A reinforced concrete slab is a crucial structural element and is used to provide flat

surfaces(floors and ceilings) in buildings. On the basis of reinforcement provided,

beam support, and the ratio of the spans, slabs are generally classified into one-
way slab and two-way slab. The former is supported on two sides and the ratio of
long to short span is greater than two. However, the latter is supported on four
sides and the ratio of long to short span is smaller than two.

Varying conditions and stipulations ask for the selection of appropriate and cost-
effective concrete slab, keeping in view, the type of building, architectural layout,
aesthetic features, and the span length. Concrete slabs, therefore, are further
classified into one-way joist slab, flat slab, flat plate, waffle slab, hollow core slab,
precast slab, slabs on grade, hardy slab, and composite slab.

1. One-Way Slabs on Beams

Cast in situ method is used to construct one-way slabs on beams which involves
fixing of forms followed with the installation of reinforcements, and finally the
pouring of fresh concrete.

One-way slabs on beams are most suitable for spans of 3-6m, and a live load of 3
to 5KN/m2. They can also be used for larger spans with relatively higher cost and
higher slab deflection. Additional formwork for the beams is however needed.

2. One-way joist slab (Ribbed slab)

It consists of a floor slab, usually 50 to 100mm thick, supported by reinforced
concrete ribs (or joists). The ribs are usually tapered and are uniformly spaced at
distances that do not exceed 750mm. The ribs are supported on girders that rest on
columns.
A one-way joist concrete slab is suitable for spans of 6-9m and live loads of 4-
6KN/m2. Because of the deep ribs, the concrete and steel quantities are relatively
low, but expensive formwork is needed.

3. Waffle Slab (Grid slab)

It is a type of reinforced concrete slab that contains square grids with deep sides.
Waffle slab construction process includes fixing forms, placement of pods on
shuttering, installation of reinforcement between pods, installation of steel mesh
on top of pods, and pouring of concrete.

Grid slabs are suitable for spans of 9-15m and live loads of 4-7KN/m 2. Formwork,
including the use of pans, is quite expensive.
4. Flat Plates
Flat plates can be constructed as one-way or two-way slabs and it is directly
supported by columns or walls. It is easy to construct and requires simple
formworks.

Flat plates are most suitable for spans of 6 to 8m, and live loads between 3 and
5KN/m2. Added to that, the range of spans for prestressed flat plates is between 8-
12m, and it can also be constructed as post-tensioned slabs.

The advantages of adopting flat plates include low-cost formwork, exposed flat
ceilings, and faster construction. Flat plates have low shear capacity and relatively
low stiffness, which may cause noticeable deflection.
5. Flat Slabs
This is typically a reinforced slab supported directly by columns or caps, without
the use of beams. This type of slab is generally easy to construct and requires little
formwork. The loads are directly transferred to the columns.

Flat slabs are most suitable for spans of 6 to 9m, and for live loads of 4-7KN/m 2.
They need more formwork than flat plates, especially for column capitals. In most
cases, only drop panels without column capitals are used. It can be constructed as
post-tensioned flat slabs.

6. Two-way Slabs on Beams

The construct of this type of slab is similar to that of one-way slab on beams, but it
may need more formworks since two-way slabs are supported on all sides. Slabs
on beams are suitable for spans between 6 and 9m, and live loads of 3-6KN/m2 .
The beams increase the stiffness of the slabs, producing relatively low deflection.
Additional formwork for the beams is needed.

7. Hollow core slab

It is a type of precast slab through which cores are run. Not only do these cores
decline slab self-weight and increase structural efficiency but also act as service
ducts. It is suitable for cases where fast constructions are desired.

There is no restriction on the span of the hollow core slab units, and their standard
width is 120mm and depth ranges from 110mm to 400mm.

The slab units are commonly installed between beams using cranes and the gaps
between units are filled with screeds. It has been observed that, hollow core slab
can support 2.5 kN/m2 over a 16m span. It is suitable for offices, retail or car park
developments.  
8. Hardy Slab
It is constructed using hardy bricks which significantly decline the amount of
concrete and eventually the slab’s self-weight. The thickness of hardy slab is
commonly greater than conventional slab and around 270mm.

