Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 759–765

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Power transmission in direct current. Future expectations for Colombia

D. Velasco a,*, C.L. Trujillo a,b, R.A. Peña b
a
Departamento de Ingenierı´a Electrónica, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera S/N, C.P. 46022, Valencia, Spain
b
Departamento de Ingenierı´a Electrónica, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Carrera 7 No 40-53 Piso 5, Bogotá, Colombia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: DC transmission is important when there are problems of instability in AC systems, i.e. when energy is
Received 1 July 2010 transported through long distance. This issue requires research centers and multinational companies’
Accepted 6 August 2010 investments to solve it. One solution is the high voltage DC transmission or HVDC (high voltage direct
current). Worldwide HVDC interconnections have helped to solve problems of instability and moreover
Keywords: to easily interconnect systems where voltage and frequency are not compatible. According to that, the
HVDC aim of this paper is first to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of DC systems compared to AC
Voltage source converters
systems, and then to show future trends in DC systems, as well as present the possible interaction with
Current source converters
renewable energies and the convenience of considering the implementation of that technology in
Renewable energy
Colombia.
ß 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
2. HVDC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
2.1. Comparison between HVAC and HVDC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
2.2. Types of HVDC links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
2.3. Types of converters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
3. Actual condition of HVDC systems in Colombia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
4. Impact and possible trend of future development of HVDC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

1. Introduction and flexible control strategies and operating modes, as well as

lower costs and better returns when transmitting through very
Globalization process is requesting economic and technological large distances or when there are geographic obstacles such as seas
actions to invigorate the trade of energy. As a consequence of this, or oceans [1–4].
different strategies of transmission and distribution have emerged Therefore, the power transmission through high voltage direct
in order to achieve cheaper and more efficient interconnection current will become a possibility economically feasible and its
systems. commercial and social applications may cover a wide range of
In this way, technologies and emerging developments such as possibilities [1]. These facts have been presented since its first
the power transmission through high voltage direct current, HVDC, commercial application in 1954, in Sweden (Gotland link) by ASEA
have comparative advantages in several aspects in relation to (an ABB company). Today there are about 100 projects all over the
conventional technologies of transmission and interconnection in world. They have been working on improving its technology,
AC [1,2]. Some of the most common benefits are easy intercon- primarily in the development and progress of semiconductor
nection with regions that have incompatible frequencies, different devices, on converter topologies, and on control strategies to
transform HVDC systems in an advantageous element for both
trade and transmission of power [5].
* Corresponding author.
On the other hand, renewable energy is assuming a greater
E-mail addresses: davede@posgrado.upv.es, davede@upv.es (D. Velasco), importance in the global market. In many cases, the renewable
cltrujillo@udistrital.edu.co (C.L. Trujillo), rpena@udistrital.edu.co (R.A. Peña). electricity generation centers are far from the consumption points,

1364-0321/$ – see front matter ß 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.08.013
760 D. Velasco et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 759–765

