described below:


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Cholera

Vibrio Cholerae

Typhoid Fever

Salmonella typhi

Pertussis

Haemophilus pertussis

Plague

Yersinia pestis

Shigellosis

Shigella dysenteriae

ANTIBIOTICS
Definition:

The term antibiotic means ”against life”. Antibiotics are defined as chemicals
produced by microorganisms that has the capacity in small concentrations to
inhibit the growth of other microorganisms or to destroy them. The most important
groups of antibiotic-producing organisms are the bacteria, lower fungi or molds,
and antinomycytos. Antibiotics belong to very diverse class of chemical
compounds. The drugs work against bacteria, fungi and other microbes that
damage human tissues. They are selectively toxic - that is, they are harmful to
pathogenic (disease-causing) microbes but do not normally damage human cells.

Penicillin, discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, was the first antibiotic to be


widely and successfully used in he systemic therapy of acute bacterial infection?
in man. The Penicillins are the only important antibiotics produced by fungi.
Several

ilWIMcldiiiimyi

antibiotics are now synthetically also produced, therefore they are also
called as Antimicrobials.
Classification of Antibiotics:

The most common classification is based on mechanism of action of the


antibiotics. Two broad kinds of antibacterial effect can be distinguished,
depending on whether bacteria are actively killed by a drug, or merely prevented
from multiplying. An antibiotic may be bactereostatic at low concentrations, and
bactericidal at high concentrations, for example Erythromycin. \

Bactereostatic Antibiotics:

These are those antibiotics which merely inhibit the growth of micro-organisms.
Typical examples are Tetracyclene, Erythromycine, Linomycin and
Chloraniphenicol.

Bactericidal Antibiotics:

/ These are those antibiotics which kill microorganisms. Typical examples are
Penicillins, Streptomycin, Kanamycin, Cefoxitin, Cefamadole, Cefotaxime,
Ampicillin and Cefobid.
Some Typical Antibiotics and their Characteristics

Typical Antibiotic

Penicillins

Characteristics

Strictly speaking, Penicillin is not any one substance but is the name given, to salts of a series of organic
acids. Of all the natural Penicillins, Penicillin-G is still recognised as the best.
Tetracyclines

Streptomycin

Cephalosporins

It is useful for killing both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Ampicillin and Amoxicillin and
Mezloxillin are modern versions of penicillin-G.

Tetracyclines are broad spectrum antibiotics. These are a large group of drugs with common, basic
chemical structure, antimicrobial activity, and pharmacologic properties. These are active against both
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

It is an antibiotic belonging to a family of Amino glycosides of which the members are neomycin,
kenamycin, gentamycin, amikacin, tobramycin and sisomicin. It is more effective against gram-negative
bacteria and is useful in treatment of T.B, meningitis and pneumonia.

This belongs to B-Lactam drugs related to penicillins. Their mode of action is also similar. These have
successive generation of antibiotics. Typical examples are: cephalexin, cefobid, cefoxicitin, cefotaxime and
cefamandole.

Limitations and Side-Effects:

Most of the antibiotics are not effective against the diseases caused by viruses.
Almost all the antibiotics are slightly toxic and hence should be taken with a lot of
care. These drugs are commonly associated with outward reactions like
hypersensitivity, direct toxicity like nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Some are
given orally and other intramuscularly.
LIVING THINGS

VACCINES
Definition:

It may be defined as a suspension of killed or attenuated live organisms; bacteria


or virus, in normal saline designed to protect the body against a specific disease by
stimulating the formation of antibodies. These organisms provide immunity but do
not cause the disease. An antibody is a blood serum protein of the globulin
fraction which is formed in response to introduction of an antigen; which is an
ineffective organism. It is capable of inducing formation of an antibody in an
organism into which it is introduced. The entire science of immunology is due to
antigen-antibody reactions, the most outstanding feature of which is their
specificity. These antibodies produced in the ^bloodstream” can react only with
the homologous antigen or with those of a similar molecular structure. As a result,
the animal can destroy a particular virus or bacterium and becomes immune.

Immunization:
It is the process of protecting the body against disease by means of vaccines or
serums. Vaccines provide immunity by causing the body to manufacture
antibodies, which fight against disease. Serums furnish immunity by adding
antibodies directly to the blood. Immunization may be active or passive.

Characteristics of Vaccines:

(1) Vaccines may be oral or intramuscular, most are injected into the body.

(2) Vaccines are safe and reliable but they are not perfect.
(3) Most vaccines begin to provide a person with immunity about two
weeks after being administered.

(4) A single dose of some vaccine provides a lifelong protection against infection.

(5) Some vaccines require several doses to produce immunity and then must be
reinforced at regular intervals with booster doses.

Vaccination against some Viral Diseases:

Some Common diseases are:

(1) Measles:

An acute infectious disease of childhood cause by a virus spread by droplet.


Symptoms are high fever, rash on face and behind the ears, conjunctivitis, wi£h-
redness, swelling, photophobia and discharge. Attenuated live’ virus vaccine can
greatly reduce the incidence of measles.

(2) Mumps:

It is viral (paramyxovirus) disease spread by respiratory droplets that usually


produces inflammation of the salivary glands. Most patients are children. The
incubation period is 14-21 days (average 18 days). Symptoms are high fever and
painful swollen salivary glands. Mumps live virus vaccines is safe and highly
effective.

(3) Rabies:

It is a viral (rhobdovirus) encephalitis transmitted by infected saliva that gains


entry into the body by a bite or open wound. Dogs, bats and foxes are extensively
infected. The virus travels in the nerves to the brain,

multiplies there and then migrates along the different nerves to the salivary glands.
It is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system. Hydrophobia is a
typical symptom. The human diploid cell rabies vaccine is used for its prevention.

Other Viral Diseases:

Poliomyelitis, Rubella. Yellow Fever. Influenza, Hepatitis and Smallpox.

Vaccines in Preparation:
AIDS and MALARIA.

HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE GLANDS

HORMONES:

More than 80 hormones are known. Out of these more than 50% are steroids
whereas the remaining harmones are non-steroidal in nature. Hormones are
chemical substances produced by the cells of one part of an organism and
transported by the fluids of the organism to another site where they exert specific
action.

Hormones are organic in nature and are synthesised in the endocrine glands and
then discharged directly in the circulatory system. They serve as chemical
messengers or regulators. They cause the reactions to speed up or slow down. In
this way they control growth, metabolism, reproduction and many other functions
of the body and mind.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Sex Hormones:

Male sex hormones are called androgens. They are secreted by the Testes. These
hormones are responsible for development of the sex organs. The female sex
hormone are called Estrogens. They are produced mainly in the ovaries. They
control the female sexual functions, such as menstrual cycle and the development
of breasts and other secondary sexual characteristics. Sex hormones belongs to
steroid family of organic compounds and these can also be synthetically produced.
The activity of the sex hormones is controlled by the hormones that are produced
in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

Some Common Human Hormones


Human Growth Hormones

Pituitary
\,

Corttfojs the general body growth.

Thyroxin

Thyroid

Increases rate of cellular metabolism.

Insulin

Pancreas

Metabolises sugars & fats.

Cortisol

Adrenal

Stimulates conversion of proteins to carbohydrates.

Testosterone

Testes

Stimulates and maintains male sex characteristics

Progesterone Estradiole

Ovaries

Regulates menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy and stimulates sex characteristics

The Endocrine Glands:


These are those glands which pour their newly ’ made substances directly into
the blood stream. These are also known as ductless glands. They are following in
kinds.

Pituitary Gland:

It is about the size of a pea, and is attached to the brain by a stalk, just below the
point where the optic nerves join the brain. It has two parts called the anterior and
posterior lobes. It is often called the Master gland because the hormones it releases
influence the workings of many of the other endocrine glands.

Thyroid Gland:

The gland is made up of two parts and is shaped like a bow. Its secretion effects
physical and mental development in children and adults.

Pancreas:

The gland is shaped like a tongue. It lies just below the stomach. It produces
Insulin which helps to control the level of sugar in the blood.

Adrenal:

Suprarenal gland placed on kidney. Testes:

In males there are a pair of testes which are contained in a sac at the base of the
abdomen and outside the body.
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Ovaries:

There are a pair of small organs -in the lower abdomen of a female which aije
called ovaries.

CHROMOSOMES
Introduction:

The nucleus of each cell contains a number of very small thread like structure
called chromosomes. The term chromosome was introduced into the scientific
vocabulary by Waldeyer in 1888. Each chromosome consists of hundreds of
molecules of nucleoprotiens called genes. In the nucleus of the cell, the
chromosomes are present as two identical sets which pair off, each pahconsisting
of two identical chromosomes. Chromosomes are hereditary material.

Number and Types:

The number of chromosomes in each cell is fixed for a particular species. In


human beings, it is 46. This is called as diploid Number (2n). However, in
spermatozoa and ova, the number of chromosomes is only half the diploid number,
i.e. 23. This is called as Haploid number (n). Each of the 46 chromosomes is a
member of a homologous pair, one member of each pair being received from the
mother and one from the father. Twenty-two of the pairs are identical in both sexes
and are called somatic chromosomes. In the male, there is one ’X’ chromosome
and a clearly different chromosome, the ’Y’ chromosome. However, in the female,
both the sex chromosomes are ’X’ chromosomes. Chromosomes may assume
various shapes, twisted, spiral, curved or rod-shaped.
| LIVING THINGS.

Chemical Composition:

The chemical constituents of chromosome are: (i) Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) (ii)
Ribo Nucleic Acid (RNA)

(Hi) Histones

(iv) Acidic proteins

Importance of Chromosomal Studies:


Chromosomal studies are useful in:

(i) Diagnosis of various chromosomal abnormalities like Turner’s syndrome, and


Down’s syndrome.

(ii) Clinically, in investigation of patients with abnormalities of sexual


developments or infertility.

/In determination of sex of an unborn child.

In large scale population surveys, e.g., to detect the effects of occupational hazards
on chromosomes in relation to various environmental factors like cold, heat,
chemicals and dust.

(v) In new fields involving separation of ’X’ and ’Y’ bearing sperms.

The human chromosomes carry all the information we require to live, grow and
reproduce. But hidden somewhere may be a gene that ensures a preprogrammed
death.
• yi3:M»7^Y*flMiaMM:l

GENES
Introduction:

Genes are natural units of hereditary material stored in chromosomes and this is
the physical basis for the transmission of the characteristics of living organisms
from one generation to the other. The term ’gene’ was introduced by Johannsen in
1909. Genes can be imagined as being strung together like beads to form the
threadlike chromosome. Genes can also predict diseases, A genetic linkage map
was published in 1987 of the entire human genome covering the 23 pairs
associated with genetically based human illnesses.

General Properties and Functions:

More important properties and functions of the genes are described below:

(1) Capability to determine traits, e.g., skin colour, intelligence, temperament,


blood group etc. They maintain the specificity of an individual.

(2) Ability to undergo identical reproduction (Replication). They play


vital role in the transmission of characteristics from parents to off-spring.

(3) Ability to undergo mutation. This term is used to denote a physio-chemical


ckange in genes which alter the effect on the character influenced by it.

(4) Genes are very important for synthesis of various proteins and enzymes of the
cell.

Number:

Every gene lies in a particular position on the chromosome to which it belongs.


This specific position is

HMi?M<;ii?BEl

referred to as the Locus of Genes. Nucleus of chromosome contains about 20,000


gep.es, half of which being contributed by each parent.

Chemical Basis:
DNA is the chemical basis of genes and is indeed the hereditary material, Genes
act through controlling the protein constitution of cells.

Classification of Genes:

It can be classified into the following categories.

Structural Gene

It controls the structure of 3 polypetide comprising the protein.


/”’

Super/Gene

/ •
It is a group of genes which encode a number of functionally related protein.

Ope ator Gene

_A
j It exercises control over a set of contiguous structural genes and collectively constitutes an operon.

Regulator Gene

It is responsible for controlling the particular activity of a specific operation.

Temporal Gene

It is concerned with regulation of protein synthesis in relation to time.

Architectural Gene

It guides the exact localization of enzymes and protein in various cellular organelles.

Pleiotropic Gene

It influences more than one phenotypic trait.


i

I Sex linked Gene

These genes are linked with sex chromosomes.

I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE |

METABOLISM
Introduction:

Metabolism is a term that embraces all of the chemical changes that occur in the
cells of living organisms, enabling them to grow, to maintain their identity and to
reproduce. All living things need energy for survival which is provided by food.
Each chemical change in metabolism is catalyzed by a specific protein called an
Enzyme. The chemical processes of metabolism perform several key functions.
They provide the energy necessary for work - not only the mechanical work that
involves the use of muscles, but also the chemical work required to build
complicated molecules like DNA, RNA and proteins. Metabolic reactions also
convert food into forms that can be stored until needed. Metabolism is
characterised by two basic sets of reactions.

Catabolism:

It is that set of metabolic reactions in which break down of bigger organic


molecules (food) occurs into usable smaller chemical component. The principle
nutrient of food are polysaccharids, lipids and proteins The enzymatic breakdown
of the these substances provides living cells with chemical compounds necessary
to provide energy and synthesise their own compounds. Catabolism of these
nutrients occurs through a long chain of biochemical reactions, which can be
divided into three phases. In the first phase, large molecules are broken down into
fatty acids and glycerine, polysaccharides into glucose and proteins into amino
acids. In the second phase, these smaller units are further broken down into 3-
carbon compound called Acetyl Coenzyme. This process releases energy. In the
third phase, this compound is further broken down into

carbon dioxide and water. This reaction provides most of energy. ,

ATP:

The basic unit in metabolism is a molecule called Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).


It consists of two phosphate groups attached to an easily convertable compound
called adenosine monophosphate (AMP). The key to energy use is the addition or
deletion of these phosphate groups.

During Catabolism, energy is captured from an organic material and transformed


into ATP. During anabolism ATP is consumed in the building process.
Anabolism:

f It is that set of metabolic reactions in which

synthesis of bigger organic molecules (proteins) takes place from smaller chemical
components formed in the catabolic processes which are also called as
interconvertible intermediates. Catabolic routes have cleaXly defined beginnings
but no unambiguously identifiable end products; anabolic routes, on the other
hand, lead to clearly distinguishable end products from diffuse beginnings. There
are two important cycles involving the metabolic process namely (i) The Krebs
cycle and (ii) The Urea cycle.

BALANCED FOOD
Food:

The food materials are complex mixture of chemical substances and only those
substances which when eaten and absorbed by the body for the production of
energy, promotion of growth, repair of tissues or regulation of these processes are
termed foods. The
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

chemical component of the food which perform these functions are termed
Nutrients. Therefore, no material can be called a food till it contains at least one
nutrient. Different types of nutrients of food are discussed below:

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Carbohydrates

Bread, Potatoes, Sugar


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Provide Energy

Fats

Butter, Cheese

Provide Energy

Proteins

Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk

Help in growth and repair

Minerals

Vegetables, Fruits

Cbntrol body processes

Water

Water, Fruits

Control body processes

Vitamins

Fruits, Vegetables

Control body processes

Carbohydrates: \
x,

These are organic compounds which contain^ carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They
provide about half of the required energy and thus maintain the temperature of the
body. Typical examples include the sugars, glucose and sucrose and the
polysaccarides, starch and cellulose. Oxidation of carbohydrates gives carbon
dioxide and water and liberates energy which is used by the body.

Fats:

Oils and fats are members of a larger group of naturally occurring compounds
named Lipids. Chemically, oils and fats are thglycerides of fatty acids. They may
have pant or animal origin. The fat has a higher calorific value as compared to
carbohydrate and proteins. It has been established that consumption of saturated
fats raises the level of cholesterol and
LIVING THINGS

triglycerides in the blood while the complete digestion of fatty foods produces
glycerol and a mixture of long chain fatty acids.

Proteins:

Proteins are long chain organic compounds consisting of several different kinds of
arnino acids. They are rich in nitrogen. They are mainly responsible for growth.
When digested by animals, proteins are hydrolyzed to the amino acids in the
digestive system. There degradation is brought about progressively by peptidases
which are the hydrolyzing enzymes. The amino acids thus produced are absorbed
into the blood stream and transported to the liver and various tissues in the body
where they become involved in several processes.

Minerals:

These are inorganic materials present in the food. Vegetables and fruits are good
sources of minerals. They help in growth and repair and control body processes.
Calcium and phosphorous are the most abundant elements in the body. Apart from
these, small amounts of several other trace elements are also found in the body
which are also essential to human life like Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Iron,
Iodine and Chlorine.

Water:

The human body contains about 65% water in various forms. It is essential for all
metabolic processes. It helps in growth and repair and controls the body processes.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Vitamins:

Tnese are also organic substances which are essential far the growth of the body
and are required in small amounts. Fruits and vegetables are good sources of
vitamins. They control body processes. Vitamins may be water soluble or fat
soluble. Important vitamins are A, B, (Bj, B2, BG, B12), C, D, E, and K. Each of
them performs definite functions.

VITAMINS
Introduction:

Vitamins are specific organic compounds necessary for normal metabolic


functions of the human body. These cannot be synthesised by the body in adequate
amounts. Although they are needed only in traces but they must be included in the
diet. The body’s requirement for vitamins may vary considerably, depending upon
age, sex, physical activity, diet, metabolic rate, state of health, drug therapy,
individual habits and other factors affecting vitamin absorption, utilization and
excretion. Absence or shortage of a vitamin results in a vitamin deficiency disease.

Classification of Vitamins:

The vitamins are divided into two broad categories, the fat-soluble group,
including A, D, E, K and the water-soluble group, made up of the B complex
andC.
LIVING THINGS

Fat Soluble Vitamins

Water Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A

Sources are fish liver oils, liver, egg, fish, butter.

Vitamin B Complex egg, fish,

I B1

Milk, meat, green leafy vegetables. Cereal grain

[ B6

Vitamin D
i

Fish liver oil,

B12

; Vstamin K

II

Spinach, green leafy vegetables.

Vitamin C

Citrus fruits

Tomatoes,

Peppers

Strawberries Cabbage, Broccoli, Cantaloupe

Viir- E

Wheat germ oil green vegetable, egg yolk, meat bread, dried beans.

Categories of Vitamins and Specific Functions of Vitamins:

Vitamin A:

Vitamin A is member of alcohol family of high molecular weight that is stored in


the liver. Plants make a class of coloured compounds called carotenoid pigments.
Four of these can be converted in vitamin A by animals. These are also called a
provitamins or vitamin soluble in fats and fat solvents. It is necessary for normal
function and structure of all epithelial cells and for the synthesis of visual purple in
the retinal rods of the eyehence for vision in dim light.

Actually vitamin A itself is quite rare in foods; therefore most is derived form
carotene bearing plant sources. ’Carotene is present in green leafy vegetables and
yellow fruits. Milk, butter, egg, fish and liver oil are good sources of vitamin A.
The recommended daily

k
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

allowance is from 4000 IU to 5000 IU. Deficiency of vitamin A causes dryness of the
skin, tunnel vision and night blindness. Many children in developing countries are
permanently blinded by vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A can be stored as an ester in the
liver of adults, while an adequate diet, can store several years supply in this form. Small
children, without such reserves, are particularly susceptible to diseases. Mega doses of
vitamin A can be toxic. B-carotene can possibly acts as cancer inhibitor.

Vitamin D: Sunshine Vitamin:

Vitamin D is the generic name for a family of about 10 sterols. The two most important
of these sterols are Ergocalciferol (Vitamin D2) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). The
human body can synthesize provitamin of D3 (7-dehydrocholesterol), which can be
converted photochemically to vitamin D3 by ultraviolet irradiation of the skin. Vitamin D
increases the utilization of calcium and phosphorous by the body. Deficiency in infants
and growing children can result in abnormal bone formation, a condition known as
Rickets. Natural sources of Vitamin D include liver, fish, liver of fish-eating animals,
egg-yolk and butter. The deficiency of Vitamin D can also cause parathyroid disorders.
Too much vitamin D can cause pain in the bones, nausea, diarrhoea, and weight loss.

Vitamin E:

There are several compounds with vitamin E activity and these are called tocopherols: the
most potent of these are alphatocopherol. The tocopherols belong to the family of phenols
which are antioxidants; vitamins E is a natural antioxidant that plays a role in the normal
physiology of animal bodies. Vitamin E slows down the oxidative damage done to the
human cells by the free
LIVING THINGS

radicajs. Vitamin E scavenges free redicals, In this way, it can act as antiaging agent.
Vitamin E scavenges free redical reactions which are culprits behind the progressive
cellular damage that results in the diseases and death that accompany at an advancing
age. Vitamin E promotes oxygenation, which is the healthful use to oxygen for
respiration, while limiting oxidation, the harmful rusting of cells caused by free radicals.
It also prevents fats and oils from turning rancid, and oxidises fats and oils and is thought
to be a cause of colon and breast cancer. Food sources which are rich in vitamin E are
green leafy vegetables, beans and wheat germ.

Vitamin K: Blood Clotter:

Chemically, vitamin K has a fused ring system and belongs to Quinone family. Many
compounds can have vitamin K activity. Vitamin K is necessary for the formation of
prothrombin, one of the enzyme precursors involved in blood clotting. Deficiency of
Vitamin K will increase the time required for clotting of the blood. Good sources of
vitamin K are spinach and other green leafy vegetables. It is also insoluble in water but
soluble in fats and fat solvents.

Vitamin B:

The B Complex: Actually, there is nothing like Vitamin B alone. What was once called
vitamin B has long since been recognised as a complicated mixture of organic
compounds. The term B complex is now used to designate a group of water-soluble
vitamins found together in many food sources. Member of the BComplex are:

The B complex vitamins are water soluble. The body has a very limited capacity to store
water-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins must be taken in at

I
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

frequent intervals. Deficiency of vitamin B can cause beriberi, dermatitis and pellagra.

Hm^HHBHmiHHPMHB^^Hi
^•B^H^^^iiT^^^^ll^ji^WJ^TiljlfTO^^H^^^^^^H
Name

Sources

B, Thiamine

Milk, nuts, cream of cereal grams


B._i Riboflavin

Milk, red meat, wheat flour

Niacin, B3

Red meat iiv/er, Turnip greens, yeast

B,,, Pyriduxai

Eggs, liver, peas, beans, milk

B-, Pantothenic acid

Liver, eggs, yeast, milk

Biotin

Beef liver, peanut, yeast, milk

Folic acid

Liver, kidney, mushroom, green leafy vegetables

Br2, Cyanocobalamine

Liver, meat, eggs, fish

Vitamin C:

Ascorbic Acid: It is also a water-soluble vitamin. Severe deficiency results in scurvy, a


condition characterised by thin, porous bones, sore and bleeding gums, and a pronounced
muscular weakness. Rich sources of vitamin C are citrus fruits, tomatoes, green peppers
and strawberries.

Collagen is a substance that gives elasticity to the skin, cell and muscles. If our bodies are
deficient in vitamin C, it soon becomes apparent in skin toning, bad health, sagging loose
tissue, dropping muscles and premature aging. Vitamin C is also necessary for the
LIVING THINGS

utilization of iron. Vitamin C is not only good for the body and its iron and collagen, but
it is also a preventer of infectious diseases. Vitamin C is also called as Skin Food. \

In 1970, Linus Pauling, Winner of two Nobel Prizes, suggested that this vitamin could be
used as a weapon against the common cold. Vitamin C is also richly supplied to our
brains. The vitamin is depleted by stress, tobacco-smoking, alcohol, physical trauma,
burns, anxiety, antibiotics, cortisones, sulpha drugs and contraceptive pills, It is the most
unstable vitamin and easily lost during cooking and food storage.

FOOD NUTRIENTS
^Br^T^B ItnffBl

Major Nutrients
Apple

Apricot

Avocado

Banana

Cherrres

Dates

Fig
Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B), Fiber

Fat, Protein, Minerals, Vitamins (A,E,C)

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B), Fiber

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

Proteins, Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B), Fiber

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (A,C,B|, Fiber

^KT’if’Ht-MK’iMiTrHJ

jtnffliiiitiii^nni
47

28

77

40

248

41
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

HlMiWdJIIfficEl
8.

Grapes

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B,A)

51

9.

Grapefruit

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B,A)

22

10.

Lemon

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B), Fiber

15

11.

Mango

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,8), Fiber

74

12.

Orange

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B)

35

13.

Papoya

Carbohydrates, Minerals. Vitamins (C,B), Fiber

28

14.
Pomegranate

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B), Fiber

44

15.

Peaches

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

37

16.

Pears

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

46

17.

Pineapple

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

46

18.

Plums

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

38

19.

Prunes

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

161

20.

Raisins

i
Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins (C,B), Fiber

247

21.

Raspber ries

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

25

22.

Strawberries

Carbohydrates, Minerals. Vitamins, Fiber

26

23.

Tangerines

Carbohydrates, Minerals, Vitamins, Fiber

34

Q.

EXERCISE
What is a cell membrane?

AILS. A cell membrane is composed of protein and lipid molecules forming a


semi-permeable membrane, which is actively selective in its functions - it allows
the solvent molecules to pass but does not allow the passage of solute molecules.
Q. Describe the roles Cenfriole in a cell?

of Rihosomes and

An.s. The nbosomes (endoplasmic reticulum) aie mainly associated with the
synthesis of proteins

The centriole serves to initiate the process of cell division


Q. Describe Golyi apparatus in a cell.

AILS. The Golgi apparatus is concerned with secretory processes in a cell


Q. Define a Tissue? What are the main types of tissues in the body?

Ans. A tissue is a collection of :ells having similar structure and functions. There
are five mam types of tissues in the body _ epithelial.
connective, muscular, nervous tissue and the blood.

Q. How many types of muscles are there in human body?

Ans. There are three types of muscles - striated (Voluntary), unstriated (involuntary or
smooth), and cardiac muscles.

Q. What is meant by Fatigue?

Ans. Fatigue is defined as progressive and temporary loss of irritability in a muscle due to
its continuous stimulation.

Q. Name the important parts of a flower?

Ans. Flower is the reproductive part of a plant and its important parts are’

(i) Calyx

fii) Corolla

(Hi) Androecium

(iv) Gynaecium

Q. Differentiate clearly between Pollination and Fertili/ation?

Ans. Both terms are involved in the reproduction processes. Pollination may be defined
as a process in which the transfer of pollen takes place from male reproductive organ to
female reproductive organ in flowering plants, usually through some biological agency
(animals, birds, insects etc.) Fertilization is a process in which fusion of egg and sperm
takes place when they come close together.

Q. Define Transpiration?

Ans. It may be defined as a process in which excess amount of water absorbed by the
plant through its roots, is given off in the form of water vapours. It is not a case of simple
evaporation but it is regulated by protoplasm.

Q. What are the essential parts of a plant?

Ans. The essential parts of a plant are roots, stem, leaf and flower.

Q. Name some unicellular plant and animal?

Ans. Unicellular plant -Chlamydomonas.


Unicellular animal Amoeba.

Q. Name two main types of flowering plants?

Ans. They are called Monocots and Dictos. The main basis of classification is that the
monocots have only one cotyledon in their seed pod. Dicotyledons have two.

How is water transported in plants?

Plants require water to grow. They cannot get this water unless it is available in the soil.
Plants obtain water from the soil through their roots. It then passes up the stem to the
leaves and flowers. The plant does not take all the water available in the soil. Much of the
remaining water evaporates into the surrounding air.

Q. Differentiate clearly between Photosynthesis and Respiration?

Ans. PHOTOSYNTHESIS:*

Photosynthesis is the process taking place in plants which uses carbon dioxide and water
to

Q.

Ans.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

make sugars. Ultraviolet light is needed for photosynthesis to occur, so it takes up


only during the day. The green pigment, chlorophyll, is also needed as a catalyst
for photosynthesis. The sugar produced during photosynthesis is transported from
the leaves by phloem vessels to all parts of the plant where it is used in respiration,
or it is stored as starch for later use in respiration.

RESPIRATION:

Respiration is the process in plants and animals which provides the energy foi all
other processes which must continue for the organism to live. Respiration is the
reverse of photosynthesis, in that it uses sugar and oxygen in the production of
energy and produces carbon dioxide and water as water products.

Q. List the minerals used for the nutrition in plants?

Ans. Potassium, Magnesium, Nitrogen and Iron.

Q. Name some important cycles in nature?

Ans. The carbon cycle, the water cycle, the rock cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the
energy cycle.

Q. Describe the major groups of the Plant Kingdom?

Ans. The plant kingdom is divided into three major groups - Algae. Bryophytes
and Tracheophytes.
LIVING THINGS

Q. Give the Classification of Human? Ans.


^^^^BKHfiM^T3lTff[’KI’lliPlnf?lj^^^^^^l
{^^••^•••^•^MMiM^Mi^^^^^^^^H

Kingdom

Animalia

Phylum

Chordata

Sub-Phylum

Vertebrate

Order
Primate

Family

Honimdae

Genus

Homo

Species

Sapiens

I
Q. What is meant by pH? Give some examples?

Ans. It is a scale of acidity and pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the


hydrogen ion concentration. Mathematically, pH = -log [H+]

The range of pH varies form 0 to 14

pH value

1 23456

891011 121314

Characteristics

Acidic

Neutral

Basic

The pH value of some useful fluids is given below:

Distilled water Blood

Gastric Juice Intestinal Juice Urine


= 7.0

= 7.4

= 0.9-1.0

= 7.5-80

=5P-65

X
Q. Define buffers and describe their importance in the human
body?

Ans. Buffers are aqueous solutions which resist changes in their pH when small
amounts of acids or alkalies are added to them. They act like shock-absorber
against the sudden changes in pH. Buffer solution is usually a mixture of weak
acid and its salt with a strong base. Buffer solution in the human body regulates
the pH of the body fluids and also controls the pH in chemical reactions catalyzed
by enzymes. A typical body buffer is a mixture of carbonic acid and sodium
bicarbonate.

Q. What is the importance of Iron in the human body?

Ans. Human body contains about 3 to 4 gm of iron and


75% of it is found in blood. Iron is a component of haemoglobin, myoglobin. the
cytochromes and certain other enzyme system. Hence function of iron in the body
is ”Oxygen transport” and cellular respiration.

Q. What is Haemoglobin?

Ans. It is a complex organic compound containing an iron atom at the centre. It


belongs to a class of conjugated proteins. It is made up of Heme and globin. Heme
is ferrous Protoporphyrin.

Q. What is the importance of Iodine in the human body?

Ans. Iodine is a constituent of thyroxine, the active principle of thyroid gland.


Thyroid plays an important role in the energy metabolism and in the growth of the
body. An adult body contains about 50 mg of iodine. Sea foods are rich in iodine.

Q. What processes Metabolism?

LIVING THINGS operate

in

Ans. Respiration, blood circulation, excretion and maintenance.