The construction of hardy slab involves formwork installation, hardy block

placement, placement of reinforcement into gaps between blocks, placement of
steel mesh on the blocks, and finally pouring of concrete.

It is economical for spans of length up to 5m, and it reduces the quantity of

concrete below neutral axis, and moderate live loads shall be imposed. It is
constructed at locations where the temperatures are very high. The application of
this type of slab can be seen in Dubai and China.
9. Bubble Deck Slab
It is constructed by placing plastic bubbles which are prefabricated and the
reinforcement is then placed between and over plastic bubbles and finally, fresh
concrete is poured. The plastic bubbles replace the ineffective concrete at the
center of the slab.

Bubble Deck slabs reduce weight, increase strength, larger spans can be provided,
fewer columns needed, no beams or ribs under the ceiling are required.
Consequently, not only does it decline the total cost of construction but is also
environmentally friendly since it reduces amount of concrete.
10. Composite Slab
Commonly, it is constructed from reinforced concrete cast on top of profiled steel
decking. The decking acts as formwork and working area during the construction
phase, and it also acts as external reinforcement during service life of the slab.

For a steel decking of thickness between 50-60mm, the span of the slab can reach
up to 3m. However, if the steel decking thickness is increased up to 80mm, slabs
with span of 4.5m can be constructed.
11. Precast Slab
Precast concrete slabs are casted and cured in manufacturing plants, and then
delivered to the construction site to be erected. The most outstanding advantage of
the preparation of slabs in manufacturing plants is the increase in efficiency and
higher quality control which may not be achieved on site.

The most commonly used precast slabs are: the channel and double-T types. They
can be used for spans up to 15m. The double-T slabs vary in sizes and spans up to
15m have been used.

The tongue-and-groove panel could vary in size based on the design requirement.

When they are placed, the tongue of one panel is placed inside the groove of
adjacent panel.

With regard to the cost of precast slabs, it is reported that precast concrete slabs
are cheaper than cast in situ concrete slab by approximately 24%.

12. Slab on grade

The slab which is casted on the surface of the earth is called a Ground slab.
Generally, slab on grade are classified into three types :

1. Slab on ground
It is the simplest type of slab on grade which is a composite of stiffening beams
constructed from concrete around perimeter of the slab, and has a slab thickness of
100mm. It is suitable for stable ground which is mostly composed of sand and
rock and not influenced by moisture, and soils that undergo slight movement due
to moisture.

2. Stiffened raft slab 

It is similar to slab on ground apart from stiffening beams which are set in
channels through the middle of the slab. Consequently, it creates a kind of
supporting grid of concrete on the base of the slab. Soil with moderate, high
amount, and severe movement due to moisture.

3. Waffle raft slab

It is constructed entirely above the ground by pouring concrete over a grid of
polystyrene blocks known as ‘void forms’. Waffle raft slabs are generally suitable
for sites with less reactive soil, use about 30% less concrete and 20% less steel
than a stiffened raft slab, and are generally cheaper and easier to install than other
types. These types of slabs are suitable only for very flat ground.
Filler slab roofs: An alternative
roofing technology
A.   INTRODUCTION TO RCC FILLER SLAB
Filler slab technology is a simple and a very innovative technology for a slab
construction.
The reason why, concrete and steel are used together to construct RCC slab, is in their
individual properties as separate building materials and their individual limitation.
Concrete is good in taking compression and steel is good in tension. Thus RCC slab is a
product which resists both compression as well as tensile.

Fig 1: Simply supported slab cross section

Knowing this much if we want to move further to understand the “Filler slab” technology,
we will have to further study the cross section of a typical simply supported RCC Slab.
Under its own load and applied load, the slab will try to bend as shown in the Figure 1.
 