so it is necessary to find solutions to cover long distances, carrying of controlled current source (CSC). Powered CSC HVDC links are
large amounts of energy with minimal losses. Currently, several more powerful and longer. For example, the one from Itaipu, Brazil,
projects using HVDC technologies in combination with renewable that was built in 1984 [13], has one of the highest voltages HVDC
energy are being developed. This is especially true in the case of transmission (600 kV). With the advent of power self-commuted
wind generation systems in marine environments where it is elements, such as OFF by gate thyristors (GTO – Gate Turn-Off
necessary to lay submarine cables [6–9]. An example of this is the Thyristor) and insulated gate transistors (IGBT – Insulated Gate
case of Borkum 2, in Germany [10], which is offshore wind farm Bipolar Transistor), converters with characteristics of controlled
cluster that will be connected to the grid by 400 MW HVDC Light1 voltage source (i.e. VSC) have been developed. They have the
transmission systems. Full grid code compliance of more than particularity of not changing the polarity of the lines when changing
200 km long HVDC (high voltage direct current) transmission the direction of power flow, as it does under the CSC.
ensures a robust transmission network connection. Due to the constant evolution of power transmission systems, it
Today in Colombia, the Expansion Plan 2004–2018 of UPME is now very common to find the term HVDC Light1 [14]. HVDC
plans an electrical interconnection between Colombia and Panama Light1 is the successful and environmentally friendly way to
with huge possibilities of using HVDC interconnection. For this design a power transmission system for a submarine cable, an
reason, research is required in all stages related to the DC underground cable or network interconnection. HVDC Light1 is
transmission process, in order to assess the implications of HVDC technology based on voltage source converters (VSCs). With
implementing such technologies in the country. extruded DC cables, power ratings from a few tens of megawatts up
This paper is divided as follows: first, HVDC systems are to several hundreds of megawatts are available. This technology is
discussed, with emphasis on the comparison with HVAC systems, able to rapidly control both active and reactive power indepen-
types of HVDC links and the types of converters employed. Then, dently from each other and to keep stable voltage and frequency.
the current state of HVDC systems in Colombia is presented, as well This gives total flexibility regarding to the location of the
as the impact and possible trend of future development of HVDC converters in the AC system since the requirements of short-
systems. Finally, conclusions will be presented. circuit capacity of connected AC networks is low (SCR down to
zero). Fig. 1 shows the HVDC Light1 scheme.
2. HVDC systems
2.1. Comparison between HVAC and HVDC systems
The continued growth in electricity demand requires ongoing
expansion plans to increase transport capacity, and promote the For similar levels of isolation and conductors with the same
interconnection of regions that sometimes are separated by great specifications, it is possible to transmit more power through a
distances. The need to transmit energy across the sea is very bipolar DC link which uses two conductors than using a three-
common as well as to interconnect asynchronous systems of conductors AC link [15].
different frequencies. This implies finding technically and eco- The electric field at the surface of the conductors is lower in
nomically feasible systems that ensure stability and proper HVDC and the measures to mitigate it are also less demanding [16].
exchange of energy. Losses in DC systems with two conductors, with the same current
As it is known, the power transfer in AC lines depends on the transmission capacity of three AC conductors, are lower (about two
angular difference between voltage phasors at both ends of the thirds, compared to the AC cables), and in long lines, the losses of
line. For a level of power transfer given these angles, it increases converters are compensated with smaller losses presented by
accordingly to the distance. But at the same time, it decreases the conductors. So for the same power level the number of DC lines is
stability of systems where the interconnections are particularly lower, decreasing the size of the towers, and reducing the right of
long. The power transmission using submarine cables is limited to way significantly [1,15,17]. The electric and magnetic fields
short distances in the case of HVAC due to high dielectric capacity generated by HVDC lines are static; they have the same order of
cables, and compensating inductors are required to use every 15– magnitude than those generated by the Earth, and, in principle,
20 km parallel, limiting the effective transmission distance [11]. In they do not affect the living beings directly. Due to these factors,
AC systems with different frequencies, it is impossible to the cost of DC lines is smaller, has low visual impact and is more
interconnect them directly. environmentally friendly.
The foregoing limitations have been forced to seek alternative On the other hand, the technical advantages and lower costs of
solutions, which with technological developments and advances in HVDC lines are affected by the high prices of terminal equipment,
power electronics have enabled progress in the power transmis- especially converters and filters.
sion. Some examples of these advances are: developments in phase
controllers implemented with thyristors, flexible AC transmission
systems (FACTS) and high voltage direct current transmission
[(Fig._1)TD$IG]
(HVDC) [12].
Before analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of DC
systems compared to AC systems, a summary will be done and
there will be a chronological brief presentation of DC systems
development.
In the AC system interconnections through DC links, converters
AC/DC/AC are required. The implementation of converters requires
power electronic components such as diodes, thyristors and
transistors. The first mercury vapor rectifier and the first
experiments with mercury thyratrons and valves were made
before 1940. The first commercial HVDC transmission was carried
out in Sweden in 1954, and the first solid state valve HVDC was
built in 1970. The first developed converters were built with
mercury valves, and later with thyristor valves or SCR (Silicon
Rectifier Controller), which were implemented with characteristics Fig. 1. Scheme of HVSC Light1.
[(Fig._2)TD$IG] [(Fig._3)TD$IG]
D. Velasco et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 759–765 761

Fig. 3. HVDC system.