Q.

Basal

digestion,
Define Osmosis?

Ans. Movement of solvent molecules from a pure solvent to a dilute solution


through a semipermeable membrane is called Osmosis.

Q. Differentiate clearly between Isotonic, Hypertonic and Hypotonic


solutions?

Ans. Isotonic solutions have the same osmotic pressure as within the cell.
Hypertonic solution has the higher and hypotonic solution has the lower osmotic
pressure than within the cell.

Q. What is meant by Balanced Diet?

Ans. Balanced diet is one which contains all the essential nutrients of food in
proper proportions so as to provide energy and nutritional requirements for growth
and reproduction.

Q. What is the average calorie requirement of a normal adult person?

Ans It ranges between 2500 -4000 K. Cal. depending

upon the nature of his work. (i) Sedentary (2500 K Cal.) (ii) Light work (3000 K.
Cal.) (Hi) Moderate work (3500 K. Cal.) (iv) Heavy work (4000 K. Cal.)

Q. What is meant by BMR?

Ans. BMR stands for Basal Metabolic Rate. It is the amount of energy required
just to maintain the body processes when a person is at complete rest.
JEVERYDAY SCIENCE

Ans.

Q. What is Satiety?

Ans. Apatite is a desire for food and satiety is a lack of desire to eat more.

Q. Define Pasteurization? Give its advantages?

Pasteurization is a preventive measure of public health importance just like


modern principle of supplying safe water. It was discovered by French Scientist
Louis Pasteur. This process delays the natural souring of milk by 2 to 24 hours. It
also kills some specific harmful organisms. The process involves rapid heating of
the milk under pressure from 125 °C to 150°C for a few seconds only which is
then rapidly cooled and bottled. It preserves taste, flavour, appearance and
digestibility.

Why is milk considered an ideal food?

It is so, because it contains almost all the nutrients needed in a well-balanced diet,
except vitamin C.

Q. Ans.

Q.

Q.
In what ways Carbohydrates?

Proteins differ from

Ans. Proteins differ from carbohydrates because they ’ ’ ’ ””” ”


Moreover protein

’contain 16% nitrogen, molecules are larger in size.

What are the specific functions of Fats in the human body?

Ans. Fat contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and is composed of fatty acids.
Fats are utilized in the body for:

(i) Padding around the organs. (ii) Protection of nerves.


LIVING THINGS

Q.
Q. Ans.

(Hi) Insulation of the body against rapid temperature

changes.

(iv) Carriers of fat soluble vitamins. (v) Concentrated source of energy.

How do you compare animal proteins with that of vegetable proteins?

Ans. Animal proteins are considered as superior to vegetable proteins because they
are rich in essential amino acids and hence preferred. Animal proteins are called
first class and vegetable proteins, second class proteins.

What are essential amino acids?

Essential amino acids are those amino acids which cannot be synthesised by the
body and hence have to be included in the diet from outside. They are 8 in number
and their names are:

Isoleucine, Leucine, Tryptophan, Threonine, Phenylalanine, Valine,


Methionine and Lysine. Q. How are proteins classified?

Ans. Proteins are classified into simple and conjugated proteins?

Q. Why is an egg important food for growth?

Ans. Egg proteins are best in quality and are taken as standard for comparing the
quality of other food proteins. Egg proteins are better digested, absorbed and
utilized by the body than proteins of meat or milk.

s
1
LIVING THINGS

Q. What are the functions of Cholesterol?

Ans. Cholesterol is an important tissue component. It has a number of functions to do in


the human body like.

(i) Insulation of nerves and brain structure.

(ii) Transportation of fatty acids in the body.

(Hi) Production of sex hormones.

(iv) Production of provitamin D.

(v) Production of precursor of cholic acid.

Q. Differentiate between Starch and Cellulose?

Ans. Starch is a carbohydrate (polysacchride) and it contains two components:

f; * Amylose \u> Amylopectin

Starch is completely utilized by the human body. Cellulose is also a carbohydrate


(polysaccharide). It is made of glucose units which are linked by (B 1,4) glycosidic
linkages. It is not utilized by the human body because the enzyme responsible for its
metabolism is absent in the human body.

Q. Differentiate clearly between Starch and Glycogen?

Ans. Both, starch and glycogen are carbohydrates and polysaccharides but starch has
plant and glycogen has animal origin. Moreover, glycogen is more highly branched than
starch.

Q. What are Provitamins?

Ans. These are those substances which as such do not possess vitamin activity but on
conversion give

Q.

rise to vitamins. Provitamins of vitamin A are carotenes.

What are the daily requirements of vitamin A, d and C?

Ans. Vitamin A 5000 IU Vitamin D 400 IU Vitamin C 60 mg.


Q. What is the other name of Vitamin C?

Ans. Ascorbic acid.

Q. What are Lipids and how are classified?

they

Ans. Lipids are ester like compounds of fatty acids which are insoluble in water but are
soluble in fat solvents. Lipids are classified into:

(i) Simple lipids (ii) Compound lipids (Hi) Derived lipids.

Q. What is Glycolysis?

Ans. It is a chemical process in which the break down of glucose occurs to pyruvic or
lactic acid.

Q. What is Citric Acid Cycle?

Ans. Citric acid cycle is the common pathway for the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats
and proteins since it provides the complete oxidation of acetyl coenzyme A to carbon
dioxide and water.

Q. Define saponification?

Ans. Hydrolysis of a fat by an alkali is called saponification. Commercially this reaction


is used in the preparation of soaps.
Q.

EftYDAY SCIENCE* What are Bile Salts? Give their importance?

Ans. Bile salts are sodium and potassium salts of glycocholates and these are powerful
emulsifying agents and therefore they lower the surface tension of the media and thus aid
in the absorption of fats.

Q. What are Dextrins?

Ans. Dextrins are the partially degraded breakdown

products of starch. Q. Which hormones keep the blood sugar level

high?

Ans. These are the following hormones: (i) Glucagon (ii) Epinephrme (Hi) Adrenal
cortex hormones (iv) Growth hormone and AGTH (v) Thyroid hormone

Q. What is Insulin? Give its important functions in the human?

Ans. Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas in the human body. Chemically it
is a protein containing polypeptide linkages of amino acids. It regulates the blood
sugar level. Its specific biological functions in the human body are:

(i) It promotes the entry of glucose in all the tissues

of the body except liver. (ii) It helps in glycogenesis. (Hi) It prevents glycogenolysis.
(iv) It inhibits gluconogenic enzymes,

Q. What are Enzymes?

Ans. Enzymes are biological catalysts and these are protein in nature.

Q. What are isoenzymes? Give two examples?

Ans. Isoenzymes are the multiple forms of the same enzyme. Examples are: Lactate
dehydrogenase Alkaline phosphates

Q. What is Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction?

Ans. If the heat is liberated during the process (oxidation), it is called exothermic
reaction, and if heat is consumed during the process, it is termed as endothermic reaction.

Q. What are the main sources of energy liberation in the human body?
Ans. These are high and low energy liberation phosphates. The high energy phosphates
are ATP, creatine phosphate, ADP and acetyl phosphate. The low energy phosphates are
glucose-1-phosphate and glucose-6-phosphate.

Q. What is hypoglycaemia?

Ans. Hypoglycaemia is fall of blood sugar level below its normal limit. The symptoms of
hypoglycaemia are usually felt when blood sugar level falls below
40% mg.

Q- What are the main functions of aminoacids?

Ans. Aminoacids take part in active growth process in growing children, pregnant and
lactating females and convalescents. These are utilized to replace daily wear and tear of
the body tissues and are essential constituents of cell protoplasm.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q. What are the effects of Hypoglycaemia?

Ans. Brain being very sensitive to blood sugar levels is mainly affected. There is mental
confusion, giddiness, visual disturbances, syncope, coma and convulsions.

Q. Describe the nature of human body fat?

Ans. It mainly occurs as neutral fat in the form of triglycerides of oleic (75%), plamitic
(20%) and stearic (5%) acid. There are some other forms of fat besides neutral fat, and
these are sterols (cholesterol), steroids and phospholipids. Lecithin, cephalin and
sphingomyelin are examples of phospholipids.

Q. What is Ketosis?

Ans. The condition in which there are increased

ketone bodies in blood (Ketoanemia) and urine

(Ketonuria) is called Ketosis.

Q. What are the symptoms of Vitamin A

toxicity in adults? Ans. Vitamin A toxicity is caused by ingestion of mega

doses. Symptoms are air loss, dry scale skin,

hyperkeratosis, joint and bone pains, easy fatigue

and insomnia.

Q. What is Carbon Cycle?

Ans. Carbon from the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide is incorporated in green
plants by photosynthesis, and oxygen is produced as a byproduct. Sugar and starches are
produced during the process of photosynthesis form carbon dioxide and water in plants.
”When these plants are eaten by bacteria, the oxygen recombines with the organic
material to give carbon dioxide which is again set free of course, part of the glucose is
oxidised by the plant itself.
LIVING THINGS

Q. Describe the Nitrogen Cycle?

Ans. Nitrogen cycle is actually the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the biosphere. It
involves the circulation of nitrogen compounds in nature through the various organisms
to which nitrogen is essential. Organic nitrogen compounds, in the soil are taken in by
plants, and are combined by the plants with other elements to form nucleic acids and
proteins. The result of animal waste and decay is to bring the nitrogen that the animals
had absorbed back into the soil in the form of simple nitrogen compounds. Bacterial
action of various kinds converts these into compounds suitable for use by plants again. In
addition to this main circulation, certain amount of atmospheric nitrogen is fixed
(combined) by the action of bacteria associated with the roots of leguminous plants, and
by the action of atmospheric electricity; while some combined nitrogen is set free by the
action of denitrifying bacteria.

Q. Differentiate clearly between Infection, Inflammation and Allergy?

Ans. Infection: It is said to have accused when a body is invaded by pathogens causing
disease.

Inflammation: It is a state in which a series of changes occur in the tissues indicating


their reaction to injury, whether mechanical, chemical or any other.

Allergy: It is a hypersensitiveness to some foreign protein, small doses of which


produce bacteria. The cardinal signs are; heat, swelling, pain and redness, a violent
reaction in the patient. Asthma and hay-fever are allergic states.

I1
• M3;V«»7iVJMMi;Mm;i

LIVING THINGS

Q. Give the names of some famous animals

along with their hahitats? Ans. These are described in the following chart.

ANIMAL AND THEIR HABITATS

Kiwi

Bird

It is a flightless bird, has long bill, stout leg, rudimentary wings, and found in New Zealand.

Koala

Mammal

It is a Arboreal Marsupial mammal. It is about 2-ft, long, has large hairy ears, grey fur and sharp claws.
Found in Australia.

Kangaroo

Mammal
L

Marsupial mammal, Herbivorous, small head, large ears, long powerful thin legs, a long thick tail and small
forelegs. Found in Australia.

Emu

Bird

Swift running flightless bird, smaller and undeveloped wings. Found in Australia.

Platypus
I

Mammal

Small flat-footed aquatic mammal, fleshy bill (like a duck), dense fur, webbed feet, broad flattened tail. It is
one of only two mammals in the world which ley eggs. Found in southern and Eastern Australia and
Tasmania.

Crocodile

Reptile

Large Voracious . thick skinned long bodied aquatic reptile. Found ’m Africa.

Penguin

Bird
An erect short-legged flightless aquatic bird. Found in southern hemisphere, found in Antarctica.

Alligator

Reptile

Long aquatic reptile, broad head and a special pocket in the upper jaw. The tail is specially flattened for
swimming, and the nostril is placed high on the snout so that it can breathe even when lying partly
submerged in water. Found in lakes, swampes and rivers of southeastern North America.

Jaguar

Mammal

A large cat of Tropical America that is large and stockier than the Leopard and is brownish yellow or buff
with black spots.

Cobra

Reptile

Hooded snake, venomous, it expands the skin of the neck info a hood by the movement of anterior ribs, it is
found in the countryside and towns of the warm parts of Southern Asia.

Polar Bear

Mammal

It is a large creamy white bear found in Arctic region.

Rhinoceros

Mammal

A large powerful herbivorous thickskinned mammal, has one or two upright horns on the snout. Found in
the savannahs of Africa.

Ostrich

Bird

It is a swift-footed 2-towed flightless bird. It is the largest bird. It has valuable wings and tail plumes.
Found in plains and deserts of Africa.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

DMEmMcgl
Walrus

r
Mammal

It is a marine mammal related to seals. It is hunted for the tough heavy hide and the worry tusks. Found in
the Northern Sea: Arctic ocean to the north. Atlantic ocean. It uses its tusks to scrope up shellfish from the
ocean floor.

Tapir

Mammal

It is a large inoffensive horse like animal. Found in swampy forests of Southeast Asia.

Hippopotamus

Mammal

It is a large Herbivorous 4-toed aquatic mammal. Extremely large head and mouth, bare and very thick skin
and short legs. Found in Africa.

Blue Whale

Mammal

It is a very large aquatic mammal. Length is usually more than


100 ft. Found in all oceans, warm or cold.

Gorilla

Primate

It belongs to the group of ’great apes’. It is most closely related to man. Length is about 6 feet. Found in
African rain forests.

Chimpanzee

Primate

Great ape., found in equatorial Africa.

Panda

Mammal
A long tailed Himalayan carnivore, long black and white fur, found in mountains and bamboo forests of
Central China. It is not a bear.

Manatee
I

Mammal

It is a tropical aquatic herbivorous mammal measuring about 16 feet in length. Found in coastal sea waters
and rivers of western Africa, southeast U.S. West Indies and South America.

Shark

Fish

It is a very large marine fish, fusiform body, tough, rough grey skin, typical predator. Found in oceans
Worldwide.

Killer Whale

Mammal

It is the largest dolphin, carnivorous, eats warm blooded sea mammals, also called Orca. Found in all
oceans of the World. Kill whales usually hunt in groups called pods.
Chapter 6

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION

The word physiology is derived from the Greek words phusis (nature) and logos (a
discourse). This term is generally applied only to the study of the functions of
living beings. Human physiology deals with the study of man in terms of life
processes of the human body. The human body is made up of 206 bones, 600
muscles, 60 thousand miles of capillaries of blood and 60 trillion human cells - the
human body contains the most complicated mechanism, it is miraculous in
character. There are more than 5 billion people on the surface of the earth and not
a single person duplicates not even the twins. This is due to the unique assemblage
of countless human cells and their patterns and different structural sequences of
DNA molecules in each person.

SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY


(1) The Skeletal System:

The bony skeleton supporting the human body is constructed to strengthen the
muscles which produce movement in the body to give its shape. Bone is as strong
as mild steel and is lighter. There are 206 bones of various sizes in an adult. These
bones are connected together in such a manner so as to from joints or
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

General Build up of the Human Body and it’s Important Parts (Out Line)

BODY

Head

Trunk

Limbs

System of the Human Body

1.

The Skeletal System

2.
The Muscular System

3.

The Digestive System

4.

The Excretory System

5.

The Respiratory System

6.

The Circulatory System

7.

The Nervous Systew

Skull

Frontal bone

Zygomatic bontH
•4**.

Nasal bone

Maxilla bone

Mandible

Collar bone
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Eye

Nose

Tongue

Skin

Plasma

Red Corpucles

Colourless Corpuscles

Water

Veins

Arteries

Capillaries

Organs of he Abdomen

Oesophagus

Liver

Pancreas

Spleen

Stomach

Kidneys

Intestines

Bladder

articulations and are bound firmly together at these joints by strong white fibrous
bonds called Ligaments. In some parts of the body, where an elastic and yielding
substance is required, which is at the same time very strong, cartilage or gristle
takes the place of bone, as in the more prominent part of the nose. The Backbone,
vertebral column or spinal column is the central portion of the Osseous system, it
consists of a series of bones called vertebra and forms a kind of axis with which all
the other parts of the skeleton are connected.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
HUMAN SKELETON
The most devious division of the Human Body is into head. Trunk, and Limbs or Extermities. The Osseous
system consists of a large number of bones, which constitute the skeleton, and formal strong framework,
which supports and protects the softer structures of the body. ’

HEAD (SKULL) Cranium (8-bones)

The bones are United by means of irregular saw like edges.

1. Occipital

2. Parietal

1. Occipital

2. Parietal

1. Occipital

2. Parietal

Face (14-Bones)

The face forms the front and lower portion of the skull.

2. Nasal bones

2. Lachrymal bones

2. Malar (Cheek bones)

2. Masillary bones

1. Mandible bone

2. Patal bones

1. Vomer bone

2. Turbinated bones.

TRUNK

Vertebral Column (Backbone)

(Spinal Column) It is the central portion of the osseous system. It is composed of a serie: of bones (33)
called vertebrae, and forms a kind of axis with which all the other parts of the skeleton are connected.

NECK:

7 Cervical Bones

BACK:
12 Dorsal Bones

LOINS:

5 Lumbar Bones

These are the seven highest vertebrae belonging to neck, and used in the movement of the neck.

The next twelve Vertebrae belong to the back and support the ribs. These are called as Dorsal bones.

The remaining five movable vertebrae belong to the Loins, and are called Lumbar vertebrae.
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•:iiii’if.ivi:j:t’*Mf«nticvi
SACRUM:

5 Sacral Bones

COCCYX:

4 Coccygeal Bones

The lowest lumbar vertebra rests on the broad surface of a kind of curved wedge, formed by the next 5
vertebrae fused together into one firm mass of bone. This wedge is called the Sacrum.

The lowest and narrowest part of sacrum is attached to the coccyx which consists of 4 imperfectly formed
vertebrae.

CLAVICLE: (Collar There are two collar bones, called clavicles, Bone) at the base of the neck
and in front of shoulders.

SCAPULA: (Shoulder There are two shoulder bones, each called a Bone) scapula, at the top of
the back. It is a large flat triangular shoulder blade.

STERNUM: (Chest Bone)

It is a long flat, and soft bone to which the ribs are attached. The lower part of the Sternum is formed of
flexible mass.

RIBS:

The ribs form a kind of bony cage to protect the heart and lungs. These are 24 in number,
12 on each side, being attached at the back to the backbone.

PELVIS:

The sides of the Sacrum are united with the two large hip-bones, and form a basin-like cavity called the
Pelvis.

Humerus

It is the bone of the upper arm. It is very strong and consists of a long portion called the shaft, and two
enlarged extremities called the Heads.

Ulna

It is a bone of the fore-arm. It extends from elbow to Wrist, it is thick at its upper extremity which forms a
hinge joint.

Radius

It is the second bone of the fore-arms. It also extends from the elbow to the Wrist.

Carpa!

The Wrist is composed of eight small bones, called carpal bones.

Metacarpal, Phalanges
^^-^-^^_^__^

Five long bones, called metacarpal bones form the plane of hand. Phalanges are finger bones. These are 14
for each hand.

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HIHI^IH^I^BB^B^HHHHHI^H^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I
Femur

It is thigh-bone larger and stronger. It bears the weight of the body.

Patella

It is the Knee-cap and protects the Knee-joint.

Tibia

It is also called the calf-bone, or the skin bone. It is like a shaft.

Fibula

It is the second calf-bone fixed to the Tibia at both ends.

Tarsal

It is the ankle bone. These are seven in number.

Metatarsal Phalanges

Metatarsal bones are 5 in number and connected with the phalanges. Phalanges are Toe bones and are 14 in
number.

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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

(2) The Muscular System:

The bones of the skeleton are all surrounded by more or less flesh or muscle. Each
muscle is composed of bundles of fibres capable of contraction when required. Muscles
are of two types - voluntary and involuntary. The former are under the control of the will,
while the latter are not. Face and limbs contain voluntary muscles while that of the heart
and stomach contain involuntary kind. Those muscles which move the bones are
connected with them by strong white fibrous masses called Tendons. The erect position
of the human body is maintained by the combined influence of large number of muscles
acting at the same time.

(3) The Digestive System:

It is a long system and involves mouth, oesophagus, the stomach, the liver, the pancreas,
the small intestine and the large intestine. Saliva is an alkaline fluid secreted in the mouth
and the digestion of food starts in the mouth itself. The oesophagus is the narrowest
portion of the alimentary canal. Gastric juice secreted by the stomach is made up of
hydrochloric acid, salts, pepsin and water. The changing of food into chyme by the
gastric fluid is called chymification. The average time to produce this change is from 3 to
4 hours. The food is then passed on to the small intestine and then to the large intestine.
Muscles play an important part in digestion. They keep the walls of the stomach and
small intestine moving. This mixes the food and digestive juices inside, speeding up
digestion (see the chart).

(4) The Excretory System:

It is also termed as the sanitary system of the body. It comprises the kidneys, skin, lungs
and bowels. The system is designed to help get rid of the waste matter in the body when
all juices have been extracted

from the digested food. Lungs can also be added to this system. The kidneys, two in
number, are important blood-purifiers. They separate a poisonous substance called urea
from the blood.

(5) The Respiratory System:

This system comprises the lungs and the passages leading to them like larynx, trachea or
wind-pipe. Larynx or voice box is commonly known as Adam’s Apple and can easily be
felt in the throat. The lungs are the most complicated and important organs of respiration.
They consist of two elastic spongy masses. They contain a very large number of small air
cavities and are richly supplied with blood vessels. It is in the lungs where the blood is
aerated by being brought in contact with the air we breathe (see the chart).

(6) The Circulatory System:


This system comprises the heart and the bloodvessels. The arteries convey blood from the
heart,’and they divide and subdivide into smaller and smaller minute vessels called
capillaries. These capillaries unite forming small veins and by the junction of these, large
and larger vessels are formed which at length discharge their contents into the hearts.
Veins bring blood to the heart and capillaries connect the small arteries and veins
together.

(7) The Nervous System:

It is the most important since it commands rest of the body what to do and how to work
together. While the central nervous system resides in the skull and the spine, the nerves
are spread all over the body. Nerves that carry the messages to the brain are called
Sensory Nerves and those carrying messages to the muscles are called Motor Nerves.
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Sr. No.
••••^^^^^^^••••^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Muscle

Common Name
Action of the Muscle

1.

Trapazius

Traps

Raises and lowers shoulder girdle; moves shoulder blades; moves head backwards and to the side.

2.

Sterno-cleido-mastoid

Neck

Bends head and neck to the side; rotates head and neck; draws head forward.

3.

Forearm Group; Brachioradialls, of Radialis Longus, Flexors and Extensors Radialis Brevis, Carpi Ulnaris, Pollicis Longus and
Brevis.

Forearm

Bends and straightens the wrist; bends and straightens the fingers and thumb.

4.

Brachialis anticus

Brachialis

Bends the forearm to the

upper arm.

5.

Biceps

Biceps

Bends the forearm to the upper arm; turns the forearm.

6.

Triceps

Triceps
Straightens the arm and draws it backward.

7.

Deltoid Group: Anterior Head, Lateral Head, Posterior Head.

Delt

Raises arm to horizontal position; each head lifts arm in particular direction... Anterior (front), Lateral (side), Posterior (rear).

8.

Pectoralis Major

Pecs

Draws the arms inward, forward and downward; rotates the arm inward; assists in the expansion of the chest.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

9.

Serratus Magnus

Serratus

Rotates the shoulder-blade downward; draws shoulderblades apart; assists in the expansion of the chest.

10.

External Obliques

Obliques

Bends the spine forward and to the side.

11.

Rectus abdominus

Abs

Bends the spine forward and to the side.

12.

Latissimus Dorsi

Lats

Draws the arm downward and backward, depresses the shoulder girdle; assists in forced inhalation; bends the trunk sidewards

13.

Back Group: Teres Major, Teres Minor, Rhombiodeus, Infraspinatus

Back

Rotates the arm inward and outward; assists in swinging arm backward, rotates, rises and draws the shoulder blades together.

14.

Vastus Externus

Thigh
Straightens the leg.

15.

Rectus Femoris

Thigh

Straightens the leg; flexes the hip joint.

16.

Vastus Internus

Thigh

Straightens the leg.

17.

Sartorius

Thigh

Bends the leg; flexes the hip joint; rotates the leg inward and outward.

18.

Biceps Femoris

Thigh Biceps

Bends the ley; rotates the leg inward.

19

Gastrocnemius

Calf

Extends the font, assists in flexing the knee.

20.

Frontal Calf Group: Soleus, Tibialis Anticus, Peroneus Longus.

Frontal Calf

Extends, flexes and turns over the foot.


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Mouth

pharynx

Liver

Gall bladder Duodenum

Transverse colon

Ascending colon Caecum

lie urn Appendix

Ana! canal

Oesophagus
Cardia Stomach

Pancreas

Jejunum

Descending colon

Sigmoid colon Rectum

THE EYE

Introduction:

The organ of vision consists of the eyeball, which, with its muscles, blood-vessels,
nerves, fatty tissue and other protecting structures, completely fill the orbit or eye-
sucket. In front the ball of the eye is protected by movable folds of the skin or
integument called the eyelids. The upper eye-lid is larger and more movable than
the lower one, and it is chiefly by the elevation and depression of this lid that the
eye is opened and closed. The eye ball is moved by six muscles. The front of the
eye-ball is kept clear and moist by a saline fluid which is secreted continuously by
Lachrymal gland. The general form of the eye-ball is globular. The eye ball has
three distinct coats. The external consists of the sclerotic coat and the cornea, the
middle coat is formed by the choroitl membrane and the iris; the inner is termed as
Retina. The essential parts of the eye are explained below.
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The Cornea:

The cornea is a highly transparent tissue and is continuous with the sclerotic coat
covering the front of the eyeball. It is not supplied with blood-vessels but is well-
supplied with undifferentiated nerve ending.

The Iris:

The iris is the circular curtain, seen through the cornea, which gives the colour to
the eye. The colcared ring is situated in the middle of each eye. It can be brown or
blue. Its outer border is continuous with the choroid coat which like the sclerotic,
does not extend over the front of the ball.

The Pupil:

The iris diaphragm is perforated in its centre by a circular aperture which appears
as a dark spot called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil can vary from l/3rd to
l/20th of an inch, and the quantity of light admitted into the eye-ball is regulated.

The Lens:

It is the most important part of the eye and it is doubly convex body which
contains neither vessels nor nerves and is situated close behind the iris. It is made
of many concentric layers of fibrous cells, is approximately
65% water and 6f/c fat. and contains more proteins than any other tissue. The lens
is held in place by an elastic capsule. The lens gets thinner when we look into the
distance and fatter when we look at something close-up.

The Retina:

The retina is a delicate membrane which lies within the choroid coat. It consists of
an expansion of the fibres of the optic nerve, supported by an extremely
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

delicate connective tissue. The retina is made up of rods and cones which act as
photoreceptors. Rods are the rodshaped light receptors found mainly on the edge
and sides of the retina. They are sensitive to low intensity and in dim light. Cones
are the cone-shaped receptors situated mainly in the center of the retina, around
the yellow spot. They are sensitive to different light colours. Sharpness of the
image is also associated with cones. There are about 140 million receptors, 95r/f
rods and 5r/r cones. There are about 120 million nerve cells in the retina.

THE KIDNEYS

The human body contains two dark red-brown bean-shaped organs called the
Kidneys. These are situated at the back of the abdomen, one on each side of the
upper lumber vertebrae. They measure about 4 inches in length, 2 V* inches in
width, and l’/2 in thickness, their weight being about 4’/2 ounces each.

The kidneys are arranged with their concave surfaces directed towards the
vertebral column; and the right kidney which is usually shorter and thicker than
the left, is generally a little lower, probably on account of the downward extension
of the large right lobe of the liver. The kidneys are supplied with blood by the
renal arteries and the renal veins take blood away from them. Each kidney
contains about one million nephrnns, minute renal tubules each of which begins as
a dilate spherical capsule into which a complicated loop of capillaries enters. The
kidneys remove waste products like urea and uric acid from the blood and
maintain the electrolytic balance. The kidneys are connected to the bladder
through ureters.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE
Adrenal gland

Adrenal gland

Right Kidney

Pelvic ureter

Ureter

Urethra

THE LIVER

It is the largest gland of the body. It is located at the top of the abdomen. It
consists of two parts called lobes, the right and the left. The right lobe is
wellsupplied with blood vessels and it removes a large quantity of the impurities
from the blood which it has gathered from various parts of the body. The
substance of the liver is made up of small lobules, each about one

twentieth of an inch in diameter and is therefore

distinctly visible to the naked eye. The liver has hundieds of functions. Its most
important function is the secretion of the bile which is continuous, but is retarded
during fasting and increased on taking food. The liver also prepares glycogen,
which resembles starch and sugar in composition. The liver has the power of

arresting various poisonous substances which have found their way into the blood.

THE HEART

It is one of the most important organs of the human body. It is a hollow muscular
organ and’it forces the blood to pass through the whole system of blood vessels by
its strong contractions. It is situated nearly in the middle of the front and lower
part of the chest, just above the diaphragm. It is conical in shape and is placed with
its base uppermost, and with its apex downwards and towards the left. Its size is
about equal to that of the closed fist. It weighs about nine ounces in an adult. The
heart contains four cavities - the right and left Auricles and the right and left
Ventricles through which the blood circulates. The great blood vessels of the heart
are: (see the chart).

(i) Aorta: It is the largest artery leading direct from the left ventricle. It conveys
blood from the left side of the heart to all parts of the body.

(ii) Pulmonary Arteries: These are two other arteries leading direct from
the right ventricle, called the Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries. They convey
blood from he right side of the heart to the lungs.
(Hi) Inferior and Superior Venae Cava: These are

two large veins, communicating with the right Auricle. They collect blood from all
parts and carry it into the right cavity.

(iv) Pulmonary Veins: These are those two veins which communicate with the
left auricle. They collect the blood which has circulated in the lungs, and convey
it into the left cavity.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

The Auricle and Ventricle of each side of the heart communicate with each other,
so that the blood which has entered the auricle can pass into the corresponding
Ventricle.

The heart muscles are the strongest in the human body and they have their own
supply of blood in order to work, and this is provided by the coronary arteries,
which branch off the Aorta. Cardiac Veins return the used blood into the vena
cava. Its specialized cardiac muscle is responsible for its continuous rhythmic
conti’actions. The intrinsic heart rate is 100/minute.

THE BLOOD
The blood is a vital fluid connective tissue. It consists of an alkaline fluid
containing plasma, water, mineral salts, albumen and other nitrogeneous matter.
The colour of the blood is due to the presence of a nitrogeneous substance, called
haemoglobin in the red corpuscles. The blood corpuscles are of two types, the red
and the white or colourless. The red corpuscle are minute circular discs, concave
on both sides. They are so numerous in the blood that they mrke it a thick liquid.
The white or colourless corpuscles are a little larger than the red. Being composed
of a very soft, jelly-like substance (protoplasm) they readily change their form.