Fig 2: showing unwanted tension concrete

If we refer Figure 2, which indicates the neutral axis and also tension concrete in the
bottom fibers of the slab which is in tension but the top fibers will be in compression. 
Knowing this much is the key to understand the filler slab technology. Tension in a slab is
on the bottom fiber and compression on the top fiber. That means if we want to optimise
the structure we can remove concrete from the tension zone where it is not much
needed. That’s the key behind filler slab construction.
This is a very cost effective roofing technology. Knowing the way slab is constructed on
site (w.r.t. Gujarat, India), it is not easy to remove, the concrete from the tension zone,
hence we try and replace (partially); that part of concrete using light weight and low cost
filler material. This method of construction is called filler slab.
Filler slab technology is being used across India, but substantial amount of work on the
successful promotion and transfer of this technology was done by Ar. Laurie Baker in
South India. It is one place where filler slab has crossed the boundary of research and
controlled implementation to being one of the regular options of construction by both
government and private sector and also architects and designers have been promoting
this technology.
These filler materials are so placed as not to compromise the structural strength, stability
and durability, resulting in replacing unwanted and non-functional tension concrete, from
below and thus resulting in economy of high energy material consumption and respective
cost savings and decreased dead load of the slab.
An internal cavity can be provided between the filler material which adds an extra
advantage; other than cost savings and energy savings; improved thermal comfort for the
interiors. Also an added advantage of lower dead weight transferred to the supporting
elements and finally onto the foundation to further adds up cost saving in design of these
elements.
These filler materials are so placed as not to compromise the structural strength, stability
and durability, resulting in replacing unwanted and non-functional tension concrete, from
below and thus resulting in economy of high energy material’s,  consumption and
considerable cost saving and decreased dead load of the slab.
 
B.    MATERIALS SELECTION AS PER NEED AND DESIGN
Light weight, inert and inexpensive materials such as low grade Mangalore tiles, Burnt
Clay Bricks, Hollow Concrete blocks, Stabilized Mud blocks/ Hollow Mud blocks, Clay
pots, Coconut shells etc. can be used as filler materials. These materials are laid in the
grids of steel reinforcement rods and concreting/concrete topping is done over them.

fig 3: Filler material arrangement

The following points to be kept in mind for filler material selection:
 Filler material should be inert in nature. It should not react with concrete or steel
in RCC slab constructed.
 Filler materials water absorption should be checked for as it will soak the
hydration water from concrete.
 Filler material should be light in weight, so that overall weight of the slab reduces
and also the dead load onto the foundations is reduced.
 Filler material should be low cost so that it cost is much lesser then the cost of
the concrete it replaces. This is very important to achieve economy.
 Filler material should be of a size and cross-section, which can be
accommodated within the spacing of the reinforcement and also thickness wise
could be accommodated within the cross section of the slab.
 Moreover the Filler slab also provides insulation (compared to a conventional
RCC slab) from the hot climate outside the building, providing thermal comfort to
the user. 
 Filler material texture should match with the desired ceiling finish requirements so
as not to provide an ugly ceiling pattern.
 
C.    INSTALLING FILLER MATERIAL IN THE SLAB
Size of the filler material will be very crucial. It is must to decide the filler material before
the slab is designed. The dimension of filler material will help decide the spacing of
reinforcement and accordingly the depth of the slab and other structural details will be
worked out.
Also, filler material should be properly soaked in water so that it does not absorb any
water from the concrete. While installing the filler material, one will have to decide the
concreting sequence of the slab i.e. from where the concrete will be started and how will
it progress to cover the whole slab.
Filler materials like Manglore tiles/Clay tiles can be installed in two layers (2 nos. one
over the other) entrapping an air cavity between the two tiles. A sketch showing cross
section of a filler slab with manglore tile is shown below. This will improve the thermal
properties of the slab.
 
Figure 3: Filler slab section - Manglore tile filler material.
 
D.    ADVANTAGES OF FILLER SLAB TECHNOLOGY:
 

 By adopting RCC filler slab construction compared to a RCC solid (conventional)