[(Fig._4)TD$IG]

Fig. 2. Costs of AC and DC lines according to distance [17].

In Fig. 2, the variation for comparable peak voltages is shown, as

well as the transmission costs for AC and DC lines according to
distance. As can be seen, when there are short distances, using AC
transmission is the best idea. Nevertheless, for long distances the
Fig. 4. HVDC link (a) monopolar and (b) bipolar.
best solution is the DC transmission. There is one breakpoint
between AC and DC overhead lines, which is located between 400
and 700 km for voltage levels and between 55 and 700 kV [17],
which allows one to determine the most cost-effective alternative. station (station 2). The transmitted power P depends on the
In the last paragraphs, it has been presented a comparison difference from direct voltages Vd1 and Vd2 present in the
between HVAC and HVDC systems, from the point of view of converters and in the resistance R from the DC line [19].
transmission costs. Then a comparison will be made from the The interconnection in a HVDC system can be monopolar as
technical point of view, which will consider some issues such as shown in Fig. 4a, with a line and return; or bipolar as shown in
angular differences, stability limits, line compensation, problems Fig. 4b with two lines of different polarities and return.
of AC interconnection, and ground impedance. In some cases, the interconnection can be homopolar, formed
As mentioned at the beginning of Section 2, the power by two lines of the same polarity and return. Alternatively the
transferred in one AC line depends on the angular difference returns can be made by ground, by sea or by metallic media. In
between voltage phasors at the ends of the line, and because the some links, negative polarity is preferred because the electric
angle increases depending on distance. The line capacity is reduced field at the surface of the conductors has, in some ways, less
in long lines. In this way, the power transferred in a DC line is impact with this polarity. For submarine links, it is necessary to
independent of the distance. use cables using impregnated paper insulation MI (Mass
In long AC lines, compensators are required to improve stability Impregnated), or extruded as the well known XLPE (Cross-
limits, i.e. to transmit a greater amount of power and control Linked Poliethylene) extruded cables. In these cases, due to the
voltage. It is necessary to use inductors, capacitors and static fact that the sea water has very low resistivity, 0.3 V m (lower
compensators of reactive power, among others. In DC lines, these than the ground resistivity) the current return is made primarily
elements are not necessary because compensation is not required. by water.
The interconnection of two AC systems requires the coordina- In bipolar links, when both poles operate under normal
tion of the automatic generation controllers from the two systems, conditions and the currents are equal, no current circulates in
using frequency signals and power. However, the action of the the ground return. They also have the advantage that under fault
controllers may be affected by the presence of power oscillations, conditions of the two DC lines, they can be used temporarily as a
which in turn can lead to frequency variations, increased levels of metallic return.
failure and disturbances in the transmission from one system to
another. In DC interconnections, some of the variables of AC 2.3. Types of converters
systems are not as relevant or they do not have the same
importance; and prompt action of the control systems substan- HVDC systems require electronic converters to convert AC to DC
tially reduces the disadvantages mentioned above. For example, it power or vice versa. There are essentially two types of configura-
allows the interconnection of asynchronous systems, such as tions of three-phase converters for this conversion process [20]:
Garabi conversion station [18] and Back-to-Back, installed current source converter, CSC (Fig. 5) and voltage source converter,
between 2000 and 2002, which connects two systems with VSC (Fig. 6)
different frequencies: Argentina at 50 Hz and Brazil at 60 Hz. During the period between the 1950 and 1990 HVDC systems
On the other hand, in AC systems the existence of ground used only CSC topologies. Traditional CSC used mercury arc valves
currents gets affected due to the high magnitude of ground until the early 1970, after this decade thyristor valves were used as
impedance, which not only affects the efficiency of transferred core of switching devices.
power, but also produces interference in telephone grids. In DC From the 1990, the alternative of the VSC became economically
systems, the impedance is lower; the ground can be used as a viable due to the availability of new power electronic self
return conductor and produces no interference. commutated devices (GTO’s and IGBT’s) and greater computing
capacity by programmable devices.
2.2. Types of HVDC links HVDC transmission systems can use CSC’s current or VSC’s
depending on economic, environmental and technical develop-
A HVDC system like the one shown in Fig. 3 is made up of a ment required for a particular project. Below are presented in Table
rectifier station (station 1), a direct current line, and an inverter 1, a comparison between these two types of converters [16]:
[(Fig._5)TD$IG]
762 D. Velasco et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 759–765