When freshly-drawn blood is allowed to remain at rest for a while, it becomes


semi-solid and jelly like by the formation of what is called a clot. The clot is due
to the formation of fibrin. The normal temperature of the blood is 98.4°F in a
healthy body. The quantity of blood in the human body varies with certain
conditions, but it is usually estimated that it is about one-tenth of the total weight
of the body and is about 5.5 litres in volume.
Some important functions of the blood in the human body can be summed up as
follows:--

(1) It serves as a storehouse for nutrient matter absorbed from the foods, and
conveys the nutrients to all parts of the body.

(2) It transports the materials from which the secretions are formed to the
various glands which prepare them.

(3) It carries the oxygen gas to all the tissues when the process of oxidation
occurs, and the heat released maintains the high temperature of the body. Red
blood cells are the body’s oxygen carriers. Red bloods cells are constantly
being made in the body’s bone marrow.

(4) It collects up waste materials, and conveys them to the excretory organs
for separation and removal.

(5) It distributes the heat throughout the body.

(6) It moistens the various tissues.

THE SKIN
The skin forms a protective coating over the whole body and act as a mechanical
barrier against the entry of bacteria. It consists of two layers, the Epidermis and
the Dermis:

The Epidermis:

The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf-skin covers every part of the dermis or true skin. It
is hard and horny, and composed of minute scales which are being continuously
worn away from the surface. Its thickness varies in different parts. The surface of
the epidermis contains
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

small openings called the pores of the skin-they are actually the openings of the
ducts of little glands which secrete the sweat or perspiration. The epidermis itself
carries no blood-vessels but few nerves, its main functions being simply to protect
the deeper layer of the skin.

The Dermis:
The dermis or true skin consists of fibres of connective and elastic tissues,
interwoven with minute blood vessels and nerve fibres.

The deeper portion of the dermis is looser in texture, and contains an amount of
fatty tissue.

Nails and hair are out-growths of the epidermis or cuticle, and both agree with it in
general structure. A nail is simply a thick layer composed of the thin horny scales
of the outer portion of the cuticle. Each hair consists of a root or bulb and a shaft
or stem.

The main functions of the skin can be summed up as follows:

(1) It provides protection against all sorts of infections.

(2) It regulates the body temperature.

(3) It acts as an excretory organ and removes waste materials from the blood.

(4) It synthesizes vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.

(5) It reflects tke age of person.

(6) It is a basic sense organ and it gives a feel of touch.

(7) It gives shape and beauty to the human body.

(8) It absorbs oil and some drugs from its surface.


HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

THE TEETH
The permanent teeth of an adult number thirty two. They consist in each jaw, of
four incisors, two canines, four bicuspid, and six molar. The last of the molars are
called the wisdom teeth. Tooth is the hardest part of human body. Each tooth has a
crown, a neck and a root consisting of one, or more fangs. The crown is the part
which portrudes beyond the gum into the mouth The neck is that slightly
constructed portion which is embraced by the gum; and the fang or fangs include
all that part of the tooth which penetrates into the jawbone. The mass of a tooth
consists mainly of a hard substance called dentine or ivory. It is similar in
composition to the compact tissue of bone, but contain a much larger proportion of
mineral matter and i& consequently harder. The main use of the teeth is to
masticate the food. The dentine which forms the crown of the tooth is covered
with a substance called the enamel.

THE LUNGS
The lungs are spongy and elastic bags, comprising of air-tubes and cells, blood-
vessels and elastic tissue They fill the cavity of the thorax with the exception of
the space occupied by the heart, the great vessels, and the oesophagus,
consequently their general form coincides with dark venous blood by means of the
pulmonary arteries which proceed from the right ventricle. These arteries divide
and subdivide into smaller and smaller branches, penetrating every portion of the
organs, till at last they form capillary network which surround and lie on the walls
of the air sacs. The walls of the air-sacs are extremely thin, as are also the wall of
the capillary vessels, and thus the blood is brought almost in contact with the
inspired air. It is in
Apex of lung

Superior Lobe

Right Lung

Middle Lobe

Inferior Lobe

larynx

Ap«x of lungi

Ventral bronchial ”ranches of the Superior Lobe .

Right bronchus

Bfonchial branch .. of the Middle Lobe

branch’ bronchial w«nrloreSL°bVhe

Vestibule
Larynx Thyroid gland

Trachea

Left Lung

Superior Lobe

Inferior Lobe

Thyroid gland Trachea

Ventral bronchial branches of the Superior Lobe Left bronchus

Ventral bronchial branches of the Inferior Lobe

these fine capillaries that the blood is purified and with oxygen and deprived of
carbon dioxide.

I
WPf
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

About 20 to 30 cubic inches of air passes in and out of the lungs in ordinary quite
breathing.

THE BRAIN
It is the great nerve centre of the body and it is large upper portion of a cerebro-
spinalaxis filling the cavity of the cranium. It mainly consists of soft-nerve
substance. The average^ weight of an adult human brain is about 3-pounds. The
surface of brain is covered with a very thin and delicate membrane called the pia
matter, which consists of a thickly meshed network of small arteries and veins
supported by connective tissue. The brain consists of several parts, the main of
which are:

(1) The Cerebrum (Greater Brain): It fills all the upper and frontal portion of the
cranium, and weighs about nine-tenth as much as the entire brain. The
cerebrum consists of two large hemispheres, the right and the left, separated
by a very deep fissure. The cerebrum is the chief

- seat of sensation, intelligence, the will and the emotions.

(2) The Cerebellum (Lesser Brain): It lies underneath the back portion of
the cerebrum. It also consists of two hemispheres, each composed of an external
layer of grey matter surrounding white fibrous substance. Its main
function appears to be the regulation or coordination of all muscular movements.

(3) The Pons Varolii: It is a broad band or bridge of nerve matter which connects
the right and left portions of the cerebellum, passing round the medulla.

(4) The Medulla Ohlongata: It connects the brain with the spinal
cord, it governs
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

those involuntary movements which constitute the acts of breathing and


swallowing. From the under surface of the brain, twelve pairs of nerves are given
off. These are called the cranial nerves.

THE EAR
The ear is another important sensing organ. The ear consists of three important
parts, mainly the External Ear, the Middle Ear and the Internal Ear. The Internal
ear is the essential part of the organ of hearing while the other two parts are
concerned merely in the collections and transmission of sound vibrations. The
outer ear consists of the Pinna - it is that part which projects from the side of the
head, and the auditory canal. The concave shape of the pinna is especially adapted
for the collection of sound waves which are reflected by it into the canal. It
consists of a cartilaginous framework, surrounded by a certain amount of fatty
tissue and a few small muscles, the whole being covered with integument.

The middle ear is a small irregular cavity in the temporal bone. It is separated from
the auditory canal by the tympanic membrane, and contains a chain of small bones
by means of which the vibration received by the drum are transmitted across the
cavity to the inner ear. The internal ear consists of very complex cavity hallowed
out of the bone, which contains a similar cavity bounded by the membraneous
walls. The bone of the internal ear consists of three parts; the vestibule, the
semicircular canals and the cochlea.

L
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

EXERCISE
Q. Differentiate clearly between Carnivores, Herbivores, Omnivores and Predators
with examples?

Ans. Carnivores: These are those animals which eat

meat. Typical examples are lions, dogs, cats the shapes of their teeth is ideal for
the way they feed. Carnivores jaws can only move up and down. Their teeth sheer
meat with a scissors-like action.

Herbivores: These are those animals which eat plants. Typical examples are
sheep, cows and goats-the shape of their teeth is ideal for cutting and chewing
grass and other vegetables. Herbivore’s jaws can move sideways which helps the
grinding of the food.

Omnivores: These are those animals which can eat any kind of food. Their teeth
are suitable for eating both meat and plants. Man is a typical example.

Predators: These are those animals that live by preying upon other animal
species. Tiger is a typical example.

Q. Name the hardest substance in the human body?

Ans. Enamel is the hardest substance in the human body. Flouride toothpaste helps
to prevent tooth decay. Fluoride hardens the enamel.

Q. Give the names of the teeth in each human jaw?

Ans. Incisors, canines, Pre-molars and Molars.

Q. Name the types of cell division?

Ans. Basically there are two types of cell divisions namely Mitosis and Meiosis.

Q.

Ans.

Compare clearly Mitosis with meiosis in a tabular form?


Definition
Site

Number of Divisions involved

Chromosomal Number

Extra Chromosomal behaviour

Result

Mitosis is the method by which body cells duplicate themselves for maintenance and growth of various tissues.

Meiosis is the method which involves two

successive divisions.

Somatic Cells
Single

Remains same

Independent of each other

2 Cells

Germ Cells

Two divisions

Reduced to half

Homologous

get paired together

4 Cells

Q. What is a Cell Cycle?

Ans. It consists of sequence of events which keep repeating in relation to cell


multiplicative activity, with the final event ending at the beginning of the first
event of the net cycle
Rw9?H»fCTaalafliiia

Q. What is Pollination?

Ans. It is the phenomenon of transfer of pollens from male reproductive organ to female
reproductive organ in flowering plants usually through biological agency or physical
means. Reproduction in flowering plants is chiefly sexual, It involves the union, or fusion
of the male and female reproductive cells. This is made possible by the transfer of pollens
from the anther to the stigma.

Q. How do we sweat?

Ans. The cooling system of human body is regulated by a part of the brain called the
Hypothalamus which acts as a sort of thermostat. When the body gets hot, the
hypothalamus activates the sweat glands to produce a watery fluid-sweat. The liquid is
released from the body through gland ducts. On evaporation, it provides a cooling effect.
As much as a gallon of sweat can be lost under the hottest of circumstances.

Q. What are Exocrine Glands? Give Examples?

Ans. These are those glands which discharge their secretions by means of a duct. These
are also called as ducted glands. Typical examples of Exocrine glands are given
below alongwith their secretions.

Lachrymal

Sweat
Secretions

Tears

Sweat

•iLijflr.Jii’iiKKTMMPicM

Salivary

Saliva

Mammary

Milk

Liver

Bile

Sebaceous
Sebum

Q. What are Ducts?

Ans. Ducts are small tubes which transfer the secretion of glands.

Q. Differentiate clearly between Epidemic, Endemic, Acute, Chronic,


Malignant and Innate disease?

Ans. Epidemic: Where there is a terrible outbreak of a disease affecting great number
at one time and one place and are capable of travelling from one place to another.

Endemic: The disease is said to be endemic which is more or less constantly present in
a population or an area.

Acute: Acute disease usually begins abruptly and is soon over.

Chronic: A chronic disease begins slowly and persists over a longer time.

Malignant: The term malignant is used to describe tumors.

Q.
Innate: An innate disease is a non-communicable disease,

Describe the following diseases: Goitre, Leprosy, Schizophrenia,


Alzheimer,
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Addison, Multiple secrosis, Juvenile diabetes and Haemophilia?

Ans. Goitre: It is a disease in which the enlargement of the thyroid gland takes
place, causing a marked swelling in front of the neck, which sometimes results in
pressure on the trachea. The cause may be the inability to utilize iodine.

Leprosy: It is a disease caused by bacterium. Transmission is through prolonged or close


contact. Characteristics are thickening of skin and nerves, numbness, deformity and
disfigurement. It is controlled with sulphone drugs.

Schizophrenia: It is a disease of the abnormalities of devastating brain


disorder. Symptoms are poverty of speech.

Addison: It is caused by immune proteins called antibodies, attacking the adrenal glands,
resulting in hormone imbalances that lead to darkening of the skin, abdominal pain and
sometimes coma.

Multiple Sclerosis: It results from immune cells damaging the central nervous system
causing tingling, blindness and paralysis.

Juvenile Diabetes: It occurs when immune cells destroy cells of the pancreas, leading to
an inability to produce insulin - the hormone that helps the body to use glucose. Weight
loss, kidney failure and blindness can result due to this disease.

Haemophilia: It is a disease in which the persons have prolonged blood


clotting time resulting in excessive bleeding from injury. It occurs due to the
deficiency of Vitamin K which
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

carries blood-clotting properties. Normal clotting time is 5 to 8 minutes.

Q. Name some more common diseases of the eye?

Ans. Myopia, Hypermetropia, Glaucoma, Cataract and Pressbyopia.

Q. What is Incubation Period?

Ans. A disease causing organism always requires some period after reacting healthy
person to show the symptoms of the disease. This period is called incubation period.

Q. Name some Viral Diseases?

Ans. Measles, Mumps, Poliomyelitis, Rabies and Hepatitis.

Q. Give one example of each: Airborn, Water- ;


born, Skin-born and Blood-born diseases?

Q. Define Obesity?

Ans. Obesity is basically an excess of disposed tissue which fat is stored. It is made of
predominantly °fat cells.

in

\
Q. Name some Immune Warriors?

Ans. These are those cells of the immune system which fight against pathogens.
These are macrophages, Helper T cells, Antibodies, B cells, MHC, antigens and
memory cells.

Q. What are Allergies?

Ans. Allergies strike when the immune system overreacts to ordinarily harmless
substances like dust or the droplet of toxin in a bee sting, causing, inflammation.

Q. What is DTP Immunization?

Ans. It is a Vaccination against Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis.

Q. What are Antiseptics? Give some examples?

Ans. Antiseptics are compounds that are applied to living tissues to kill or
prevent the growth of micro-organisms. Many common antiseptics are mild
oxidising agents like Hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate?

Q. Name the important organs involved in the digestion ot¥ food?

Ans. Mouth, Gullet, Stomach, Small Intestine and Large intestine. An adult’s
digestive system is about 10 meters long.

Q. Which spends more time in the stomach during digestion: Carhohydrates


or Fats?

Ans. Carbohydrates spend the shortest time in the stomach, Fsts spend the longest.

Q. What is the importance of Enzymes, in digestion?

Ans. Enzymes are biological’ catalysts which have multifunctions in the human
body. Digestive
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

juices contain enzymes which attack the starch chain and split it. Pepsin, tripsin
and ptyelin are typical examples. Enzymes have veiy specific jobs to do and have
enormous catalytic power.

Q. What is Chymification?
Ans. Chyme is a milky fluid. The changing of the food into chyme by the gastric
fluid is called chymification.

Q. What is meant by Addiction?

Ans. Addiction means that someone is so dependent on a drug that serious harm is
being done to the person and society.

Q. What are Opiates?

Ans.

Q.
Ans.

Q.

Ans.

Opiates are drugs made from the opium poppy. Opium is the dried milk of the
poppy. Plant opiates and man made opiates are sometimes collectively called as
opioids. Opiates are used as pain-killers.

Differentiate clearly between Tolerance and Dependence?

These terms are common in drug use. Tolerance means the way the body gets used
to some kinds of drugs. Therefore, to get the same effect, the body needs an
increasing amount of the drug.

Dependence means a desire for a drug as a result of taking it repeatedly.

Differentiate clearly between cocaine, LSD and Amphetamine?

Cocaine: It is a white powder made from the leaves of the andean Coca shrub. It
is a powerful
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

stimulant. It can be sniffed, smoked or injected. It produces a feeling of excitement and


mental exhilaration.

LSD: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is a manmade white powder. It produces


dizziness, disorientation and sometimes panic.

Amphetamine: It is a synthetic drug which stimulates the higher nerve centres, so


increasing mental alertness and abolishing fatigue. It is a controlled drug and may give
rise to addiction.

Q. What are the main functions of blood in a human body?

Ans. The main functions of blood in the human body are described below:

(i) It acts as a carrier of oxygen.

(ii) It acts as carrier of metabolic wastes of the body

to kidneys, lungs, skin and intestine for removal.

(Hi) It maintains the acid-base balance.

(iv) It helps in maintaining the body temperature.

(v) It transports food material to the tissues.

(vi) It regulates water-balance.

Q. What is the Composition of Blood?

Ans. It consists of two fractions namely: Cellular and plasma fractions. The cellular
fraction Contains Erythrocytes, Leucocytes and Platelets.

Q. Differentiate between Plasma and Serum of Blood?

Ans. When blood is centrifuged, it splits up into two parts, a clear supernatent liquid
called serum and a thick solid red part is called plasma. Serum
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

differs from plasma, because it doesn’t contain fibrinogen.

Q. What is Heme?

Ans. Heme is Ferrous Protoporphyrin.


Q. What is the normal life span of RBC’s?

Ans. RBC’s are red blood cells and their normal life span is about 120 days.

Q.

What is Anaemia?

Ans. Anaemia is a clinical condition, which occurs due to subnormal Hb, and number of
RBC’s in the body. Iron deficiency is usually responsible for this.

Q. What is the normal total blood volume in an adult?

Ans. It is about 5.5 litres.

Q. What is the pH of Blood?

Ans. It is 7.3 - 7.4, which remains fairly constant at this level.

Q. Define Lymph and give the functions of the Lymphatic System?

Ans. It is blood without blood corpuscles, a colourless fluid produced by lymph nods and
concerned with body defence mechanism. Lymph is modified tissue fluid which is
carried by Lymphatic vessels. It is a secondary transportation system. The lymphatic
system also plays a role in the transportation of materials from one part of the body to
another. It seems to return components of the interstitial fluid to the bloodstream. The
lymphatic system is composed of veins and
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

capillaries but no arteries. Lymph capillaries are closed at one end. Lymph flow is
quite slow as compared to blood circulation.

Q. What are the main phases of Cardiac Cycle?

Ans. These are auricular systole, ventricular and general diastole.


HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Q.
Ans.

Q.
Describe the following terms used in biological sciences: Immunity, Coma,
Transfusion and Adaptation?

Immunity: The resisting power of the body to the toxins of the invading bacteria,
shown by the presence in the blood of neutralising antioxins.

Coma: It is a state of complete unconsciousness, in which all reflexes are absent.

Transfusion: The introduction of whole blood or plasma into a vein, performed in


cases of severe loss of blood, shock or septicemia. It is used to supply actual
volume of blood or to introduce constituents, as clotting factors, or antibodies,
which are deficient in the patient.

Adaptation: The ability to overcome difficulties and adjust oneself to changing


circumstances. Neuroses and psychoses are often associated with failures of
adaptation.

Define the Codeine?

following: Cyst, Histamine,

Ans. Cyst: It is a tumor with membraneous capsule ° and containing fluid.

Histamine: It is an enzyme that causes local vasodilatation and increased


permeability of the ’blood vessel walls.
Codeine: It is an alkaloid of opium said to be less depressed to the respiratory
centre than other forms and is good for the treatment of persistent cough and
bronchitis. It is analgesic and hypnotic.

What are the functions of the Liver?

Liver is the largest organ in the human body and it has many functions. The most
important are:

(i) It produces blood clotting factors. (ii) It has powerful recuperative powers.

(Hi) It repairs and regenerates itself up to a point and can carry on its operations
when only 20 percent of its functioning ability remains.

(iv) It produces cholesterol. Q. Name different types of Dietary Fibers?

4ns. There are five types of fibers that our body can use namely - Cellulose,
Hemicellulose, Lignin, Pectin and Gums.

Q. Why is ASPIRIN more recently called as the Wonder Drug?

•\ns. Because it can do the following:

(i) It reduces fever by interfering with temperatureelevating substance in the


Hypothalamus. (ii) It quells aches and inflammation. (in) It prevents heart attack.
(iv) It reduces the risk of certain type of strokes. (v) It treats heart attack.

Q. Describe Acne, Insomnia and Appendicitis?

AIIS. Acne: It is biological term denoting an inflammatory condition


of the sebaceous, glands.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Insomnia: It is an inability to sleep.

Appendicitis: It is an inflammation of the appendix Vermiformisit which is a


Worm-like tube with a blind end. ’

Q. Describe very briefly the Nitrogen Cycle.

Ans. Nitrogen cycle is the continous circulation of elemental nitrogen and its compounds
in the ecosystem by living organisms. It is also called Fixation of Nitrogen or Natural
Fixation. Industrial fixation is done to manufacture nitrogen fertilizers.

Q. Differentiate between Harmful and Helpful Bacteria?

Ans. Harmful bacteria are disease-causing bacteria and are called pathogens. Helpful
bacteria do not cause disease but instead these are useful for health, for example,
streptococcus lactis produces the acid that allows milk curds to settle into butter milk and
many cheeses. Yogurt is made from skimmed milk and bacterial cultures. Bacteria can
also be used for the preservation of food.

Q. Differentiate between Blood Pressure and Pulse Pressure?

Ans. Blood Pressure: It is a lateral pressure exerted by blood on the vessels walls
during its flow?

Pulse Pressure: Pulse pressure is the difference between Systolic and Diastolic pressure.

Q. What is the Normal Heart Rate?

Ans. It is 72/minutes.

Q. Define ECG?

Ans. Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a record of tracings

obtained by electrocardiograph during period of cardiac circle.

Q. What is the function of Kidneys in your body?

Ans. Kidneys control the amount of water in our body. They act as filters and contain
about 2500,000 tiny filters which help to clean the blood.

Q. What is a Body Muscle? Name important muscles of the body?


some

Ans. A muscle is made up of thousands of muscle cells arranged in bundles. Muscles


move bones. There are about 600 muscles in the human body. Some more common
muscles are Biceps and Triceps Tf all the muscles in the body were able to pull hi the
same direction at the bume Lime, Lhev rnuld lift 25 tonnes.

Q. Give some examples of Polysaccharides?

Ans. Glycogen, starch, dextrin and cellulose.

Q. Differentiate clearly between Hypoglycemia, Hyperglycemia and


Glycosuria?

Ans. Hypoglycemia: A clinical condition in which blood sugar level is below normal.

Hyperglycemia: A clinical condition in which blood sugar level is above normal.

Glycosuria: A clinical condition in which there is presence of glucose in urine.


Q. What are the main functions of the large intestine?

Ans.

(i) Storage of faeces and their evacuation.

(ii) Absorption of water but not of foodstuff to any significant extent.

(in) Excretion of phosphate but not of iron or calcium.

Q.
Define Proteins? How are these classified?

Ans. Proteins are nitrogen containing substances of high molecular weight formed
by a number of amino acids united by a peptide linkage. These are classified into
simple, conjugated and derived.

APPENDICES
Maa^k’UJM^i
SCIENTIFIC INVENTION AND DISCOVERIES

Invention/ Name of Scientist

Discovery

Invention/ Name of Scientist

Discovery

Aeroplane

Wright Brothers

Clock Christian Huygens

Automobile

Daimler

Diesel Engine Rudol Diesel

Atom Bomb

Otto Hahn

Dynamo Michael Faraday

Atomic Theory

Democritus

Dynamite Alfred Nobel

Atomic Number

Mosley

Dynamic Theory of Heat Lord Kelvin

Airship

Graf Ferrdinand

Doctrine of Psycho-analysis Freud

Von Zeppelin

Electric Lamp Thomas Addison

Bicycle

McMillan

Elevator Elisha G Otis

Barometer

Torricelli

Engine (Railway) Bohr

Balloon

Montgolfier

Electronic Theory of
Battery and Current

Volta

Atomic Structure Neil Bohr.

Cannon

Ermany

Electrical Waves Hertz

Cosmic Rays

R.A. Milikan

Electromagnetic Theory of

Cordite

Dewer

Light Marxwell

Crescograph

J.C. Bose

Electromagnet William Sturgeon

Cyclottron

Lawrence

Electrons J.J. Thomson

Circulatin of Blood

Harvey

Fountain Pen Lewis E. Waterman

Calculating Machine

Pascal

Film and Photographic

Celestial and

goods Kodak

Terrestral Globe

Mercator

Film (Talking

Chloroform

Harrison

Movies) Warner Brothers

Cellophane J

.E. Brandenberger

Founder of
Celluloid

Alexander Parks

Homoeopathy Hahnemann

Cement

Joseph Aspidin

Fahrenheit Scale Fahrenheit

Chronometer

John Harrison

Gramophone T.A. Edison


Invention/ Name of Scientist

Discovery

Invention/ Discovery

Name of Scientist

Gas Light

W. Murdock

Motorcycle

Edward Butler

Generator

Picinotti

Neutron

Chadwick

Glider
George Cayley

Nylon Plastics

Carothers

Gum Powder

Roger Bacon

Photography

Hydrogen

Cavendish

(Colour)

Gabriel Lippman

Helicopter

Brequet

Photography

N.R. Finseen

Hovercraft

Cockrell
Printing Press

Caxton

Helium gas

Lockyer I

Positron
Anderson

Inert gasses

Ramsay

Paints

Shalimar

Induction Coil

Rohmkorff

Periodic Table

Mendeleev

Jet Engine

Frnk Whittle

Penicillin

Alexander Fleming

Law of Gasses

Gay Lussac

Quantum Theory

Plank

Lenses and Camera

Zeiss

Radar Razor

R.W. Watt Gillette

Laser

T.H. Mainman

(Safety)

Laws of Gravitation

Revolver

Colt

and Laws of Motion

Newton

Radio

Markoni

Laws of Heredity

Mendel

Radio Transmitter

Alexanderson
Lightening

Radioactivity

Bacquerel

Conductor

Benjamin Frankin

Radium

Madam Curie

Loudspeaker

Rice Kellogg

Refrigerator

James Harrison

Laws of Diffusion

Fick

Sewing Machine

Howe

Motor Car

Henry Ford

Submarine

Bushnell

Microphone

A. Grahm Bell

Seismograph

William Murdock

Microscope

Zacharis Janssen

Steam Engine

James Watt

Machine Gun

Gattling

Stethoscope

William Stockes

Malaria parasite

Ronald Ross

Spectacles

Venice
Military tank

Swinton

Telescope

Galileo

APPENDICES

Invention/ Discovery

Name of Scientist

Invention/ Name of Scientist

Discovery

Telephone

A. Graham Bell

Theory of Evolution

Television

J.L. Baird

and origin of species

Charles Darwin

Transistor

William Shockley

Tank

Swinton

Typewriter

Christopher Sholes

Teleprinter

Smile Bandot

Telegraph Code

Samuel F.B. morse

Velocity of Light

Fizean

Telegraph

William cook

Vitamin D

F.C. Hopkins

Theory of Relativity

Albert Einstein
X-Rays

Roentgen
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

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Algesimeter

It is an instrument which indicates the degree of sensitiveness of the skin.

Altimeter

It is an aneroid barometer which is used in measuring altitudes (heights compared to sealevel).

Ammeter

It is an instrument used for measuring electric current.

Anemometer

It is an instrument used to measure the velocity of the wind and to find the direction of the Wind.

Barometer

It is used for the measurement of the atmospheric pressure.

Chronometer

It is a clock-like device that shows accurate measurement of time, generally used on ships in
navigation.

Cyamometer

This instrument is used for measuring blueness of oceans or sky.

Dasymeter

It is a device consisting of thin glass globe for determining density of gas.

Galvanometer

It is an instrument for detecting or measuring small electric current.

Hydrometer

It is used to determine the relative density of liquids.

Hygrometer
It is an apparatus for measuring relative humidity in 3*mfc,phere.

Hyposometer

!i is an instrument used for measuring i atmospheric pressure to ascertain elevations by I


determining boiling point of liquid.

Keratometer

It is an instrument by which the amount of corneal astigmatism can be measured accurately.

Lactometer

It is an instrument used for measuring the purity of the milk.

Manometer

It is an apparatus us*ed for measuring the pressure of gases.

Micrometer

It is a scale for measuring minute distances or angles.

Periscope

It is an optical instrument used for viewing objects above the eye-level of the observer. It is used
in submarines.

Pyrometer

It is a specially designed thermometer to measure high temperatures.

Refractometer

It is used to measure the refractive index of a substance.

Spectrometer

It is a type of spectroscope used for spectrum analysis.

Seismograph

It is an instrument which is used to record the intensity and origin of earthquake.

Sphgmomanometer

It is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure.

Telemeter
It is an apparatus for recording physical event happening at a distance.

Telstar

It is an instrument to transmit wireless or television broadcast more distinctly acmss continents


via space.

Viscometer

It is used to measure the viscosity (resistance to flow) of liquids.

Voltmeter

It is an instrument used to measure potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

••••••••••••••••••^•^^^H

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Map

It is a drawing to show the shape and features of a place on a two dimensional paper

Magnetic compass

It is an instrument for finding the direction of a place.

Grid System

A system of grid lines.

Grid Reference

A system of Grid Lines.

Grid Reference

It is a figure given to a point on map where two grid lines intersect.

Important Latitudes

Tropic of cancer 23-1|2°N, Tropic of Capricorn 23-1/2°S Arctic circle 66-1 |2°N, Anarctic circle
66-112 °S.

International Date Line

It is 180° line of Longitude. The two sides of the line have a difference of one day.

Prime Meridian

It is 0° line of Longitude passing through Greenwich.

Rotation of the Earth

The Earth takes one complete rotation on its axis (it is a line around which an object spins) in 24
hours and it forms days and nights. Because the axis of the Earth is inclined at an angle of 23-1/2°
from the vertical, therefore, distribution of day and night time is uneven.

Revolution of the Earth

The Earth makes one complete revolution round the Sun in about 365-1/2 day spume year. The
1/4 day is added up to give an extra day in a leap year, that is once every four years.
APPENDICES

Important points of Revolution

Summer solostice ff 21st June; Winter Solastice ff


22nd December spring Equinox ff 21st March; Autumn Equinox ff 23rd September.

Weather

Weather is the condition of the atmosphere. Elements of weather are; Temperature, Pressure,
wind, precipitation and Humidity.

Climate

Climate is the average weather conditions of a place over a long period of time. Different climate
zones of the world are; cold, temperate, subtropical and tropical.

Time Zones

Since there are altogether the Earth takes 24 hours takes one hour to turn 15°. therefore, differs
from the This difference is used to the world. Standard time Atlantic, Eastern, central, Alaska
Times.

360° of longitude, and to turn round once, it

. Each 15° of longitude, next 15° by an hour.

mark the time zones in zones of America are Mountain, Pacific and
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Characteristic f Answer

1. The largest organ of the body. Skin

2. The total No. of bones in an i dull. 206

3. The hardest bone in the human body. Tooth

4. The largest gland of the body. Liver

5. The longest bone of the body. Femur

6. The smallest bone of the body. Stapes

7. Total number of muscles in the body. 600

8. Total No. of orders of Levers in the body. Three

9. The filter of the body. Kidney

10. The Pump of the body. Heart

11. The normal body temperature. 37°C(98.4°F)

12. The normal respiratory rate in an adult. 16 18 per mm.

13. Average age of onset of puberty in males. 12-15 years.

14. Average age of onset of puberty in females. 12-14 years.

15. Average total volume of the blood in an 4.5-5 litres

adult.

16. Total number of bones in the face. 14

17. The lid of the alimentary canal. Epiglottis

18. Total number of bones in the neck. 7

19. Total number of bones in the Wrist. 8

20. A stage when excessive heat loss occurs. Hypothermia

21. The narrowest part of the alimentary canal. Oesophagus

22. Spontaneous response without will of the Reflex action

body.
23. A male who is unable to reproduce. Aspermic

24. Vascular connection between foetus and Placenta.

uterus.

