Aed 4110

THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA
INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
STUDY MATERIAL
COURSE: AED 4110

MODULE
THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA
INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
BACHELOR OF EDUCATION
(ADULT EDUCATION)
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MODULE
AED 4110: LITERACY AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the permission of the University of
Zambia, Institute of Distance Education.
Inquiries concerning reproduction or rights and requests for additional training materials
should be addressed to:
The Director;
Institute of Distance Education
The University of Zambia
P.O Box 32379
Lusaka
Zambia
Tel:+211 290719
Fax: +211 253952
E-mail: ide@unza.zm
Website: www.unza.zm
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The University of Zambia (UNZA) Institute of Distance Education (IDE) wishes to

thank Messer’s, CHAKANIKA WANGA WELUZANI and SICHULA KENNY NOAH for
writing this module. AED 4110: Literacy and the Learning Environment.
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MODULE STRUCTURE
i. Introduction
ii. The Aim of the Module
iii. Module Objectives
iv. Assessment
v. Prescribed and Recommended Readings
This Module is divided into seven units. Each unit addresses different issues
relating to the broader subject of Literacy and the Learning Environment. In each
unit you will be asked to perform certain tasks to help you master the topics
presented in that unit.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 The Concept of Literacy…………….............................................................. 10
UNIT 2 The Scope of Illiteracy Problem in Zambia.................................................. 18
UNIT 3 Efforts made to Eradicate illiteracy in Zambia............................................. 25
UNIT 4 Constraints in the Provision of Literacy education...................................... 42
UNIT 5 Issues of Gender in Literacy……………………............................................... 47
UNIT 6 Illiteracy and Poverty ……………………………………………………………... 57
UNIT 7 Methods of Teaching Literacy…………………………………………………... 63
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this module AED 4110 Literacy and the Learning Environment. In this
module you will be exposed to the concept of literacy, the scope of the
illiteracy problem in Zambia, efforts made to eradicate illiteracy, constraints
encountered in the provision of literacy education, issues of gender in literacy,
illiteracy and poverty, and the teaching of literacy. As you study this module,
the anticipation is that you will be able to relate what you will learn to your real
life situations. This is because literacy is a practical subject addressing issues
affecting humanity on a daily basis.
Aim
The aim of this module is to provide learners with knowledge and skills in literacy
work. This involves knowledge and in the facilitation of literacy classes, and the
production and distribution of literacy material.
Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
a) demonstrate an in-depth and broader understanding of the concept of
literacy;
b) the scope of the illiteracy problem;
c) efforts made in the eradication of illiteracy;
d) constraints encountered in the provision of literacy; and
e) methods of teaching, reading and writing.
Assessment
Your work in this module will be assessed as follows:
a. two assignments each worth 25%
b. a written final examination set by the University of Zambia at the end of
this module worth 50 %
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PRESCRIBED READINGS
Avoseh, M.B.M. (1990). Literacy and Conscientization in Paulo Freire ’s Philosophy
of Education. Lagos: University of Ibadan.
Hughes, L.D.& Schwab, M. (2010). Teaching Literacy Education. New York:
Green Bird.
Oakley et al. (1991).Projects with People. Geneva: ILO.
Okedard, J.N. (1981). The Power of Literacy. New York: Seabury.
RECOMMENDED READINGS
Bhola, H.S. (1993). The Promise of Literacy: Campaigns, Programs and projects.
Nomos, Baden: Foundation for International Development.
Bhola, H.S. (1995). Functional Literacy, Work Place Literacy and Technical and
Vocational Education: Interfaces and Policy Perspectives. Nomos, Baden:

Foundation for International Development.
Clark, J. (1991). Democratizing Development. London: Earth scans Publications.

Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Penguins Pub.
Freire, P. (1985). The Politics of Education. New York: Bergin and Garvey.
Freire, P. (1987). Literacy: Reading the Word and the World. New York: Sage
Publishers.
Hughes, L.D.& Schwab, M. (2010). Teaching Literacy Education. New York:
Green Bird.
Sharmin, A. (2006). Concept of Literacy: Past-Present Future. Washington, DC:
OERI.
Mwansa, D.M. (1982). Training for the Marginal – A Critique of Literacy

Campaigns in Zambia. Journal of Adult Education 1 (1), 73-79.
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Apart from this module you are expected to read widely on all topics covered in
this module. Whereas the module could be comprehensive and easy to your
understanding, it is also equally important to explore other avenues of
knowledge. You must be aware that new knowledge is emerging on a daily
basis and you cannot afford to be left behind.
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UNIT 1
THE CONCEPT OF LITERACY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the concept of Literacy. You will learn about the
meaning of the concept literacy and how it has been used in different
situations.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit learners should be able to:
a) Define literacy;
b) Types of literacy;
c) Identify different situations in which the concept is applied;
d) Explain the attributes of literacy; and
e) Justified the relevance of literacy to humanity.
1.2 REFLECTION
1. Distinguish literacy from education?

2. Why should literacy be considered important to Zambia’s National
Development?
3. How is literacy different from other forms of education?
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1.3 Definition of Literacy
The concept literacy lends itself to several definitions. It is a concept which

seems not to have a universal definition. The first conception of literacy comes
from UNESCO in 1948. At this time literacy was conceived as the ability to write a
simple message in any language (UNECSO, 1957). During the 1950‟s there was a
growing tendency to define literacy in terms of the ability for a person to read
and write and understand a short simple statement on his/her everyday life
experiences (Jennings, 1990).
Generally, there is a tendency of defining literacy on the basis of core elements

of reading, writing and numeracy (Sharmin, 2006). It is believed that this
definition arises from traditional literacy with a narrow focus on reading and
writing as an end in itself. Okedard (1981) explains that based on this definition a
person is considered literate if one who can read and understand everything as
if was spoken to him and at the same time able to write. In view of the core
elements, UNESCO (1993) defines literacy as the ability to read and write a
simple statement of everyday life.
In this course, literacy is not seen as only a decoding (interpreting) and

encoding (indoctrinating) skill. Rather, the acquisition of literacy is regarded as a
process of socialization (Sharmin. 2006). Literacy as a process of socialization
involves the acquisition of social characteristics in which individuals learn the
culture of their society steadily so that they are able to live fully and function in it
as responsible members (Kibera and Kimokoti, 2007). Further, literacy is
considered as a process of conscietization (Freire, 1972). Conscientization
involves “reading the world” rather than just reading the “word” (Freire, 1987).
This means that acquiring literacy does not mean memorizing a sentence, word,
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syllables or lifeless object unconnected to an existential universe, but rather an
attitude of certainty and re-creation, a self-transformation producing a stance
of intervention in one‟s context. It also means that to acquire literacy is more
than to psychologically and mechanically dominate reading and writing
techniques in terms of consciousness. To understand what one reads and to
write what one understands is to communicate graphically.
Literacy should also be understand as a process by which illiterate people

become aware of their personal situation and learn to do something about
improving it. Learning to read, write and count are merely steps towards
achieving political, economic, cultural and human rights. This in turn enables
people to learn to read and play a role in making their world a better place to
live in (Sharmin, 2006).
In view of the foregoing discussion the concept of literacy is not universal, it is

contextual and ideological. This means that what can be regarded as literacy in
one area cannot be the same in another area. It is environmental based,
hence the title literacy and the learning environment. In this course literacy will
basically be defined as an educational process in which people become
aware of the conditions surrounding them, read and write about them and take
action to improve their well-being.
1.4 Types of Literacy
There are basically three types of literacy: basic, functional and work oriented
literacy.
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a. Basic Literacy
Basic literacy refers to the skill to write, write and do simple arithmetic (UNESCO,
1965). Reading is artistic in that people are able to recognize things. However, it
has some complications to those who are learning to read. For example this
combination, P, b, d, 9, and 6 may give some difficulties for an illiterate adult to
draw the distinctions among them. Reading as an art requires people‟s
appreciation. Writing on the other hand, is a skill which needs to be practiced. It
involves the skills of movement. The hand must be trained to be constant.
Basic literacy is regarded as the foundation of literacy. The learner acquires the
most basic skills which are used as a foundation for further learning. Basic
literacy is an end in itself but a starting point for the process of literacy work and
learning. There is no doubt that before any complex learning is provided to a
learner, the basic principles are usually given. This is also the spirit in which basic
literacy is provided.
b. Functional Literacy
This type of literacy emanates from basic literacy. The functionality of literacy
means that a person who was unable to do anything but after going through
some education begins to do that which he or she was unable to do, then
literacy has become functional. In this regard, Functional literacy refers to the
ability to utilizing literacy skills sufficiently to better one‟s life (UNESCO, 1965). This
type of literacy embraces all works of literacy. Also being able to read entails
that the literacy of reading is functioning.
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UNESCO (2005) explains that functional literacy refers to a meaningful
acquisition, development and use of literacy skills (also for numeracy purposes)
in everyday life, as a tool for self-expression, information, communication,
lifelong learning, work and civic participation, and as a means to improve one‟s
life and to contribute to family, community and national transformation and
development. The specific topics and skills to be included within a functional
literacy programme may vary in each context and depending on the specific
needs and interests of the target groups.
A person is functionally literate if he can engage in all those activities in which

