Corrosion The Understanding of Basic

Corrosion
Understanding The Basic
Nova Arief Setiyanto
Confidential - All rights reserved

1
Outline
• Prinsip Dasar Korosi

• Form of Corrosion
• Tipe dan Jenis Korosi
• Engineering Material
• Techniques for Diagnosis of Corrosion Failures
• Corrosion Testing and Monitoring
Confidential - All rights reserved 2

Prinsip Dasar Korosi
CORROSION is a natural process. Just like water flows to the lowest level, all
natural processes tend toward the lowest possible energy states.
Thus, for example, iron and steel have a natural tendency to combine with other
chemical elements to return to their lowest energy states
Corrosion can be defined as a chemical or electrochemical reaction between a

material, usually a metal, and its environment that produces a deterioration of
the material and its properties
The corrosion cycle of steel

WHY CORROSION IS IMPORTANT ?

BASIC CORROSION


REACTION

BARE STEEL CORROSION
A : Anode C : Cathode

Form of Corrosion
Nature of the corrodent: Corrosion can be classified as “wet”

or “dry.” A liquid or moisture is necessary for the former, and
dry corrosion usually involves reaction with high-temperature
gases
Classification
based on 3
factors :
Mechanism of corrosion: This involves either electrochemical or
direct chemical reactions.
Appearance of the corroded metal: Corrosion is either uniform

and the metal corrodes at the same rate over the entire
surface, or it is localized, in which case only small areas are
affected

Form of Corrosion
• It involves direct attack of dry gases (Air and

Oxygen) on the metal through chemical
Dry corrosion reactions. As a result an oxide layer is formed
over the surface.
• This type corrosion is not common.
• It involves direct attack of aqueous media

(strong or dilute, acidic or alkaline) on metal
Wet corrosion through electrochemical reactions.
• The moisture and oxygen are also responsible.
• This type of corrosion is quite common.

Form of Corrosion
Schematics of the common forms of corrosion

Form of Corrosion
Macroscopic versus microscopic forms of localized corrosion

Forms of Corrosion
/ Galvanik

Forms of Corrosion
1. Uniform Corrosion

Forms of Corrosion
2. Localized Corrosion

Forms of Corrosion
2. Localized Corrosion

LOCALIZED CORROSION
2. Crevis

LOCALIZED CORROSION
3. Erosion - Corrosion

LOCALIZED CORROSION
4. Hydrogen Stress Cracking

ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

Materials of construction
METALS
• Carbon and low alloy steels
• Martensitic stainless steels
• Austenitic / super-austenitic stainless steels
• Duplex / super-duplex stainless steels
• Nickel alloys
• Copper alloys
• Titanium
NON-METALS
• Elastomers
• Glass fibre reinforced plastics
• Thermal insulation

Metallic product forms
◼ Castings
◼ Forgings
◼ Rolled products
 plate
 sheet
 bar
◼ Seamless pipe and tube
◼ Welded pipe and tube
◼ Extruded sections
◼ Hot isostatic pressings
(powder metallurgy)

Castings
❑ Relatively
inexpensive
❑ Complex shapes
but……
❑ Defects Sand casting

❑ Coarse grain
size
❑ Mechanical
properties
Casting porosity Cast steel valve

Casting defects
Shrinkage porosity defects removed from large valve body

castings after radiographic examination
Casting defects – gas porosity
Gas porosity in valve body castings

and the radiographic image. Usually
caused by poor casting procedures,
e.g. moisture in the mould

Forgings
❑ Relatively simple
shapes
❑ Good mechanical
properties
Open forging Closed die forging
❑ Forging defects less
likely than castings
Confidential - All rights reserved Forged flanges Forged riser spool 31

Benefits of working
Hot working
 Recrystallisation
 Homogeneity
 Closure of defects
Cold working
 Increase in strength
 Dimensional control
 Surface finish

Seamless pipe and tube
◼ Pierced solid
◼ Hot and cold drawing
◼ No weld defects
◼ Uniform properties
Seamless pipe
manufacture
Seamless pipe is most suited to large wall

thickness-to-diameter ratios
33
Welded pipe
Longitudinally welded
◼ Made from plate or strip
◼ Uniform wall thickness
◼ Concentricity
◼ Lower cost than
seamless
Longitudinally fusion welded pipe
Spirally welded
◼ Made from coiled strip
◼ Non-preferred for HC
duty
◼ QA/QC requirements
◼ Water pipe and piling
Spirally fusion welded pipe