25. Process of which mammary glands secret Lactation

milk,

26. Total number of bones in the vertebral 33

column.

APPENDICES

EFFECTS ON EARTH
ROTATION OF THE EARTH:

The Earth is like the vast wheel which rotates around its axis from West to East
once in 24 hours. This motion of the Earth is called the Spinning or Rotation. The
most important effect of the Rotation of the Earth are as follows.

Effects

5.
6.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Days and Nights are produced.

Sun appears to rise from the East and sets in the West.

It gives sense of time; morning, noon, evening and night.

Gives understanding of longitudes.

The Earth bulges out at the Equator.


The Earth acts as a Huge Magnet.

The Earth acts as a Churner of the Terrestrial water,

Different time zones are formed.

Deflection of the usual direction of winds and currents. ’

North, South, East and West sides are fixed.

International Date Line is fixed at a longitude of 180°


•ana;«»7iYga«iig>!i*i*

TILT OF THE EARTH:

The axis of the Earth is inclined at an angle of


66.5° to the plane of its orbit or the axis of the Earth is tilted to an angle 23.5° to
the horizontal. This is called the tilt of the Earth or the obliquity of the Earth’s
axis. Its important effects are as follows:

n
Days and Nights are of unequal length.
2.

Formation of Four Seasons.

3.

The Seasons in the Hemispheres are different.


4.

The altitude of the Midday Sun varies different periods of the year.

at

Revolution of the Earth

The Earth revolves round the Sun and completes one revolution in 365.25 days.
This motion of the Earth is called Revolution and Annual Motion. Its important
effects are as follows:

Distance of the Earth form the Sun changes during the year.

Formation and change of one Season to other.


H221MMa
5.

Formation of different climatic zones like Temperate, Torrid, and Frigid.

Equinoxes are formed like Spring Equinox (Mar. 21) and Autumn Equinox (Sept.
22).

Solstices are formed like Summer Solstice (Jun. 21) and Winter Solstice (Dec. 22).
MVI 3:yj»ji\M&ii i a kH*i si

FANCY - PLACES
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^^^^^^I^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
f^^^^^^^^^m

1.

Pearl of Africa

Uganda

2.

Cockpit of Europe

Belgium

3.

Land of the Rising Sun

Japan

4.

Roof of the World

Tibet or Mighty Himalayan

5.

Paradise of Softwares

Silicon Valley

6.

Tear of India

Sri Lanka

7.

Golden State of U.S.A.

California
8.

Land of Opportunities

U.S.A.

9.

Gateway of British India

Khyber Pass

10.

Garbage of Europe

Greece

11.

Sick Man of Europe

Turkey

12.

Manchester of Pakistan

Faisalabad

13.

Big apple of U.S.A.

New York

14.

Sun shine State of U.S.A.

Florida

15.

Melting Pot of U.K.

Ireland

16.

Sugar Boul of the World

Cuba

17.
City of Golden Gate

San Francisco

18.

Uncle Sam

U.S.A.

19.

Land of Midnight Sun

Norway

20.

Nation of Immigrants

U.S.A.

21.

Play ground of Europe

Switzerland

22.

Road of Conquest and Culture

Grand Trunk Road

23.

Venice of the East

Bangkok

24.

City of Seven Hills

Rome

25.

Land of Thousand Lakes

Finland

26.
Third World

South East Asian Countries

27.

K-2

Second Highest peak of Karakoram

28.

Troubled Heart of Central America

Nicaragua

29.

Pearl of Siberia

Russia’s Lake Baikal

30.

Mirror of India

New Delhi
SOME COMMON STAINS AND STAIN REMOVERS

Stain

Stain Remover Chemical

Antiperspirants

asphalt

berry (fruit)

blood

chocolate

Coffee

grass

ink

lipstick

mildew

mustard

nail polish

perspiration

rust

scorch

soft drinks

tobacco

ammonium hydroxide

benzene, carbon disulfide

hydrogen peroxide

cold water, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite

tetrachloroethylene

sodium hypochlorite

amyl acetate and benzene (50:50) or sodium


hypochlorite or alcohol

oxalic acid, methanol, water

isopropyl alcohol, isoamyl acetate, chloroform

hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite

alcohol, sodium hypochlorite

acetone

ammonium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide

water, methanol, oxalic acid

hydrogen peroxide

sodium hypochlorite

sodium hypochlorite

APPENDICES

DO YOU KNOW
1. You body needs five type of fiber: cellulose, Hemicellulose, Lignin, Pectin
and Gums.

2. A cup of Yogurt has more potassium than a banana.

3. Vaccines trigger the Body’s Immune System.

4. The human eye can retain its last image after death.

5. God does not play dice with the Universe.

6. The human body odour is the result of about 450 different volatile organic
compounds emanating through the skin,

7. More than 40,000 drugs contain Aspirin.

8. Trees are nature’s air-condition units.

9. Trees act as Lungs for the Earth.

10. Deep-sea cold water fish is a natural source of OMEGA-3 polyunsaturates:


a substance that dissolves CHOLESTEROL in human body.
11. The glycemic index measures how fast a carbohydrate raises blood
sugar.

12. a person’s memory holds about 100 trillion bits of information in its lifetime.

13. Human blood serum is almost identical with seawater.

14. A baby has about 144 more bones than in an adult.

15. Bermuda Triangle continues to remain a mystery of the Atlantic Ocean.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

16. Lightning is one of the Nature’s grandest and most dangerous spectacles.

17. Lightning pattern occurs but once in an Eternity

18. CFCs can f oat for about one hundred years in tne atmosphere undercomposed.

19. Bacille Calmetle Guerin (BCG) is a Vaccine against TB.

20. The genetic script inside human cells has been written by 2 billion years of
evolution.

SOLVED QUESTION
PAPERS
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS 1

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1993


Note: Answer any ten questions. All question carry equal marks. Draw diagram
where necessary.

Q.I. Which of the following statements are true and which are false.

(i) Urea is a phosphorus fertiliser. (False)

(ii) Ibn Baitar was renowned Muslim Botanist. (True)

(in) Penicillin was discovered by Edward Jenner.

(False)

(iv) Ameoba is a unicellular animal. (True)

(v) Solar eclipse over on full moon. (False)

(vi) Water is a bad conductor of electricity. (True)

(vii) Lepeosy is a disorder of the Nervous system. (False)

(viii) Chloroflouro carbons cause decomposition of Ozone layer. (True)

2. Solar System

Solar system is the tiny part of galaxy and consists of the sun, objects that travel
around it i.e.; Earth and eight other planets along with satellites that travel around -
It further includes Asteroids, Meteoroids, comets, interplanetary dust and
Interplanetary plasma.

The Sun

Sun is the central part of the solar system. It is a very big - almost a million miles
across and hot.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Composition of Sun

- Hydrogen

- Helium

- Many elements

Temperature of Sun

- Chromosphere (Inner core)

- Photosphere

(Outer light emitting core)

90%

8%

2%

15 million°C
6000°C

Features of Sun

(1) The sun is about 46 billion years old containing matter in the plasma state.

(2) Most of mass (99.86%) of the solar system is concentrated in sun thus holding other
objects together due to high gravitational force.

(3) Source of energy in sun is due to Nuclear Fusion i.e. conversion of hydrogen into
helium,

(4) Every square km. of Sun’s surface emitt 64 million watts into space.

(5) It has 27 day solar rotation period & 11 year sunspot cycle.

(6) Solar winds, solar flars and sunspots are its important events.

(7) Its mass is 2 x 1030 tons while average density is


1.4 gm/cc.

(8) Its distance from earth is 149 million km.


(9) Its diameter is 14 million km.

The Earth

It is most wonderful planet of the solar system. It is water-drenched planet.

Features of Earth

(1) It is also 4.6 billion years old but life started here about 3-4 billion years ago.

(2) Its rotation period is 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds and revolution period 365-
1/4 days.

(3) The mass of Earth is 6 x 1021 tons and average density is 5.52 gm/cc.

(4) Its equatrioal diameter is 12,756 km.

(5) The earth has iron core, the rocky mantle and dynamic crust. It is made up of Tectonic
Plates.

(6) It has an atmosphere; 78% of Nitrogen and 21% oxygen.

(7) The atmosphere has about 3100 cubic miles of water in the form of clouds which is
responsible for producing seasons.

(8) Latitudes and longitudes coordinates are drawn on the map to locate position on Earth
surface.

(9) The surface is rich in silicone, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium and oxygen element.

Satellite of Earth

Earth has only one natural satellite called Moon at a distance of 3,85,000 km from Earth
surface.

Features of Moon

It is 81 times lighter than earth.

It is a poor reflector 7% as compared to Earth.

It has l/6th gravitational pull as compared to Earth.

It is rich in Chromium, Titanium, scandium, Zirconium and Yetterbium.


It’s average density is 3.34 gm/c.c.

The Planets

There are nine planets including earth. The salient features of others ai’e as follows.

1. Mercury

(1) It is the second smallest planet.


(2) It is closest to the sun and its mean distance is
0.387 artronomical units.

(3) Its equatorial diameter is 4,880 km.

(4) Mercury looks a lot like Moon with holes called cratens.

(5) It has no moon.

2. Venus

(1) It is called Earth’s twin in size.

(2) It is 0.723 A.U. away from Sun.

(3) Its equatorial diameter is 12,104 km.

(4) It is wrapped in thick clouds of carbondioxide.

(5) It has no moon,

3. Mars

(1) It has hot and opaque atmosphere.

(2) It is a barren desert covered with red dust so is called Red Planet.

(3) It is 1.524 A.U. away from Sun.

(4) Its equatorial diameter is 6,787 k.m.

(5) It has two Moons: A) Rhobos; B) Deimos

4. »iupiter

(1) It has dense cloudy atmosphere of H2 + He.

(2) Its diameter is 1,43,000 km being largest.

(3) It has sixteen moons.

(4) It visits Sun once after every 11.86 years.


6. Saturn

(1) It is the second largest planet.

(2) It is 9.539 A.U. away from Sun.

(3) Its diameter is 1,20,000 km.

(4) It has atleast 22 moons.

(5) Its special feature is Superb rings.

[”SOLVED QUESTION PAPER’S”

7. Uranus

(1) It has hydrogen & helium.

(2) It is 19.18 A.U. away from Sun.

(3) Its diameter is 51,800 km.

(4) It has fifteen moons.

(5) Uranus is big and gives green glow.

8. Neptune

(1) It is 30.06 A.U. away from Sun.

(2) Its diameter is 49,500 km.

(3) It has only two moons.

9. Pluto

(1) It is the most distant and smallest planet with very low temp.

(2) Its diameter is 4,00 km.

(3) It has only one moon.


OTHER OBJECTS

Other objects in solar system are

1. Asteroids

These are small rocky objects called minor planets floating round the sun
in space.

2. Meteorites

It is a chunk of material floating in space that can enter earth’s atmosphere.

3. Comets

It is a body of ice and dust that move around the Sun.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Solar System
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

3. THE GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

”The atmosphere of Earth can be compared to a glass of green house:

Both allow the Sun’s visible rays to enter and warm the land, plants water and air,
yet retard the escape of heat. As radiation from the Sun enter the Earth’s
atmosphere a portion of it is reflected back into space or absorbed by the
atmosphere directly. About half of the radiant energy reaching Earth from the Sun,
because of its shorter wavelength, can pass through the atmosphere of Earths
surface. But the longer waves of heat (Infrared radiations) that radiate back
towards space are absorbed and reradiated by water vapours, carbondioxide, other
gases and clouds and hence the atmosphere warms up by the accumulation of the
heat. This is called Green House Effect.

GREEN HOUSE GASES

The gases which contribute more towards the Green House effect are called
greenhouse gases.

These are: Carbondioxide Methane Nitrous Oxide Chlorofloro carbons

C02 CH4 NO CFC

EFFECTS OF GREENHOUSE GASES ACCUMULATION

Global Warming

(1) Green house gases are building up in the atmosphere in such a way so as to
trap the heat energy, gradually raising the average temperature of the planet. It can
raise average world temperature from 1.5 to 4.5 degree Celsius than todjiy. This is
called Global warming.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(2) That would induce the melting of polar ice caps and increase in world’s sea
level from ten inches to six feet.

(3) Fertile regions would be converted into deserts and Arctic plains could become
suddenly arable.

(4) Destructive droughts such as that of 1988 in North America, would strike more
often until the great plains would become semideserts.

(5) Storms such as hurricanes and tornadoes might become more violent.

(6) Forests would decline and change under the temperature rise, and wild life
would have to migrate if it could or perish.
sun rays

sunrays

ozone ’aye

Green House Effect (Earth)

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT


Q.2. Describe any Five of the following in’not more than four lines.

(i) Mitosis

(1) It is a type of cell division in which chromosome number remain the same.

(2) One cell gets divided into two cells.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS |

(3) All the somatic cells such as skin cells, bone cells, muscle cells etc. divide by
mitosis.

(4) It provides a means of transmitting hereditary information unchanged to


daughter cells.

(ii) Haemophilia
(1) It is a disease in which the person have prolonged blood clothing time
resulting in excessive breeding from injury.

(2) It is due to deficiency of vitamin ’K’.

(3) It is a semilethal disease controlled by recessive gene.

(4) Haemophilia is less common in women than in men.


«.

(in) Reflex Action

(1) Reflex actions are the responses to environmental changes both internal and
external and are immediate or automatic and are without intervention
of will. These reflexes maybe simple or conditioned e.g. watering of mouth on
seeing or smelling of food.

(2) Simple reflexes are inborn, inherited or unlearnt responses to stimuli.

A REFLEX ARC
(3) The structural and functional basis of simple reflex is called reflex arc.

(4) Impulses are carried from receptors to sensory neurons to CNS from where
they are passed on via motor neurons to the effectors for necessary response.

(iv) METABOLISM

(1) Metabolism is a term that embraces all of the chemical changes that occur in
the cells of living organisms enabling them to grow, to maintain their identity and
reproduce.

(2) Each chemical change in metabolism is catalyzed by specific protein called


enzyme.
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(3) Metabolic reactions convert food into forms that can be stored until needed.

(4) These reactions provide energy for mechanical work of muscles and chemical
work to build complicate molecules like DNA, RNA and protein

(v) FISSION

(1) This is a process in which heavier unstable atoms are broken down to yield
energy.

(2) It needs expensive and rare elements like uranium.

(3) Energy by a nuclear fission reaction can be used as a source of heat to generate
steam in power plant.

(4) It is left up with nuclear waste that is dangerous.

(5) Heavy nucleas as uranium are bombarded with neutrons and split up into two
particles of mass ratio 3:2.

(vi) NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCE

(1) Non-renewable resources are exhausted and cannot be reversed or


replaced if depleted or destroyed.

(2) These include metals, non metalsi, minerals and fossil feuls (coal, oil and
natural gas).

(3) Modern man is using these resources extensively and they may be depleted
very soon.

(4) It is high time that man should realise the consequences of depletion of
these in future and survival of mankind on planet earth.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Q.3. Fill in the gaps with correct choice. In Five statements only.

(1) Quartz is chemically a silicate (Carbonate, silicate, Aluminate).

(2) Chicken egg is composed of one million cells (one cell, 1000 cells, one million
cells).
(3) Visible light energy has the wave length of 400 -
700 nm. (100-300 nm, 400-700 nm, 800-1000 nm).

(4) The particle with positive charge but mass equal to electron is called positron.
(Neutron, Proton, Positron).

(5) Gas in children’s balloon going upwards is Hydrogen. (Hydrogen,


Nitrogen, Oxygen).

(6) Standard pressure is 760 mm. (760 mm, 766 mm,


870 mm).

(7) Iron corrodes due to formation of Iron oxide. (Iron Sulphide, Iron Oxide, Iron)

Q.4a What is the difference between a Dam and a Barrage.

r2.

DAM

It is built at greater heights where water is stored in a lake when it is allowed to


rolldown.

It has enough energy to move the blades of turbine to produce electricity.

BARRAGES

It doesn’t hold water for longer time so it is not built at great heights.

It is like a distributory for water channel. It can be used for irrigation only.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q.4b. Why can’t Barrages be used for production of hydroelectric


power.

Barrages could not be built at great heights so lack power to move turbines to
produce electricity. They serve just as distributory for channels and cannot be used
for hydroelectric power.

Q.5. What are Plastics? Discuss their important properties which have
contributed to their extensive use in modern industry. Explain the
advance effects on Environment.

Plastics
Definition

”Plastics are synthetic organic materials of high molecular weight that can be
shaped any form on heat.”

In modern age almost all articles of daily use are made from it. They may be
coloured or colourless.

History of Plastics

The word plastics comes from Greek Plastikos which means ”able to be
molded.”

word

The first synthetic material was ”celluloid” a mixture of cellulose nitrate and
camphor invented in
1868. It was used as substitute for ”Ivory.” In 1909, a second synthetic material
”Bakelite” was invented by Belgian-American chemist Leo Hendrik Backeland by
heating phenols and formaldehyde. These are also called ”polymeric materials.”

Classification of Plastics

Plastics can be classified into following categories.


| SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS I

1. HOUSE HOLD PLASTICS


Soft Plastics

Resistant plastics

Decorative Plastics

Hard Plastics Transparent Plastics

2. INDUSTRIAL PLASTICS

Thermo Setting Plastics

These can be melted once, after melting they harden acquiring a permanent shape

Examples are:

Bakelite, Polyesters,

epoxy plastics

Thermo Plastics

These can he melted again and much like candle.

Examples are:

Polyethylene and

Nylons

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS CONTRIBUTING TO


THEIR EXTENSIVE USE

(1) Plastics are light in weight.

(2) These are good electrical insulators.

(3) These are chemically resistant.

(4) Plastics are usually hygienic and non-allergic.


(5) These are fungus and water resistant compounds.

(6) They could be coloured, non-coloured or transparent.


k-**
i M a: vj »7iVgiMi 3 fl FH ^

LIMITATIONS

Plastics have two major limitations.

(1) They are non-resistant to heat.

(2) They are non-resistant to sunlight.

ADVERSE EFFECTS OF PLASTIC ON ENVIRONMENT:

Plastics being non-perishable, remain in their same position as are formed thus
polluting the environment.

Q.6. Give reasons for any four of the following.

(i) A 25 watts incadesent bulb provides much less light than 20 watts florescent
tubelight because florescent tube light produces gas which act as carrier and
disperse light in a better way.

(ii) Transmission lines carry very high voltage.

Voltage acts as pressure, waves move faster carrying current away.

(Hi) Wire in an electric bulb emits light when current passes through it because
filament of tungston which has high resistance, emitts photons.

(iv) Meat takes longer time to cook on mountain top than at sea level. At high
attitudes pressure is decreased and hence boiling point of water also decrease.

(v) More stirring is needed when sugar is dissolved in cold coffee than in hot
coffee.

In hot coffee, molecules of water has greater energy and they move far rapidly
than of cold one. That’s why, it needs less stirring.

Q.7. Explain in detail what is balanced diet.

Balanced Diet
”A balanced diet is one which contains all the essential nutrients of food in proper
proportions so as to provide energy and nutritional requirements for growth and
reproduction.”

A balanced diet satisfies a persons nutritional requirements and contributes to a


persons overall fitness.

Milk is the natures’ perfect food for babies. It is a well balanced food in fats,
proteins, carbohydrates and rich in vitamin A and D. Though somewhat low in
iron and vitamin C, mothers milk is the best for babies. Mothers milk also contains
certain antibodies which protect the infant from infectious disease. One should
keep a balanced diet chart, to have a good food providing required energy. To plan
a balanced diet, one should know amount of calories present in the food.

SOME FOODS AND THEIR COMPONENTS

Raw

Energy

Pro

Fat

Carbo

Ca

Fe

VITAMIN

Food

(KCal)

tein

(g)

hydra-

(mg)

(mg)

B
(g!
tes

Eggs

163

6.7

4.3

52

14

10

0.08

Sugar

387

140

Beef

183

11.5

12.5

10

2.6

0.08

Fish

176

20

10
0

38

1.2

0.08

Apple

58

0.3-

0.4

15.0

0.3

90

0.04

A balanced diet for the whole week should be managed according to the nutrients
it contain. Nutrient lacking in one could be taken from other kind of food.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Dietary Guidelines

(1) One should avoid too much of fats which include Cholesterol because it may
cause problems in blood circulation. Cholesterol is directly involved in the
formation of gall stones. It is present in animal fats.

(2) One should avoid too much sugar, because it can raise Insulin level, causing
diabetes.

(3) One should include adequate starchy foods as a source of glucose.


Carbohydrate fo >ds also provide fibre which acts as roughage and helps gut
wall to keep food moving through it.

Components of Food

The basic components or nutrients that must Constitute a balanced diet are.

(1) Proteins.

(2) Fats

(3) Carbohydrates

(4) Minerals

(5) Vitamins.

DIETARY DISORDERS

1. Starvation

In many parts of the world, people are unable to get enough food. As a result they
remain undernourished. They become weak and lose resistance against diseases.

2. Malnutrition

If the quality of food in terms of its variety is not carefully controlled, it leads to
malnutrition that is

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS


I ”improper nutrition. Most people in South East Asia & Africa depend on
carbohydrate food which provides sufficient energy in calories but lacks other
essential nutrients thus suffering from malnutrition.

3. Food Additives:

Some substances are added to food by food industries eg; food colourings,
preservatives and flavouring agents called food additives. They must be tested for
safety because some of them are quite harmful.

2. Name nutrient present in each


1.

Apple

Vitamin A I

?’

Bread

Carbohydrates

J’

Meat

Proteins and Iron

4-

Butter j

Fats

5-

Orange

Vitamin C

6-

Egg

Proteins

7’

Milk
Calcium

8.

Spinach

Vitamin A

2.

1.

Differentiate Between (i) LATITUDE

Latitude is a

measurement on map of location North or South of equator.

LONGITUDE

or

It is a measurement of location East or West.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

EVERYDAY SCIENCE

2.

1.

2.

From the equator to either pole there is about 1/4 circumference of the earth thus
greatest latitudes are 90° North and 90° South.

(ii) PIG IRON

”Pig” is a bar of cooled metal. It is the basic raw material for steel & Cast iron.
It contains Silicone 1% Sulpher 0.03% Phosphors 0.27% Magnesium 2.4%
Carbon 4.6%

(v) HARD WATER

The water which

doesn’t form lather

with soap is called Hard

H20

It produces salts with

soap, affecting its

cleaning action.

(vi) CHROMOSOME
1. These are thread like structures present in the nucleus.

1.

2.

It is measured 180° East and 180° West of prime meridian making angle of full
360° of Earth.
CAST IRON

It is generic group of metals that basically are alloys of Carbons, silicone


and iron. It has

Silicone 1.5%

Sulphur 1.5%

Phosphors 1.5% Magnesium 1.5% Carbon 2-3% Iron rest %age

HEAVY WATER

It is composed of an isotope of hydrogen and oxygen.

It is one of the moderators used in nuclear reactors.

GENE

These are unit of Inhei itance lying on chromosomes at specific sitc-s called
Locus.

Chromosome number is constant in different organisms.

Genes of different traits on chromosome may be hundreds of thousands.

What are warm blooded animals? Give any two examples. Explain three
traits in warm blooded animals.

Warm Blooded Animals

”Animals whose body temperature remains constant with respect to surrounding


environment, are called warm blooded animals.”

Examples

1. Man

2. Whale

Traits in Warm Blooded Animals


What does the abbreviation LASER stands you? Point out three differences
of laser & ordinary light mention two applications of laser.

.ser

Laser is a device that generates ”well organised” light or COHERENT light.

Ordinary light is made up of many different colours. Each colour has a


different wavelength and the photons of each coloifr are out of step with each
other. In a beam of laser light, all the photons have the same wavelength and
move in step, travelling along like a welldrilled army.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Derivation of Word Laser

The mechanism of laser relies on a process known as stimulated emission and the word
LASER is derived from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission.

Applications of Laser

(1) In eye surgery a retina that has become separated or detached from the eye can be
welded back into place using laser beam.

(2) LUM-V sources allow reproduction of three Jimeupiniiul images. This


technique is called Holography.

Difference b/w Lasei & Ordinary Light


SOIVED QUESTION PAPERS

LASER

1. Laser can produce light of single frequency.

2. Laser light has high penetrating power.

3. Laser lies in the invisible spectrum.

4. Laser is an intense beam that is produced due to emission ’ of electrons.

ORDINARY LKiHT

It is made up of seven colours with different frequencies & wavelengths.

Ordinary light has less penetrating power.

Ordinary light lie in visible spectrum. Ordinary light is a natural phenomena


produced chemically.

Q.10. Name the instruments used for measuring. QUANTITY INSTRUMENT

(i) Pressure, (ii) Voltage

Manometer Voltm

(in) Purity of milk (iv) Temperature (v) Velocity of wind.


Lactometer Thermometer

Q.ll. What are Computers? Name their Different classes. Briefly explain Soft
Ware & Hard Ware Computer.

See Page No. 142

Q.12. Name five scientists well-known for their contribution in following


fields.

QUANTITY

(i) Chemistry

(ii) Algebra

(Hi) Light

(iv) Sound

(v) Eye-Surgery

SCIENTIST

Jabir Ibn Hayyen

Al Beruni

Ibn Al-Haisham

Q.13. Fill in the blanks.

(i) Starch is a polymer of Carbohya: dtes.

(ii) A big astronomical observatory known as was established during the reign of Caliph
Mamoon.

(in) Adrenalin is secreted by Adrenal Cortex, (iv) Mars is planet nearest to earth. (v)
Moulds belong to group of plants called Fungi. (vi) CFC is abbreviation of Chloro
Flouro Carbon.

(vii) A Junction-diode is formed by semiconductor pieces.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q.I.

Ans.

(a) (b) (c)

(d)

(e)

(f) (8) (h)

(i) Q)

(a)

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1994


Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

Bacteria are parasites.

Ruby is an oxide of Aluminium.

(false) (true)

In the Australian continent, days are longer than nights in June. (false)

Gypsum is hydrated CaCo3 chemically. (false)

There are 23 moons around Saturn. (false)

Pluto is the farthest planet from sun. (true)

Chromite contains chromium oxide. (false)

Mica is a non-conductor of electricity (true)

Sun is the biggest star in the universe. (false)

The earth completes one rotation about its axis in


365.25 days. (false)

Write short notes on any 2 of the following:

Structure of Animal cell:

Definition: Cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organism.

”It is a fundamental living unit”.

The Basis of Cell Theory: It states that both plants and animals are made up of
cells.

Cell is infact an elaborate system of molecular machinery. It is so small that it can


be seen only under microscope.

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Structure: (animal cell): Each cell consists of 2 parts: --

(1) Nucleus

(2) Cytoplasm.

1. Nucleus: It is present in the centre of the cell surrounded by a nuclear


membrane. It controls the activities of the cell. It also contains the hereditary
material - DNA.

2. Cytoplasm: Exoplasm, Endoplasm: It is the large part of a cell \vhich is a


jellylike material and it contains watei tood and dissolved gases. It controls the
catabohc (destructive) activities.

3. Cell Membrane: It is a thin skin that holds the cell contents together. It is
equipped with complex protein molecules that regulate the passage of
molecules into and out of the cell and act as sensors informing the cells of external
conditions.

4. Ribosomes: They manufacture proteins by following the blueprints


encoded in messenger RNA. They have a complex structure. RNAs are of 3
types:--

Ribosomal RNA
Messenger RNA

Transfer RNA

(r-RNA) (m-RNA

(t-RNA)

5. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Smooth and rough. It consist of a complex of


membranes that form internal compartments used in the synthesis and transport of
various compounds produced by the cell.
6. Nucleolus: These are present in a nucleus. It is a factory for the manufacture of
ribosomes.

7. Microtubules: It is a complex lattice work that gives form to cell and enables it
to systematically move change shape.

8. Lysosomes: They contain enzymes that break down unwanted material within
the cell.

9. Mitochandria: These are chemical factories that generate energy for the
cell through the controlled breakdown of food molecules.
centnol

golgiapparatus <•

luclear membrane

nucleoli nucleus <•

lipid droplets

Animal Cell
cell membiano

Exoplasm > ondoplasm

Endoplasme reticulum

Lyiosomes
* Vacuoles (Small)

Mitorliondria

ANIMAL CELL
10. Centrioles: These are 2 special rods/granules present near nucleus in a zone of
centrosome. it provides mitotic/meiotic spindles during cell division.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS]

(b) WATER POLLUTION: ”It is the presence of pollutants in water”.

Factors which are responsible for water pollution are:~

(1) rapid population growth

(2) discharge of biological contaminants into natural water sources.

(3) Chemical contamination from industrial waste.


(4) In rural areas, majority use untreated ground water and surface water for
drinking & domestic purposes.

(5) In urban areas, urbanization, population growth and industrialisation has


increased the water supply demand and increased production of sewage
where the sewage and water pipes are lunning closely, small leakages result in
water contamination.

Sources of Water Pollution:

It can occur at various points in the water supply

system:

(1) Catchment areas

(2) Streams

(3) Wells

(4) Springs

(5) Water treatment plants

(6) Reservoirs ,

(7) Distribution system

(8) Public standpoints


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(9) Sewers

(10) Septic tank discharges

(11) Defective latrines

(12) Manure heaps

(13) Insanitary disposal of excreta

(14) Improper operation of water T/M plants by operators.

(15) Leakage in water distribution system (organic pollution)

Types of Water Pollution:

(1) Sewage Waste Water: It contains organic matter which exerts a demand
on O2 resources of the receiving water. It is called as Biological Oxygen
Demand (B.O.D). The organic matter contains cal’bohydrates proteins, fats oils,
sewage has also variety of organisms (pathogen) which are infective to man.

(2) Storm Water Run Off: It has also a certain B.O.D.

(3) Industrial Waste Water: It contains raw materials, intermediate final and
by-products and chemicals. The pollutants are:

Servants detergents cyanides

heavy metals minerals

organic acids

Nitrogenous substances

fats

salts

bleaching agents

dyes & pigments


tanning agents
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

phenolic compounds sulfides

toxic & biological compounds

They have:

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

(4) Agricultural Waste Water:

- animal wastes

- sediments from land

- manure

- pesticides

- inorganic salts

- minerals

- run off water from irrigated & fertilised farm lands.