slab in case where manglore tiles are used as a filler material, you can save on
approximately 19% of the total concrete and including the cost of filler material,
you can save around 5-10% of your concrete cost.
 Another advantage is, if the filler material is just a waste i.e. for ex temporary
manglore tiles that are removed from the roof to construct a pukka roof, you can
save upon nearly 15% on your roof concrete construction cost.
 Building a 25 sq. m slab can save you approx. Rs. 5000 from your concrete cost.
 Filler slab technology can also be applied to mass housing projects and township
projects to gain high cost saving and also saving in high energy consuming
materials.
 Another advantage can be of a better thermal comfort if a cavity is kept between
the filler material or the filler material itself has a cavity. For example tow
manglore tiles/Clay tiles can be kept one over the other to form an air cavity thus
keeping the interiors of your house remain cooler in summer and warmer in
winters.
 Filler slabs can be kept exposed (with proper workmanship) to create
aesthetically pleasing ceiling with a view of filler material from below and thus the
cost of plastering and/or painting also can be avoided.
 RCC being made of cement, steel, sand and aggregates, is a very high energy
intensive material. So reduction in concrete quantity compared to conventional
slab construction, adds this technology to the list of sustainable and environment
friendly technologies and corporating green building features.
E.    COST SAVINGS
Material saving assuming a 100 mm thick slab 2.54×3.86 m, and calculating the material
and cost savings as per market material rates of Ahmedabad, Gujarat, August, 2011 and
comparing the savings
 for 1 m3 : RCC Filler slab vs. Conventional Solid RCC Slab.
 1.61 bags (19% saving)                       =         Rs 418/ m3 saving in cement cost.
 0.09 m3 less sand (19% saving)            =          Rs 21/ m3 saving in sand cost.
  0.18 m3 less aggregates (19% saving)  =       Rs 127/ m3 saving in aggregates
cost.
 10 kg less steel/m3 of slab casted       =       Rs 500/m3 saving in reinforcement
cost.
The table below shows the consumoption of materials and cost savings for 1 m3 quantity
of the slab:

Table 1: Cost saving/cu.m of concrete slab

The figures in the table seem less as the slab taken for calculation is a small size slab.
Elaborating this savings, assuming a normal MIG house area of 100 sq.m ground area
and of two stories. Assuming the slab area comes to be 160 sq.m. for this house, the
total savings in concrete cost can be Rs. 30,000. Also if the filler material is not a virgin
material for the slab construction, you can save about Rs. 90,000 from your concrete
cost.
E.    EMBODIED ENERGY SAVINGS
The table below shows the embodied energy calculations for a 200 sq.m house slab.
Slab dimensions to be same as above in D.   Cost Savings.
 Cost Comparision: Conventional RCC solid slab v.s. RCC Filler Slab

See full history

Prestressed concrete

Contents

[hide]
 1 Introduction
 2 Steel
 3 Method
 3.1 Pre-tensioning
 3.2 Post-tensioning
 4 Advantages and disadvantages
 5 Related articles on Designing Buildings Wiki

 5.1 External references

Introduction

Prestressed concrete is a structural material that allows for predetermined, engineering stresses

to be placed in members to counteract the stresses that occur when they are subject to loading. It
combines the high strength compressive properties of concrete with the high tensile strength
of steel.
In ordinary reinforced concrete, stresses are carried by the steel reinforcement,
whereas prestressed concrete supports the load by induced stresses throughout the
entire structural element. This makes it more resistant to shock and vibration than
ordinary concrete, and able to form long, thin structures with much smaller sectional areas to
support equivalent loads.
Prestressed concrete was patented by San Franciscan engineer P.H Jackson in 1886, although
it did not emerge as an accepted building material until 50 years later when a shortage of steel,
coupled with technological advancements, made prestressed concrete the building material of
choice during European post-war reconstruction.
It is now commonly used for floor beams, piles and railways sleepers, as well as structures such
as bridges, water tanks, roofs and runways. Generally, prestressed concrete is not necessary
for columns and walls, however, it can be used economically for tall columns and high retaining
walls with high bending stresses.
As a general rule, traditional reinforced concrete is the most economic method for a span of up to
6 m. Prestressed concreteis more economical when spans are over 9 m. Between 6 and 9 m, the
two options must be considered according to the particular requirements as to which is the most
suitable option.
Steel

Steel used for prestressing may be in the form of wire or tendons that can be grouped to
form cables. Solid bars may also be used.
Wire is made by cold-drawing a high carbon steel rod through a series of reducing dies. The wire
diameter typically ranges from 3-7 mm and may be round, crimped or indented to give it
better bond strength. Another form of tendon is strand which consists of a straight core wire
around which is wound in helixes around further wires to give formats such as 7 wire (6 over 1)
and 19 wire (9 over 9 over 1). Similar to wire tendons, strand can be used individually or in groups
to form cables.
Method

The process of prestressed concrete can be either through pre-tensioning or post-tensioning.