Electric resistance welded pipe and tube
ERW
◼ Lowest cost
◼ Projects only, not maintenance
◼ Approved suppliers only !!
◼ Not suitable for duties that can
support:
 stress corrosion cracking
 preferential weld corrosion
ERW pipe seam failure

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
❑ Can be complex shapes

❑ Excellent mechanical properties
❑ Relatively expensive
The HIPping process Near net shape HIPped component

Heat treatment of carbon steel
Austenite
900
Furnace cool
(anneal)
Temperature, °C
Coarse ferrite / pearlite: low

Ferrite
Air cool strength and toughness

Water
cool (normalise)
(quench)
100
Time
Fine ferrite / pearlite: good
strength and toughness
Martensite: high
strength but brittle
Welding
❑ Complex shapes
❑ Versatile
but……
❑ QA / QC (defects)
Single sided butt weld in steel
Double sided weld with defects in

root and on surface
Hardenability and weldability
❑ Alloy additions increase ease of

martensite formation on cooling
= increased hardenability
900
= decreased weldability
Temperature, °C
❑ Carbon equivalent
CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Ni + Cu
Water cool, Air cool, alloy 6 5 15
carbon steel steel
100
Time

Steel weld microstructures
Ferrite-pearlite of
parent metal
Martensite in heat
affected zone if
cooling rate too fast
Cast structure of
weld metal
Avoiding martensite formation in welding
❑ Pre-heat components, e.g. to 100ºC

❑ Inter-pass heat
❑ Complete welding in one sequence
❑ Post heat immediately after welding
❑ Carbon equivalent < 0.43
Martensite cracking in HAZ -
cooling rate too fast ❑ Use a “low hydrogen” process
Electric elements for pre- and post-heating of welds

Carbon steels
◼ First choice for most applications

 Lowest cost
 Availability in most product forms
 High strength grades
 Good weldability
 Fracture toughness down to – 50ºC
 Life extended by corrosion allowance (CA)
◼ If required CA is > 8mm, consider: Carbon steel vessel dished head
 Internal coating or CRA cladding

 Solid CRA
 Non-metallic materials

Carbon steels, typical ASTM standards
Carbon steels
Regular grades
◼ Pressure vessel plate, A 285, A 515
◼ Seamless pipe, A 106B
◼ Forgings, A 105
◼ Fittings, A 234
◼ Bolting, A 193 B7
Impact tested grades
◼ Pressure vessel plate A 516
◼ Seamless and welded pipe, A 333
◼ Forgings, A 350
◼ Fittings, A 420
◼ Bolting, A 320 L7
All grades of carbon steel used for welded
construction are supplied in the normalised
condition. Bolting will be Q+T

Carbon steel - vulnerabilities
◼ General corrosion resistance

 Poor in acidic environments
 Poor resistance to CO2
◼ Damage in wet H2S
 SSC of hard zones
 HIC & SOHIC of plate steels
◼ Environmental cracking
 Alkalis (caustic, amines,
NH3 )
 Wet H2S
◼ Low temperature toughness
 Limited to -50ºC
Alkali cracking
Stainless steels for pressure systems
Generic Type Common Name UNS
Austenitic 304 SS S30400
304L SS S30403
316 SS S31600
316L SS S31603
Super-austenitic 254SMO or 6Mo S31254
904L N08904
Alloy 28 (Sanicro) N08028
Duplex 22%Cr S31803
Super-duplex 25%Cr S32750
25%Cr (Zeron 100) S32760
25%Cr S39274
Austenitic stainless steel – type 304
Composition
 Fe, 18%Cr, 8%Ni or “18-8”
Benefits
 General corrosion / oxidation
resistance
 No ductile-brittle transition
 Highly ductile
 Readily weldable (use “L” grade)
Limitations
 Low yield strength
 Localized corrosion resistance
304 SS is widely used in
◼ Pitting, crevice, SCC by chloride
domestic, medical, food
ions and pharmaceutical
applications
Austenitic stainless steel – type 316
Composition
 Fe, 18%Cr 10%Ni 2.5%Mo
Benefits
 Same as type 304, plus…
 Improved localised corrosion
316 SS is the standard alloy for
resistance
instrument and control systems
Limitations
 Still not suitable for seawater
Chloride ion SCC