literacy is required for effective functioning of his group and community and
also for enabling him to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his
own and the community‟s development. On the other hand, a person is
functionally illiterate if he cannot engage in all those activities in which literacy is
required for effective functioning of his group and community and also for
enabling him to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his own and
the community‟s development (UNESCO, 1978). However, the weakness with
functional literacy is that it limits someone to a mere application of skills as
opposed to inculcating analytical skills. Skills which should empower people to
make decisions for themselves and take appropriate action.
c. Work Oriented Literacy
This type of literacy is aimed at improving efficiency of a given work. It is

economic oriented. Work oriented literacy is a concept coined by UNESCO
(1965) as an effort to uplift the standard of literacy. In the view of UNESCO(1965)
work oriented literacy is the functionality of literacy in the workplace. This literacy
is based on the work one does, farming, tailoring, carpentry, brickmaking and
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several others (Bhola, 1995). This type of literacy has been criticized for being
narrow and non-comprehensive. It regards the learner as a tool for production
who should basically be sharpened to do the work job better. Literacy should
involve the emancipation process in which a person does not only read the
„word‟ but also the „world‟. This is a process whereby a person becomes
empowered to be able to unveil and decode the ideological dimensions of
texts, institutions, social practices and cultural forms such as television and film, in
order to reveal their selective interests‟ (McLaren, 1994).
1.5 Some attributes of Literacy
The attributes of literacy may among others include the following:
a. It is a tool for communication that goes beyond face to face. It should be

appreciated that when a person has the ability to read, there is an
interaction with the author of the message through the text. This means
that by mere reading of something written by a person you may not
interact with physically, interaction is made possible through reading the
work of another person. Being a student in this course, you will be able to
have an interaction with the lecturer of this course by virtue of you
reading this module and yet may not come into physical contact with
him/her.
b. Literacy broadens understanding. There is no doubt that a literate person

has a broadened understanding compared to an illiterate one. This is also
to say that the horizon of a person who is literate is broadened and this
person will have a divergent perspective of analysing issues and situations.
A literate person acquires the ability to come up with several alternatives
regarding any situation he or she may be confronted with.
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c. Literacy improves social interaction. Illiterate people are often times
associated with shyness which deters them from free association and
general human interaction. These individuals lack the ability to easily
mingle with others. When a person is literate courage and confidence
takes the centre stage. A person finds it easy to confront situations
acquires the ability to ask questions and makes social interactions possible
and much easier.
d. Literacy frees people away from taboos especially in the Africa setting.
African is a continent with a well- known and appreciated rich culture.
The African traditions have upheld loyalty as part of the way of life of the
people. In as much as loyalty has some positive benefits it has also
contributed to the docility of many people in Africa. For instance,
traditional cleansing has been for a long time regarded as part of the
African tradition. With literacy on HIV/AIDS, Africans have questioned the
sustainability and consequent benefits of such practices. Refusing to
undergo traditional cleansing was considered a taboo by several African
traditions. Today many Africans have been freed from that taboo
because of the acquired literacy. Other examples would include,
traditional practices with regard to burying the dead, choice of marriage
partner, naming of children and several others. All in all, literacy opens
people‟s minds to different thoughts, ideas, and cultures.
e. Literacy puts the learners in another world by broadening the spectra of

their thinking. Literacy exposes the learners to a variety of thinking and
reasoning patterns. It is because of this that a literate person acquires the
ability to make sound judgments and effective decision making. Several
parameters are often times considered before making a decision. In other
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words a literate person is expected to make objective decisions and
judgments.
Summary
In this unit you have learned about the concept of literacy, types of literacy
which are basically basic, functional and work oriented literacy. Under each of
these types are different forms of literacy, which can range from computer
literacy to driving literacy. The unit has also attempted to explain the attributes
of literacy. The attributes of literacy provided a solid foundation of the
understanding of literacy because they explain the benefits of being literate
and also the disadvantages of being illiterate.
REFERENCES & RECOMMENDED READINGS
Bhola, H.S. (1995). Functional Literacy, Work Place Literacy and Technical and
Vocational Education: Interfaces and Policy Perspectives. Paris: UNECSO.
Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Penguin Publishers.
Freire, P. (1985). The Politics of Education. New York: Bergin and Garvey.
Kibera, L.W. and Kimokoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of Education:
With Reference to Africa. Nairobi: University of Nairobi.
McLaren, P. (1994). Life in Schools (2nd edition). New York: Longman.
Sharmin, A. (2006). Concept of Literacy: Past-Present Future. Washington, DC:
OERI.
UNESCO. (1993). International Project on Technical and Vocational Education
(UNEVOC). International Advisory Committee (First Session). Berlin. 20-22
September 1993. Final Report. Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2005). Functional literacy for youth and adults in Rwanda: National
Policy and Strategy. MINEDUC/NON-FORMAL Education Unit, Rwanda
2005.
UNESCO (1965). World Conference of Ministers of Education on the Eradication
of Illiteracy, Tehran, 8-19 September, 1965. Final Report. Paris: UNESCO.
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UNIT 2
THE SCOPE OF THE ILLITERACY PROBLEM IN ZAMBIA
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the scope of the illiteracy problem in Zambia. This
covers a range of factors to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
magnitude of this problem.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
a. Explain the problem of illiteracy;

b. Provide the scope of the illiteracy problem in Zambia; and
c. Identify possible solutions to the problem of illiteracy.
2.2 REFLECTION
1. Why is illiteracy a problem?

2. Whose problem is illiteracy?
3. What are the effects of illiteracy to individual and group development?
2.3 The Problem of Illiteracy
The questions that needs to be addressed at this stage are; why is illiteracy a
problem and whose problem is illiteracy? There is no doubt that illiteracy has
been a problem in the sense that it dulls people‟s ability to develop at both
individual and group levels. Illiteracy arrests people and confines them within
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the ambits of ignorance thereby dehumanizing society. On the other hand,
illiteracy is understood as the problem of the literate because it is the literates
who want to communicate the message to the illiterates. This is a more reason
why the target group for literacy programmes are the illiterates who should be
liberated so that the literates can communicate development effectively.
There has been an argument that illiteracy has always been a problem but the
concern as at now should be why the focus on illiteracy now (UNESCO, 2013).
This view has been contested as an assumption which is not even accurate.
Burnet (1965) reveals that there has always been illiteracy, but it has not always
been a problem at least not everywhere. In isolated, self-sufficient societies,
where life followed a traditional pattern and nobody knew how to read and
write, illiteracy has been a problem.
Illiteracy became a problem particularly in Africa from the onset of human

slavery, colonialism and now post colonialism which has continued to be
perpetuated through globalization. This has specifically been compounded by
modern means of transportation and communication which has invariably
awakened people‟s consciousness in vast areas of the World to almost
abandoning the old ways of doing things to adopting new ways, based on
modern science and technology, were necessary for survival. This means that as
technical development moves faster and faster, and as populations increase,
the problem of illiteracy becomes more and more acute.
In the national context, Zambia at independence found itself in the national

development dysfunctional based on the lack of trained human resource
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needed for national development. There is no doubt that this situation was due
to the high levels of adult illiteracy created by the colonial system of education
which provided more opportunities to foreigners than the locals (Kelly, 1999). The
country has continued to be confronted by this problem particularly among the
youth and adults (MCDSS, 2003; and UNESCO, 2013).
2.4 The Scope of the Illiteracy Problem in Zambia
Illiteracy has been described as the enemy of human development (UNESCO,

2005). It regards development by denying people to manifest and unitize their
potentials for both individual and group development. In Zambia, the problem
of illiteracy dates back to the colonial days. This was due to the biased
education system which never provided adequate access to education by
specifically the indigenous Zambians (then Northern Rhodesians). From this time
right up until now, like many other African countries, Zambia has been grappling
with the problem of illiteracy. For instance, Kelly (1999) observes that the illiteracy
problem in Zambia gave birth to another challenge of shortage of trained
human resource needed for national development. Despite the efforts made by
successive governments from the United National Independent Party (UNIP),
Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) and now Patriotic Front (PF) in the
provision of education, the problem of illiteracy still persists.
In view of this, the scope of the illiteracy problem in Zambia can now be
considered by looking at the following factors:
a. More than 65 % of the population is illiterate and majority are women and
children (MCDSS, 2003:23; and CSO, 2010:45). This situation has been
attributed to inefficiencies in the education system. Literacy programmes
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are often times given lip-service and nothing serious is attached to reduce
or eradicate illiteracy particularly adult illiteracy. In Zambia, this negation
has been evidenced by the lack of policy to direct or guide the provision
of adult literacy education in the country.
b. Before the introduction of the free primary education in Zambia, about