Diseases Transmitted by Water

Non-specific

specific

Bacterial Viral

Protozoal Helminthic
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

fon-Sprpecific Diseases

, GIUT disturbancies Demtntal flourosies Deental caries Pb _ poisoning


Enczdeuir goiter

acterBial Diseases

Chczolera

Typnphoid

Bac ciliary dysentery

Diaamrrhoea

elmin ithic

p-Hydrated cyst EZDracenclosis

Purification of Water

Viral Disease

1. Polio

2. Trachemia

3. Infective hepatitis

Protozual

1. Amoeba Dysentery

large S Scale

Filtrat-tion ^hloranation

B. On small scale

1. Household
2. Well water

Cczontrol of Water Pollution

;ally > no entry allowed.

ssibly > keep it minimum.

sirabl>«y””” stream to recover.

sentiaMlly -> original quality to be maintained.

efully -” coordinate with others

jally > apply regulations.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Plan for safe water supply to public:

rain water

1. Source of water ground water

surface water

2. water Sampling

3. Water examination

Physical chemical biological

4. Water collection

5a. Storage

6a. Slow sand Filtration

5b. Chemical Treatment I

6b. Rapid sand Filtration


7. Disinfection

by
chlorination i

8. Distribution

9. Surveillance
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q.3. Describe briefly any five (1 mark each):-

Ans. Alloy: When two or more suitable metals are melted together and then the
molten mixture is allowed to col down and harden it is called as an Alloy.

This is done to get desired properties from the metals. Alloys behave differently
from the metals mixed. Most of the corrosion problems are slowed down by using
alloys.

Examples:

(1) Stainless Steel: Is the best known example of the corrosion resistant alloy. It
belongs to the family of steel-alloys of iron with other metals, here iron is
alloyed to get rust resistance substance.

(2) Amalgam: It contains Hg with Zn, Na, Li. It is a silvery white porous
crystalline mass, it is used in dental fillings silvering of mirrors and as
catalysts.

(b) POLYMER: ”It is a long chain molecule made up of monomer units in a


repetitive manner under special conditions of temperature, pressure and catalyst”.

Polymerisation: ”It is a chemical reaction in which the small molecules called


monomers unite together to form a large chain molecule, polymer”.

The product of polymerisation is called a ’synthetic polymer”

Significance: All plastics are made up of polymers and there are about 60,000
plastics.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Length of a polymer determines the strength and durability of plastic. Chemical


reaction.

CH2 = CH2

ethylene gas monomer


CHo CHg

high pressure OR
w
special catalyst(-CH2 - CH2 )n

(Ni, Cd, A12O3) Polymer, Poly

ethylene, polythene)

Polymer Types: Natural

1. Proteins eg., meat,

chicken, beef, fish

2. Cellulose

Synthetics

1. Polyethylene

2. Terylene

4. Bekalite

5. Melamine

2. Cellulose -j

3. Starch J Carbohydrates

4. Wool

5. Silk

6. Cotton

(c) Balanced Diet: ”A food that contains all the nutrients in optimal quantity is
called as Balanced Diet”.

Food is a complex mixture of chemical substances. It performs following useful


functions when eaten and absorbed by the body.

- Produce energy
- Promote growth

- Repair the tissues

- regulate various processes

Nutrients: These are the chemical components of food capable of performing


above functions.
•MgaityivgaMigHMa

Example: Milk is a balanced died although it does not contain iron.

Various food Nutrients are

•aMMMiMMiiaaHMMaaJSiEi

Nutrient

Source

Function
1. Carbohydrates

Bread, Potatoes, Sugar

Provide energy

2. Fats

Butter, Cheese
n

3. Proteins

Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk

Growth & repair

4. Minerals

Vegetables, fruits

Control body processes

5. Water

Water, fruits

Control body processes

6. Vitamins

Fruits, vegetables

Control body processes


Q.4. Fill in the Blanks. Ans.

1. The capacity to do work is called energy

2. The energy possessed by a body due to its

position is Called potential energy.

3. Kitab-al-Manazar is a publication by a famous Muslim scientist about optical works.

4. Nucleus usually lies in the centre of an animal cell.

5. Calcium and phosphorus are the essential elements of bones.

6. Proteins are formed by combination of Amino Acids.

7. Rain water dissolves SO2 to form sulfuric Acid.

8. The set of instruction given to a computer is called command.

9. Chemicals such as penicillin which act on microorganism are called


antibodies.

10. The disease Hemophilia is caused by ihe deficiency of vitamin K.

Q.5. Which part of a plant do they belong to: (1/2 each)

Ans.

(1) Ginger > stem

(2) Reddish > root

(3) Potato > stem


//f\ /”l-

(4) Cinnamon

(5) Peanut

(6) Saffron

(7) Almond

(8) Chillies

(9) Spinach (10) Tomato


Q.6.

stem

fruit

Flower

fruit

fruit

leaf

fruit

Q.6. Which field of study do the following

branches of science represent? (1 each) Ans.

(1) Heamatology > Blood

(2) Cytology > Cell

(3) Morphology > Gross and TV.;~- --

structure

(4) Psychology > Psyche

(5) Geology > Earth

Q.7. Fill in the blanks with correct choice: Ans.

Blood Cell

Gross and microscopic

structure

Psyche

Earth

(1) In a a heat engine, heat energy is changed into mechanical energy.


(2)

(3) (4) (5)

(6)

(7) (8) (9)

(10) Q.8,

Ans.

Frequency of audible sound in hertz is 20 to


20,000 Hertz.

Deficiency of vitamin B causes Beri Beri. Cheapest source of producing electricity


is water.

The smallest unit of measurement of wavelength is nanometer.

The chemical generally used in refrigerators is freon.

The unit ”TON” to specify A.Cs is equal to 12,000. The unit of electricity kwhr is
the unit of power.

Period of famous Muslim scientists is 7th to 13th century.

Heat radiation travels at speed equal to speed light.

What are viruses? Describe their structure. Which of the following diseases
are caused by virus and which are caused by bacteria?

Virus: ”It is a small unicellular microorganism that contains either DNA or


RNA”.

Size: The majority of viruses measure between


10-400 nm (0.01 - 0.4 nm) and are therefore too small to be seen with light
microscope. But they can be studied with electron microscope.

Dependence on Host Cells: As virus has no cellular structure and cell organelles
thus it is unable to make its own proteins and essential enzymes. It is therefore
completely dependent on its host cell for energy & replication. Outside living cell,
it is metabolically inactive. The
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

information contained in virus’s nucleic acid is used by a host cell to produce ne’w
viruses.
nucleic acid

outer

protective protein coat (capsid)

inner core of DNA/RNA

Structure of Viruses: All viruses consists of a mass (core) of single or double


stranded DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid.
The nucleic acid and capsid form nucleo capsid.

Capsid is ”antigenic” and contains receptors which enable a virus to attach to the
surface of its specific host cell. It consist of a number of
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

identical units called ”capsomers”. Capsid has 3 types of symmetry which is used in virus
classification:

(1) Icosa Hedral: Capsid has 20 equal sides and overall virus shape is spherical.

(2) Helical: Capsid is spiral which surrounds spiral shaped core of nucleic acid.
Virus may be spherical/elongated/filamentous/pleomorphic.

(3) Complex: Capsid which is neither of above type and overall virus shape is brick-like.

Types of Virus:

(1) RNA Viruses

eg. - Yellow fever virus

- Rubella virus

- Rota virus

- Ralies virus

- Mumps virus

- Measles virus

- Para influenza virus

- Polio virus

- Influenza virus _ HIV virus

- Heptatitis A virus

Disease

1. Polio

2. Diphtheria

3. AIDs

4.. Tetanus
5. Smallpox

6. Measles

(2) eg-

DNA Viruses

- Herpes virus

- Adeno virus

- Varicella zoster virus

- Cyto megalo virus

- E.B. virus

- Hepatitis B virus

(Bacterial/Viral)

viral

bacterial

viral

bacterial

virak

viral

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Q.9.

Name the 3 major parts of human brain and the function they control. Make
a rough labelled diagram of the brain.

Human Brain:

It is the great nervous centre of the body and it is the large upper portion of
cerebro-spinal axis filling the cavity of the cranium.
3 Major parts of human brain and their functions: (1) The Cerebrum (Greater
Brain):

It is the chief seat of

- Sensation

- Intelligence

_ Will

- Emotions

2. The Cerebellum: (lesser brain)

Its main function is the regulation or coordination of all muscular


movements.

(3) The Medulla Oblongata;

It governs those involuntary movements which constitute the acts of breathing and
swallowing.
Diagram of the Brain
central sulcus

Parietal lobe
lateral aulcua

Frontal lobe

Parieto occipital sulcus

occipital lobe

Superlateral Surface
Cinjjutot* sulcus

fornix

corpus caDosum

uncus’

I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Medical Surface

midbrain

Q.10. Give brief answers of any five?

(a) Name the 2 proteins found in milk.

1. Casien

2. Lactin

(b) Which organ of human body controls the amount of water and salt in
body.

Ans. Kidneys control the amount of salt and water. These are 2 in number - Right
and Left, present on the posterior abdominal wall, pear shaped and brownish red in
colour.

”Nephron” is their structural and functional unit. There are about 1 million
nephrons in each kidney.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Nephron: Consist of following parts:

- Boumann’s capsule

- Proximal convoluted tubule

- Loop of Henle

- Distal convoluted tubule

- Collecting duct

Boumann’s capsule has a tuft of capillaries in its convexity called as glomerulus


through which the exchange of materials take place.
(c)

in 5 major groups,

(d)

Drugs are classified in 5 major groups, name any 2,

1, Antibiotics ;

2. Corticosteroids

How do chromosomes in a male & female differ in human body.

There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each human cell. Out of these 22 are
”autosexual” that are same in both male and female while the 23rd pair is called as
”sex chromosomes” that is different in male and female.

In male it is represented as xy.

And in female it is represented as xx.

(e) Which gas do you exhale more than you inhale.

CO2
(f) Name any 2 glands which secrete hormones in human body.

1. Pancreas (Insulin)

2. Thyroid (Thyroxin)

•aMMiaiMiiiaiiHMgiaaaaiEl

Q.ll. Explain briefly. (2.5 each)

Formation of a Rainbow: Definition:

”A rainbow is the appearance of the band of seven colour spectrum on the


horizon”.

White Light:

Although the sunlight appears to be white but it is infact made up of 7 different


colours, eg. a rotating1 pulley with 7 colours.

Formation:

A rainbow is formed when this white light gets dispersed by passing through
millions of falling spherical raindrops which act as series of prisms.

Occurrence:

It usually occurs after a rainfall when there are numerous water drops hanging in
the atmosphere. Discovery:

This mechanism was discovered by ”Newton” who passed the white light
(polychromatic) through the prism and it broke out into seven colours. It is named
as spectrum.

Order of Colours in Spectrum:

VIBGYOR

= Violet

G
= Green

= Indigo

= Yellow

= Blue

= Orange

= Red
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Types of Spectrum:

1. Visible Spectrum:

It contains 7 colours in an order of VIBGYOR.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

/ORANGE\

/ YELLOW \

/ GREEN \

/ YELLOW \

INDIGO

\
VIOLET

2.

Invisible Spectrum: It is present above violet and below red colours regarding the
wavelength of light.
eg.

3.

Ultra violet rays Infra red rays Continuous Spectrum:

It contains all the 7 colours of polychromatic light in an ordered way. (VIBGYOR)

4. Line Spectrum:

It is not a continuous spectrum and consists of bright lines separated by dark


patches in between. It is used for the identification of elements.
Q.12. Differentiate between any 5 of the following: (1 each)

(a) Arteries

1. Arteries are the blood channels that carry oxygenated blood in them, away from
the heart, towards the

periphery.

2. The only exception is pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated blood from
right ventricle to lungs.

3. The great artery is ”Aorta” that arises from left ventricle

Veins

1.

blood

Veins are the channels that carry deoxygenated blood in them, towards the heart,
away from the periphery.

2. The only exception is pulmonary vein that carries oxygenated blood from lungs
to left auricle.

3. The great veins are superior and inferior vena cava that carry blood into right
atrium.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

4. Artery divides into ”branches”.

5. Its abnormal dilatation is called ”aveurysm”.

6. The wall of artery is thick & muscular.

7. Its colour is reddish.

8. It doesn’t have valves.

9. Its pulsations are palpable.

10. It gives ”bruit” with steth.

(b) PNP transistor

1. It is transistor with a sandwich of semiconductor materials in a way that the


outer layers have ptype semiconductors and the central layer has n-type semi-
conducter.

4. Vein divides into ”tributaries”.

5. Its abnormal dilatation is called ”varicosity”.

6. The wall of vein is thin & less muscular.

7. Its colour is bluish.

8. It has valves inside

9. Non-palpable.

10. It gives hum”.

”venous

NPN transistor

1. It is a transistor with a sandwich of semiconductor materials in a way that the


outer two layers have n-type semi-
conductor and the central layer has ptype semi-conductor.

Doping is a process in which impurities are added to a semi-conductor to boost up


its efficiency.

Impurities: (1) electron donor n -type

(2) electron acceptor p - type

Semi-Conductors:

(1) N-type are made by doping electron rich metals like arsenic into pure silicon.

(2) P-type are made by doping electron deficient metals like Boron into pure
silicon.

Significance:

(1) Transistor is a basic unit of all electrical appliances.

(2) It amplifies the flow of current.

(3) It has a small size against vacuum tube.

(4) It does not heat up.

(c) Electronic Current

1. This is electricity in motion.

2. It involves flow of electrons.

3. It has high voltage.

(d) Concave Lens

1. It is the lens which is narrower in the centre and broader towards the corners.

Static Current

1. This is electricity at rest.


2. It dos not involve flow of electrons”.

3. It has low voltage.

Convex Lens

1. It is the lens which is narrower towards the corners and broader towards the
centre.
2. When a beam of light strikes a concave lens all the rays after passing
through it diverge.

3. It gives mostly virtual images.

2. Converge a single point.

3. Mostly real images except when the ray of light passes through it when object is placed
b/w optical centre & focus.
LVED QUESTION PAPE

Q.13. Describe the principle, construction and working of Telephone?

Ans. Telephone: It is a device for reproducing sound at a distance from its source by
means of the transmission of an electrical signal.

Principle: The basic principle is using the sound vibration to control a larger source of
power and creating a variable resistance in electrical circuit. This is done by making an
electric current

are: (1) (2) (3) (4) WORKING:

varying in intensity precisely as air varies in density during the production of sound.

Construction: The essential parts of a telephone

Mouthpiece

Ear piece Dialing system

Complete electric circuit

1.

2.

3.
4.

Mouth Piece: The speaker talks into the

mouthpiece, behind which is a transmitter.

Vibrating air molecules produced by the speech

generate vibrations in a thin aluminium


diaphragm. These vibrations are transmitted to a

small piston which is the cover for a metallic box

filled with small granules of carbon. Electrical

contact is made only through the carbon which is

a good conductor of electricity. Vibration of piston

causes the electrical resistance of carbon grains to

vary and the amount of electricity passing

through the circuit also varies and hence through

the conducting line.

Ear Piece: It is at the receiving end. A sound membrane is made to perform vibrations
similar to the one induced in the ear piece.

Dial/Touch-Tone: It sends out an electrical code that establishes the correct connection.

Electrical Circuit: A telephone operates as part of a complete electrical circuit. Thus it


needs •<> power source, (50 volt battery) a conductor, and ;i switch.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Modes of transmission of telephone signals,

There are the electrical signals transmitted by:

(1) Through cables

(2) Radio relays

(3) Micro waves

(4) Optical light waves

Q.14. Describe briefly: (1 mark each)?

Ans. EGO-SYSTEM:

Ecosystem is like a machine with certain inputs and outputs, while input is
according to the object of management.

(ECO

OIKOS

home)

It can be defined as an aggregation of biotic factors interacting with abiotic


factors.

Components:

ECO SYSTEM

A. Abiotic factors

(Non Living Things) (reosphere (soil) Hydro sphere (water) Atmosphere (air)
Igneosphere (sun)

Example:

(1) Desert Ecosystem:


(2) Forest Ecosystem:

(3) Marine Ecosystem:

B. Biotic Factors (Living Things)

Producers (plants) Consumers (animals) Predators

Decomposing Bacteria

Sand is a dominant factor. Trees are the dominant factor.

Water is the dominant factor.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

DIFFUSION

pefinition:

”The movement of molecules or ions in a solvent from an area of its higher


concentration to the area of lower concentration is called diffusion”.

eg.d) If a bottle of perfume is opened in a room its smell will be distributed


throughout the available space in the room

(2) If a crystal of KMnO, (solute) is placed in water (solvent) it is dissolved and its
molecules or ions move & get evenly distributed throughout the water.

(3) Diffusion is responsible for multiple piocesses taking place in unicellul ir


organisms.

(J.15. Explain what is meant by Non-Conventional sources of Energy”,


Describe any 3 of these:-

r See Chapter 3
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

EVERYDAY SCIENCE

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1995


Q.I. Which of the following statements are true and which are false:

(1) Gyptogerms «re non flowering plants (True). (2> Reserve food material
is usually stored as Glvcogen in plants. (False)

(3) Strepto coccus is a gram-vc bacteria. (False)

(4) Spinach is a good souice of vitamin C. (True)

iHI Insulme it, a hoimone secreted by spleen. (False)

,6) Fevei is a Done of a forearm. (False)

(7) The moon has no atmosphere. (True)

(Si Excc-ssue burning of fossil fuel cause acid rain.

(True) (9) 21st of JUIH is the longest day of the year in the

North. (True(10) Electricity i- the secondary source of energy.

tTrue)

Q.2. Define any FfVE of the following terms:

(a) Doping:

”It is a process in which slight traces of impurities are adfled in the pure semi-
conductors to boost up their properties.” It fascilitates the flow of electrons.

Tl’t-i v aie 2 types of Impurities.-

(1) Kich m es

(2) Deficient in es

= electron donor = n- type


= electron-acceptor = P- type

Examples:

1. n-type = Silicon + Arsenic

2. p-type = Silicon + Boron.

(1) n type semiconductors are made by doping rich metals like aisemc into the
puie silicon.

(2) p-tvpe semi conductors are made by doping with deficient metals like Born
into pure silicon

(b) Immunization

”It is a process of protecting the body against disease by means of vaccines or


resumes.”

Types:

1. Active Immunity.

2, Passive Immunity.

Resumes (Iminunoglobulins) furnish immunity by adding anti bodies directly to


the blood. (Active Immunity),

Vaccines provide immunity by causing the body || to manufacture anti bodies in


response to antigenicity of vaccine, which fight against disease. (Passive
Immunity).

(c) Pasteurization

”It is a process which involves rapid heating of the milk under pressme to 125 -
150 ~C for a few seconds only which is then rapidly cooled and bottled ”

I Merits

1. It preserves: ,
- taste.

- flavoiu

- appearance
_EVERYDAY SCIENCE |

- digestibility

(2) It wills specific harmful organisms.

(3) It delays the natural sowing of milk by 12 to 24 hours.

Origin

It was discovered by a French scientist ”Hours Pasteur” and is named after him.

It is a preventive measure of public health importance.

(d) Modulation

”It is a process in which sound or vision are converted into electric pulse and are
catalogued with carrier wave of electro megnanetic radiation of transmission.”

Significance

It is a basic principle of Radio and TV, followed by ”demodulation” that is exactly


reverse of it.

Example

At Radio Station, the speaker speaks and his sound undergoes compression and
rarefaction, the receiver catches it and converts it into an ”electrical pulse” that passes
through cables. It is then converted into electromeganetic radiation that is transmitted
through the antenna of Radio Station in the environment.

From air, our home antenna receives these. EM radiations and convert them again into
sound waves that we can hear from our Radio-set.
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

(e) Catabolism

”It is the set of metabolic reactions in which break down of bigger organic molecules
(food) occurs into unstable smaller chemical components.”

Example:

The break down of principle nutrients of food.

- Carbohydrates
- fats

- proteins

Mechanism

It takes place in 3 phases.

(1) First Phase

- fats > fatty acids + glycerine

- Proteins * Amino Acids.

(2) Second Phase

Glucose

Fatty acid + Glycerine

Amino Acids

(3) Third Phase

Acetyl Co Enzyme

(ATP) TT

Acetyl Co Enzyme > (3-C compound) Energy I

CO2 + H20 + Energy

ATP ”Adenosine Tri Phosphate”

This molecule is a basic unit in metabolism. /

During catabolism, energy is captTiFelTfrom an organic material and transformed into


ATP.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Anabolism

It is a metabolic process that is reverse of catabolism.

(f) Reprocessing of Reactor Fuel

”It is a process in which the fissionable product is recovered from the spent
nuclear reaction fuel by chemical dissolution.”
Demerit

It generates ”Nuclear Waste” that is highly radio active and hazardous for health.
It has radio active Ba and Kr. It can be disposed off by:

- recycling

- sending into space

- burial under a sea bed.

Q.3. Fill in the blanks:

(1) The largest planet of the solar system is Jupiter.

(2) The outermost layer of earth is called crust.

(3) Newton is a unit of Force.

(4) Radium was discovered by Madam Curie.

(5) The memory of the computer is expressed in C.P U.

(6) Qurtz is a crystalline form of silicon dioxide.

(7) Aids is caused by Human Immune deficiency Virus (HIV).

(y) Chemical name of Gypsum is Calcium Sulphate.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

(9) Molten superhot material present inside a volcano is called lava.

(10) Ritcher scale measure the severity of earth quake.


Q.4. What is the composition of blood? Describe six main functions of blood:

Ans. Blood:

”It is a vital connective tissue fluid of the body.”

Composition:

Blood

Plasma

(52-55%)

Carpuscles

(45-48%)

RBC(ii%) WBC

(Haemoglobin) (Protoplasm)

Platelets

PH: 7.45 -- 7.35 (alkaline)

Volume: 5.5 litres. (l/10th of total body weight).


Colour

Red (due to Haemoglobin)


Temperature

98.3 °F (normal).
Plasma:

•MiaryijTivgaMiafiHa

Plasma

WE
90-

iter
•92’*)

Inoij Comp<

sol
8-1

ids

W/c

*anic lonents

.janic jnents

Or|

Comp
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Blood Carpuscles

They remain suspended m the blood. These are of 3 types.

)RBC

Circular

Bioconcave

Non nucleated

7.2 diameter

Average no in adult female


4.7 million/mm < ± 300,000

Average no in adult male.

7-8 million /mm’

NaH

- Plasma proteins

K+

Ca + +

Mg”

Plasma Proteins

- Albumin

- Globulin

- Fibrmgen

- Prothrombin

- Carbohydrates (Glucose)

- fats (Neutral fat, Pluspholipia cholestrol)

- Non-Protein Nitrogenous substances area, uric acid, Ammo Acid, Ammia

- Colouring Matter Bilirubin, Carotens.

- Enzymes amylase Lipase Protease Phosphates

RBC

Water
657,

sol
35

ids
>r/r

Hb
337f

Hb. level in male = 16 gm%

Hb level in female = 12-14 gm%

/ (2) WBC /

No hemoglobin Nucleated /Greater size / lesser in number (4000 - HOOO/mm--1)

Stroma

2%
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE1 WBC

Granulocytes

_, Eosinophils l-3’<r

_, Basophils 0-lf/i _+ Neutrophils 40-70^

Non granulocytes

Hymphocytes
20-45’*

Monocles 3-7^

(3) Platelets Oral biconvex non nucleated diameter: 2-4 microns. Count: 250,000 -
450,000/mnr’

Functions of Blood

(1) Transport of respiratory Gases. O2: Lungs »• tissues

CO2: tissues > lungs

(2) Transport of nutrition.

Intestine > digested food in blood tissue cells.

(3) Act as a Medium for the transport of hormones, vitamins + other chemicals.

(4) Drainage of waste ^products through excretory

system.

(5) Regulation of body temperature as it has.

- high specific heat. \ ’I

- high thermal conductivity.

- high latent heat of evaporation.

(6) Maintenance of Ion balance between cell & remety fluid.

(7) Maintenance of water balance.

(8) Maintenance of acid base equilibrium, due to buffering power by Plasma proteins.
(9) Defensive Action clue to

- WBC

- Anti bodies.

(10) Coagulation prevents hemorrhage.

(11) Regulation of Blood Pressure due to change in

- Volume

- viscosity.

(12) Plasma Proteins.

- helps in coagulation.

- transport of tissue fluids.

- helps in unity.

Q.5. Write short notes of 150 words each on any 2 of the following.

(a) Semi Conductors

”These are the materials through which the electricity is passed partially and their
conductivity is in between conductors and insulators.” Their functioning evolve the
science of solid state physics.

Example

Conductors : Al, Cu

Insulator: glass, wood, paper.

Semi conductors: Silicon, Silicon Carbide.


Effect of Temperature on Semi Conductors

The conductivity of a semi-conductor increases with increase in temperature to a


certain extent. This ability makes it efficient material in electrical appliances.

Doping

It is a process in which slight traces of impurities are added in pure sgmi


conductors to boost up their properties.

There are 2 types of impurities.

(1) Rich in electron - electron donor n -type.

(2) Deficient in electron - electron acceptor Ptypes.

- On the basis of impurities there are 2 types of semi conductors.

(1) n-type Semi-Conductor (Si + Ar)

Are made by doping electron rich metals like arsenic into the pure si.

(2) p-type Semi-conductors (Si + B)

Are made by doping electron deficient metals like boron into pure Si.

Transistor: (NPN Junction)

It is a sandwich of semi-conductors which is used in all electrical appliances for


the amplification of

currents. ^ \

smaller in size.

As compare to vaccine tube ips does not heat rn. \


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Types of Semi-Conductors

(1) Elements. Silicon Germanium Selenium


(2) Compounds: Gallium Arsenide Cadmium sulphide Lead telluride Indian
antimonide

(3) Organic: Anthracene Ziegler-catalyzed acetylene polymers.

Properties of semi conductors follow the structure of a material.

Highly pure semi conductors with controlled atomic structures of silicon,


Germanium and Gallium phosphide are used in electronic industry.

Microchip

It is a minute wafer of Silicon that can pass through an eye of needle and may
carry more than
10,000 circuits over it. It is used in computer.

Pure Silicon

It is obtained by heating SiO2 with C.

heat SiO2 + C > Si + CO2

(b) Pesticides

”These are the substances, organic or in organic, which are used to destroy or
inhibit the action of animal or plant pests.”
L

Pest

It is an organism which interferes in someway with man.

Common House hold Pests

Mosquitoes, silverfish,

Flies, Book lice,

Bed bugs, cloth moths

Cockroaches, Crickets,

Carpet beetles, Tick Flee.

Classification of Pesticides

(a) On the basis of their Victim

(1) Insecticides control insects.

(2) Rodenticides kill rats and mice.

(3) Herbicides kill weeds.

(4) Fungicides used against moulds and fungi.

(b) On the basis of their mode of action.

(1) Fumigants used in enclosed space and act by producing fumes or vapours
with lethal properties. (Methyl Bromide & ethylene

^/ dibromide).

(2) RepeUants repel the pests due to their typical odour. (Dimethylphthalate) eg Mospel.

(3) Systemics are absorbed by the roots or leaves of the plant and get translocated to
various parts of the plant. Thus the whole plant act as a killing food for target pests,
(sehradan).

(c) On the basis of Chemical Structure.


| SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
(1) Chlorinated pesticides affect insects and vertebrates by loss of
movement, violent tremors, convulsion and death.

(2) Organo Phosphates affect nervous transmission in insects & mammals through
the inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase. Whose normal role is to eliminate acetyl
choline formed in nervous transmission.

An ideal pesticides should be

- volatile

- non residual

biq degradable

D.D.T.

Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane)

It is a chlorinated pesticide. It controlled malaria very effectively in USA but now


it is banned as it is non biodegradable and has residual properties.

(c) Properties of Laser

”It is a device which generates well organised and coherent light, with essentially
a single frequency.”

Medical uses

. (1) Dentists use it to remove decay from tooth.

(2) As it can be focused very accurately on a point thus surgeons can use it
in very delicate operations.

(3) In eye surgery, a detached retena can be welded back into place using a laser
beam.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Other uses:

(4) It is used in surveying and ranging.

(5) It can be used to initiate thermos nuclear reactions which occur


only at very high temperature.

(6) It produces 3 dimensional images called Holography.

(7) It is used for range finding, target designation.

(8) It is developed as anti satellite and ballistic missile defence weapons. ’ •

Comparison with an Ordinary Light

ORDINARY LIGHT

1. It is a mixture of colours, wavelengths & frequencies. It is a weak


light. Photons are randomly distributed. It is a diluted light.

It is an indisciplined light.

6. Incoherent light.

7. Cannot be focused on a very small point.

LASER

1. It consist of single colour, wavelength & frequency.

2. It is a powerful light.

3. Photons are cohe-


t

rently distributed.
4 It is a concentrated light.

5. Disciplined light.

6. Coherent light.
7. Can be focused.

Q.6. Write short notes on any 2 of the following

scientists (each in 100 words). Ans. (a) Ibn Al-Baitar:

His real name was Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Ibn Al-Baitar. He was
born in Malaga (Spain) at the end of 12tli Century.

He was a great Spanish Muslim botanist and pharmacist. He made a complete


collection of plants & herbs extending from Spain to Syria. He discovered many
new plants and extracted medical drugs from them.

His work was considered an authority in plants and he gave new orientation to the
classification and nomenclature of plant kingdom over which modern botany is
based.

He died in Damascus in 1248 A.D.

He was the author of following famous books.

- Kitab Al Jami fi Adwiya Al Mufzada.

- Jami.

- Mughani.

(b) Al-Biruni

Abu Rayhan Muhammad Al-Biruni was born near the town of Khawarizm in 973
A.D.

He was a physician, astronomer, mathematician, physicist, geographer and


historian. He was a born writer and he never had a pen out of his hand. He learnt
Sanskrit language to investigate Indian knowledge. He explained the problems of
advanced trignometry.

He discovered that light travels faster than sound. He accurately determined the
weight of 18 stones in physics. He gave an understanding to the terms of
longitudes and latitudes.
He died at the age of 75 years in 1048 A.D. He was the author of following
famous books.
- Tahqiq Al-Hind.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

- Qanun Ai-Masudi

- Asrar Al-Baqiya

- Kitab Al-Saidana

- Kitab Al-Jawahar

- Al-Tafhim

(c) Ibn Al-Haitham

Birth: Abu Ali Al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham, better known as Alhazan in the West was
born at Basrah in 975 A.D.

Scientific Contributions

He was an outstanding

- Mathematician,

- Physiologist, and

- Optician.

- He was more known for his optical works which were translated into Latin.

- He explained the refraction of light rays through transparent objects.

- Discovered magnifying lenses and

- The function of retina as the seat of vision.

- He identified gravity as a force, a theory which was later on developed by


Newton.

- He observed the semi-lunar shape of the image of sun during eclipses on a wall
opposite to five hole in the window-shutters.