Austenitic stainless steel – sensitisation
Precipitation of chromium carbides
Regular grades Low carbon “L” grades

Austenitic stainless steel – sensitisation
Intergranular corrosion of sensitised

austenitic stainless steel

Super-austenitic stainless steels
Composition
 Higher Ni & other alloy elements
compared with standard austenitics,
e.g. Fe, 25%Ni, 20%Cr, 6%Mo
Benefits (compared with 316SS)
 Improved resistance to
◼ localised corrosion
◼ environmental cracking
 High Mo grades are seawater

resistant at ambient temperatures (to
~ 20ºC)
Limitations Piping and fittings in
 Higher cost 254SMO alloy for seawater
system
 Still susceptible to chloride SCC

Duplex stainless steel, 22%Cr
Composition
Regular grade is 22%Cr, 5%Ni, 3%Mo
Austenite islands
Benefits (over 316SS)
 Double yield strength
 Improved localised corrosion resistance
 Much improved chloride SCC resistance
Limitations
 Greater care required for welding
 Limited H2S cracking resistance
 Not seawater resistant
 Limited to -50ºC impact toughness
Ferrite matrix

25% Cr super-duplex stainless steel
Composition
316 SS tubing
Typically 25%Cr, 7%Ni, 3.5%Mo
Benefits (over 22% Cr DSS)
 25% higher yield strength
 Improved localised corrosion resistance
 Improved chloride SCC resistance
 Seawater resistant to ~ 20ºC
Limitations
 Higher cost
 Even greater care required for welding and heat treatments
25%Cr super-duplex
 Limited H2S cracking resistance
 Limited to -50ºC impact toughness

Embrittlement of duplex SS
Too slow cooling in heat

treatment, allowing formation of
1000 brittle intermetallic phases,
especially “sigma”
Temperature, °C
Inter-metallics
Slow cool
Fast cool
600 1 10 min
0.01 1 100
Time, h
Ideal “clean” duplex
structure requires fast
cooling 65
Avoiding embrittlement of duplex SS
FORGINGS AND CASTINGS

• efficient water quench, but…
• centre of thick sections difficult to
1000
cool quickly
Temperature, °C
Inter-metallics
Fast cool
600 1 10 min
0.01 1 100
WELDING
Time, h • no preheat
• cool between passes
• use low heat input process
66
Nickel, copper and titanium for pressure systems
Generic Type Common Name UNS

Nickel alloys Alloy 825 (Incoloy) N08825
Alloy 625 (Inconel) N06625
Alloy C-276 (Hastelloy) N10276
Alloy 400 (Monel) N04400
Copper alloys 90-10 Cu-Ni (Cunifer) C70600
Ni-Al bronze C95800
Titanium alloys Grade 2 (Commercially pure) R56400
Grade 7 (Ti – 0.2%Pd) R52400
Grade 12 (Ti-0.3%Mo-0.8%Ni) R53400
Nickel base alloys
Benefits
− No ductile-brittle transition
− Customised corrosion resistance
− Chloride SCC resistance
− Some are seawater resistant to ~ 30ºC
− Good weldability: ideal for cladding
Limitations
− High materials and fabrication costs
− Some have low yield strength

Nickel alloy clad materials
Clad materials
 Carbon steel pipe, fittings, and
vessels
 Ni alloy of choice (usually 625)
Benefits
 Corrosion resistance of the nickel
alloy
 Cost-effectiveness
Manufacturing processes
 Overlay welded
 Hot-rolled clad pipes
 Explosion welded clad plate
Manufacture of clad pipe by

internal weld overlay
Alloy 825 (Incoloy 825)
Composition 42%Ni, 21.5%Cr, 3%Mo, 2%Cu, bal Fe
Benefits
 Lower cost “nickel” alloy
 Good H2S / CO2 resistance
 Welding / fabrication
Limitations
 Low PREw (~28)
 Not seawater resistant
Alloy 825 valve