Fig. 5. HVDC system based on CSC technology with thyristors.

[(Fig._6)TD$IG]

Fig. 6. HVDC system based on VSC technology built with IGBTs.

3. Actual condition of HVDC systems in Colombia manage voltage by shunt compensation. Approximate cost is 173
MUS$, but it has instability by disturbance.
The initiative to explore the implementation of HVDC systems A second alternative is the connection between the Cerroma-
in Colombia comes from the need to interconnect and transport toso substation and Panama II via HVDC monopolar link at 250 kV,
electric power between the countries of the region. For this reason, with a length of 514 km. Fig. 7 shows this alternative route. The
in 1991, an agreement called TRACTEBEL (‘‘Proyecto de los tres’’) submarine section would be approximately 51-km long and land
was posed for Colombia, Panama and Venezuela. By 1996 OLADE stretches will have the remaining length of DC line.
had realized different energy analysis for the purpose of enabling The third alternative is an aerial HVDC monopolar 250 kV line,
such connection. In 2001 ISA and ETESA agreed to conduct the with land route between the Cerromatoso and Panama II substa-
feasibility study of such interconnection (energetic, economic and tions, 571 km. Fig. 8 shows the proposed route of this alternative.
environmental analysis) [21]. In 2003, the governments of It was concluded after the study provided by ISA that the
Colombia and Panama met in the ‘‘X Reunión de Vecindad interconnection between both countries through AC lines would
Colombo-Panameña’’ (April 28, Cartagena de Indias) and decided not be desirable from the electrical standpoint because of its
to promote the project through the signature the ‘‘Memorando de unstable behaviour. HVDC interconnection is technically feasible
entendimiento’’. In 2004, the ‘‘Unidad de Planeación Minero as its electrical performance is adequate to satisfy the quality,
Energética, UPME’’, within the ‘‘Plan de Expansión Preliminar safety and reliability criteria.
2004–2018’’ [22], presents several preliminary analysis about the In 2007, ISA and ETESA consisted of the bi-national company
interconnection between Colombia and Panama based on the Interconexión Eléctrica Colombia Panamá S.A. – ICP-. In 2008, the
feasibility study presented by ISA and ETESA in 2003. In this study governments of Colombia and Panama signed an intention
there are three alternatives for interconnection between Colombia memorandum, motivated by an interest in strengthening a
and Panama. bilateral electrical interconnection scheme that will benefit the
The first alternative is a 230 kV AC line with double circuit from progress and development of the countries. In 2009, the
the Cerromatoso substation in Colombia to 230 kV and Panama II governments of Colombia and Panama signed an agreement to
substation to 230 kV with an approximate length of 434 km. Due to set up, together, the operational and commercial framework that
the length of the interconnection, it is necessary to review the would facilitate the electricity exchange between the two
appropriateness of placing an intermediate substation halfway to countries.

Table 1
Types of converters.