Death

He died in Cairo in 1039 A.D.


Famous books

- Uyunul Arabia fi Tabaqaat it Atibba

- Kital Al Manazir
| SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS |

- On Twi light phenomena

- Mizamul Hikma

- Configuration of the Universe.

Q.7. Give brief explanation of any five:

Ans.

(a) The earth bulges out at the equator

It is one of the effects of ”Rotation of earth” which is the movement of earth


around its axis from West to East in 24 hours.

The polar diameter of earth is 7900 miles while that of equator is 7927 miles.

The surface of the earth is not one solid part but is made up of 15 tectonic plates.
The crust of the Earth is under 2 types offerees.

(1) Centripetal. (Towards the centre).

(2) Centrifugal. (Away the Centre).

The speed of rotation of Earth is different at polls as compared to that at equator.

Earth travels more distance at equator, therefore, its speed is slowed down.
Consequently the crust of Earth at equator is under more centrifugal force which
makes the earth to bulge out at equator. It is due to this reason polar diameter of
earth is less than that of equatorial diameter.

(b) The sun appears red at sunset and sunrise: Ans.

At sunset and sunrise we see the sun, therefore, the greater thickness of air because
it is low in the sky. The colours of the spectrum are gradually scattered. Red and
range are last to be scattered through the atmosphere therefore, sun appears
organised red.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(c) The sky when viewed from the moon

appears completely b^ack:

Actually there is no cojlour of the sky. It colour depends upon scattering of white
light of sun by the dust particles hanging in the atmosphere. This is called
”Tyndall Effect.”

As Moon has no atmosphere thus it appears black when viewed from the Moon.

(d) Ozone layer in the upper atmosphere is necessary for our survival:

Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen in which 3 atoms of oxygen are present in


one molecule.

It is normally present in the stratosphere layer of atmosphere about 20 km above


the earth surface.

The solar radiations that reach the earth’s surface from the sun have to pass
through this ozone layer before reaching the earth.

The ozone layer checks the entry of harm radiations such as UV rays and prevent
their entry.

If these hazardous rays enter the atmosphere (through ozone hole) they cause.

- skin cancer in humans

- kill animal & plant life

- effect crop yield e.g. cabbage, squash, soyabean.

(e) Australian continent has winter season

when we have summer season in Pakistan:

Australian continent is present in southern Hemisphere while Pakistan isln


Northern Hemisphere. Our Earth presents 2 types of movements:

(1) Revolution (365.25 days).


(2) Rotation (24 hours).
?>4,

»»iTOg*MM>reiii»h’iigsV38SEl

Earth has an axis that passes through its centre. It is titled to a certain extent and makes
an angle of
66.5° with a horizontal and 23.5° with a vertical.

Thus the reasons in the Northern and Southern hemisphere are opposite to each other.

- For Northern Hemisphere: Spring equinox: 21st March. Autumn equinox: 22nd
September. Summer Solastice: 21st June WinterJSelastice: 22nd December

- FprlSouthern Hemisphere it is exactly opposite.

/ For example in summer June is the longest day in Pakistan but the shortest day
for Australia. Although at /that time earth is 1 million miles away the sun as
compare to that in winter of Pakistan. Thus the control of seasons doesn’t depend
on distance between earth & sun but on direction of radiations of sun, that are
almost vertical over Northern Hemisphere and slanting over southern Hemisphere,
at that very time.

(f) Roads are bent inward on curves: Ans.

To balance the centripetal force with that of 1 force. Otherwise the vehicle may go
out of control.

Q.8. Classify the following animals as: Ans.

Cobra

Blue Whale

Ostrich

Shark

Alligator

Panda

KIWI
1

Tortoise

Penguin Dolphin
Q.9. Name all the organs of human excretory system. Drew aq labelled
diagram and explain the functions of each organ.

Ans.

ORGANS OF HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM. Right

•Left Right

Left

1. Kidney

2. Ureter

3. Urinary Bladder

4. Urethra.

Renal Artery

Renal vein

Right Kidney

Urethra *

Urethra

Suprarenal gland (adrenal) .

» Left Kidney

Inferior Vena Cava

Ureter

Urinary Bladder

» Urethra

FUNCTION OF EACH ORGAN

(1)

Kidneys
There are 2 dark red-brovm, bean shaped kidneys situated at the back of the
abdomen, one on each side of
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

upper lumber vertebrae. Each kidney is 4” long, 2.25” broad and 1.5” thick. It
weighs 4.5 Ibs. Its concave surface is towards vertebral column. The right kidney
is usually shorter, lower & thicker than left due to downward extension of right
lobe of liver.

Renal Arteries (brs of Aorta) supply it blood while Penal Veins (Tributaries of
IVC) take away blood from them.

Each kidney has about one million nephrons. Eaeb_ nephron begins as a dilated
spherical end *Bowmam’s Capsule” which has tuft of capillaries at its month
called ”glomerulus”. Its later parts are:

- Proximal convulated tabule

- LoopofHenle

- Distal convulated tubule

- Collecting duct.

It recieves waste products like urea and uric-acid from the blood and maintain the
electrolyte balance.

(2) Ureters

These are thin tubings that connect kidneys with urinary bladder. Each kidney has
one ureter which act as channel through which urine passes from kidney to bladder
for storage.

(3) Urinary bladder

It is a bag like organ, meant to store the urine before voiding. It is present in lower
abdomen and pelvis. When it is filled to its maximum capacity, the urge to
micturate is initiated and thus the act of voiding of urine is under taken.
(4r) Urethra

\ It is the last part of excretory system through which the urine is excreted out of
the body. It is wide and short in females. While it is curved, thin and long in males
(J shaped).

Q.10. Fill in the blanks with correct choice: /

(a) pH of blood is 7.3 - 7.4. /


//

(b) One of the countries through/which equator passes is Malaysia. /

(c) Purest form of iron is wrought iron.

(d) Hypo is a solution of Nathiosulphate (NaCl, AgNO3, Nathiosulphate)

(e) Cod liver oil contains Vit D.

(f) Aorta is an organ of circulatory system.

(g) Planet Mars has 2 moons.

(h) Bauxite is an ore of Aluminium.

(i) Circular aperture which appears as a dark spot in the eye called pupil.

(j) The most distant planet in the solar system is Pluto.

Q.ll. Match the scientists and their discoveries:

(1) Einstein •+ Mass energy conversion equation.

(2) Retgen > X-Rays.

(3) Charles Darwin > Theory of Evolution.

(4) Chadwick »• Neutron.

(5) Mendel > Laws of heredity.

Q.12. Write an essay (200 words) on the variation


of apparent Moon size: Ans. Variation of Apparent Moon Size

The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is elliptic and it is inclined 5° to the plane of
Earth’s orbit around the sun. It means that the orbit of Moon and Earth are not in
the same plane.

The Equator of the Moon is inclined 6° to the plane of its elliptic orbit. Thus 59%
of Moon’s surface is visible at different times from the Earth.

As seen from the Earth, the Moon passes through a series of phases after every
27.3 days:

- Waxing from new Moon.

- first quarter.

- full Moon.

- Warning to last quarter

- new Moon again.

Last guarter

Sun light

New moon

Full moon

First guarter

Vaiidtion (it Anp.iu-nt IVUMHI Si/e


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

At full Moon, the Earth is between the sun and the Moon and the whole lunar disc
facing the Earth is completely illuminated.

At new Moon, the Moon is between the sun and the Earth, and the rays illuminate
only the hemisphere facing it, learning the side facing the Earth in complete
darkness, making it invisible from the Earth.

Q.13. Differentiate between the following terms:

(a) Hypoglycaemia

(1) It is the fall in blood sugar level below its normal limit. Normal Level:

Fasting = 60-90 mg% Random = 120-140 mg%

(2) Its symptoms are felt when the blood sugar level falls below 40 mg%.

(3) Its effects are mental confusion gradiness visual disturbances syncope

Coma Convulsion

(4) It is treated by intravenous glucose therapy.

Hyperglycaemia

(l)It is the rise of blood sugar level above its normal limit.

(2) Its symptoms are felt when the blood sugar level rises above 140

(3)Its effects are blurring of vision weakness multiple infections calf pain
frequency of

mirturation unhealed wounds.

(4) It is treated by intra venous insulin

therapy.

(b) Photo synthesis

(1) It is a process taking place in plants which uses CO2 and water to make sugars.
(2) Reactants are CO2 and H2O.

(3) Products are sugar and oxygen.

(4) UV rays and chlorophyll are required for the reaction to occur.

(5) The sugar that is produced is transported from the leaves by phloem
vessels to all parts of the plant. It is used in

- respiration

- or stored as starch

C02 Chlorophyll

Sugar + O9

H20

U V. rays

Respiration

(l)It is the process in plants and animals which provides

energy for all other processes which must continue for the organism to
live. (2)Reactants are sugar

O2 (3)Products are CO2 +

H20.

(4)Energy is produced at the end of reaction.

(5)It provides energy to sun all the processes of body.

Sugar + O

CO2 + H2O + energy.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(c) Pollination
SOLVED QUESTIONS-PAPERS-

(1) It is a process in which the transfer of pollens takesplace irom male


reproductive ^organ to female reproductive organ, in flowering plants.

(2) It occurs by

- Biological agents i.e. animal, birds, insects.

- Physical agents i.e. wind, water.

(3) It occurs in flowering plants.

(4) The product of union is seed.

(d) Herbivores

(1) These are the maminals that live by eating green fodder.

(2) Their teeth are designed to cut and chew leaves, plants and
fodder.

(3) Their jaw movement is specialised for side to side motion.

(4) Their digestive enzymes are specific to digest plant ood thus their appendix
is of large size.

Fertilization

(l)It is a process in which fusion of egg and sperm takes place when they come
closer.

(2) It occurs by physical mating of male and female.

(3)It occurs in animals.

(4)The product of union is zygote.

Carnivores
(1) These are the animals that live by eating flesh.

(2) Their teeth are sharp & pointed to cut flesh.

(3)Their jaw movement is specific for up and down movement.

(4) Their digestive

enzymes are specific to digest flesh. They take green grass in case of GIT upset.

(5) During relaxation, they rechew the ingested food.

f (6) Eg: Cattle, goat sheep, horse, donkey.

(e) Epidemic

1(1) It is a disease that attacks great number of people in one place at one time and
itself travels from place to place.

(2) It may be

- contagious

- Infections

(3) It does not become endemic.

(4) Example:

- Cholera.

- Food Poisoning

- Influenza

- Chicken pox

(5)They don’t do rechewing.

(6)Eg: Dog, Cat, Tiger, Lion.

Endemic
(l)It is a disease that is always present to same extent in a particular locality,
certain areas or regions.

(2) It is due to

- insanitation

- local deficiency of certain elements.

(3) It may flare up to become epidemic.

(4)Example:

- endemic goitre in areas with Iodine deficiency.

Q.14. What do you understand by ”Deforestation”? Discuss its ill effects on


mankind:

Definition

”It is the ruthless and unplanned removal of trees which acts as green ioner to
protect the earth from erosion, provides habitat for wildlife, provides timber and
fuel to man ai>d plays role in soil and water conservation.”
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

^\

Ill-effects on mankind

Removal of trees, exposes soil to many environmental hazards.

Q.15. How do our domestic and industrial

activities pollute water? Explain with

reference to 2 important industries of Pakistan:

See Page No. 142


_SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Q.I.

Ans.

(a)

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1996


Which of the following statements are? (true)

(b) (0 (d) (e)

(g)

(h) (i)

(j)

Q.2.

Ans.

(a) (b)

Jabir Ibne Hayyan was the author of the book Kitab-ul-Manazir? (false)

Abul Qasim Al-Zaharvi was a famous Muslim mathematician, (false)


The speed of light is nearly 300,000 km/sec, (true)

Ideally water can be used as a car fuel with electrolytes, (false)

A machine helps us do more work with lens force, (true)

Our eye is very sensitive to blue light, (false)

We can receive T.V. sound signal on our F.M. radio sets, (false)

Sound can travel through vacuum, (false)

Famous Muslim botanist Ibn Al-Baiter lived during the period 700-900.
(false)

A ceramic engine would have greater efficiency, (true)

Fill in the blanks with the correct choice?

Al Biruni died in 1048 A.D. (848, 1048, 1248)

Abu Ali Sina was born in Turkey. (Iraq, Turkey, Spain)


fv
(c) Blue colour has shortest wavelength, (blue, yellow, green)

(d) Copper metal has the highest electrical conductivity, (silver, tungsten,
copper),

(e) Light travels fastest in vacuum, (glass, vacuum, plastics)

(f) Our solar system has about 50 satellites. (35, 50,


96)

(g) The universe is contracting, (contracting, expanding, stationary)

(h) The disease Hemophilia is caused by the deficiency of vitamin K . (A, K, D)

(i) Protein is a natural polymer, (glucose, protein, polyethylene)

(j) Astronomers cannot be nominated for the noble prize, (physicists, economists,
astronomers).

Q.3. Define any five of the following terms? Ans. (a) Biogas:

Definition: It is a type of gas that is given off by dead and decaying animals, plants and
rubbish, sewage & manure in swampy areas.

It is mainly composed of methane gas. (b) Geothermal Energy:

Definition: It is the type of energy that is derived from the heat of earth (Geo-earth,
thermal - heat).

eg. A water is pumped down in a pipe into the depth of earth, it is heated up by the
hot rocks in the

core of earth, turned into a steam that is brought up by another pipe and is used to
produce energy. (c) Vaccine:

Definition: It is a suspension of the attenuated


• microorganisms, bacteria or virus, to protect the

body against a specific disease by stimulating the formation of antibodies. It has


antigenicrty but no pathogenicity.

eg. Polio vaccine,

Measles vaccine.

(d) Antibiotic:
Definition: It is a chemical produced by microorganism that has a capacity in small
concentration to inhibit the growth (bacteriostatic) or to destruction (bactericidal) of the
other microorganism.

eg. Bacteriostatic antibiotic,

Tetracyclone Erythromycine, chloroamphenicol, Bactericidal antibiotic, Penicillin,

Cephalosporines, aminoglycosides.

(e) Ceramics:

Definition: These are the inorganic, nonmetallic materials manufactured at very high
temperature. It requires raw materials eg. clay, feldspar. Iron quartz sand.

eg. Tile, terra cota, Dinnerware. (f) Light year:

Definition: It is a distance travelled by the light in one year. It is equal to 3 x 105 km/sec,
or
1,86,000 miles/sec.
•MttMiftwmiaKHH

SOLVED’QUESTION PAPERS

eg-

eg. This unit is used to measure the distance between galaxies.

Q.4. Briefly discuss classification of plants giving suitable example of


each type?

Ans. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

PLANT KINGDOM

Non-Green Plants

Green Plants

Bacteria Fungi Viruses

Non-Flowering

Plants

(Cryptogams)

Flowering Plants (Phaneorgans)

M(

>a

>ses Fe

rn

Age

r
Vegetables Rice Trees Shrubs Fruits

Plant Kingdom:
There are about ’/2 a million species of plants on the Earth. They require 3 basic
ingredients to survive,

1.
2.
3.

air

light

water

They make their own food using simple raw materials and energy from the sun by
”photosynthesis”.

Non-Green Plants:

These plants have simple bodies without root, stem and leaves. They don’t contain
chlorophyll and hence don’t involve photosynthesis. They can grow without
sunlight.

eg. bacteria fungi virus

Green Plants:

These plants contain chlorophyll and carry out

photosynthesis. These have 2 types.

(a) Non-Flowering Plants: (cryptogams)

These are seedless green plants.


• - They reproduce by spores.

- They have long life, - simple structure except

(ferns).

- Don’t have supporting fibres.

- Can’t grow to any greater size.


eg-

(b)

Moses Ferns Algae

Flowering Plants: (Phanerogams)

These are seed containing green plants. These have further 2 sub-types:
iYDAY SCIENCE

have

naked and

(i) Gymnosperms: These unprotected seeds.

eg. Pine, fir, cedar, spruce, cypress.

(ii) Angiosperms: These have seeds which are protected by a fruit or seed-
poad.

eg. grass, crops, vegetable, fruits, weeds.

Q.5. What are Endocrine Glands? Name any two. From which part of the
body are the following secreted: Insulin, thyroxin, Adrenalin, Oestrogen,
Testosterone, Cortisol.

Ans. Endocrine Glands:

”These are those glands which pour their secretions directly into the blood
stream”.

Their secretions are called as ”Hormones” which are the chemical substances
produced by the cells of one part and transported by the body fluids to another site
of body where they exert their action. They serve as chemical messengers or
regulators.

They control growth, metabolism, reproduction and many other functions of body
and mind.

eg. Pituitary Gland Thyroid Gland

The following hormones are secreted by.

Gland secreting ,-,

Hormone

Pancreas Thyroid Adrenal Medulla


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS
4.
5.
6.

Q.6.

Oestrogen

Testosterone

Cortisol

Ovaries Testes

Adrenal cortex

What does LASER stand for? Describe four different applications, clearly
stating their principle:

Ans. LASER:

It stands for ”light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”.

Definition:

It is a device that generates ”well organised” or ”coherent” light. Its beam is


composed of photons which have the same wavelength, & move in a step like a
well drilled army.

Principle of Laser:

A photon emitted from an atom induces an electron in another excited atom to fall
immediately to a lower level and einits a photon identical to itself. Thus stimulated
emission can be used to increase the number of emitted photons.

Energy is first pumped into a laser medium (ruby rod/CO2) by a flash lamp. It
raises the electrons just above the ground level. Initially only few atoms radiate
photons simultaneously. Two silvered end mirrors, one partially transparent reflect
the radiation back and forth repeatedly, inducing a chain reaction of photon
emission. All the electrons return to ground state simultaneously and a powerful
pulse of laser light emerges from a partially transparent end.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Flash lamp

Ruby rod

Burst of laser ligNt

Flash lamp

A Typical Laser
Mirror

(partially

tramparent)

Applications of Laser:

(1) Dentists use laser to remove decay from tooth.

(2) Laser can be focused very accurately on a point, this can cut steel and surgeons can
use that laser knife in very delicate operations.

(3) In eye-surgery, the detached retina, can be welded back into place by a laser
beam.

(4) Laser produces three dimensional images called as ”holography”.

Q.7. Define Energy? What are its units in Metric system? Name 2 devices each in which
electrical energy is converted into Heat, Light, Sound, Mechanical Energy?

Ans. Energy: ”It is the capacity to do work”. OR

”It is an agent which causes some change in the state of physical systems”.
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPEF

- It has various types i.e. Kinetic

Potential Electrical Nuclear

- All sorts of energies are inter-convertible.

E = me2

E = Energy

M = Mass
C = Velocity of light

This equation shows that mass can be converted into energy and vice versa.

Unit of energy in Metric System: ”Joule”

Electrical Energy can be converted into:

Form of Energy

1. Heat

2. Light

3. Sound

4. Mechanical

Devices

(i) Electric Iron

(ii) Electric Oven

(i) Electric Bulb

(ii) Tube Light

(i) Electric bell

(ii) Radio

(i) Electric motor

(ii) Fan

Q.8. What do the following abbreviations stand for?

Ans.

(a) LPG

Liquified Petroleum Gases.

scientific
(b) TNT

Trinitro Toluene

(c) RNA

Ribo Nucleic Acid

(d) ATP

Adenosine Tri Phosphate

(e) RBC

Red Blood Carpusels

(f) EGG

Electro Cardio Gram

(g) PVC

Polyvinyl Chloride

(h) RAM

Random Access Memory

(i) CFG

Chloro Fluro Carbons

Q.9. Write short notes on any 2 of the following?

Ans. (1) Acid Rain:

Definition: It is a form of precipitate (rain, snow or hail), as a result of air


pollution containing high levels of sulfuric acid, nitric acid and nitrous acid with a
pH less than 5.5.

Production: The burning of fossil fuel produces gases like SO2 which are highly
soluble in water. These oxides react with large quantities of water vapour of the
atmosphere to form acids, which return to earth surface
JVEOMQUESTION PAPERS

with precipitation or may remain in the atmosphere in clouds.

Adverse Effects:

1. Increases acidity in the soil.

2. Threatens human and aquatic life.

3. Destroys forests & crops.

4. Corrodes buildings, status, bridges, fences and railings.

5. Creates serious threats to human health as it contaminates breathing air,


drinking water & food.

(2) Ozone Depletion:

Ozone: It is an allotropic form of oxygen which has three atoms of oxygen (Oa) in
each molecule. This enriched oxygen is present naturally in the stratosphere as
”ozone layer”. It is formed from diatomic Oxygen by an electric discharge or
exposure to UV radiation.

U.V

2O,

Ozone Layer: It is present between 15 to 30 km from earth’s surface in the region


of stratosphere. It protects us from high energy UV rays of the sun which will
otherwise kill living things.

Ozone Depletion: Some man made chemicals are eating away that crucial shield of
Ozone by various chemical reactions that convoit it back to molecular 02. This is
called as O/one Depletion” or ”Hole in the Sky”. It was foi thf fi< ’ time noted
over Antarctica in 1985 of the size of I S \ mu the de^tli of Mount Everest. This
antaictir k«l« .develops, everv vr:u in September &
October. During that period O3 contents fall by 40% in stratosphere.

Main Culprit for Ozone Depletion: Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs)

These are used in (1) aerosol cans, (2) airconditioner.

At ground level these gases are cheap & nonpolluting but in stratosphere they
deplete O3

High voltage

Ox + O

O2 + Ox

x+O

(x = OH, NO, Cl, Bretc.)

Effects of O3 Depletion:

Since O.H absorbs biologically damaging UV rays before it can reach the earth’s
surface thus Os depletion causes increased exposure to UV rays:

1. Skin cancer in human beings.

2. Decreased immunity in human body.

3. Decreased yield of crops.

4. Global warming.

5. Increased Urban air pollution through photolysis of formaldehyde, a


common component of photochemical smog.

03 layer stratosphere

uv rays reflects

back due to intact of O3 layei

uv rays reflects

back due to intact of O3 layer


(3)

Green House Effect:

Definition: When the radiation from the sun

enter the Earth’s atmosphere, a portion of it is reflected

back into the space while the other portion is absorbed

directly by the atmosphere. The part of radiant energy

that is absorbed by the atmosphere, half of it reaches the

earth surface because of its shorter wavelength, while

the longer wavelengths (Infra red radiations) are

absorbed and reradiated by water vapours, CO2 and other

gases and clouds and hence the atmosphere warms up by

chapping the heat. It is called as ”Green House Effect”.

Green House Gases: These are the gass that contribute towards the building of
greenhouse effect, eg. CO2 CH4

CFCs ’ ’ . Nitrous Oxide N2O


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Impacts of Green House Effect:

1. Global Warming: Average global temperature would rise 1.5°C -> 4.5°C
during the nextf 4 years.

2. There will be more frequent flood due to the melting of polar ice, it would
submerge coastal cities.

3. Dwindled rice harvest.

4. Drying of oil in sumner.

5. Destructive Droughts.

6. More violent hurricanes and tornadoes

7. Deforestation.

8. Wild life would migrate or perish.

9. Deep peat lands would decompose & release amount of CO2 and CH4.

Green House
sunrays

Green House
sunrays

ozone lay

blanket green house gases

Q.10. What are the 3 components of CPU in a

computer? What is the formation of each? Ans. CPU

Control Unit

Memory Unit Arithmetic Logic

Unit
CPU: ”Central Processing Units”

it is a brain of a computer. Once the data is entered, it is transferred to CPU. It has


3 parts:

(i) Control Unit: It controls what happens.

(ii) Memory Unit: It stores vital reformation such a computer language codes. It
has 2 parts:

(1) Random Access Memory

(2) Read Only Memory

(Hi) Arithmetic Logic Unit: It does all the required calculations.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q.ll. Draw clearly the vertical section of a human tooth, indicating various
parts. How are adult human teeth classified?
CROWN NECK

ROOT

> Cement

Periodontal membrane

Alveolar bone

Apical Foramen

A Human Tooth

(vei tieal section)

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Classification of Adult Human Teeth:

(1) Upper Jaw (Maxilla) (16 teeth)

(2) Lower Jaw (Mandible) (16 teeth;


FOUR INCISORS

TWO /NCISORS

i •,

FOUR INCISORS

SIX
• A •• MOLARS

Each Jaw Has:

4 Incisors

2 Canines

4 Premolars (bicuspids)
6 Molars (tricuspids)

Q.12. Briefly describe the principle and function of a camera? Mention its
essential parts alongwith brief comparison with an eye?

Ans. Definition:

It is a device for producing record on sensitive material of the image of a person,


object or scene formed by a lens or mirror system.
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Principle and Function of a Camera:

Light that comes from an object is refracted by lens and then is focused as a sharp
image n the film. Shutter opens like a small gate to let the light in before closing
again. When the shutters opens, a hole is made called aperture through which the
light passes. Its size is controlled by a diaphragm. The operator looks through a
view finder while the view is defined by a range finder. Focussing is carried out by
varying the distance of the lens from the film.

Essential Parts of a Camera:

1. Light proof box

2. Aperture
3 Shutter

4. Lens

5. Film
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

CAMERA

Comparison with an Eye:

The construction of an eye and a camera has great similarities.

1.
2.
3.

4.

Eye

iris Pupil Lens Retina

Camera

Diaphragm Aperture Lens Film


EYE
Retina

Iris

Opticnen

Ciliary body

Q.13. Explain briefly the formation of day and night. How do seasonal
variation occur on our earth?

Aris. Formation of Days and Nights:

The earth is like a vast wheel which rotates around its axis from west to east in
24 hours. This
Motion of earth is called spinning or rotation, its most important effect is the formation of
days and nights. -

As earth’s axis is tilted 66.5° to the plane of its orbit and 23.5° from the vertical, thus the
length of days and nights is not equal except for the places on or near the equator eg.
Singapore. Whereas away from the equator, the length of days and nights vary according
to latitude and the prevailing seasons.

At places north and south of equator days and nights are unequal in length except during
the equinoxes when all parts of the earth have equal days and nights.

After spring equinox (21st March) places north of equator begin to have longer days and
shorter nights. In the southern hemisphere opposite to that takes place.

After Autumn Equinox (September 22) places North of Equator begin to have longer
nights and shorter days.

Seasonal Variation:

Earth revolves around the sun and complete one revolution in 365.25 days and causes a
leap year after 4 years, This motion of earth is called revolution or annual motion. Its
most important effect is seasonal variation.

Equinoxis: When the length of day and night becomes equal.

(i) Spring equinox: March 21

fii) Autumn Equinox: September 22

Solstices: When the length of day and night becomes un-equal.

(ii)

Q.14.

Ans.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4) (5) (6)

(7)
(8)

(9)

(10)
[ SOLVED QUESTION PAPJRJ

Sumner solstice: June 21.

Longest day in North.

Winter solstice: ’December 22.

Shortest day in the North.

Fill in the Blanks:

Enzymes are biological catalysts which have multiple functions in the body.

The difference between electrical changes at the two ends of a conductor is called
potential difference.

The branch of zoology which deals with the study of insects is called entomology.

Electric current is measured by an ampere meter. Dry ice is solid COg,

Fuels formed from animal and plant matter that lived thousands of years ago are known
as fossil fuel.

Light having larger wavelength than that of red colour is called infra red.

Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming (1928).

Medulla oblongata connects the brain with the spinal cord.

The pH of normal human bloor* is 7.45. (alkaline).

7.35.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Q.15. Differentiate between

(a) Thermoplastics

1. These plastics can be melted again and again like a candle wax.

eg.. PVC, Teflon, ABC, polyethylene, Nylon.

(b) Lunar Eclipse

1. It occurs when the earth comes between the moon and the sun.

2. When the earth lies exactly between moon & sun and its shadow
covers the whole of moon this is called total eclipse of the moon. At this
time earth lies in umbral region.

3. When the moon covers oxit of umbral region of eaith’s shadow, it goes through
series of partial eclipses

the following?

Thermosetting plastics

1. These plastics can be melted only once, after that they harden,

eg., Bakelite, Melamine, silicone, polyesters, epoxy plastics.

Solar Eclipse

1. It occurs when the moon comes between the earth and the sun.

2. The shadow of moon, which it throws on earth consist of an umbra &


penumbra people on earth who are in umbral region can’t see the sun. This is
total eclipse of the sun.

3. Those in the penumbra can see a part of sun called as a partial


eclipse of the sun.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS.1

a, c, b
penumbra

umbra

a c, b

penumbra

umbra

(c)

Asteroid

1. These are the small rocky objects that are orbiting the sun between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter, as an asteroid belt (140 million miles)

2. These are also called as minor planets, although asteroid m< ans ”starlike”.

3. Its origin is connected to the remains of a planet that fell apart.

Meteorite

1. These are the tiny chunk of material floating in the space that cai. enter the
earth’s atmosphere and become a meteor.

2. Meteor is also called as falling star, it is seen as a streek of light in the sky.

3. A burning meteor is called as a shooting star. Most of them burn up


before
13aching the ground. If thv-y Jo reach the ground they become meteorites.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

4 Ceres asteroid (1801) is the largest asteroid (680 miles)

5. Asteroids passing near the earth are called as earth crosser/Apollo Asteroid.

(d) Renewable Energy Resources

1. These are those energy resources which replenish themselves naturally in a


short time and therefore always be available.

2, Example: geothermal, solar

tidal wind hydro-electric

(e) Endothermic

Reaction

1. These are those chemical reactions that require heat for their completion.

4. It may originate by the disintegration of a comet or are the left-overs from


the birth of a solar system.

5. They may weigh upto 60 tons earth gets 501- meteors in an hour.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources

1. These are those

energy resources which cannot be used again and again.

2. Example: fossil fuel coal

petroleum natuial gas

Exothermic Reaction

1. The- are

chc ,-ical reactions that liberate heat after the completion.


I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

(f) Star
1. It is a self-luminous heavenly body.

2. It twinkles due to lineof-sight effect and disturbance in the gases of


the atmosphere around the earth.

3. It forms a centre of solar system eg., sun.

4. Planets revolve around the star.

5. These are usually regarded as stationary.

Planet

1. It is a rocky nonluminous body.

2. It reflects light of a star/stars.

3. It revolves around the central star in its orbit.

4. Satellites revolve around the planet eg. moon.

5. They possess these types of movements:-

6. It is a hot body.

7. Through telescope it is seen as a spot of light.

(g) Nuclear Fusion

1. It is a process in which lighter atoms are fused together at a very high


temperature to produce heavier elei.< nts

accompanied by a release of large amount of energy

rotation

revolution

6. It is a cold body.

7 It is seen as disc.
Nuclear Fission

1. It is a process in which heavier

unstable atoms are broken down to yield energy.