700,000 school going aged children could enter school every year. Even
now the situation has not reached appreciable levels because there are
still children who are supposed to be in school but are not (UNESCO,
2013). The implication of this is that, these children will grow into adulthood
illiterate. An important resultant value of illiteracy is that it makes people
docile and this becomes a source of manipulation by the privileged
segment of society especially politicians. It can also be a deliberate
creation by the politicians so that illiteracy of the masses can be an
avenue for gaining political benefits.
c. Zambia‟s population is growing at 4 % per year and school enrolment

rates stand at 3.5% (DHS, 2007:4). This means that the population is
growing faster and yet school enrolments are low thereby contributing to
high levels of illiteracy in the country.
d. School drop outs before illiteracy levels. It is estimated that 40 % of those

that enter school, drop out before completing primary education (DHS,
2007). This means that they drop out before acquiring survival skills. They
are just as good as being illiterate. This has been attributed to cultural and
social economic factors such as early marriages. This is typical in the rural
areas where cultural norms may not allow women to handle both
marriage and school unlike the urban areas.
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e. Irrelevant learning materials. Sichula (2012:62) observes that where literacy
programmes are organized in Zambia they are hampered by lack of
appropriate teaching and learning materials, untrained instructors and
facilitators and mainly rely on volunteers. The mandate to provide adult
literacy education in Zambia was given to the then Ministry of Community
Development and Social Services and now Ministry of Community
Development Mother and Child Health until 2004 when the mandate was
shifted to Ministry of Education Science Vocational and Early Education.
The content of literacy education has been standardized and learners are
compelled to learn the content which is at variance with their needs. This
leads to demotivation among the students.
f. Poor funding for adult literacy programmes. There is generally poor

funding of education for both child and adult education. Adult education
gets the least of the share. For instance, MCDSS (2003) records that adult
literacy programmes in Zambia were last funded in 2000. Currently, adult
education programmes continue to be receiving piece meal attention.
Because of this there are difficulties in the expansion of education.
g. There are few NGOs currently involved in the provision of instruction in

literacy in the country. Out of over 1000 NGOs in the country only 40 are
involved in the provision of literacy programmes. The other problem with
these NGOs is that, there is no coordination among them. Implying that
the resources and knowledge are split and other NGOs are denied
access to the resources. Further, it means that these NGOs are providing
literacy programmes in their respective versions, utilizing their own
contents and staff. It is not very clear what the quality of these literacy
programmes is, because sometimes the motive can be a way of
accessing funding for different projects unrelated to literacy work.
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h. Instances where literacy classes are attempted they are bogged down
by:
a. Lack of teaching and learning materials

b. Irrelevant content
c. Unskilled teachers
d. Non-payment of literacy instructors
e. Use of volunteers as instructors
2.5 Proposed Solutions to the Problem of Illiteracy in Zambia
It is hoped that the following proposed solutions may help in providing answers
to the problem of illiteracy in the country:
a. Introduction of the Vouture system. It involves a minimal budgetary

allocation of financial resources to accord people an opportunity to have
their education in their youth and adulthood. This system allows people to
attend school at any time of their age. This system may enable people to
attain some appreciable levels of literacy.
b. There has to be a deliberate increase in funding education, particularly

adult education. It needs mentioning that of all education programmes
adult education is the list funded. This situation has largely been the
contributing factor to the escalating levels of adult illiteracy in the country.
c. Equal distribution of education resources for both child and adult

education especially adult literacy education:
i. Production of reading materials
ii. Training of teachers
iii. Remuneration of teachers
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d. There is need for more voluntary NGOs and Church organizations to be
involved in the provision of adult literacy education.
e. Strengthening of radio programmes in adult literacy education
f. Establishing of community schools whose philosophy should be anchored
within the fabric of that community.
g. Establishment of a literacy council which will coordinate all literacy work in
the country including NGOs and Churches.
h. Above all these issues, the most important is the policy of adult literacy
education. There is need for a specific policy on the provision of adult
education in the country.

CSO (2010). Housing and National Census Population in Zambia. Lusaka: CSO.
DHS (2007). Zambia Demographic Healthy Survey 2007. Lusaka: CSO.
Kelly, M.J. (1999). Origin and Development of Education in Zambia. Lusaka: ZEPH
MCDSS (2003). Ministry of Community Development and Social Services:
National
Policy on Community Development. Lusaka: Government Printers.
Sichula, N.K. (2012). Community Adult Education: Forms of Community Adult
Education Practices and Challenges of Implementing them in Chongwe
District. Saarbruken: LAP.
UNESCO (2005). Functional literacy for youth and adults in Rwanda: National
policy and Strategy. MINEDUC/NON-FORMAL Education Unit, Rwanda.
UNESCO (2013). Adult and Youth Literacy: Unesco Institute for Statistics. UNESCO
Fact Sheet, September 2013, No. 26.
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UNIT 3
EFFORTS MADE TO ERADICATE ILLITERACY IN ZAMBIA
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the efforts made particularly by the Zambian
government to eradicate illiteracy in the country. This covers a period from
independence to date.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit leaners should be able to:
a. Identify the efforts made in the eradication of illiteracy in Zambia; and

b. Analyse the outcome of the efforts made.
3.2 REFLECTION
1. Why should illiteracy be eradicated?

2. Who should be the major provider of adult literacy education in Zambia?
3. What should be the role of the Ministry of Education in Adult literacy
education?
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3.3 Efforts Made in the Eradication of Illiteracy in Zambia
The estimated population for illiterate people in the World in 1964 stood at 700
million (UNESCO, 1965). Today, the total population of illiterate people in the
world is estimated at 773.5 million (UNESCO, 2013). Considering the effects of
illiteracy both at an individual and national levels, several efforts have been put
in place to eradicate the levels of illiteracy at different levels.
In Zambia, community development work has been used as it has focused on

adult literacy education, among others. MCDSS (2003) explains that at
independence Zambia was faced with the challenge of illiteracy. In an effort to
improve adult literacy levels, government introduced the countrywide basic
literacy programme in 1965. This was followed by the adoption of the functional
literacy approach in 1971, which was intended at making the learning more
practical. To enhance these efforts government launched a National Literacy
Campaign in 1990. These efforts are now discussed in details.
3.3.1 Basic Literacy Education
In order for you to understand the introduction of the basic literacy education
programme in Zambia, a brief background is critical. In this background salient
factors which necessitated the introduction of this programme are brought to
the fore.
a. Brief Background
Literacy has been recognized as a human right and has steered the
international community into joining hands with the affected countries in an
effort to eradicate illiteracy. The struggle against illiteracy in Zambia dates back
to the mid1940s and was continued through the 1950s by the colonial
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government (Mutava, 1988 in Africa Centre, 1995). Despite the early attempts
to deal with the problem of illiteracy, paradoxically the number of people who
could not read and write remained comparatively high. For example, in 1950
the total population of this country Zambia then Northern Rhodesia was
1,856,000 of which 980,000 were above 14 years of age. About 75 to 80 percent
of the 980,000, representing in absolute figures about 740,000 to 780,000, were
illiterate (UNESCO, 1957 in Africa Centre, 1995).
In 1963, the Africa Census Survey showed that Zambia had 1,353,000 people
above the age of 15 who were illiterate (UNESCO, 1946). During the colonial era,
the presence of a relatively large number of illiterates was accentuated by the
colonial education policy which placed more emphasis on providing
educational facilities for Europeans at the expense of Africans.
b. Introduction of Basic Literacy Education Programme
When Zambia gained independence on 24th October 1964 from Britain, the
newly sovereign state immediately introduced a deliberate and radical basic
literacy education programme as an attempt to reduce the levels of illiteracy in
the country. Between 1964 and 1966 the programme was run on a pilot basis
and was only limited to a few areas. In 1966 the programme was extended to
the rest of the country. At this time, the enrolments were 3,527 learners with 418
literacy instructors. In 1967 the number of learners increased to 15,818 and that
of instructors rose to 1,344 (CSO, 1970).
There is need to provide an understanding that the problem of illiteracy

became a major concern not only to those involved in adult education
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programmes, but also the politicians. For instance, the first Republican President
of Zambia, Dr Kenneth Kaunda, made several appeals to Zambians to join
hands with Government in the fight against illiteracy (Africa Centre, 1995).
Arising from such appeals, the Zambia Association of Literacy Clubs was formed
in 1969 with the principle objective of promoting literacy work throughout the
country. By the end of 1969, 121 literacy clubs had been formed in various
colleges and schools throughout Zambia (Department of Community
Development, 1970). The formation of the Association of Literacy Clubs provided
an impetus to the campaign against literacy. This was reflected in the sudden
increase in student enrolment from 15,818 in 1967 to 40,000 by the end of 1969
(UNESCO, 1970).
In in 1977, the basic literacy programme which was launched in 1966 was
phased out in most rural areas. It activities were thereafter, limited mainly to the
urban areas and to only few premises such as colleges and some literacy clubs,
in rural areas. In the urban areas the programme was being managed by local
councils, prisons, mining companies and Zambia Railways (Department of
Community Development, 1980). The table below shows the achievements in
terms of enrolments from 1966 -1985.
Table: 1. Enrolments in Basic Literacy Classes in Zambia from 1966 to 1985
Year Female Male Total