Types of converters

CSC VSC

AC side Acts as a constant voltage source Acts as a constant current source

Requires a capacitor as its energy storing device Requires an inductor as its energy storing device
Requires large AC filters for harmonic elimination Requires only a small AC filter for higher harmonics elimination
Requires reactive power supply for power factor correction Reactive power supply is not required as converter can
operate in any quadrant
DC side Acts as a constant current source Acts as a constant voltage source
Requires an inductor as its energy storing device Requires a capacitor as its energy storing device
Requires DC filters Energy storage capacitor provides DC filtering capability at no extra cost
Provides inherent fault current limiting features Problematic for DC line faults since the charged capacitor
will discharge into the fault
Switches Line commutated or force commutated with Self commutated
a series capacitor
Switching occurs at line frequency Switching occurs at high frequency
Lower switching losses Higher switching losses
Rating range 0–550 MW per converter 0–200 MW per converter
Untill 600 kV Untill 100 kV
[(Fig._7)TD$IG] D. Velasco et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 759–765 763

Fig. 7. 2nd Alternative. HVDC link.Source: ISA.

[(Fig._8)TD$IG]

Fig. 8. 3rd Alternative II. HVDC link (Source: ISA).

Currently, the company Interconexión Eléctrica Colombia transmission in long and short distances, with Back-to-Back
Panamá S.A. – ICP- has set a work schedule [23], which plans to stations (AC/DC/AC conversion without transmission line), to
end the dealing R + D part in September 2010, to carry out the interconnect different frequencies systems or to ensure the
construction phase between October 2010 and the end of 2013, stability of large power systems. Moreover, at present, the HVDC
which means that in 2014, the link would be operational. [(Fig._9)TD$IG]development is aiming to build power electronic devices in silicon
Finally, the system features to implement are: HVDC system
with a maximum link capacity of 300 MW (with possible extension
to 600 MW in the second phase). The line route is mixed (aerial and
maritime), with an approximate length of 614 km, of which
340 km correspond to Colombia and 274 km to Panama. The
undersea section is 55 km, which means environmental and social
benefits for both countries.

4. Impact and possible trend of future development of HVDC

systems

To analyze and consider the impact of DC systems, it should be Fig. 9. Offshore wind farms connected to the main grid over medium and high
noted that, currently, the HVDC systems are used in power voltage DC converters.
764 D. Velasco et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 759–765

Table 2
HVDC Light1 projects.

Project In service Power MW DC voltage (kV) Transmission distance Application

HÄLLSJÖN, Sweden 1997 3 10 10 km (over-head) Pilot system

GOTLAND, Sweden 1999 50 80 70 km Wind, undergrounding
DIRECTLINK, Australia 2000 3  60 80 65 km Undergrounding
TJÆREBORG, Denmark 2000 7,2 9 4,4 km Wind, undergrounding
EAGLE PASS, USA 2000 36 15.9 NA (back-to-back) Grid reliability
CROSS SOUND, USA 2002 330 150 40 km Grid reliability
MURRAYLINK, Australia 2002 220 150 180 km Undergrounding
TROLL A, Norway 2005 2  41 60 67 km Offshore
ESTLINK, Estonia, Finland 2006 350 150 105 km Grid reliability, undergrounding
VALHALL, Norway 2009 78 150 292 km Offshore
Borkum 2, Germany 2009 400 150 203 km Wind
Source: www.abb.com/hvdc.