2. It requires cheaper & abundant elements.

3. It is not commercialized as a very high temperature is required to initiate it.

4. It is difficult to do on earth.

5. It has no nuclear waste problem.

2. It requires expensive & rare elements.

3. It is commercialized a it is well under control.

4. It is easy to do on earth.

5. It has a problem of nuclear waste and radio activity.


I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1997


Q.I. Discuss the role and achievements of Muslim physicists during the
10th century:

Ans. 1. Abdul Qasim Al-Zahrawi: (936 A.D.


1013 A.D.):
•«•

He is known as ”Mamoon of the West”. He was born in Spain.

- He was a great surgeon.

- He invented surgical appliances.

- He was a physician as well.

- He was an excellent dentist. He could place an artificial tooth in place of a diseased one.

- His famous book Al-Tasrif.

2. Al-Biruni (973 A.D. -1048 A.D.):

- He was born in Khwarzm.

- He was a physician, astronomer mathematician, physicist, geographer & historian.

- He was born writer.


- He learnt Sanskrit to investigate Indian knowledge.

- He explained problem of advanced trignometry.

- He discovered that light travels faster than sound.

- He accurately determined the weight of 18 stones in physics.

- He explained the terms of longitudes and latitudes.


r
3.

EVERYDAY SCIENCE |

His famous books are:~ Tahqiq-Al-Hind

Qanun-Al -Masudi Al-Tafhim Kitab-Al-Baqiya Kitab-Al-Saidana Asrar-Al-Baqiya

Ibn Al-Haitham (975 A.D. -1039 A.D.):


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

He is known as ”Alhazan” in the West. He was born at Basrah,

He was an outstanding mathematician,

physiologist and optician.

He is known for his optical work.

He explained refraction of light rays through

transparent objects.

- He discovered magnifying lenses.

- He discovered function of retina as the seat of vision.

- He identified gravity as a force, a theory which was later on developed by Newton.

- He observed semi-lunar shape of the image of the sun during eclipses on a wall opposite
a fine hole in the window-shutters.

- His famous books are Kitab-Al-Manazir. t configuration of the universe


and Nizamul

Hikma.

4. Abu AH Sina (980 A.D. -1037 A.D.):


He is known as ”Avicenna” in the West. He was born near Bukhara in Turkistan.
He was the greatest intellectual giant of the middle ages.

- He contributed to medical science, philosophy, logic, mathematics, astronomy


and music.

- His most famous book ”Al-Qanun Fil Tib” known as ”Canon” in Latin remained
the sole text book of medicine for several hundred years in western universities.

- He wrote 230 books & treaties.

- He was the first to use catheters made of skins of various animals.

- He mentioned intra vesical injection by means of a silver syringe.

- His famous books are: Ash-Shfa An-Najat

Nafia Isharrat

Q.2. Explain the structure of Earth and its atmosphere?

Ans. The Structure of Earth:

The structure of earth consists of a series of layers namely.

1.
2.
3.

Crust

Mantle

Core
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

The earth is more or less like an onion. The three zones have different chemical
composition. The series of concentric layers become progressively denser towards
the centre.

1.

of:--

The Crust:

It is the outer most layer of the earth. It consists

1. Continental crust (30 40 km).

2. Oceanic crust (5 - 9 km)

Its most abundant element is Si and Al.

It is the layer on which we live. It is in constant motion. It makes about 1% of the


total earth depth.

2.

The Mantle:

It extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2900 km and accounts for
82% of the earth’s volume.

It is further divided intn:--

1. Lithosphere (70 km)

2. Asthenosphere (200 km

3. Mesosphere (2500 km)

depending on their chemical composition & density.

3. The Core:

It extends from the base of the mantle to the earth centre. It accounts foi about
17r/f of the earth’s volume.
09.

It comprises of 2 distinct parts: --

1. Outer core (liquid at temp of 3000 °C).

2. Inner core (solid).

Its main constituent is Iron with S, Si, C, H and

EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE Definition:

”It is the protective blanket of gases which are surrounding the earth”.

Characters:

It sustains life on earth.

- It saves us from hostile environment of outer sphere.

- It is a source of O^ (essential for life).

- It gives CO^ (essential for photosynthesis).

- It form insulating blanket around the earth, without which temp, at equator
will rise to 120°C during day and will drop to -150°C at night.

- It burns up meteors that would bombard the surface of earth from space.

- Without air, there would be no lightening, no clouds, no wind, no rain, no snow


and no fire.
•M;Kyi>j5ij|Hjyjua

Composition:

Major

N2

78.08

02

20.95

Minor

A, n
0.934

C02

0.033

Trace

Ne

He
I

Traces

CH,

H2

_ The Earth’s Atmosphere originally was very different from its present state and’the
changes are brought about by biological activity.

_ The density of atmosphere decreases sharply with increasing altitude

_ Over 99% of total mass of atmosphere is found within 30 Km. of the earth’s surface.

_ The total mass of the atmosphere is about 5.5 x iO’Hont,.


- There is about 3100 nules’ of Hp in atmosphere. Atmospheric Pressure:

At sea level it is 760 mm Hg. It 1S called as

atmospheric or standard pressure It decreases with increases in altitude.

Major Regions of Atmosphere:

According to increasing altitude from the earth’s surface, major regions of atmosphere
are-

ra*i VA a wiiIMiriffljifErEl

1. Troposphere

2. Stratosphere

3. Mesosphere

4. Thermosphere

5. Ionosphere

Adverse effects of Changing Atmospheric Composition:

1. Greenhouse effect

2. Global warming

3. Ozone depletion

4. Acid Rain

Inner core

Outer core,

Meso sphere

Stheno sphere

Litho sphere

Sea level

Structure of Earth
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Structure of earth

, -’’ \qn_o_sphere~” ~ -. v
. ’ ^ ’’•_ «rm/”»cn*, ~~

Earth’s Atmosphere Q.3. Write short notes on any of the following:-

Ans.

Solar Eclipse: Definition:

An eclipse of sun occurs when the moon comes

between the earth and the sun.

Types:

1. Total eclipse of the sun

2. Partial eclipse of the sun

When the moon moves to a position b/w the sun and the earth, it throws shadow on earth.
This shadow consists of.

1.
2.

Umbra Penumbra

People on earth wlio are in the umbral region can’t see the sun at all. This total eclipse of
the sun. It can happen only at the time Of the new Moon when the earth moon and sun
are lined up, with the moon b/w the other two, its nightside towaids us.

Those in the penumfcral region can see only part of the sun. It is called as a partial
eclipse of the sun.

The total eclipse of the sun is one of the greatest spectacles of nature. The siin’s diameter
is tOQ times that of the moon and the sun’s distance from earth is also 400 times that of
the moon thus moons disk appears large enough to cover the sun’s disk.

The interval b/w two total solar eclipses is called as the saros cycle and is 18 years.
The recent total solar eclipse occurred on July 11,
1991 and it was seen in. Ha^ii, Central America and Brazil.

A total solar eclipse passes over a particular spot on earth every 360 years on average.

The duration of the total solar eclipse depends upon the speed of rotation of tb mo0n and
revolution of the earth.

The moon moves east vards in its orbit at 3400 km/hr.

The earth revolves eastwards at equator at 1700 km/hr

Thus under the most suitable conditions, a total solar eclipse can last at a given point near
equator for about 7’/2 minutes.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Penumbra

a \ ” • P8rt”” «*» b EARTH) k ^


c y ” • l«al edrpse partial eclipse

Umbra

Solar Eclipse
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

2. Non-Renewable Energy Sources: Definition:

”Non-renewable energy sources are those which cannot be used again and again”.

eg. Fossil Fuels.

Fossil Fuels:

”The power of sunlight captured millions of years ago by plants and animals that died
and buried in huge deposits, is now being burned as coal, petroleum and natural gas,
these are called fossil fuels”.

Fossil:

”It is defined as the organic remains of living things preserved in rocks”.

Types of Fossil Fuels:

1. Coal

2. Petroleum

3. Natural gas

1.

Coal:

Over millions of years, layers of rotting plants were pressed more and more tightly
together. Peat, lignite and eventually coal were formed.

Anthracite, the oldest and hardest coal is 400 million years old.

Coal provides 30% of all energy used in the world.

It is used for the production of electricity and steel.


2. Petroleum (Black GoloVLiquid Gold):

- Petroleum: Rock oil:

- It is a thick dark oily liquid containing a mixture of hundreds of organic


compounds (hydrocarbons).

- It gives about 50% of the energy used in the world.

- Formation:

Plants and animals that lived in the seas sank down the sea-bed when they died, They
were further crushed under layer of rnud and gradually turned into oil. The oil then
flowed upward* until it reached layers of hard rock and became trapped under the rock.
- Major Oil Producing Countries: Russia Algeria UAE

USA Iran Venezuela

Saudi Arabia Kuwait Iraq

- Pakistan produces only 309r of its oil consumption.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

- Petro-Chemicals:

These are the chemicals derived from fractional distillation of crude petroleum.

eg. Benzene Toluene Xylene Ether

- Petroleum is a complex liquid mixture of a variety of organic compounds. The chief


components are Hydrocarbons which may be aliphatic, alicyclic or aromatic. In addition
to Hydrocarbons it contains l-6c/f of S, N, O present as organic compounds.

The separation of the individual components

from the crude petroleum is done at an oil refinery by distillation.

- Uses of Petroleum:

1. LPG: (Liquified petroleum gases) eg. Methane, ethane, propane, butane, are used
chiefly as fuel. (2) Solvents eg. ether, nepthtas. (3) Gasoline (4) Transport Oils eg. Jet
fuel, diesel oil, gas fuel. (5) Paraffin (6) Greases (7) Pitch and Asphalt use’ as pi otective
coating, binding agent. (8) Petroleum coke for carbon electrodes.

3. Natural Gas:

- Formation: As the oil is formed under the bed of the earth’s surface by biodegradation
of plants and animals, it also gives off large amount of natural gas.

- Its mam constituent is Hydrocarbons.

- Composition: (unprocessed gas)


60 _ 80f’ methane

ethane

5 _ 97f

3 - 18f/i-

2 _ 14c’/f

- Uses:

1. Used as fuel.

propane
higher hydrocarbons

2. Used as raw material for the synthesis of many Organic compounds eg. rubber.

3. Used for production of electricity.

4. Cheapest and the most efficient source of energy in Pakistan.

5. Used in industry for power generation.

6. Used for domestic purposes. Discovery:

It was discovered in 1952 at sui (Balochistan) in Pakistan.

Energy Profile for Pakistan

Year
1947

1987

Production of Electricity in Pakistan Coal 59%, Hydro 3%, Oil 38%

Coal 9%, Hydro 13%, Oil 40%, Gas 48%

3. Thermoplastics: Definition:

”These are those plastics which can be melted again and again much like the wax in a
candle”.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

PVC

Teflon

ABS

Cellulose nitrate

””Examples:

Polyethylene ,

4ylons ,

Acrylic ,

Polystyrene ,

Uses:

1. PVC plastic is flexible, abrasion resistant, low cost and heat stable thus it is
used for producing film & sheet for packing materials.

Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory equipment.

2. Polyethylene is used in making films, transparent sheets, baskets, buckets,


hospital disposables, food containers & toys.

3. Polystyrene is used in housewares. packaging, toys & wall-tiles.

4. Nylon is used in cloth industry.

5. Acrylic is also used in cloth making.

6. Teflon is used in tank, pipe lining, filter media, pump components, artificial ear
ossicle.

7. Cellulose is used in place of ivory.

Q.4. What is the difference between?


Ans. (i) BIT BYTE

”The main storage” is one of the four major physical components or hardware.
”M.-^n storage” was once maclj up of vacuum tubes and latei of magnetic cores.
Each lube or core

In most microcomputers, Byte is a combination of eight bits. Each Byte represents


a numeral, 9 letter of the alphabet, 9 punctuation mark, or anything else the

represent one ”bit”. It is now made up of tiny integrated circuits. Each such circuit
is made up of thousands of semicon-ductors. Each

semicon-ductor represents one ”bit”.

(ii) RAM

”Random Access Memory”.

It is a type of memory stored in a computer which both can be read from and
written to, is erased each time the computer is turned off.

(Hi)

Hardware

1. It consists of 4 major physical components of the computer.

1. CPU

2. Main storage

3. auxiliary storage

4. input/output devices

2. It is a plastic made part of computer.

computer can show. The more bytes a computer can store the more work it can do.
A computer memory is measured in bytes.

1 Mega byte =
1,048,576 bytes
ROM

”Read Only Memory”

It is a type of memory stored in a computer which can’t be written to, maintains its
contents all the times and is used to store the computer’s control

information.

Software

1. It consists of computer

programme.

It controls the functioning of

hardware and directs its operation. It contains

1. electronic circuits

2. chips

3. transistors

2. It is a delicate part of computer.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Examples:

Polyethylene Nylons Acrylic Polystyrene

Uses:

PVC

Teflon

ABS

Cellulose nitrate

1. PVC plastic is flexible, abrasion resistant, low cost and heat stable thus it is
used for producing film £ sheet for packing materials.

Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory equipment.

2. Polyethylene is used in making films, transparent sheets, baskets, buckets,


hospital disposables, food containers & toys,

3. Polystyrene is used in housewares. packaging, toys & wall-tiles.

4. Nylon is used in cloth industry.

5. Acrylic is also used in cloth making.

6. Teflon is used in tank, pipe lining, filter media, pump components, artificial ear
ossicle.

7. Cellulose is used in place of ivory.

Q.4. What is the difference between?

Ans.

(i) BIT
”The main storage” is one of the four major physical components or hardware.
”M:’’n storage” was once mac.j up of vacuum tubes and latei of magnetic cores.
Each Lube or core

BYTE

In most microcomputers, Byte is a combination of eight bits. Each Byte represents


a numeral, 9 letter of the alphabet, 9 punctuation mark, or anything else the

represent one ”bit”. It is now made up of tiny integrated circuits. Each such circuit
is made up of thousands of semicon-ductors. Each

semicon-ductor represents one ”bit”.

(ii) RAM

”Random Access Memory”.

It is a type of memory stored in a computer which both can be read from and
written to, is erased each time the computer is turned off.

(Hi)

Hardware

1. It consists of 4 major physical components of the computer.

1. CPU

2. Main storage

3. auxiliary storage

4. input/output devices

It is a plastic made part of computer.

computer can show. The more bytes a computer can store the more work it can do.
A computer memory is measured in bytes.

1 Mega byte =
1,048,576 bytes
ROM

”Read Only Memory”

It is a type of memory stored in a computer which can’t be written to, maintains its
contents all the times and is used to store the computer’s control

information.

Software

1. It consists of computer programme.

It controls the functioning of

hardware and directs its operation. It contains

1. electronic circuits

2. chips

3. transistors

2. It is a delicate part of computer.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

PVC

Teflon

ABS

Cellulose nitrate

Examples:

Polyethylene ,

Nylons ,

Acrylic ,

Polystyrene ,

Uses:

1. PVC plastic is flexible, abrasion resistant, low cost and heat stable thus it is
used for producing film & sheet for packing materials.

Rigid PVC is used in pipe fittings, pump parts and chemical laboratory equipment.

2. Polyethylene is used in making films, transparent sheets, baskets, buckets,


hospital disposables, food containers & toys.

3. Polystyrene is used in housewares. packaging, toys & wall-tiles.

4. Nylon is used in cloth industry.

5. Acrylic is also used in cloth making.

6. Teflon is used in tank, pipe lining, filter media, pump components, artificial ear
ossicle.

7. Cellulose is used in place of ivory.

Q.4. What is the difference between?

Ans.
(i) BIT

”The main storage” is one of the four major physical components or hardware.
”M.”’n storage” was once madj up of vacuum tubes and latei of magnetic cores.
Each lube or core

BYTE

In most microcomputers, Byte is a combination of eight bits. Each Byte represents


a numeral, 9 letter of the alphabet, 9 punctuation mark, or anything else the

represent one ”bit”. It is now made up of tiny integrated circuits. Each such circuit
is made up of thousands of semicon-ductors. Each

semicon-ductor represents one ”bit”.

(ii) RAM

”Random Access Memory”.

It is a type of memory stored in a computer which both can be read from and
written to, is erased each time the computer is turned off.

(Hi)

Hardware

1. It consists of 4 major physical components of the computer.

1. CPU

2. Main storage

3. auxiliary storage

4. input/output devices

2. It is a plastic made part of computer.

computer can show. The more bytes a computer can store the more work it can do.
A computer memory is measured in bytes.
1 Mega byte =
1,048,576 bytes

ROM

”Read Only Memory”

It is a type of memory stored in a computer which can’t be written to, maintains its
contents all the times and is used to store the computer’s control

information.

Software

1. It consists of computer

programme.

It controls the functioning of

hardware and directs its operation. It contains

1. electronic circuits

2. chips

3. transistors

2. It is a delicate part of computer.


(iv)

Personal Computer

1. It is one of the 2 types of microcomputer.

_ It is powered by a micro processor.

_ It is originally single user computer.

_ Multiple

microcomputers can be linked up through.

Mainframe Computer

It is the largest and most powerful

general-purpose system which is designed to meet the computing needs of a large


organization by serving hundreds of computer terminals at the same time.

1.

local OR

area network.

2. Parallel processing system.

Now a micro computer can also perform a task once reserved for mainframes.

Q.5. Explain any five of the following terms in not more than 4 lines each:

Ans. (i) OSMOSIS:

”It is the movement of water molecules from the lower solute concentration to the
higher solute concentration”.

It depends upon:

1. Temperature

2. No. of solute particles


(ii) Glycolysis:

”It is a process that can start from glycogen break down (glycogenolysis) or
glucose breakdown and both these meet at a stage of glucose -6- phosphate”.

During glycolysis 8 moles of ATP are produced due to the conversion of one mole
of glucose to 2 mole of pyruvic acid. 2 ATPs are utilized.

Glucose

6 (ADP + Pi) 6 ATP


T

Partial Oxidation

2 moles of pycuric acid

(Hi) Photosynthesis:

For ”photo synthesis” a plant requires CO2 + sunlight and chlorophyll. As earth is
rotating around its axis, thus sun rays doesn’t remain in the same direction all the
day, therefore plants changes their direction in order to get optional amount of
sunlight. This is called photo taxis”.

(iv) Transpiration:

”It is the loss of water from the plant in the form of water vapours, through
stomata”.

Formation:

1. Temperature regulation of the environment.

2. Keeps the water content of plant within normal limit.

•(v) Sponification:

It is a chemical process in which animal fat is made to react with caustic soda to
make a soap.
I.
j yj a A’t iTlYMiW 13 fl [*fJ

(ui;
Emulsion:

”If an oil such as corn oil is shaken vigorously with water, it is broken into smaller
droplets to form a homogeneous mixture called emulsion”.

eg. 1. Milk (natural stable emulsion of butter fat in water).

2. Sodium stearate soap + water + oil (stable emulsion).

Q.6.

Fill in the blanks:

Bucted

glands

Ans.

•L
•Examples:

(i)

A sheet of muscles called diaphragm separates

I
Exocrine

Gland

the chest from the abdomen.



1.

Lachrimal

srland

(ii)

In the human body, blood clotting factor is produced bv the liver.

2.

Sweat gland

3.

Salivary

(Hi)

Human blood is able to carry large amounts of oxygen because of the chemical
hemoglobin.

I
4.

Sebaceous

gland

(iv)

The living part of a plant cell is composed of a nucleus and cytoplasm.

•Q.8.

Which quantity do measure?


’ Anc

ITMTT
(V)

The pattern for building protein molecules is


i
^t/ A 1 X. J*-

V^lf

stored in the messenger RNA.


T »7AU

2.

Loloumb

(vi)

Anvil and stirrup are names of bones present in


3,

Watt

the ear.

I 4’

Ohm

(vii)

The front of the eye is covered with a tough

I ”K

Mho

transparent material called cornea.


I 6

Ampere

(viii)
The young plant inside a grain of wheat is called
1 ”’

Dyne

the plumule.
I

Celsius

• 9.

Joule

I 10.

Calorie
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

(ix) Manometer is an apparatus used for measuring the pressure of gases.

(x) The smallest branches of an artery lead into tiny blood vessels called
capillaries.

Q.7. What are exo crine glands? Give names of any four alongwith the name
of their secretion?

Ans. Definition:

k These are those glands which discharge their

iBecretions by means of a duct. These are also called as

Secretion

tears sweat Saliva sebum

the following units

QUANTITY
Voltage/Potential’

Charge of electricity

Power

Resistance

Conductivity

current

Force

Temperature

Energy

Heat
Q.9.

Ans.

(i)
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Give scientific reasons in not more than 4 lines each for the following:

Meat takes longer to cook on the mountains:

The atmospheric pressure decrease as the altitude increases. The boiling point of
water is 100 °C at standard atmospheric pressure. At the mountains this
atmospheric pressure is less, thus water boils at temperature lower than 100°C.
Therefore, meat takes longer time to be cooked. This can be overcome by using
pressure cookers.

(ii) Water remains cool in earthen pitchers:

As perspiration lowers down the body temperature due to continuous evaporation


from skin, similarly the pores of pitcher act as sweat glands and evaporation of
water through them cools down the water.
(in) Ice & salt mixture is used as a freezing agent in manual ice cream makers.

Addition of salt in the ice lowers its freezing point and makes a cheap freezing
mixture for manual ice cream makers.

(iv) It is not advisable to sleep under trees during the night:

During the night plants don’t carry on photosynthesis i.e., they don’t release O2,
and only respiration is there which releases CO2. Thus it is not advisable to sleep
under trees in order to avoid excessive CO2 concentration in air.

(v) Green house operators paint their glass roofs white in summer.

In summer there is already much hot and white colour has a property of reflection
of light to a maximum
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPEF

extent as compared to other colours. Thus green house operators paint their glass
roofs white, in order to avoid over heating in their green houses.
Q.10. Which part/organ of the human body do the following belong?

Part/Organ

Ear

Connective Tissue

Ear

Muscle

Neuron (nerve cell)

Ans. Item

1; Eustachian Tube

2. Cartilage

3. Auricle

4. Tendon

5. Dendrites

Q.ll. Fill in the blanks with correct choice: Ans.

(i) Insulin is produced in the human body by the pancreas.

(ii) In an animal cell protein is synthesised in the ribosome.

(in) Chemically finger nails are made up of protein.

(iv) Muscle stiffness is a symptom caused by the disease tetanus.

fv) Animals which obtain their food from dead organisms are called
scavengers.

(in) Vitamin C is not affected by cooking (vitamin C, Thiamin, Riboflavin).

(vii) Rickets is caused by the deficiency of vitamin D. (mii) A number of


chromosomes in a spermatozoa is 23.
(ix) The fat in our food is digested by the enzyme lipase.

(x) The most abundant element in the human body is carbon. (C. H, O)

Q.12. Which of the following statement are false and which are true?

Ans.

(i) Sound is a form of energy, (true)

(ii) A fraction of sunlight is refracted as it enters the earth’s atmosphere, (true)

(Hi) The energy possessed by a water fall is kinetic energy, (true)

(iv) Rainbow are produced by the reflection of light through rain drops, (true)

(v) Light switches in our homes are connected in parallel series, (true)

(vij Generators convert mechanical energy into electricity, (true)

(vii) Modern incandescent bulbs contain filaments made of Cu. (false)

(viii) A steam engine can’t be powered by fossil fuel, (true)

(ix) Nuclear energy is a cheap source of abundant electricity, (true)

(x) Oil burns cleaner and is less damaging to the environment than coal as a fuel,
(true)

Q.13. Match »«*„,„., AwlththMeofIhta

Ans.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

List A

Protein

Magnesium

Carotene

Bauxite

Haemitite

Casein

Pancreas

Quartz

CFC

Urea

ListB

Amino Acid Chlorophyll Vitamin A Al Fe Milk Fats Si

Ozone Nitrogen

Q.14. Briefly describe the solar system. Name its members. Out line the main
characteristics of any 2 members?

Ans. Definition:
Solar system is a tiny part of a galaxy and consists of the sun and all the objects
that travel around it. Members of Solar System:

1. Sun

2. Planets

(i) Mermrv /^ Venus

3- Satellites that travel around the planets.

4. Asteroids

5. Meteoroids
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

6. Comets

7. Interplanetary dust

8. Interplanetary plasma

Main Characteristics of 2 Members:

(i) The Sun:

Definition:

It is the central part of the solar system.

Composition:

The sun is composed of:

1. Hydrogen

2. Helium

3. Heavy elements Temperature:

1. Chromosphere

2. Photosphere Mass:

2 x 10 tons. Diameter:

1.4 million km.

Distance from Earth:

149 million km. Density:

1.4 gm/cc.

90%

8%
2%

15 million °C
6000°C
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

Age:

4.6 billion years.

Source of Energy:

Source is nuclear fusion. This process involves the conversion of H to He.

Matter:

The sun contains matter in the plasma state which is the fourth physical state of matter.

Movement:

The sun has a 27-day solar rotation period and 11year sunspot cycle.

Important Events:

1. Solar wind.

2. Solar flares.

3. Sunspots.

(ii) THE EARTH:

It is the most wonderful planet of the solar

system. Age:

Life:

4.6 billion years.

It started on earth about 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. Movement:

1. Rotation period : 24 hours

2. Revolution period : 365.25 days


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

Mass:

6x 1021 tons.

Average Density:

5.52 gm/cc. Equatorial Diameter:

12,756 km. Structure:

1. Iron core

2. Rocky mantle

3. dynamic crust Atmosphere:

1. 78% N

2. 21% O2

3. 3100 miles3 of water Earth’s Surface:

Is such in Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, O elements. Earth’s Crust:

Consists of 15 large and several minor tectonic

plates.

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1998

NOTE: Attempt any TEN questions. All questions

carry equal marks.

1. ”Earth quakes have helped a great deal in deciphering the internal structure of
the earth”. Comment on this statement.

2. Discuss briefly the achievements of Muslims in the development of science.


State the reasons jof downfall of science in Muslim Society.
3. Discuss in detail he fission and fusion processes. Which one of these processes
is the source of Soler energy ?

4. give a detailed description of global warming and its possible effects on life.
What measures have been taken by various nations to tackle this problem,

5. Give chemical name of one Nitrogenous and one Phosphorus containing


fertilizer. What is the role of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potash in the
growth and development of various parts of a plant.

6. Write short notes on the following: (i) Conductor; (ii) resister;

(iv) thermistor;

(in) semiconductor;

(v) transistor.
7. Writer short notes on FIVE of the following:

(i) Antibody; (ii) Blood groups;


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(in) Carbon cycle (iv) Nitrogen cycle;

(v) Scavenger; (vi) Reaction time;

(vii) Photosynthesis (viii) Starfish.

8. Which of the following statements are true?

(i) Trout is a sea fish;

(ii) Epiphytes is a plant that grows upon another plant;

(in) Hepatitis is inflammation of membranes surrounding the brain;

(iv) Meningitis is the inflammation of liver;

(v) Equinox is the time when the sun appears vertically overhead at noon at the equator;

(vi) Drought is a long period of rain; (vii) Joseph Aspdin is the inventor of cement;
(viii) Neurology is the science of nervous system;

(fx) Biometry is the application of statistics in the study of Biology;

(x) Aviculture is the science of the rearing of animals.

9. Name the quantities which are measured by the following units:

(i) Newton;

(in) Watt;

(v) Light year;

(vii) Acre-foot;

(ix) Hertz;

(ii) Joule;

(iv) Volt;

(vi) Angstrom;

(viii) Becquerel;
(x) Cusec.
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

10. Match the cause of the disease:

Disease

(i) Rickets

(ii) Goiter

(in) Typhoid

(iv) Merismis

(v) Malaria

Cause

(i) Plasmodium

(ii) Protein Deficiency

(in) Iodine Deficiency in diet.

(iv) Salmonella typhosa

(v) Deficiency vitamin D.

of

11. What is the function of each of the following in a motor car:

(a) Gear Box;

(c) Carburettor;

(e) Radiator.

12. Explain the following:

(a) Blood Group;

(c) Short sight; line;

(b) Battery;
(d) Dynamo;

(b) Short circuit;

(d) International date

(e) Plaster of Paris.

13. Answer the following:

(i) Of what lead pencils are made of?

(ii) Why is one’s breadth visible in cold but not in hot weather?

(in) What is the chemical composition of diamond?


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(iv) Name the vaccine that protects against tuberculosis;

(v) Name the disease of the liver that causes a patient to turn yellow.

14. Fill in the blanks:

(i) is a hypothetical region of

space having a gravitational pull so great that no matter or radiation can escape from it;

(ii) are used against moulds and

fungi;

(in) The science which deals with hredity is known

as ;

(iv) Insulin is used for the treatment of

(v) (vi)

sun in solar System;

is the first space man;

is the farthest planet from the

(vii) The distance between the earth and the sun is called ;

(viii) The study of chemical processes of living organisms is called ;

(ix) The first computer virus invented by tow Paksitani brothers is called the ;

(x) Severe deficiency of vitamin C results in

15. Differentiate between any FIVE of the following;

(i) Artery and Vein;

(ii) Hard water and Soft water;


SOLVED QUESTION PA

(in) E-mail and Snail mail; (iv) Apes and


Monkeys;

(v) Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics; (vi) Comet and Meteor; (vii) Barrage and
Dam;

(viii) Electron and hole; (ix) Isobars and

Isotopes;

(x) Autopsy and Biopsy.

i
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1998

Time Allowed: 2 Hours

Maximum Marks: 50

NOTE: Attempt any TEN questions. All questions

carry equal marks. Draw diagram where necessary.

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct choice. Don’t reproduce the question write
only the correct answer in the answer book. (5 mark each)

(a) The element

is doped with

impurities to form a semiconductor

(b) Diamond is a form of

(c) All metals are solids except

(d) The main constitutent of biogas is

(e) The fine wire that glows inside an incandescent lamp is called

(f) The action which causes water to rise in plant roots is called

energy is

(g) In a chemical battery,

directly converted into electrical energy

(h) The pushing force of a liquid is called

(i) The primary producers in the food chain are

(j) Both starch and celluose are composed of units of


2. LASER is a form of light energy. How does it differ from incandescent light;

3. What are C.F.C’s? How do they effect the environment9 Name two
common household applicances in which they are used.

4. That is meant by balanced diet? Name its constituents, describe their


function in the human body.

Explain any five of the following terms: (1 mark each)

(i) Osmosis; (a) Photoperiodism;

(iiij Rectification; (iv) Pasteurization;

(v) Biodegradability; (vi) Fluorescence.

During revolution around the sun, the axis of the earth is tilted at an angle of 23%.
What effect if any does this have on the :

(i) Formation of day and night; (ii) Change in season.