Working limit alloy 825

Alloy 625 (Inconel 625)
Composition Ni, 22%Cr, 9%Mo, 3.75%Nb, 5%Fe
Benefits
 Excellent all-round corrosion resistance
 Welding & fabrication
 Good mechanical properties
Limitations
 High cost
Alloy 625 internally weld overlaid

components
Alloy C-276 (Hastelloy)
Composition Ni,16%Cr,16%Mo, 4%W, 2.5%Co,7%Fe
Benefits
 Excellent all-round corrosion resistance
 PREw = 64
 Good mechanical properties
Limitations
 Specialist alloy – limited supply
 Cold bending only (no heat)
Evaporator tube bundle with 2"

seamless Hastelloy C-276 tubes.

Alloy 400 (Monel)
Composition 63%Ni, 31%Cu, 2.5%Fe, 2%Mn

Benefits
 Excellent sea water corrosion resistance
 No embrittling mechanisms
 Good weldability including overlay
Limitations
 High cost due to nickel content
 Rarely used today in E&P
Monel mesh is widely used in sea

water filters .

Copper alloys
Characteristics
 Simple to manufacture by forming
 High heat conductivity makes
welding challenging
 Readily available & easy to repair
Use
 Mainly for sea water Copper-bottomed hulls resist
build-up of marine growth
 Resist marine growth due to their
inherent poisoning effect
 Not suitable for hydrocarbon duty
Cu-Ni cladding of pipeline risers for

splash zone corrosion protection
75
Copper alloys
◼ 90-10 CuNi Cu, 10%Ni, 1.5%Fe

◼ Ni Al Bronze Cu, 9%Al, 5%Ni, 4%Fe
◼ Tungum Cu, 13%Zn, 1%Al, 1%Si, 1%Ni
90-10 CuNi seawater filter vessel 90-10 CuNi pipe and fittings for
seawater system
Designing with copper alloys
Sea water erosion and corrosion
 90-10 CuNi, velocity should be in

range 0.5 – 2.4 m/s.
 Al-bronze, velocity should be in range
0.5 – 3.0 m/s.
 At higher velocities, protective film
removed = erosion
 Avoid sulphide pollution = corrosion
 Avoid excessive chlorination =
corrosion
90-10 CuNi seawater piping

Designing with copper alloys
Galvanic corrosion
Contact should be avoided with
stainless steels and titanium: these
materials are more noble
Avoid graphite-containing gaskets
CuNi
Carbon steel
90-10 CuNi seawater piping with Al-bronze

valve
Stainless steel
Calculate t min as per ASME B31.3 2018
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) EPRI NP 5911
Acceptance Criteria for Structural Evaluation of

Erosion-Corrosion Thinning in Carbon Steel Piping

Evaliation of Wall Thinning Schematic of Depth and Extend of Wall

Logic Diagram Thinning as per ASME B31.G

Local Membrane Stress

Perhitungan tmin dalam beberapa code bergantung pada Batasan Tegangan
membrane secara umum, yang diasumsikan t mmin adalah tebal minimum
sebelum terjadi kegagalan.
Dalam hal ini ASME Section III
Rtmin = Componen mean radius

Definition and Stress Limits for Local Membrane Stress Per ASME Section III
Calculate t min as per ASME B31.3
Input Required : Equation 304.1.2 ASME B31.3 2018 page 19

1. Pipe material of construction. Seamless Pipes : Design Thickness
2. Pipe NPD. t = (PD)/2(SE+PY)
3. Pipe construction type :
Seamless, EFW, ERW etc. Welded Pipes : Design Thickness
4. Design temperature. t = (PD)/2(SEW+PY)
5. Design Pressure.
6. Corrosion allowance for Where,
material and operating P : Internal Design Gauge Pressure
conditions. D : Outside diameter of pipe
7. Mechanical allowance. S : Design stress from applicable Table in
8. Mill tolerance. Appendix B
SW : Design stress of Welded from applicable
Table in Appendix B