carbide [2], which has the property of holding up high voltage and 5. Conclusions
temperature, using much thinner wafers than conventional ones
made of silicon. The new devices allow the converters to be This paper has exposed the main features of HVDC systems. It
constructed with better features and lower cost. Additionally, the has made a comparison with HVAC systems and shown that HVDC
technological improvements in extruded cables have contributed systems have good characteristics (electrical, economic and
to make them cheaper than impregnated paper cables. Thus a environmental) when transmitting large amounts of energy over
trend to lower costs for the HVDC systems implementation can be long distances. It has also described the main configurations and
deduced. basic topologies for the implementing of such systems (CSC and
Taking into account that VSC converters always maintain the VSC).
same polarity, they can be connected in parallel to form branches Besides, it has mentioned the importance for Colombia to
similar to the AC topology. In the near future it will allow not only implement this technology for long interconnections. In the same
DC transmission but also DC distribution to be used in new ways to way it has viewed the ability to use HVDC as an alternative
convert DC/DC. This would allow the changing of the voltage levels, distribution and expansion to solve the increase in demand in large
to meet the purposes and needs of the distribution, in ranks near cities where little space is available, and to interconnect isolated
the 30 kV DC which will provide levels at which the conversion DC/ and remote areas which do not have a good electric service in
AC will be allowed to continue with the conventional 13.2 kV AC conjunction with renewable energy sources.
distribution.
In a not too distant future, when competitive electronic
References
transformers and limiters current devices are developed, which
convert the range of medium and low voltage DC, it will be possible [1] Hingorani NG. High-voltage DC transmission: a power electronics workhorse.
to have DC distribution networks with the advantage of carrying IEEE Spectrum 1996;33(April (4)):63–72.
more energy than conventional systems and meet demand better, [2] Andersen B, Barker C. A new era in HVDC? IEE Review 2000;46(March (2)):
33–9.
for example in congested sites of large cities with little place for [3] Ruihua S, Chao Z, Ruomei L, Xiaoxin Z. VSCs based HVDC and its control
installation of new wires [24–28]. The transition to low DC voltage strategy. In: IEEE/PES transmission and distribution conference and exhibi-
will take longer because the installed domestic and industrial tion: Asia and Pacific. 2005. p. 1–6.
[4] Koutiva XI, Vrionis TD, Vovos NA, Giannakopoulos GB. Optimal integration of
equipments work mainly with AC power. an offshore wind farm to a weak AC grid. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery
Additionally, the development and increment of the electric 2006;21(April (2)):987–94.
generation from renewable sources (solar farm, wind farms, small [5] ABB. It’s time to connect – technical description of HVDC Light1 technology,
2006. Available: http://search.abb.com/library/Download.aspx?Documen-
gas-fired and hydroelectric) should be considered as it is respectful
tID=1JNL100105-122&LanguageCode=en&DocumentPartID=&Action=-
of the environment and the DC transport and energy recollection is Launch&IncludeExternalPublicLimited=True [accessed 07.05.10].
easier because it does not depend on frequency. Moreover one [6] Martı́nez de Alegrı́a I, Martı́n J, Kortabarria I, Andreu J, Ibañez P. Transmission
limitation of renewable sources of energy is that they are often best alternatives for offshore electrical power. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 2009;13:1027–38.
captured in places far from where energy is used: remote bays with [7] Rourke FO, Boyle F, Reynolds A. Marine current energy devices: current status
large tides, desert areas with bright and constant sun, and and possible future applications in Ireland. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
windswept ridges. In these cases, losses associated with transmit- Reviews 2010;14:1026–36.
[8] Zhixin W, Chuanwen J, Qian A, Chengmin W. The key technology of offshore
ting the power over standard alternating current (AC) power lines wind farm and its new development in China. Renewable and Sustainable
can lead to very significant losses. This is where high voltage direct Energy Reviews 2009;13:216–22.
current (HVDC) transmission lines come in. With the actually [9] Chen Z, Blaabjerg F. Wind farm—a power source in future power systems.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2009;13:1288–300.
HVDC technology, energy losses can be kept to about 3% per [10] ABB. Grid connection of offshore wind farm cluster Borkum 2, ABB AB,
1000 km. This makes the connection of remote generating centers ELANDERS 2007. Available: http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/
much more feasible. An example of the renewable energy in scot221.nsf/VerityDisplay/8ED909FA2F75084AC125736A0039A67F
[accessed 11.05.10].
conjunction with HVDC systems use is the Tjaereborg project in
[11] Meah K, Ula S. Comparative evaluation of HVDC and HVAC transmission
Denmark for wind generation proposed by the Danish Ministry of systems. In: IEEE power engineering society general meeting; 2007.p. 1–5.
Energy, National Forest, The Agency of Nature and the power [12] Zhang XP, Yao L, Chong B, Sasse C, Godfrey KR. FACTS and HVDC technologies
for the development of future power systems. In: International conference on
industry to be developed before 2015. Another example is the
future power systems; 2005.p. 6.
project based on wind power with HVDC transmission in Jeju [13] Bahrman MP. HVDC transmission overview. In: IEEE/PES transmission and
Island, Korea [29]. Fig. 9 presents a possible configuration scheme distribution conference and exposition, T&D; 2008.p. 1–7.
of offshore wind farms connected to the network [30]. [14] ABB. HVDC transmisión de potencia digna de confianza, ABB Power Technol-
ogies, Cigré, 2005, Available: http://www.abb.com/hvdc [accessed 11.05.10].
In the Table 2 are presented several projects working HVDC [15] Arrillaga J. High voltage direct current transmission. Institution of Engineering
Light1. and Technology; 1998. p. 299.
 D. Velasco et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 759–765 765