Pre-tensioning
This process involves the stressing of wires or cables by anchoring them at the end of
a metal form, which may be up to 120 m in length. Hydraulic jacks stress the wire as required,
often adding 10% to accommodate creep and other pre-stress losses that may be incurred.
Side moulds are then fixed and the concrete placed around the tensioned wires.
The concrete hardens and shrinks, gripping the steel along its length, transferring the tension from
the jacks to exert a compressive force in the concrete.
Once the concrete has reached the desired strength, the tensioned wires are released from the
jacks. A typical concretestrength of 28 N/mm2 can be achieved by 24-hour steam curing, as well
as using additives.
To create shorter members, dividing plates can be placed at any point along the member which,
when removed, permit the cutting of the wires.
Post-tensioning
This follows the reverse method to pre-tensioning, whereby the concrete member is cast and the
prestressing occurs after the concrete is hardened. This method is often used where stressing is to
be carried out on site after casting an insitu componentor where a series of precast
concrete units are to be joined together to form the required member.
The wires, cables or bars may be positioned in the unit before concreting, but bonding to
the concrete is prevented by using a flexible duct or rubber sheath which is deflated and removed
when the concrete has hardened.
Stressing is carried out after the concrete has been cured by means of hydraulic jacks operating
from one or both ends of the member. Due to the high local stresses at the anchorage positions it
is common for a helical (spiral) reinforcement to be included in the design. When the required
stress has been reached, the wire or cables are anchored to maintain the prestress. The ends of
the unit are sealed with cement mortar to prevent corrosion due to any entrapped moisture and to
assist in stress distribution.
Anchorages used in post-tensioning depend on whether the tendons are to be stressed individually
or as a group. Most systems use a form of split cone wedges or jaws which act against a form of
bearing or pressure plate.
 There are many different post-tensioning systems. For example, the Freyssinet system enables
the stressing strands to be tensioned simultaneously using centre hole tensioning jacks, anchored
by tapered jaws. This is suitable for pre-stressing elements up to 50 m in length.
The Macalloy system on the other hand, involves applying stress to the concrete by means of a
solid bar, usually with a diameter of 25-75 mm. The bar is anchored at each end by a special nut
which bears against an end plate to distribute the load.
Advantages and disadvantages

The advantages of prestressed concrete include:

 The inherent compressive strength of concrete is used to its fullest.
 The special alloy steels used to form the prestressing tendons are used to their fullest.
 Tension cracks are eliminated, reducing the risk of the steel components corroding.
 Shear stresses are reduced.
 For any given span and loading condition a reduction in weight can be achieved from using
a component with a smaller cross section.
 A composite member can be formed by joining individual precast concrete units together.
The disadvantages of prestressed concrete include:
 A high degree of workmanship and control is required.
 Special alloy steels are more expensive than traditional steels used in reinforced concrete.
 Expensive equipment is needed and there are complex safety requirements.

RCC BEAM:
Beam can be defined as a structural member which carries all vertical loads and resists it from
bending. There are various types of materials used for beam such as steel, wood, aluminum etc.
But the most common material is reinforced cement concrete (RCC).

TYPES OF RCC BEAM

Admin | June 17, 2017 | STRUCTURAL | 2 Comments

RCC BEAM:
Beam can be defined as a structural member which carries all vertical loads and resists it from
bending. There are various types of materials used for beam such as steel, wood, aluminum etc.
But the most common material is reinforced cement concrete (RCC).

Depending upon different criteria RCC beam can be of different types such as –

Depending upon shape beams can be T-beam, rectangular beam, etc.

Depending upon placement of reinforcement – singly reinforced beam, doubly reinforced

beam etc.
TYPES OF RCC BEAM:
Depending upon their supporting system RCC beam can be classified into four categories as
follows

1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM:

This beam contains only a single span which is supported by two supports at both of the ends.

2. CONTINUOUS BEAM:
The beam which is supported by more than two supports and continues as straight line along its
length is known as continuous beam.

3. SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM:
This type of beam contains two spans with or without restraint at both ends.

4. CANTILEVER BEAM:
This beam is supported by only one end and the other end is exposed beyond the wall/support.
That means one end is fixed and the other end is opened.