1966 4,107 457 4,564
1967 14,326 1,532 15,818
1968 9,742 1,083 10,825
1969 15,530 1,726 17,256
1970 15,645 1,739 17,384
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1971 11,473 2,868 14,341
1972 3,046 762 3,808
1973 3,822 955 4,777
1974 2,858 714 3,572
1975 846 212 1,058
1976 567 142 709
1977 782 196 978
1978 1,194 299 1,493
1979 1,083 271 1,354
1980 1,205 301 1,506
1981 950 231 1,181
1982 543 136 679
1983 1,034 258 1,292
1984 1,139 285 1,424
1985 1,654 414 2,068
TOTAL 91,546 14,581 106,127
Source: Ministry of Labour & Social Services, Dept. of Social Development, Mass
Literacy & Social Welfare Background, in Africa Centre (1995).
c. The Commonwealth Family based literacy approach
There was also a realisation among the former British colonies that illiteracy was
becoming a serious source of concern which was hindering the development of
these member countries. Therefore, the family literacy based approach was
developed. This approach involved every member teaching one another how
to read and write specifically a daughter would teach the mother or the father
and even the other way round. The rationale for this is that in Africa and Zambia
in particular there is a tendency to prioritize education for children and not
Page | 29
adults. Therefore, children tend to acquire some literacy skills which could be
used to permeate their respective families and society as a whole.
3.3.2 The 1990 Zambia Literacy Campaign
The October 1990 National Literacy Campaign was launched as a way of

scaling up efforts towards the quest to reduce high levels of illiteracy the country
was confronted with. As a matter of fact Zambia shares in the aspirations of the
international community of reducing the global levels of illiteracy. March 1990
was declared the International Year of Literacy when UNDP, UNICEF, UNESCO
and World Bank co-sponsored the World Conference on Education For All in
Jomtien Thailand (MOE, 2005). At this conference it was conceived that
education should provide basic learning opportunities for all people of the world
taking into count their rights, needs and talents.
The objective of the 1990 literacy campaign in Zambia was to reduce illiteracy
from 25 % to 12 % by the year 2000 (World Education Forum, 2000). However, it
adopted a narrow focus of attempts to raise the standards of living in the rural
areas. To achieve this, the programme taught adult learners how to grow maize,
how to apply fertilizer and other practical skills (Department of Community
Development, 1991).
According to Africa Centre (1995) in 1991 the name of this literacy campaign
was changed to the Advancement of Literacy (ZAALIT). When it was launched,
the programme was envisaged to spread literacy activities to all the urban and
rural districts. This programme attracted an enrolment of 25,243 participants
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using the services of 2,005 literacy instructors. Until now, the functional literacy
programmes are seemingly being provided alongside basic literacy
programmes in some community development training centres in the country. A
good number of provincial community development training centres are unable
to provide some programmes because they require rehabilitation (MCDSS,
2003).
Ironically, while the support and enthusiasm to eradicate illiteracy in the country
has a long history, the number of illiterates has remained extremely high. It is also
surprising that despite the introduction of free education at independence and
currently at primary education level, the numbers of illiterates still remains high.
This scenario is indicative of the elusiveness of the problem of attempting to
wipe out illiteracy in the country. Currently the Adult illiteracy levels in Zambia
stand at 63.3 % female and 36.7 % male (UNESCO, 2013).
In this unit it has been explained that the efforts made by the government in the
eradication of illiteracy and adult illiteracy in particular included the provision of
basic literacy education, functional literacy and the launch of the 1990 literacy
campaign.
Although the focus of this unit is on the efforts made in the eradication of
illiteracy in Zambia, lessons could be learned from a much broader perspective
on how other countries have managed to respond to the problem of illiteracy
by using radical and volatile means such as campaigns. The case in point is the
Tanzanian, Nicaraguan and Cuban literacy campaigns. However, for the
Cuban literacy campaign you will be required to do an independent reading.
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a. Tanzanian literacy
The details of this campaign are derived from the IIEP Report of 1990. The United
Republic of Tanzania became independent in 1961. At independence, 75 per
cent of the adult population were illiterate. By 1967 the levels of illiteracy had
reduced to 69 per cent (Tanzania Population Census, 1967).
Objective and Target Group
The Objective of this campaign was to eradicate illiteracy in the country. The
target group were the poor, oppressed, marginalised people found in both
urban and rural areas of the country.
Organization and Financing
Following the Arusha Declaration of 1967, the strategy of a mass campaign was
adopted. The Adult Education Department was transformed into the Ministry of
Regional Administration and Rural Development. And July 1969 and 1970 was
declared Adult Education Year. In the same year Adult Education Co-ordinators
were appointed at regional level, and by 1975 the structure had permeated to
every Ward. Centres were selected and committees set up to oversee their
functioning; 10 per cent of the educational budget was allocated to adult
education; teachers were trained through trainers' teams based at the regional
level.
The facilitators in this campaign where chosen from the universities, political
party structures and workers as well as trade union members. They were given
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some training and later on went to various parts of the country to execute the
content of the training.
Approaches and Language of Instruction
The Campaign adopted the concept of Functional Literacy following on from

the UNDP/UNESCO Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Project in the Lake Regions
during 1968-1972. Literacy teaching was to be integrated in the teaching of
vocational skills. Twelve different primers were written on better cotton, banana,
rice, maize, coconut, cashewnut, tobacco, wheat, cattle keeping, fishing,
home economics, and political education.
The main literacy programmes were to be supported by a network of rural

libraries, rural newspapers, correspondence courses and film education, as well
as offering post-literacy classes. The programme was conducted entirely in
Kiswahili, and the achievements of the programme are monitored through
national testing exercises which were held in 1975, 1977, 1981, 1983, 1986 and
1989.
Achievements
According to these tests, illiteracy was reduced from 75 per cent in 1961 to 9.6
per cent in 1986. Further, the Department set another target of eradicating
illiteracy entirely by the year 2000. Meanwhile, the Department recognised a
certain number of problems, such as the poor motivation of learners, the low
incentive for literacy teachers and the inadequacy of their training, the lack of
materials and equipment for the classes, and, in many cases, the lack of
Page | 33
spectacles for the learners. Among other plans, they intend to recruit full-time
permanent teachers and to reinforce the supporting programmes.
In the early 1970s, the massive campaign to eradicate illiteracy, domestically,

was a political success: everyone knew that the government was devoting
substantial resources for the development of the poorest. Internationally, the
Tanzanian campaign was a model for several others. But, despite a biennial
programme of national testing, no-one really asked whether the campaign was
effective in bringing literacy to the people and what impact the campaign had
had on their lives. The research being discussed at this workshop was designed
to explore some of these issues.
b. Nicaragua Literacy Campaign
Nicaragua is country found in Latin America and was under dictatorship for four
decades under the rule of Somoza. Education for the masses was not a priority
and adult literacy education was completely neglected. Prior to the Sandinista
Revolution in 1979 the majority of the rural population of Nicaragua was found
to be illiterate, with estimates as high as 75%-90%. The total population had an
estimated illiteracy rate of 50% (Henamman, 2005). In a quest to eradicate these
levels of illiteracy, Cardenal (1982) states that the goals of the literacy campaign
were of a social-political, strategic and educational nature:
a. to eradicate illiteracy;
b. to encourage an integration and understanding between
Nicaraguans of different classes and backgrounds;
c. to increase political awareness;
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d. to nurture attitudes and skills related to creativity, production, co-
operation, discipline and analytical thinking;
e. to support national cohesion and consensus; and
f. to strengthen the channels for economic and political participation.
The experience of the fight against the dictatorship and finally its overthrow by
an organized uprising of a broad opposition movement in July 1979
strengthened the readiness and ability of the Nicaraguan population to mobilise
for their right to education (Henmann, 2005). In addition, the Sandinista National
Liberation Front (FSLN) had committed themselves in their historical programme
(1969), and in their government programme ten years later to a massive
campaign to immediately eradicate illiteracy. A decree was issued declaring
1980 the “Year of Literacy”. The new government leaders saw literacy as an
integral part of national development. However, two main reasons motivated
the Sandinistas to put literacy at the centre of their incipient revolutionary
project: firstly, justice and a moral obligation of the revolution towards the
population; and secondly, literacy was seen as a part of the preparation of the
whole population to manage the big task of national reconstruction (Arríen and
Matus, 1989). Their literacy campaign emerged out of the context of the war of
liberation, which had strengthened the leaders‟ faith in people‟s capacity to
learn and respond to difficult challenges.
In fact, the Sandinista government decided to start the literacy campaign only
eight months after their victory in order to use the broad social consensus that
was still existing at that moment, for mass mobilisation for the right to education.
The Sandinistas were in a hurry to lead the broad but diffuse support of the
population into solid forms of organization and to initiate awareness raising
processes in the face of the expected increasing attacks from the opposition.
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Further developments confirmed the correctness of using the momentum and
commitment of popular mobilisation for a national literacy campaign.
Organization and Financing
Planning for the literacy campaign began approximately four months after the
Sandinista Revolution which overthrew the Somoza political dynasty. Nearly
60,000 youths (high school and college age) and 30,000 adults of varying
backgrounds were trained in two weeks for the five-month campaign. Citizen
groups, workers' associations, youth organizations, and public institutions
provided organizational support for the campaign.
Father Fernando Cardenal was appointed as the national coordinator of the