Calculate t min as per ASME B31.3
Equation 304.1.2
Seamless Pipes : Design Thickness
t = (PD)/2(SE+PY)
Welded Pipes : Design Thickness

t = (PD)/2(SEW+PY)
Where,
P : Internal Design Gauge Pressure
D : Outside diameter of pipe
1. ASME B36.10 : Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe.
2. ASME B36.19 : Stainless Steel Pipes.
S : Allowable Stress value for material from Table A-1 ASME B31.3

S : Allowable Stress value for material from Table A-1 ASME B31.3
E : Longitudinal Weld Joint Quality Factor

1. Applicable as per ASME B31.3 Table 3. 0.60 for Furnace Butt Welded Pipes
A-1A or A-1B 4. 0.85 for Electric Resistance Welded
2. 1 For Seamless Pipes Pipes
W : Weld Joint Strength Reduction Factor

1. Applicable as per Para 302.3.5(e) of ASME B31.3
2. It is applicable only for Welded pipes.
3. W is Take as 1 for Seamless Pipes.
4. Value of W is taken as 1.0 at temperatures of 510°C (950°F) and below, and
0.5 at 815°C (1500°F) for all materials.
5. Value is linearly interpolated for intermediate temperatures.
Y : Coefficient from Table 304.1.1

Addition of Allowances
Corrosion Allowance, Mechanical Allowance for Grooving, Threading etc and
Manufacturing Tolerance to arrive at final value.
Required Thickness = Design Thickness + Allowances
Calculator
https://www.pipingengineer.org/pipe-thickness-calculator/

Techniques for Diagnosis of Corrosion
Failures
Techniques for Diagnosis of Corrosion Failures
• Visual and microscopic examination of corroded surfaces and

microstructure
• Chemical analysis of the metal, corrosion products, and bulk environment
• Non Destructive evaluation methods
• Corrosion testing techniques
• Mechanical testing techniques

Techniques for Diagnosis of Corrosion
Failures
Techniques for Diagnosis of Corrosion Failures

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
1. Introduction
a. Basic Principle
▪ Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements.
▪ Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional
measurements, material characterization, and more.
▪ Functional units : pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices.
▪ The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the
conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is
the basis for ultrasonic testing

1. Introduction
a. Basic Principle
▪ Some of the advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
➢ It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
➢ The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior
to other NDT methods.
➢ Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is
used.
➢ It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size
and shape.
➢ Minimal part preparation is required.
➢ Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
➢ Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
➢ It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw
detection.

2. Physic of Ultrasound
a. Wave Propagation
➢ Longitudinal ➢ Transversal

Sound velocity in various materials
Material Sound Velocity
Inch/µSecond Metres/second
Air 0.013 330 Polyethylene 0.070 1900
Aluminium 0.250 6300 Polystyrene 0.0930 2400
Alumina Oxide 0.390 9900 Polyurethane 0.0700 1900
Beryllium 0.510 12900 Quartz 0.230 5800
Boron Carbide 0.430 11000 Rubber, Butyl 0.070 1800
Brass 0.170 4300 Silver 0.140 3600
Cadmium 0.110 2800 Steel, Mild 0.230 5920
Copper 0.180 4700 Steel, Stainless 0.230 5800
Glass(crown) 0.210 5300 Teflon 0.060 1400
Glycerine 0.075 1900 Tin 0.130 3300
Gold 0.130 3200 Titanium 0.240 6100
Ice 0.160 4000 Tungsten 0.200 5200
Inconel 0.220 5700 Uranium 0.130 3400
Iron 0.230 5900 Water 0.584 1480
Iron (cast) 0.180 4600 Zinc 0.170 4200
Lead 0.085 2200
Magnesium 0.230 5800
Mercury 0.057 1400
Molybdenum 0.250 6300
Monel 0.210 5400
Neoprene 0.063 1600
Nickel 0.220 5600
Nylon, 6.6 0.100 2600
Oil (SAE 30) 0.067 1700
Platinum 0.130 3300
Plexiglas 0.110 1700