Rcc columns
 There are several types of columns which are used in different parts of structures.
Column is a vertical structural member that carry loads mainly in compression. It
might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or from a beam, to a floor
or foundations.
Commonly, columns also carry bending moments about one or both of the cross-
section axes. In this article, different types of columns used in building
construction will be discussed.

Types of Columns in Building Construction

Columns are classified based on the several conditions which include:

1. Based on Types of Reinforcement

2. Based on Types of Loading

3. Based on Slenderness Ratio

4. Based on Shape

5. Based on Construction Material

Based on Types of Reinforcement 

1. Tied Column
This type of column is commonly construction from reinforced concrete.
Longitudinal reinforcement are confined within closely spaced tie reinforcement.
It is estimated that 95% of all columns in buildings are tied.
2. Spiral Column
Spiral column is also construction from reinforced concrete. In this type of
column, longitudinal bars are confined within closely spaced and continuously
wound spiral reinforcement.

Spiral reinforcement provide lateral restrains (Poisson’s effect) and delays axial
load failure (ductile).

3. Composite column
When the longitudinal reinforcement is in the form of structural steel section or
pipe with or without longitudinal bars, it is called as a composite column.

This type of column have high strength with fairly small cross section, in addition
to exhibit good fire performance.

Based on Types of Loading

4. Axially Loaded Column
If vertical axial loads act on the center of gravity of the cross-section of the
column, then it is termed as axially loaded column.
Axially loaded column is rare in construction since coinciding vertical loads on the
center of gravity of column cross section is not practical.

Interior column of multi-storey buildings with symmetrical loads from floor slabs
from all sides is an example of this type of column.

Fig. 4: Axially loaded column

5. Column with Uniaxial Eccentric Loading

When vertical loads do not coincide with center of gravity of column cross
section, but rather act eccentrically either on X or Y axis of the column cross
section, then it is called uniaxially eccentric loading column.

Column with uniaxial loading are generally encountered in the case of columns
rigidly connected beam from one side only such as edge columns.
 Fig. 5: Column with uniaxial eccentric loading

6. Column with Biaxial Eccentric Loading

When vertical on the column is not coincide with center of gravity of column cross
section and does not act on either axis (X and Y axis), then the column is called
biaxially eccentric loaded column.

Columns with biaxial loading is common in corner columns with beams rigidly
connected at right angles at the top of columns.

Fig. 6: Column with biaxial eccentric loading

Based on Slenderness Ratio

Based on slenderness ratio, (effective length/ least lateral dimension), columns are
categorized as follow:
6. Short Column
If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less than
12, the column is called as the short column. A short column fails by crushing
(pure compression failure).

Fig. 7: Short column

7. Long Column
If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension exceeds 12,
it is called as long column. A long column fails by bending or buckling.

Fig. 8: Long column

Based on Shape

Shape of Reinforced Concrete Column

8. Square or Rectangular Column
They are generally used in the construction of buildings. It is much easier to
construct and cast rectangular or square columns than circular ones because of
ease of shuttering and to support it from collapsing due to pressure while the
concrete is still in flowable form.

Fig. 9: Square column

9. Circular column
They are specially designed columns, which are mostly used in piling and
elevation of the buildings.
 Fig. 10: Circular column

10. L-Shape Column

Commonly, L-shaped column is utilized in the corners of the boundary wall and
has similar characteristics of a rectangular or square column.

Fig. 11: L-shaped column

11. T-Shape column

It is utilized based on design requirements of a structure. T-Shaped column is
widely used in the construction of bridges.

Fig. 12: T-shaped column

12. Shape of Steel Column

There are different standard and built up shape of steel columns which are shown
in Fig. and Fig. Common shapes of steel columns include I, channel, equal angle,
and  T-shape.
 Fig. 13: Steel column cross section shape (Standard)

Fig. 14: Steel column cross section shape (built up)

13. Shape of Composite Column

The usual shape of composite columns are shown in Fig.

Fig. 15: Composite column shape

Based on Construction Material

Types of columns based on construction materials include

14. Reinforced Concrete, Steel, timber, Brick,

Block, and Stone Column.
Fig. 16: Types of Column; A-reinforced concrete, B- steel, C-timber, D-brick, E-block, and F-stone