[16] Sood V. HVDC and FACTS controllers. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers; [23] Interconexión Eléctrica Colombia Panamá S.A. – ICP-, Cronograma
2004. p. 255. resumen, 2009. Available: http://www.interconexioncp.com/aarchivos/
[17] Setreus J, Bertling L. Introduction to HVDC technology for reliable archivosAdjuntos/042_Cronograma%20resumen.pdf [accessed 11.05.10].
electrical power systems, probabilistic methods applied to power systems. [24] Baran ME, Mahajan NR. DC distribution for industrial systems: opportunities
In: Proceedings of the 10th international conference on PMAPS’08; 2008. and challenges. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications 2003;39(Novem-
p. 1–8. ber/December (6)):1596–601.
[18] ABB. The Garabi 2000 MW interconnection back-to-back HVDC to connect [25] Hammerstrom DJ. AC versus DC distribution systems: did we get it right?In:
weak ac systems, ABB Utilities AB, SE-771 80 Ludvika, Sweden, 2003, IEEE power engineering society general meeting; 2007.p. 1–5.
Available: http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot221.nsf/veritydisplay/ [26] Nilsson D, Sannino A. Efficiency analysis of low- and mediumvoltage DC
0d50a8fce76db2c9c1256fda003b4d43 [accessed 12.05.10]. distribution systems. In: IEEE power engineering society general meeting;
[19] Kanngiesser KW. HVDC systems and their planning, siemens. EV HA 7T. Rev. 4; 2004.p. 2315–21.
1999. p. 618. [27] Thandi GS, Zhang R, Xing K, Lee FC, Boroyevich D. Modeling, control and
[20] Flourentzou N, Agelidis VG, Demetriades GD. VSC-based HVDC power trans- stability analysis of a PEBB based DC DPS. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery
mission systems: an overview. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 1999;14(April (2)):497–505.
2009;24(March (3)):592–602. [28] Salomonsson D, Sannino A. Low-voltage DC distribution system for commer-
[21] Empresa de servicios de administración, operación y transporte en mercados de cial power systems with sensitive electronic loads. IEEE Transactions on Power
energı́a eléctrica y de servicios de telecomunicaciones, Grupo empresarial ISA, Delivery 2007;22(July (3)):1620–7.
Colombia, 2004. Available: http://www1.isa.com.co/irj/go/km/docs/docu- [29] Moon S, Park J, Pyo G. Experience and prospect of wind power generation in
ments/ContenidoInternetISA/ISA/Inversionistas/PresentacionesCorporativas/ Korea: Jeju Island case. In: PES’09, IEEE power & energy society general
documentos/Grupo%20Empresarial%20ISA%2c%20presentaci%C3%B3n%20al% meeting; 2009.p. 1–6.
20BID%20(1.23%20MB).pdf [accessed 10.05.10]. [30] De Doncker RW, Meyer C, Lenke RU, Mura F. Power electronics for future utility
[22] Unidad de Planeación Minero energética. Plan de Expansión Preliminar 2004– applications, power electronics and drive systems. In: 7th international con-
2018, 2004. Avalaible: www.upme.gov.co [accessed 22.04.10]. ference on PEDS’07; 2007.p. K-1–8.