literacy campaign and preparations started immediately in August 1979. The
responsible core team investigated previous literacy efforts in Nicaragua and
studied other countries‟ experiences, mainly those of Brazil, Colombia, Guinea-
Bissau, Sao Tome, Principe, Cabo Verde, Mozambique, Peru and Cuba. The
latter certainly had the greatest influence on the Nicaraguan campaign (Black,
and Bevan, 1980).
In October 1979 the Brazilian educationalist Paulo Freire was invited to advice
on the literacy campaign. Important elements of his pedagogical and
methodological approach were taken up and adapted to the specific
circumstances in Nicaragua (Henmann, 2005). The literacy campaign was also
marked by the “Principal Education Project for Latin America and the
Caribbean” which was promoted by UNESCO and adopted at the end of 1979
by the Regional Conference of the Latin American Education and Planning
Ministers in Mexico.
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Additionally, in October 1979, a national census of all Nicaraguans over ten
years of age were undertaken to determine the level of illiteracy, the precise
location of the illiterates, and the availability of volunteers to teach and of
teaching locations. The census was not just a gathering of data but a miniature
campaign in itself, because it helped to inform people about the upcoming
literacy campaign, overcome cultural barriers between urban and rural areas,
and develop first relationships of mutual commitment.
The entire exercise was inexpensively done by volunteers in a record time of two
weeks. “This direct mobilisation of Nicaraguans underpins every stage of the
Literacy Crusade” (Black, and Bevan, 1980). After a short, intensive training
period, the volunteer census takers were sent throughout the country. Each
province had a census coordinator who worked in conjunction with a special
support commission made up of government institutions, citizen‟s associations,
labour organizations, and church and student groups. Together they oversaw
the organization, management and training of the census brigades, which were
composed of students, parents, teachers, labour union and citizens‟ association
members, army personnel and peasants.
The brigades were provided with survey forms, an instruction manual, a list of the
approximate population in a given municipality, and when available, a census
map. The census was carried out on a minimal budget. Provincial offices were in
charge of raising their own funds. All surveyors, who usually conducted their
census taking in pairs, were given a letter of identification which helped them to
get free transportation. Transportation was difficult, and remote areas were not
completely covered. But most problems revolved around the poverty and
Page | 37
misery encountered by the brigades in the countryside. Many census volunteers
became ill, and almost all registered shock at the dreadful health and nutrition
conditions of the rural population (Miller, 1985).
Since the few existing computers in the country were engaged in economic
tasks, the decision was made to process the data by hand. About 2,500
especially trained volunteer tabulators completed the task in less than ten days.
According to the results of this census, 50.35% (722,431) of the population was
illiterate: 51.5% of these were male and 49.28% female; 28.4% of them were living
in urban areas and 75.44% in rural areas (Hanemann, 2005).
It was striking to know that the 10-14 year group alone amounted to 21% of the
entire target group of illiterates, which shows the Somocist school system in a
negative light. Also, regional differences mirrored the unequal development in
the country: In the industrially more developed Pacific region the illiteracy rate
was 39.5%, in the central mountain region 66.7% and in the less developed
Atlantic region 71.6%. According to the census findings, for every three illiterates
one literate person was available to teach. This average implied, of course, a
surplus of available volunteers in the cities and a deficit in the countryside.
In terms of teaching staff, the Nicaraguan Educators‟ Association ANDEN

organized the technical support staff for the entire campaign. The recruitment
of volunteers, particularly for the rural areas, was not as problem free as the
census data suggested. One month before the campaign was to start, many
parents still had not permitted their younger children to participate (minimum
age was 12).
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In the face of this predominantly middle-class opposition, which was based on a
mixture of political hostility, misunderstanding, snobbery and parental anxieties,
a massive campaign to convince parents took place through the media and
youth organizations (Black, and Bevan, 1980). 68% of secondary students
participated in the literacy programme in the rural areas. Also, while the most
positive response came from working-class families, the mobilisation of school
teachers proved to be difficult as well. About half of the then employed
teachers did not participate in the literacy campaign faking sickness and other
excuses in order to stay in the urban areas (Castilla, 1981).
The costs for the campaign were estimated at 20 million US dollars. They were
mainly covered by private and international donations. Beginning October 1979
a national publicity campaign began to raise funds. In the end the real costs of
the campaign, was 12 million US dollars, was much lower than the expected
beforehand (Armas, 1981). According to that figure the cost of getting one
person literate was around 30 dollars. Since the campaign was based on the
principle of promoting voluntary participation of the teaching and support staff,
costs could be kept low. During the five month period of the campaign
implementation schools and universities were closed down so that students and
their teachers, who received their normal monthly salary from the Ministry of
Education, could participate. In addition, it is estimated that the voluntary
literacy teachers, who lived and worked together with the peasants in the rural
areas, produced more than 10 million working hours during the campaign
(Lacayo, 1983).
The management style of the campaign, which was in large part adapted from
the particular experience of the liberation war, allowed for “unusual flexibility,
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responsiveness and participation”. It was not based on precise long-term
planning. The high degree of responsiveness with which the process and its
participants functioned, and with which the staff was able to react to problems
quickly and quite effectively, was one of the strengths of this management
model.
From the pedagogical perspective the campaign used a variety of methods of

which most of them were participatory. They included, initiative and creativity,
experiential learning, dialogue, group discussions and collective problem
solving. The methods emerged from an intense, creative process of discussion
that continued throughout the campaign, enriching and strengthening the
programme (Hanemann, 2005).
Achievements of the Campaign

The National Literacy Crusade that took place in Nicaragua from March to
August 1980 was probably the biggest venture of the Sandinista rule (1979-1990)
and without a doubt the most important event within the reform of the
education system. Further to the achievement of reducing the overall illiteracy
rate from 50.3% to 12.9% within only five months, it signified a break with
fundamental elements of the previous education system and was at the same
time a laboratory conducive to alternative educational designs. It produced a
lasting impact on a whole generation of young people at that time but it also
was and continues to be a controversial undertaking.
In five months 406,056 Nicaraguans were able to read and to write in Spanish so
that the illiteracy rate of 50.35% could be reduced by 37.39 percentage points
to 12.96%. In the more industrialized Pacific region the illiteracy rate was
Page | 40
reduced from 28.06 to 7.8%, in the central mountain region from 66.74% to
20.21%, and in the least developed Atlantic region the leap was the biggest with
78.07% to 25.59% (Encuentro, 1980; Hanemann, 2001).
Summary
The unit has provided the efforts made in the eradication of illiteracy in Zambia.
These efforts have been identified as basic literacy programme of 1965, the
Commonwealth family literacy based approach, the 1971 functional literacy
programme and the 1990 literacy campaign. The unit has also provided
reference points to Tanzania and Nicaragua literacy campaigns.
Africa Centre (1995). Youth Literacy: A Family Based Literacy Campaign

Approach. Lusaka: Commonwealth You Programme.
Arríen, J. B. and Matus, L. R. (1989) Nicaragua: Diez Años de Educación en la
Revolución. Contexto, avances, problemas y perspectivas de un proceso
de transformación. Managua.
Cardenal, F. and Miller, V. (1982). Nicaragua: Literacy and Revolution, in:
UNESCO, Prospects, Vol.XII, No.2, p. 201-212
CSO (1970). Country Profile: Zambia. Lusaka: CSO.
Department of Community Development (1991). Community Development in
Zambia. Lusaka: Ministry of Rural Development.
Hanemann, U. (2005). Nicaragua’s Literacy Campaign. Hamburg: UNESCO.
Miller, V. (1985) Between Struggle and Hope. The Nicaraguan Literacy Crusade.
London: Westview Press.
MCDSS (2003). National Policy on Community Development: Lusaka:
Government Printers.
MOE (2005). Educating the Nation: Strategic Framework for Implementation of
Education For All. Lusaka: Ministry of Education.
Mutava, D. (1988). Forty Years of Struggle against Illiteracy. In, Africa Centre
(1995). Youth Literacy: A Family Based Literacy Campaign Approach.
Lusaka: Commonwealth You Programme.
Rocha, J. L. (2000). Memoria Apasionada en Tiempos de cólera y desaliento. In:
Page | 41
ENVIO Año 19, Número 222, Septiembre 2000:16-21.
UNESCO (1965). Literacy: Progress Achieved in Literacy throughout the World.
Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (1970). Literacy: Progress Achieved in Literacy throughout the World.
Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2013). Adult and Youth Literacy: UIS Fact Sheet. September,
2013.No.26. World Education Forum (2000). The EFA 200 Assessment:
Country Reports- Zambia. WEF.
UNIT 4
CONSTRAINTS IN THE PROVISION OF LITERCAY EDUCATION
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the constraints encountered in the provision of
literacy education in Zambia.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
a. Identify the constraints in literacy work in Zambia

b. Explain what could be done to overcome such constraints
4.2 REFLECTION
1. What is participation?
2. What are the constraints encountered in participating in literacy
work?
3. What can be done to overcome these constraints?
Page | 42
4.3 The Concept of Participation
Despite many people agreeing that participation in the provision of literacy

education in any community is important, very few agree on its definition. For
instance, some scholars believe that participation refers to:
a. voluntary contribution to public programmes but people do not play a

role in shaping the programmes;
b. involvement in shaping, implementing and evaluating programmes and
sharing the benefits; and
c. an active process where intended beneficiaries influence programme
outcomes and gain personal growth (Oakley, 1989).
The foundation for the understanding of this concept should be based on the
fact that participation range from people‟s passively receiving of benefits from
a given programme or activity to people actively making decisions about the
programme policies and activities. Therefore, participation in context refers to a
situation where people decide cognitively, emotionally and affectively to
engage in something from needs identification through to the evaluation of the
activity of programme (UNDP, 2000).
The Model below shows the Elements of participation. This model can be
applied in any situation. In this regard the focus is on participation in literacy
education programmes or work in Zambia.
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Source: Commonwealth of Learning (2010).
4.4 Agencies Providing Literacy Education in Zambia
The provision of
literacy has attracted
the efforts of
government
and public private
organizations
such as Non-
governmental organizations and church organizations. In Zambia other than the