3. Measurement Technique
a. Step Inspection
SURFACE CALIBRATION
PREPARATION ULTRASONIC TESTER
MEASUREMENT APPLY COUPLANT
OBSERVATION RECORD
CLEANING
4. Calibration Methods
a. Reference Test Piece
▪ STB A-1 (IIW) (check performance, adjust measurement range, measure incidence, and
refraction angle of the probe).
IIW Type US-2 IIW Type US-1 IIW Type Mini
▪ The Miniature Angle-Beam or ROMPAS Calibration Block (beam angle & exit point of
transducer, sensitivity calibrations, metal distance).
ROMPAS Calibration Block

▪ AWS Shear Wave Distance ( determine the beam exit point, refracted angle of angle-
beam transducers, calibrate distance, set the sensitivity).
Sensitivity Calibration Distance Calibration (DC) Block Resolution Calibration (RC) Block
(DSC) Block (check resolution & gain setting of
angle beam)
▪ Resolution Reference Block ( evaluate the near-surface resolution and flaw size/depth
sensitivity of a normal-beam setup, calibrate high-resolution thickness gages).
30 FBH Resolution Reference Block Miniature Resolution Block

▪ Step and Tapered Calibration Wedges (calibrate measure thickness)
▪ Distance/Sensitivity (DS) ▪ Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks (determine

Block (check the horizontal the relationship between flaw size and
linearity and the dB accuracy signal amplitude by comparing signal
per requirements). responses for the different sized holes &
comparing signals from same size flaws at
different depth).

b. UTSIM (UT Simulation)
▪ UTSIM is a user interface integrating a CAD model representing a part under inspection
and an ultrasound beam model.

5. Selected Applications
a. Rail Inspection

b. Weldments (Welded Joint)
◼ The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag inclusions, lack of
side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root penetration, undercutting, and
longitudinal or transverse cracks.

c. Exsample Defect Signal

6. Advantages & Disadvantages
a. Advantages
▪ Thickness test piece can be tested
▪ Exact location and depth of discontinuity can be known
▪ Better at detecting subsurface than RT
b. Disadvantages
▪ Surface must be accessible to probe and couplant.
▪ Skill and training required is more extensive than other technique.
▪ Surface finish and roughness can interfere with inspection.
▪ Thin parts may be difficult to inspect.
▪ Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam can go undetected.
▪ Reference standards are often needed.

Speciment 1 & 2
Speciment 3


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What are the different forms of corrosion?

What are the different forms of corrosion?

What are some common corrosion defects in welded joints?

What are some common corrosion defects in welded joints?

Corrosion

Understanding The Basic

Nova Arief Setiyanto

Confidential - All rights reserved

• Prinsip Dasar Korosi

Confidential - All rights reserved 2

Corrosion can be defined as a chemical or electrochemical reaction between a

The corrosion cycle of steel

WHY CORROSION IS IMPORTANT ?

Confidential - All rights reserved 4

Confidential - All rights reserved 5

Confidential - All rights reserved 6

Confidential - All rights reserved 7

BARE STEEL CORROSION

Confidential - All rights reserved 8

Nature of the corrodent: Corrosion can be classified as “wet”

Appearance of the corroded metal: Corrosion is either uniform

Confidential - All rights reserved 9

• It involves direct attack of dry gases (Air and

• It involves direct attack of aqueous media

Confidential - All rights reserved 10

Schematics of the common forms of corrosion

Confidential - All rights reserved 11

Macroscopic versus microscopic forms of localized corrosion

Confidential - All rights reserved 12

Confidential - All rights reserved 13

Confidential - All rights reserved 14

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❑ Defects Sand casting

Casting porosity Cast steel valve

Shrinkage porosity defects removed from large valve body

Gas porosity in valve body castings

Confidential - All rights reserved 30

Confidential - All rights reserved Forged flanges Forged riser spool 31

Confidential - All rights reserved 32

Seamless pipe is most suited to large wall

Spirally fusion welded pipe

ERW pipe seam failure

❑ Can be complex shapes

The HIPping process Near net shape HIPped component

Coarse ferrite / pearlite: low

Air cool strength and toughness

Double sided weld with defects in

❑ Alloy additions increase ease of

Confidential - All rights reserved 44

❑ Pre-heat components, e.g. to 100ºC

Electric elements for pre- and post-heating of welds

◼ First choice for most applications

 Internal coating or CRA cladding