7. Name five man groups of vertebrates, giving one example and two
characteristics of each.

8. Write short notes on ay two of the following

(2.5 marks each)

(a) Life and achievements of Ibn-Al-Haitham;

(b) Role of pesticides in the field of Agriculture;

(c) Endocrine glands.

9. Most plants reproduce from seeds and spores, describe briefly five other ways in
which they can i eproduce.

10. Give brief answers for any five of the following:

(Imarks each)
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

(a) why is high voltage preferred in long distance electric transmission systems?

(b) Why is air replaced with a mixture of Nitrogen and Argon in an electric bulb?

(c) Why is a parachute no help to a spaceman landing on the moon?

(d) Why would you expect a hypothetical ceramic engine to have greater efficiency
than an ordinary matallic engine?

(e) Why does a piece of iron sink in water, but a cork of the same size floats?

(f) What role do carbon particles play in a telephone receiver ?

11. Which of the following statements are false and which are true. Don’t reproduce the
questions. Write only correct answer in the answer book.

Posts Missing Statement Missing:

(a) A man reservoir of Nitrogen in the biosphere is ^^ (ocean, rocks, atmosphere);

(b)

(hislamine, interforon,

interleukins);

(c) The symptoms of an allergic reaction develops in response to (istamine,

interfron, interleukins);

(d) An enzyme is a

nucleic acid);

(lepid, protein,

(e) The most abundant element in the earth crust is (oxygen, Nitrogen; Silicon);

(f) During different phases of cellcycle, the

cellgrows during the

(Metaphase, Anaphase, interphase);


(g) The gas exchange surfaces of most larger

aquatic animals are (trachea,

malpighian tubules, gills);

(h) The farthest planet from the sun is

(pluto, neptune, uranus);

(i) Deficiency of vitamin B/2 causes (rickets, beri beri, anaemia);

(j) is not a member of the innert

gas family (Neon, Nitrogen, Helium).

13. Which quantities do the following measure:

(5 mark each)

(i) Barometer;

(in) Anemometer;

(v) Altimeter;

(vii) Hygrometer;

(ix) Hydrometer;

(ii) Ammeter;

(iv) Manometer;

(vi) Spectrometer;

(viii) Perimeter;

(x) Thermometer.

14. State the principle and explain working of any two of the following: (2.5 marks ach)

(i) Rockets; (ii) Greenhouses;

(in) Motors used in electric appliances.


15. Match words of list A with those of list B.

List A ListB

Mucus Anvil

Retina
ERYDAY SCIENCE

Haemophilia Chlorine

Cornea

Protein

Ear

Athlete’s foot

Pesticides

Chlorophyll

Pollen

Style

Vitamin K

Heart

Polymer

Trachea

Fungi

Carbohydrate

i
I SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS I

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 1999


Time Allowed: Two Hours Max. Marks: 50
NOTE: Attempt any TEN questions. All questions

carry equal marks.

1. Discuss in brief, the contributions of Muslim Scientists in the field of


biological science.

2. Describe, in precise statements, various instruments which are being


used in exploring the Universe.

3. Explain the Solar System and the unifying characteristics which the Sun
and its planets have.

4. How the solar and lunar eclipses are caused?

5. What is Ozonosphere? Discuss the human technologies which are


causing its depletion. What harrft to man this depletive state would cause?

6. Describe the principle and make up of a Television.

7. What is escape velocity? How the Satellites are launched and what are their
uses?

8. Explain Earthquakes and Volcanoes. How volcanoes help in the


formation of earth crust?

9. How characters are transmitted from parents to offspring?

10. Describe the function of kidneys in the human body?


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

11. What are the deficiency effects of the following nutrients in the human body:

(a) Iron

(d) Vitamin A

(b) Iodine

(e) Vitamin D

(c) Fluorine

12. What are the constituents of human blood and characteristics.

13. Differentiate between:

(a) neurons and neutrons;

(b) meiosis and mitosis;

(c) heavy water and hard water;

(d) climate and weather;

(e) isotopes and isobars.

4. Fill in the blank. Write only the correct answers in the answer book. Don’t
reproduce the questions.

(a) Plant cells manufacture their food due to the

presence of (chlorophyll, vacuole,

cell wall);

(b) The mitochondria in a cell are the constituent

of the (nucelus, cytoplasm, cell

membrane);
(c) Mitosis is a type of cell division wherein the number of chromosomes in the
daughter cell are the (same, half, double);

(d) Blood cells are of four);

types (two, three,

(e) The
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

causes sunburn ad suntan


, _„ „..» •«. i_a.u. u HAA 1/C4.AA

(ultraviolent rays, alpha particles, gamma radiation).

15. Which of the following statements are false or true. Write only true or false in
the answer book. Don’t reproduce the questions:

(a) Xylem and Phloem are conducting tissues;

(b) Carbohydrates are cheapest and most ready source of energy;

(c) Enzymes are responsible for chemical digestion of food;

(d) Plasma is the fluid part of the blood in which the cells are suspended;

(e) Hemoglobin combines with oxygen and transport to different cells of


the body ;

(f) Neutron is the negative charged particle in an atom;

(g) Helium is the highest gas;

(h) Venus is the smallest planet of the solar

system;

(i) Image of an object is formed on the retina of the eye;

(j) Barometer is used for measuring the current.


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

EVERYDAY SCIENCE 2000


Time Allowed: 3 Hours

Maximum Marks: 100

NOTE: Attempt any TEN questions. All questions

carry equal marks. Illustrate your answer with diagram where necessary.

1. Write comprehensive notes on any TWO of the following: Marks (5,5)

(a) Contribution of Muslim scientists in the field of biology.

(b) Water pollution.

(c) Semiconductors.

2. Describe the various type of movements of the earth. What are the effects of these
movements? Draw simple diagrams to illustrate your answer. (4,6)

3. Explain the following using suitable examples.

(2 each)

(a) Feed back mechanism of human system.

(b) Eco-system (c) Troposphere

(d) Carbon cycle (d) Meningitis

4. What is excretion? Name the excretory organs in man. Describe the structure and
function of human kidney for the excretion of urine. (1,2,7)

5. Describe the Principle, construction and working of a telephone. (2,4,4)

6. What are latitudes and longitudes? How can the central line of latitude and longitude
be used to find the location of a place? (4,6)

7. Differentiate between: (2 each)

(a) Cardiac Muscles and Skeletal Muscles.

(b) Haze and Smog.


(c) Enzyme and Hormone.

(d) Sedimentary Rocks and Igneous Rocks.

(e) Producers and Consumers.

8. Define the following terms: (a) RAM (b) Byte

(1 each)

(d) Mouse Unit

(g) LAN

0’) Registers.

(e) software

(h) Modern

(c) Icons (f) Control

(i) ALU

9. Discuss the structure of a typical animal cell in

detail. (10)

10. Fill in he blanks with appropriate words: (1 each)

(a) Monomer of proteins are .

(b) Water transport in plants occurs with-in

(c) Underground horizontal stems are called

(d) In the eye, only

receptors for light energy.

contain

(e) Plant

to environmental stimuli.
control plant responses
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(f)

houses of the cell.

are often called the power

(g) The rate at which a current changes direction is called its .

(h) The energy of electrons at the negative terminal of battery is called .

(i) is the smallest planet of the

solar system.

(j) Diamond is an allotropic form of the element

11. What are plastics? Name their different types and processes by which they
are manufactured, Discuss the impact of the use of plastics on the environment.
(1,4,5)

12. Which of the following statements are Flase and which are True: (1 each)

(a) In the circulatory system two pulmonary arteries take blood from the left
ventricle to the lungs.

(b) Anaphase is the stage of mitosis during which the daughter chromosomes
move towards the poles.

(c) The Motor neurons carry nerve finpulses from he central nervous system to the
effectors.

(d) Cochlea is a part of the middle ear.

(e) Tides happen due to the moon’s gravitational pull.

(f) Heavy water contains salts of Calcium and Magnesium. *”

(g) All non metals exist in gaseous state.


SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

(h) A parachute can be used by a spaceman to help in landing on the moon.


(i) The gem stones Ruby and Sapphires are composed of Aluminum
Oxide.

(j) In a chemical battery chemical energy is directly converted into mechanical


energy.

13. Choose the correct answers. Don’t reproduce the questions. (leach)

(i) Speed of the wind is measured by: (a) Barometer (b) Hygrometer

(c) Perimeter (d) Anemometer

(e) None of these.

connects the muscle wit the bone.

(ii)

(a) Cartilage

(c) Tendon

(e) None of these.

(in) Polio is caused by a: (a) Bacteria (c) Fungue (e) None of these.

(iv) The coldest planet of the solar system is: (a) Earth (d) Venus

(c) Mars

(e) None of these.

(v) is a vitamin:

(b) Ligament (d) Disc

(b) Virus

(d) Deficiency of vitamin

(d) Pluto
(a) Citric acid

(c) Ascorbic acid

(d) None of these

(b) Tartaric acid (d) Acetic acid


QUESTION PAPERS

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION FOR RECRUITMENT TO POST

IN BPS-17 UNDER THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, 2001.

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE, PAPER-1

EVERY DAY SCIENCE

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks : 100

Note: Attempt any ten questions. All questions carry equal marks.

Q. 1. (a) What were the special characteristics of Muslim

Scientists0 (b) What ueie the contributions ot the following Muslim

Scientists

(i) Umar Al-Khay\am. (li) Abu Ali Sina (in) Jabir ibn Hayyan. (iv) Ibn al Baitar (v)
Zakanya Al-Razi. Q. 2. (a) Differentiate clearly between Cyclone, Hurricane and

tornado, (b) (i) Name two minerals which are exported from

Pakistan.

(ii) Name some gem-minerals used in Jewellery, (in) What is dead sea. (iv) Why does the Sun
appears orange-red at the time

of Sunrise and Sunset, (v) Why does the total Eclipse can happen only at

the new Moon.

Q. 3. (a) Name popular farms of Energy. Write five various scientific devices used to
convert one type of energy into another form of energy (b) Write meaning of the rollcming
units (i) Barrel (ii) Joule

(in) Btu (iv) KWh

(v) Newton Q. 4. Write short notes on any THREE of following”

(i) Synthetic Polymers. (ii) Laser.

(in) Pesticides (iv) Fission and Fusion

(v) Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism. Q. 5. Write difference between:


(i) Microcomputer and Minicomputer.
QUESTION PAPERS

(ii) Main frame and Super computer.

(in) Hardware and Software.

(iv) Byte and Word.

(v) Ram and Cache memory. Q. 6. Describe briefly the principle and working of any
TWO of

the following:

(i) Pressure cooker (ii) Television

(in) Microwave oven (iv) Radar

(v) Tape recorder. Q. 7. Differentiate between:

(i) DNA and RNA

(ii) Brass and Bronze

(in) Blood and Lymph

(iv) Hard water and Heavy water

(v) Small pox and Measles

(vi) Pig iron and Stainless Steel.

(vii) Alloy and Amalgum

(viii) Isotopes and Isobars

(ix) Artery and Vein

(x) Barrage and Dam. Q. 8. Explain the scientific reasons for the following:

(i) It is not advisable to sleep under trees during the night.

(ii) Water boils quicker on mountains.

(in) Rainbow is produced in the sky after rain fall and sunlight.

(iv) Water remains cool in a Earthenware pitcher.


(v) Milk is considered as an ideal food. Q. 9. Which of the following statements are
true or false. Only

write ”True” or ”False” in the answer book. Do not

reproduce the statement.

(i) Urea is a phosphate fertilizer.

(ii) Cellulose is a natural polymer.

(in) Magnetite is the ore of copper

(iv) Malaria is^caused by drinking polluted water.

(v) The instrument used to measure velocity of wind is Barometer.

(vi) Our eye is very sensitive to blue light.

(vii) Sound can not travel through vacuum.

(viii) Enzymes are biological catalyst.

(ix) Leprosy is a disorder of Nervous System.

(x) Mica is a non-conductor of electricity. Q. 10. What are Endocrine glands? Name
any four. From which

part of the body are the followings secreted:

(i) Insulin (ii) Thyroxin

(in) Adrenaline (iv) Oestrogen

(v) Testosterone and (vi) Cortisol. Q. 11. (a) Name the important parts of a
Flower.

(b) Explain the Pollination and Fertilization processes. Q. 12. Write short notes on any
FIVE of the following:

(i) Ecosystem

(ii) CNG

(in) PVC
(iv) Hormones

(v) Antibiotics

(vi) Ceramics

(vii) Green House Effect

(viii) Photosynthesis

(ix) ” Pasteurization

(x) Vaccine. Q. 13. What are the factors of water pollution? What type of

diseases are transmitted by using polluted water? Explain

the methods to control pollution of water. Q. 14. Fill in the blanks with appropriate
words:

(i) The purpose of computer is

(ii) polio is caused by

(in) (iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

(x)

(xi)

(xii)

The stalagmite is deposit of Bauxite is one of

The chemical name of washing soda is The main constituent of Sui gas is

colour has the shortest wave length. liquid.

Gla>.s JS a
Monomers of protein are Ascorbic acid is vitamin

The solar system has

Aids is caused by

planets.
I EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(xiii) In a normal resting person the rate of heart heat is

(xiv) The science which deals with heredity is known as

(xv) In Pakistan Copper mineral is found in .

(xvi) The most abundant element in the earth crust is

is an apparatus used for measuring the

(xvii)

pressure of gases. (xviii)The smallest branches of an artery lead into tiny

blood vessels are called .

(xix) The living part of a plant ce I is composed of a

nucleus and

(xx) The fastest revolving plant is

*##*#**#**

EVERYDAY SCIENCE

FEDERAL PUBLIC SEVICE COMMISSION COMPETITIVE


EXAMINATION FOR

RECRUITMENT TO POSTS

IN BPS-17, UNDER THE FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT, 2002.

(EVERYDAY SCIENCE)

Time allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks 100

Note: Attempt any TEN questions. All questions carry EQUAL

marks. Q. 1. Write short notes on any TWO of the following:

(5 each)

(a) Acid Rain (b) Pesticides.


(c) Endocrine System Q. 2. Differentiate between any FIVE of the following pairs-

(2 each)

(a) Rotation and Revolution of Earth

(b) Monocot and Dicot Plants

(c) Pollination and Fertilization

(d) Umbra and Penumbra

(e) Nucleus and Nucleolus

(f) Heavy and hard water.

Draw a labelled diagram of human

Q.3.

Q.4.

Mi rn

eye,

essential parts. Discuss its working. Fill in th,e blanks with suitable words:

indicating all

(5,5) (1 each)

(a)

(b)

id)

(e) (f)

(g)

’j’

Heavenly objects, which resemble stars and emit

radio waves are called

are hot springs that erupt hot water and


steam from time to time.

Hot liquid rock beneath the earth’s surface is called

The first simple microscope was invented by

is the power house of the cell.

Ability of the air to absorb long heat waves from the earth after allowing the short waves from
sun to pass through it is known as Computei works on the principle introduced by the

Muslim scientist

Coldest planet of the solar system is

The rupture .if red blood cells is called

Muslim scientist Ali-Ibn-Al-Tabari is famous for hib work on


Q.5.

Q.6.

Q.7.

Q. 8.
Q.1Q.

(a) (c) (e)

rVERYDAY SCIENCE

What is the solar system? Indicate the position of planet Pluto in it. State the characteristics that
classify it as: (5,1,4, (a) a planet (b) an asteroid

Which quantities are measured by the following SI units:

(1 each)

Watt (b) Coulomb

Pascal (d) Ohm

Kelvin (f) Joule

(g) meter (h) Faraday

(i) Hertz (j) Ampere

What are minerals? For most of the part miSnerals are constituted of eight elements, name any six
of them. State the six characteristics that are used to identify minerals.

(2,2,6)

Define any five of the following terms using example: each) ,

Polymerization

Antibiotic

Renewable energy resources

Gene

EVERYDAY SCIENCE

suitable
(2

(a) (c) (d) (e)

(b) Eco system

if)

Software

What do you understand by the term ”Balanced Diet”? What are its essential constituents? State
the function of each constituent. (2,3,5)

Which of the following statements are true and which are false: (1 each)

(a) Haploid cells result from the process of mitosis.

(b) All stars are of the same colour.

(c) The left lung has two lobes while the right lung has three lobes.

(d) The pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the right atrium.

(e) Muslim scientist Ibn-Haitham is famous for his work on plants.

(f) Our galaxy milky way is shape& like a large thick concave lense with a large central bulge.

(g) DNA has a double helix structure while the RNA does not have a double helix structure

(h) The normal temperature of Human blood is 37”C

(98.6F) (i) The liver is a part of gastrointestinal tract

. (j) Movement of tectonic plates may cause eruption of a

volcano.

Q.ll. What do the following scientific abbreviations stand for’’ (1 each (a> LASER (b)
RADAR >c> LPG

(d) PVC iei CFC ’D AIDS

(g) ROM (hi LAN (i) WWW

(x) DNA

Q.12. Give brief scientific reasons for any five of the following statements: (1 each)

(a) Lunar eclipse lasts much longer than solar eclipse.

(b) Goiter is common in people living in hilly areas.


(c) Mixture of ice and ^ftt (sodium chloride) is used as a freezing mixture.

(d) Detergents are better cleaning agents compared to soap.

(e) Decomposers are important for life on land and water.

(f) Places near the sea are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than places farther
inland

Q. 13. Name:-

(1 each)

(a) A disease caused by deficiency of vitamin C.

(b) The major fossil fuel impurity

(c) The instrument used to measure degree of humidity. ,

(d) An ore of Zinc.

(e) Two most abundant elements present in the sun.

(f) The metal atom present in chlorophyll.

(g) The gland responsible for the secretion of the hormone estrogen.

(h) An element used i81n the doping of silicon for the preparation of a p-type semiconductor.

(i) A synthetic fibre which is a polyamide.

(j) Major constituent of Biogas. Q. 14. What are Fertilizers? What do you understand by the
term

NPK Fertilizer? HOW do Fertilizers contribute to water

pollution? ’; (3,1.6)

Q. 15, Chose the one alternative that best completes the

statement or answers the question:! 1 each)

(1) giycogen is an example of:

(a) Carbohydrate (b) peptide

(c) lipid (d) steroids

(2) The cell structure that controls movements of material into and out of the cell is the:
(a) mitochondria (b) cell membrane
t&m
^^^^^^^^^^^^BA*7^ ;\’i ’7:VfriH Mt’T^r^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^l

(3)

(o The

centriole unit that

idi co-ordinates different

glogi body devices of

the

(4)

(5)

(6)

< 7)

(8)

(9)
(10!

computer system is:

(a) ALU (b) Register

(c) control unit

(d) logical instructions

is an example of mechanical digestion:

(a) in put/out put device (b; Main memory

(c) operating system (d) both a & b

The number of natural Satellite orbiting around the planet Mars is:

(a) 1 (b) 2

ici 5 id) 14

is an example of mechanical digestion:

hydrolysis defecation
mature stigma

Larynx

(a) Glycolysis (b) hydrolysis

(c) Mastication (d) defecation Botamcally a fruit is a/an:

<a> ripened ovule (b’ mature stigma

(b) ripened ovary

(d) fully mature Flowering stalk the Vocal Folds are part of the:

(a) nasal cavity (b! Larynx >c) Trachea id>

Laryngopharyn ”>

Blood glucose is raised by all of the following except: (a> glycogen (b) Insulin

(ci Cortisol (d; epmephrine

the famous book Al-Qanoon was written by the Muslim scientistfa) Jabir-ibn-Hayyan

(b) Zakariya Al-Razi

(c) Abu-Ali Sina

(d) Abul-Qasim Majreeti


J|t :l: *:]: :|: * 3: #***

EVERYDAY SCIENC

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION

COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN


PBS-17, UNDER THE FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT, 2003 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE, PAPER 1

(EVERYDAY SCIENCE)
Time • 3 hours. Maximum Marks : 100

Note: Attempt any TEN questions. All questions carry EQUAL

marks Draw diagram where necessary and write clearly


1. Write short notes on any TWO of the following: (5,5)
’a) Microwave Oven (b) Optic Fiber i h Biotechnology

’2. Give names of the members of the solar system. Briefly

write down main characteristics of: (2,4,4)

3. Name: (1 each)

(a) The instrument used for the measurement of Blood

(b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h)

(a) The instrument used for the measurement of Blood Pressure.

(b) .A mammal which can fly.

(c) A disease which is more common in men than in women and is hereditary in character.

(d) One endangered animal species of Pakistan.

(e) An ore of mercury.

(f) A Cvanobactermm.

(g) A hormone secreted by pancreas.

(h) The nuclear reaction taking place on the surface of

sun.

(i) The scientist who discovered Sulfuric Acid.

(j) The constituent elements of brass.

What do the following scientific abbreviations stand for:(l each) (a) SONAR (b) SARS (c)
NTP

id) RQ (e) PVC (f) NPN

(g) WAN (h) EGG (i) CPU

(k) BCG

What are pesticides1’ Discuss their classification commonly in use with agronomists ’2, 8)

Define any five of the following- • (2 each)


8
9.

10.

It.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(a) Acoustics (b) Quartz

(c) Cross pollination (d) Allele (e) Optical (f) Ovulation

(g) Aqua Regia

Which physical quantities are measured by the following units: (1 each)

(a) Pascal (b) Torr

(c) Curie (d) Angstrom

(e) Light Year (f) Dioptre

(g) Horse Power (h) Radian

(i) Candela (k) Mole

Explain the structure of Earth and its Atmosphere. (5, 5)

Fill in the blanks: d each)

(a) The conversion of non-diffusible substances into

diffusible ones by the action of enzymes is called

(b) Diamond is the purest naturally occurring crystalline form of

(cj Caustic soda is extensively used for making

(d) When a person can see nearer objects but not the diblant ones he is said to be suffering from .

(e) Marble is rock.

(f) Curie is a unit of

(g) The brown colour of rust is because of .

(h) The movement of food through esophagus is by the muscular action known as .

(i) Granite is a form of rock.

(j) is the main chemical substance in the


plant cell wall.

(k) was first discovered by Robert Brown.

What are Endocrine Glands? Name any two. From which

part of the bod}’ are the following secreted.

Insulin. Thyroxin, Adrenaline, Estrogen, Testosterone,

Cortisol (2,2,6)

Choose the best choice in the following statements. (1)

1. Enzymes .ire organic catalysts made up of

(a) Carbohydrates <b’ Proteins


EVERYDAY SCIENCE

155

12.

(d) Nucleic Acids

(c) fats

2. A nanometer is :

(a) 10’’ meters (b) 10”meters

(c) 10’” meters (d) 10 ^ meters

3. The minimum speed of a Pentium II computer is: (a) 133MHz (b) 23 MHz

(c) 333MHz (d) 433 MHz

4. According to recent classifications the living organisms are divided into number of
kingdoms:

(a) 2 (b) 3

(c) 4 (d) 5

5. Glycolysis is a process of:

(a) Photosynthesis (b) Reproduction

(c) Transpiration (d) Respiration


6. The unit that coordinates different devices of the computer system is:

(a) ALU (b) Register

(c) Control Unit (d) Logical Instruction

7. Seed is technically:

(a) Ripened Ovule (b) Carpel

(c) Ripened Ovary

(d) Fully mature pollen grain

8. ADH is a harmone secreted by :

(a) Anteriro pituitary (b) posterior pituitary

(c) Adrenal cortex (d) Adrenal Medulla

9. The number of natural satellites orbiting around the Mars is:

(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 5 (d) 14

10. Permian period belongs to :

(a) Palaeozoic era (b) Mesozoic era

(c) Coenozoic era (d) Precambrian era

Differentiate between the following pairs: (2 each)

(a) Lava & Magma

(b) Ultraviolet and Infra-red

(c) Fault and Fold

(d) Caustic soda and Caustic Potash


13

14.

iei y.E.M. and T.E.M. Which of the following statements are true and which are false: (1 each)

(a) Right kidney in man is slightly lower in position than the left kidney.

Light is not visible.

Steel is more elastic than rubber.

Pitch of man’s voice is greater than that of woman.

Diastolic blood pressure is greater than systolic blood pressure.

Base metal can be converted into gold by heating. Guava contains more vitamins C than orange. A light
year is a unit of time. Mercury is heavier than Lead.

Movement of tectonic plates may cause eruption of a volcano.

give scientific reason of the following: (2 each)

(a) Colour blindness is more common in men than in women.

Light coloured clothes are generally worn in summer.

A person is hurt more when he falls on hard ground than on soft ground.

Deforestation causes more floods.

The manhole covers are generally round.

(b)

(c) (d) le)

If)

<g)

(h)

(i) U)

(b)

(c)

(d)

’e) „ , -.
What does LASER stand for? Describe its four different applications clearly stating their
principle. (2, 8)
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

i57

FEDERAL PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION


COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION FOR RECRUITMENT TO POSTS IN BPS-17 UNDER
THE FEDERAL

GOVERNMENT, 2004. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. PAPER-1

(EVERY DAY SCIENCE)

Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks; 100

NOTE: Attempt any TEN questions All questions carry EQUAL marks. Draw diagrams where
necessary and write clearly.

1. Write short notes on any TWO of the following: (5 each) (a) Superconductivity (b)
Night Vision Technology

(c) Seismogragh

2. Briefly write down characteristics of: (5 each) (a) Mercury (b) Pluto

3. Name: (1 each)

(a) The desert mammal which does not drink water.

(b) The mixture which can dissolve Platinum

(c) The constituent elements of Bronze

(d) The vitamin whose deficiency causes a disease called Beri Beri

(e) The electrical device which transform voltage

(f) A nuclear reaction in which two or more than two lighter nuclei are fused together to form a
relatively heavier one.

(g) The purest naturally occurring crystalline form of carbon

(h) The hormone secreted by adrenal cortex.

(i) The three colours combination which produces the

sensation of white light, (j) The defect of vision because of which a person
cannot see distant objects clearly.

4. What are fertilizers? What do you understand by the term NPK Fertilizer? How do fertilization
contribute to the pollution. (2, 2, 6)

5. Write briefly about any FIVE of the following: (2 each) (a) Nuclear radiation (b)
Theodolite

(c) Dialysis (d) Enrichment of Uranium


9.

10.
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

(e) Richter Scale (f) Aqua Regia (g) Iodized Salt Which physical quantities are
measured by the following units? (1 each)

(a) Rutherford (b) Torr (c) Fermi (d) SVED BERG Unit (e) Dioptre (f) Mho (g) Henry
(h) Maxwell (i) Becquerel (g) Kilo Watt Hour

What are the various sources of energy? How does energy is produced in the surface of
the sun? What will be the future of the sun? (4,4,2)

Which are the following statements True and which are False. (1 each)

(a) A six feet tall lady can see her full image in a three feet Plane Mirror

(b) Vanadium, a steel gray corrosion resistant metal occur naturally in oxide state.

(c) Fibre Optics Cable carries data in the form of light

(d) Blue flame is hotter than-red flame

(e) The falling of yellow leaves during Autumn is the seasonal time for plants to get rid
of accumulated wastes.

(f) Friction is necessary evil

(g) There are 9.5 x 1015 m in one light year

(h) The velocity of a moving object is least where he

pressure is greatest (i) Heat reaches earth from the sun by means of

convection.

(j) Meningitis is the inflammation of liver. Differentiate between the following pairs.
(2 each)

(a) Periscope & Pyrometer (b) Cell & Batter) (c) Perimeter & Altimeter (d)
Pelage and Plumage (e) Smog and Smoke Fill in the blanks:

(a) The largest planet of the solar system is .

(b) The temperature of the dead human body on Celsius Scale is .


(b) For a large span of a long jump, two things are taken into account-viz

(i) angle with which one jumps and (ii)

(d) The number of Spinal Nerves in man is

pairs
EVERYDAY SCIENCE

1459

11.

12.

13.

14.

(e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

A primary cell can

be charged again

Halos around the moon are formed because offiF the phenomenon of

Scattering of light the duration of the cz3ay.

Muscle stiffness is caused by a disease called

Oil rises in a wick of oil lamp on account w«of a property of matter called

0’) Muslim scientist Ali-al-Tabari is famous for his vwu/ork

on .

Give scientific reason of the following. (2 e^ach)

(1) Rain water is more fertile than water from tube \w/ell.

(2) (3) (4)

(5)
The man-hole covers are generally round. Clothes of a moving dancer bulge.

Peoples are advised not to stand near a fast mov^ing train.

The image of a tree looks inverted on the bank r- >f a lake.

Why are the scientists worried about the increase of carhrjon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere? Is there any possil_ble benefit for the mankind in case of global warming?
(£3,2) What do the following scientific abbreviations stand for?

(a) STP (b) ATP (c) PNP (d) LAN (et KWh

(f) BTU(g) LDL(h) ROM(i) MAF (j) SONABE*

Match the columns A and B but write the answers sei - ial

wise in Column C. Column A

1. Frank Whittle

2. Addison

3. Hahn

4. Mendel

5. Benjamin Franklin

6. Bardeen & Brattin

7. Heisenberg

8. Fermi

9. Lawrence

10. Maxwell hertz

(1 Column C

1.
2.
3.

Column B
Fission

Electricity

Genetics

Lightening conductor 4.

Semi conductor 6.

Uncertainty principle 6.

Jet engine 7.

Cyclotron 8.

Electro magnetic waves 9.

Fusion 10.

Length

Stem Engine
15. Choose the best choice in the following statements (1 each)

(1) The three elements needed for healthy growth of

plants are:

(a) N,P,K (b) N,C,P (c) HK/C (.2) The most abundant element m the human body is-

(a) Carbon (b) Hydrogen (c) Oxygen

(3) Ammonium Nitrate is not used for:

(a) Rice Crop (b) Wheat Crop (c) Sugarcane Crop

(4) Sea divers use a mixture of gases for breathing during diving The mixture is

(a) 80% He & 20% O, (b) 80% N2 & 206/( O

(c) 20%02&40%N240%CO,

(d) 50% He & 50% O2

(5) Which one of the following is a water soluble vitamin:

(a) Niacin (b) Ascorbic acid (c) Trypsin (d) Riboflavm

(6) Which of the following enzymes bring about hydrolysis of fats?

(a) Urease (b) Zymase (c) Maltase (d) Lipase

(7) The solution of which acid is used for seasoning of food:

(a) Formic acid (b) Acetic acid (d Benzoic acid (d) Botanic acid

(8) Influenza is caused by:

(a) Fungi (b) Bacteria (c) Virus (d) Protozoa

(9) The blood glucose level is raised by the following except:

(a) Carbohydrates (b) Cholesterol (c) Insulin (d) Epinephrine

(10) The energy possessed by water in a dam is:

(a) Electrical energy (.b) Kinetic energy

(c) Potential energy id) Mechanical energy

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