Ministries of; Education, Community Development, Health, Local Government
Page | 44
and Agriculture NGOs such as People‟s Action Forum (PAF), Initiative for
Sustainable Rural Livelihoods (ISRL), Development Organization for People‟s
Empowerment (DOPE), Women‟s Literacy Programme for Empowerment in
Zambia (WOLEPZ) and Room to Read. More so faith based organizations (FBOs)
such as Bahai Faith, Catholic Church, Seventh Day Adventist, Jehovah‟s Witness
and several others (PAF, 2013).
4.5 Constraints Encountered in the Provision of Literacy Education
In as much as these agencies are involved in the provision of adult literacy

education in Zambia, their involvement is not short of constraints. Among them
include the following:
a. Irrelevant content
Sichula (2012) observes that the Ministry of Education who for a long have been
the major providers of adult literacy education in the Zambia have been used a
standard curriculum in adult literacy. MCDSS (2010) acknowledge that leaners
were subjected to the content which was developed at the Ministry of
Community Development by experts which was later taken to the provincial
centres and respective districts for implementation. The challenge with
implementing such a curriculum was that leaners were subjected to learn things
which were non-existent in their respective communities. For instance, teaching
learners how to grow groundnuts and yet their agriculture environment could
not support groundnuts cultivation.
b. Class Arrangement
The initial implementation of literacy education in Zambia was faced with the
lack of adult education expertise. Class arrangement was bogged down with
mixing youths, young adults and adults. This arrangement provided for a very un-
Page | 45
conducive adult learning environment. It was observed that the older adults
could not actively participate and ultimately led to a high attrition among the
adult participants. The enrolments only improved after rearranging the classes
based on their age groups.
c. Long Distances
There are often times long distances from where the people live and where
literacy classes are conducted. These distances act as a drawback for people‟s
participation in literacy education. This is often times typical of rural than urban
areas.
d. Lack of qualified literacy Facilitators
The effective execution and ultimate provision of educational activities require a

well-trained and qualified cohort of teachers. This is also true for literacy
education in Zambia. There are very few individuals trained in literacy work.
Consequently the execution of literacy material is compromised and illiteracy
levels remain stagnant. Added to this, most of the facilitators in literacy work in
Zambia are volunteers. These facilitators lack motivation due to the absence of
literacy instructional materials and they are poorly remunerated. Sichula (2012)
indicated that literacy facilitators go for as along as six months to one year
without been paid their facilitations allowances. As a matter of fact the
facilitation stood at K500 per session of 1 hour in 2012 now 50 ngwee.
e. Lack of comprehensive policy on Adult Literacy
Devoid of a comprehensive policy on adult literacy education in Zambia,

various stakeholder tend to implement adult literacy education programmes
without any guiding framework. Policy is important in informing providers of what
Page | 46
is expected and how it should be done. Further, the presence of policy may
provide some guide in the coordination of the providers of literacy education
and their respective programmes. In the absence of policy the provision of adult
literacy remains in a quagmire.
Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the definition of the concept participation,
agencies involved in the provision of literacy education in Zambia, and the
constraints encountered in the provision of literacy education. It has been
clearly explained that these constraints include: long distances; irrelevant
content; class arrangement; lack of comprehensive policy on adult literacy; and
lack of qualified literacy facilitators.
MCDSS (2010). Ministry of Community Development and Social Services. Gender

and Cultural Affairs Sub- Committee Report to DDCC. Chongwe: MCDSS.
Oakley, P. (1989). Community Involvement in Health Development. Geneva:
WHO.
Page | 47
PAF (2013). Adult Literacy- The Way Forward in Zambia: Stakeholder Position
Paper and Strategies. Lusaka: PAF.
Sichula, N.K. (2012). Community Adult Education: Forms of Community Adult
Education Practices and Challenges of Implementing them in Chongwe
District. Saarbruken: LAP.
UNDP (2000). Community Participation in Community Education. Kampala:
UNDP.
UNIT 5
ISSUES OF GENDER IN LITERACY
Page | 48
5.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the concept gender and how it is an issue in
literacy work. You will realise that there has been a lot of talk in the media,
societies, communities and all walks of life across the globe on the need to
mainstream gender in development. The same is the case with literacy work as
will be discussed in this unit.
5.1 OBJECTIVES
a. Explain the meaning of gender;

b. Distinguish gender from sex
c. Explain the relationship between gender and development;
d. Justify the importance of gender in literacy; and
e. Explain why gender is an issue in literacy work.
5.2 REFLECTION
1. What is gender?
2. What is the relationship between gender and literacy?
3. How is gender different from sex?
5.3 The Concept of Gender
Gender, in its narrowest sense, means a socially constructed phenomenon, be it

female or male. It was in the 1970‟s that American and English feminists started
Page | 49
using the terms “gender” and “gender relations”. Hence the transition was
made from a “study of the differences between the sexes... to relations
between the sexes both in the sense of social relations and conceptual
relations” (Hurting, Kail and Rouch, 1991). The word “gender” was to develop at
a remarkable pace in the early 1980‟s (Nairobi Conference, 1985). Yet if one
were to contemplate the subversive nature of the gender concept, one would
wonder why the term became such a catch word. A number of reservations
need to be made and it should be noted that, all too often, the word is used
simply as a synonym for woman, or the female sex. Such improper usage
consists precisely of disguising or erasing to some extent the word “sex”. It can
therefore be reasonably assumed that it is this watered-down, almost “dulled”
meaning of the word which, by removing much of its epistemological and
ideological force, vindicates its excessive use.
However, the concept of gender is simply defined as „the relations between

men and women, both perceptual and material. It is not determined
biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either women or men, but is
constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies, and often
governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and
distribution‟ (FAO, 1997).
Despite this definition, gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of

women only. However, it should be understood from the definition above that
gender issues focus on women and men and on the relationship between them,
their roles, access to and control over resources, division of labour, interests and
needs. Gender relations affect household security, family well-being, planning,
production and many other aspects of life (Bravo-Baumann, 2000).
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From the above definition there is need at this point to outline the fundamental
implications of the definition. According to WHO (2001) the gender concept
implies the following:
a) a rejection of the underlying biological distinction in the word “sex” and in

the expression “sexual inequality”, which appears as “an ideological alibi
for maintaining domination, the alibi of nature”. Women are no more part
of nature and no less part of culture than men;
b) grouping together all the differences identified between men and
women, be they individual differences, differences in social roles or
cultural representations, i.e., the grouping together of all that is variable
and socially determined;
c) the non-homogenous nature of the category of women, which is
transcended by differences of class, ethnicity and age;
d) the basic asymmetry and hierarchy between both groups, sexes and
genders - one of them dominating and the other dominated - which is the
basis of male power;
e) the overriding need, regardless of the problem, to consider men in relation
to women, whether these relations are complementary or conflictual. It is
within these gender relations that power intervenes, in its most virulent or
subtle forms and that it needs to be clarified in order to understand the
complexity of the situation.
In other words, the gender concept also implies knowledge of the difference
between the sexes, yet that knowledge is also a way of organizing the world
and is inseparable from the social organization of those differences. Knowledge,
much like power, which is one of its pillars, is neither determined nor finite; it is
variable and subject to countless changes. The same is true of complementarity
Page | 51
and opposition between the sexes which can change and come about through
changes in society (Okojie, 1994).
Therefore, gender is an essentially dynamic concept which brings into question

the apparent immutability of social roles. Despite these advances in theory,
women continue to be placed, implicitly, in the category of nature - instinct,
sentiment, irrationality - while men, on the contrary, are placed in the category
of culture - reflection, abstraction of a mental system. A recent example
illustrates well the commonness of this type of stereotype. On April 16, 1999, a
reporter with France Internal News was reporting on a group of refugees as
follows: “...crying women, starving children, humiliated men....” The choice of
words, even if unintentional, was not innocent.
5.4 Gender and Sex
The concept “gender” has been confused with the concept “sex”. Because of
this there is need to provide a clear distinction between these terms. Gender
has basically been defined as the socially constructed roles, behaviours,
activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and
women" and that "'masculine' and 'feminine' are gender categories. On the
other hand “sex” refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that
define men and women and that „male‟ and 'female' are sex categories (WHO,
2001). Therefore, the difference between gender and sex is that gender is a
social construct while sex is a biological determinant.
5.5 The Issues of Gender in literacy work in Zambia
Page | 52
The issue of gender has become a source of concern and topic of discussion in
development and all aspects of human life. Similarly it is an issue which has
taken centre stage in literacy work. The issues of gender in literacy work in
Zambia are economic, religious and cultural.
a. Economic
Studies on the economic role of women in many African societies show that
women play a major role in the economic productivity of such societies. They
are engaged in food production, income generation, entrepreneurship and self-
employment. As a matter of fact they are the food growers of many African
societies. Despite this huge role, their efforts go unnoticed (FAO, 1997).
Further, women have continued to be discriminated against men in terms

economic opportunities. It is undoubted that in spite of the economic role
played by women in society very few women have been able to access micro
credit to improve productivity in agriculture to enhance their income levels
(MCDSS, 2003). It is also clear that most of these women cannot even access a
loan from the bank to finance their agriculture projects. Reason being that most
of them are using traditional land of which traditionally may not qualify to be
given title on the basis of being female.
In a nutshell women continue to face gender inequalities in the workplace

relative to quality of the job, wages and working conditions. More women than
men are affected by the "flexibilization" and casualization of employment
through contract labour, part-time labour and other forms of labour that are
unregulated and unprotected. This trend is most evident in Sub-Saharan Africa
Page | 53
with a ratio of 84% women to 63% men and in Latin America where the ratio is
58% women to 48% men. Compared to women, there are more men in formal
employment than women (Riley, 2007).
Women have also carried the majority of costs of economic adjustment in

response to the adverse effects of economic dislocation resulting from exposure
to the competition of global markets. With weakened governments and
diminished resources, the cost of human welfare has shifted to the household.
Thus, despite their increased participation in paid employment, unpaid work for
women and girls' has also increased as women continue to be the primary
caregivers of the human family throughout the world.
It‟s undoubtedly clear that the economic factor has subjected women to the
above conditions due to the high levels of illiteracy among the female
population. When critically analysed, the economy puts a lot of demands on
women‟s contribution to its growth at the same time the very economy is
playing an inverse role of keeping women in perpetual doldrums of illiteracy.
From this discussion it comes out very clear that what is important here is the role
women play in economic development and not what the economy should do
to better the lives of these women.
b. Religion
Page | 54
Religious traditions are a powerful source in shaping patterns of gender
relationships in social institutions. They give an aura of moral grounding to social
institutions and increase the difficulty of advancing gender equity in the process
of development, both from the point of view of the donor agencies and in the
receiving countries. For instance, the Catholic social teaching illustrates this
reality. It is grounded in the primary principle of the dignity of the human person
which establishes the framework for all development work. This principle is
critical to the work for gender equity and the realisation of women's human
rights (Riley, 2007).
However, a close reading of the social documents of the Church reveals that
women are treated as a special category within this framework of human
dignity. Consistently, the social teaching documents, while affirming women's full
humanity, define women in terms of their "appropriate role" and their "proper
nature". Such language is never used when referring to men. It raises the
question of whether the Church implicitly holds a dual anthropology of human
nature: there is human nature for which man's experience is normative and
then there is woman's proper nature.
Most religions explicitly define the care of the family as women's primary role.
The father's role in the family is seen primarily as economic and authoritative. To
so emphasise that women are responsible for the quality of family life diminishes
the social role and value of fatherhood. It disenfranchises men from the full
potential of their fatherhood while it disenfranchises women from the full
potential of their personhood. The following quotes from various Church
documents illustrated both the progression and static nature of religious social
Page | 55
teaching as it tries to grapple with its traditional position on women and men
within the changing realities of contemporary life.
It is a most sacred law of nature that the father of a family sees that his offsprings
are provided with all the necessities of life and nature even prompts him to desire
to provide and to furnish his children, who, in fact reflect and in a sense continue
his person, with the means of decently protecting themselves against harsh
fortune in the uncertainties of life. . . Finally, it is not right to demand of a woman
or a child what a strong adult man is capable of doing. Women have the right to
working conditions in accordance with their requirements as wives and mothers. 23
Women are now employed in almost every area of life. It is appropriate that they
should be able to assume their full proper role in accordance with their own
nature. Experience confirms that there must be a social re-evaluation of the
mother's role, of the toil connected with it and of the need that children have for
care, love and affection in order that they may develop into responsible, morally
and religiously mature and psychologically stable persons. . . . Having to
abandon these tasks in order to take up paid work outside the home is wrong
from the point of view of the good of society and of the family when it
contradicts or hinders these primary goals of the mission of the mother (Riley &
Sylvester, 1991:19).
Put simply, in most religions women are considered as weaker vessels and they
are to submit to their husbands. They are not allowed to teach but rather only
be taught. In some religions there is even a certain sitting pattern between men
and women showing the difference between men and women. Therefore,
religion will remain an issue in literacy work for its powerful role in shaping gender
relationships in society.
c. Culture
It is undoubted that the main issue of literacy in gender is cultural. There are a
lot of disparities in adult literacy between men and women. Several stereotypes
on women participation or attending school are embodied in the people‟s
cultures particularly in Africa (Muyoba, 2000).
Apparently the literacy levels are higher among men than women. 62 % and 51
% respectively (CSO, 2010). African women in particular are culturally socialized
to be married. In the case of Zambia, most early marriages are based on
Page | 56
cultural and economic reasons. For instance, a woman is regarded as a source
of wealth. Therefore, girls may be forced into early marriage by the parents or
guardians for economic gain.
Another gender issue is the aspect of initiation for women. Msimuko (1987)
explains that initiation ceremonies are basically institutions to which young adult
girls are taken to be taught adult roles. Once these girls graduate from these
schools they are regarded as having been ready for adult life. The gender effect
of this practice on the provision 0f literacy is that, the period these girls are in
seclusion boys are learning giving them more advantage than girls.
Other gender issues in the cultural context of literacy education may include
class arrangement and decision making. It is believed to be culturally wrong to
combine men and women in a class. Most cultures in Africa and Zambia in
particular believe that men and women should not be taught at the same time.
They have to be taught separate (Mwansa, 1995). Additionally, when it comes
to decision making, women are not allowed to make decisions for men.
Summary
This unit has explained the issue of gender in literacy work in Zambia. The
concept of gender has been explained and the relational concept of gender
and sex, and also the issues of gender in literacy work which has been the main
focus of this unit. It has been discussed in terms of economic, religious and
cultural aspects. These aspects have taken centre stage in literacy particularly
were gender is concerned.
Page | 57
Bravo-Baumann, H. (2000). Capitalisation of experiences on the contribution of
livestock projects to gender issues. Working Document. Bern, Swiss Agency

for Development and Cooperation.
FAO (1997). Gender: The key to Sustainability and Food Security. SD Dimensions,
May 1997.http//:www.fao.org/sd.
CSO (2010). National Census Housing and Population. Lusaka: CSO.
MCDSS (2003). National Policy on Community Development. Lusaka:
Government Printers.
Muyoba, G.N. (2000). Literacy Curriculum in Non-Formal Education. Lusaka:
Department of Community Development.
Mwansa, D.M. (1995). Perspectives on Literacy, Gender and Change: A Case for
Zambia. British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 16, No. 4 (1995), pp.
495-516.
Riley, J.E (2007). Theology for the Catholic Church. Gender and Literacy.
London: Equinox.
WHO (2001). The Concept of Gender and Health. New York: WHO.
Okojie. C, E. (1994). Gender Inequalities of Health in the Third World. Social
Science and Medicines, 39(9): 1237-1247
UNIT 6
Page | 58
ILLITERACY AND POVERTY
6.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about literacy and poverty. The concept of poverty will
be explained and the relationship between poverty and literacy.
6.1 OBJECTIVES
a. Explain the concept poverty; and

b. Discuss the relationship between literacy and poverty.
6.2 REFLECTION
Questions
1. What is poverty?
2. What are the causes of poverty?
3. What is the relationship between literacy and poverty?
6.3 The Concept of Poverty
The concept of poverty has several meanings and implications. For instance, it is
a concept which can be considered as a form of oppression, infringement on
the basic needs of human life and the ultimate denial of one‟s right to a decent
livelihood.
In order to clarify the issues involved, it is important to provide a distinction

between the concept of poverty, i.e. the meaning of that term, and the ways in
which it is supposed to be measured. Only when these two issues are separated
Page | 59
can each of them be meaningfully discussed. The clarification of the concept
must come first: we must know for sure what we are attempting to measure.
Only when we are clear on this point can we tackle the problem of how to
measure it.
According to Drewnowsky (1977), poverty occurs when people have their needs
satisfied to a lesser degree than is considered sufficient. This is a general
definition which seems to be commonly acceptable. However, it leaves open
the fundamental question of what is a sufficient degree of needs satisfaction
and how this is established. The various ways in which this question is answered
constitute the various interpretations of the concept of poverty. In view of this,
three elements have been highlighted through which poverty can be viewed
namely:
a. Subjective
This involves an expression of judgment by anybody on whether he considers his needs

to be satisfied to a sufficient or insufficient degree. He may be considered poor or not
poor, depending on that judgment. The implication of this definition is that poverty can
be a state of mind. A person can be considered poor, although he may not be, by
using other criteria.
b. Relative
This is a method through which poverty may be determined by the position of

the individual in question in relation to other members of the population in
regard to the degree of satisfaction of these respective needs. This means that
Page | 60
the relative position of a person shall determine whether a person is poor or not
poor.
c. Absolute
This criterion presupposes that standards may be established for „sufficient‟ levels of
satisfaction of needs. Persons who are found to be below those standard levels shall be
considered poor, those found to be above them as not poor. In this regard poverty is
often times taken to be measured in economic terms.
From the foregoing discussion it is evident that there is no universal method of

determining the definition of poverty. The three dimensions of poverty mean that
poverty can be given different meaning in any of these cases. In the interest of this unit
poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon which involves the deprivation of
economic, social and political aspects of human living (Noyoo, 2008).
6.4 Illiteracy and Poverty
Illiteracy may refer to the inability to achieve full consciousness and functionality of an
individual in any society. This view presupposes that an illiterate person is denied full
humanization, socialization and above all survival in his or her own environment. In this
case literacy remains an imperative to every individual. It is through literacy that full
humanization is attained. A person denied literacy is a person denied a life (See: Freire,
1972; and Bhola, 1988).
Illiteracy and poverty constitute a mutually reinforcing vicious cycle that is difficult to
break. People with low levels of literacy are more likely to earn less and experience
poverty to the extreme; moreover, their opportunities are limited in all spheres of life
(work, education, housing and access to health care) and their children risk falling into
Page | 61
the same cycle by attending poor quality schools and dropping out of school at an
early stage (UNESCO, 2010). The relationship between illiteracy and poverty can be
seen in the following:
a. Poverty has simply been considered to be the insufficient access to food,

education, health care, adequate shelter, adequate income, sanitation and
safe drinking water as well as lack of power. Admittedly, the aforesaid are
caused by illiteracy. Since the illiterate are not confident in themselves, they
cannot easily access social facilities such as schools, health Centre‟s and others
to improve their livelihood. Consequently, they remain poor even when there‟s
free education they may not take advantage of it to send their children to
school.
b. World Education Forum (2000) shows that high dropout rates from school are
characterized by individuals who are found in the poverty bracket. This situation
leads to illiteracy evidenced by the fact that these individuals dropout of school
with little or no acquisition of survival skills. It is a common phenomenon among
the illiterates that education is a waste of time and resources. This thinking is
derived from the fact that education and formal education in particular has
long term benefits and sometimes the benefits may not even be realized at all.
This is to mean that the illiterate are often times focusing on the immediate
returns than the future.
c. Another link between illiteracy and poverty lies in the capacity of the people to
participate in development. Undoubtedly, the illiterate are seemingly poor
people and they view the world in a limited way. For instance, the illiterate may
not easily adopt or adapt to new ways of doing things due to their limited
understanding and perception.
At individual level, illiteracy and poverty entails that an individual has low or no income
at all to meet the basic necessities of life. The basic needs of human life are justice,
Page | 62
peace and sustainable livelihood. The absence of these values is a clear indication of
the presence of poverty. Within the fountain of poverty and illiteracy an individual is
denied power, freedoms and a full livelihood.
At a societal level, illiteracy and poverty would imply, denied access to education,
health, shelter, food, water and sanitation and all the freedoms which are due to
everybody by virtue of been human. The people are denied the power to demand for
what rightfully belongs to them. They are deliberately made incapable to actively
participate in the governance of the country. Illiteracy makes people docile and this
becomes a spring board for the politicians, hegemonies and bourgeoisies to
manipulate the masses in favour of themselves. It is common knowledge that the
producers of food are the proletariats who work under harsh and inhuman conditions.
Yet the beneficiaries are the few elite individuals who may not even have an idea of
what goes on in the production of that product.
The apparent truism is that illiterates or semi-literates cannot avail their opportunity of
literacy training for many reasons: family obligations, lack of transport, heavy workloads,
lack of family support- not to mention lack of confidence. Thus, literacy programmes
need to be well designed to break this vicious cycle (UNESCO, 2010).
Summary
Illiteracy and poverty are related in the sense that they are the very forces responsible
for peoples‟ ill-health, poor nutrition, high morbidity (rate at which people get ill),
mortality rate (rate at which people die). Poor nutrition has been pointed out as the
sole cause of people‟s lack of productivity at both individual, community and national
levels. The interpretation of this presupposition could be that food security has been a
mere political slogan without action directed at improving the nutritional levels among
the people. The existence of a strong relationship between poverty and illiteracy leaves
one important concern. This concern can be posed in form of a question. What then
could be the cause or possibly the causes of poverty? Similarly what could be said are
the causes of illiteracy? The responses to these questions will lead us to a situation
Page | 63
where each one of these are a cause and consequence of the other. Illiteracy causes
poverty so does poverty causes illiteracy. This is a justification that a spiraling relationship
exists between poverty and illiteracy. Then, it could be concluded that high levels of
literacy is directly related to low levels of poverty and the opposite could be true.
Drewnowsky, J. (1977). Poverty: Its Meaning and Measurement. Development
and Change. Vol 8, 183-203.
World Education Forum (2000). The EFA 200 Assessment: Country Reports-
Zambia. WEF.
Noyoo, N, (2008). Social Policy and Human Development in Zambia. Lusaka: UNZA Press.
UNESCO (2010). Literacy: Poverty and Development. UNESCO: Paris.
Page | 64
UNIT 7
METHODS OF TEACHING LITERACY
7.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about the teaching of literacy. You will be reminded of
the importance of the mastery and understanding of the characteristics of the
adult learners. This is important for purposes of effective preparation and
delivery of the content of instruction. Different ways of teaching literacy will be
outlined and explained in this unit.
7.1 OBJECTIVES
a. Identify the methods and techniques of teaching literacy;

b. Identify the characteristics of the learner; and
c. Distinguish teaching a skill of reading and writing from teaching a
language.
7.2 REFLECTION
1. What is training?
2. What is teaching?
3. Why the teaching of literacy?
4. How should literacy be taught?
7.3 Methods and Techniques of Teaching Literacy
Page | 65
A method simply refers to a way of doing things to achieve the intended goals
and objectives. In the academic context methods refers to ways through which
learners are exposed to and brought to interface with the learning institution
providing a given training programme. On the other hand teaching refers to the
imparting of knowledge or skill or the giving of instruction. Instruction in this
context is usually defined as „furnishing others with knowledge and information,
especially by a systematic method (Westwood, 2008). Adult education does not
favour teaching reason being that adults are individuals who have vast
experience in different aspects of human life. In as much as there is
acknowledgment that within the adult learning process the element of teaching
is present, emphasis is rather on facilitating the learning process as opposed to
teaching .
The concept of teaching carries with it an undertone suggesting that learners

are empty vessels who should be deposited into with knowledge. This creates a
situation where learners are regarded as objects and not subjects of their
learning. Therefore, teaching is at variance with the adult education principles.
However, its use in this unit does not exclusively refer to the act of imparting skill,
and knowledge on the learners and consider them as empty vessels. Rather its
use is based on the fact that the facilitator will be required to seemingly take
control of the learning process as he or she may be showing the learners some
technicalities regarding reading and writing.
In literacy work different approaches are used in the delivery of literacy learning
materials. The approaches can be divided into two groups and the third is the
trend. Namely:
a. Synthetic
b. Analytic
c. The trend is called eclectic
Page | 66
Analytic method
Analytic method starts with the big and end up with the small (global method).
For instance, you may start with a story, break it into paragraphs, sentences,
phrases, words, syllables and finally letters. Based on this framework literacy
learning can commence with any of the aforementioned except a letter
(Hughes and Schwab, 2010).
In this method when one begins with the word, it is then analysed into a syllables
and finally into a letter. For instance, a word in bemba ubupina (referring to a
state of being poor). This word can be analysed as follows:
The word ubupina (state of being poor) has the following syllables:
Syllables for ubupina
u a e i o u
bu ba be bi bo bu
pi pa pe pi po pu
na na ne ni no nu
The analysis can go further by asking learners to formulate words out of these
syllables. Example:
Page | 67
1. bapeni
2. popi
3. babe
4. pabe
5. pepa
6. aba
7. nine
8. abepi
9. ubupunu
You can go on and create the remaining words. Kindly do not restrict yourself to
bemba as in this example, you are at liberty to do this exercise in your language,
or put simply the language you are acquainted with.
Freire (1987) used a similar approach to the analytical approach in literacy work.
His approach was slightly a departure from general methods of teaching based
on the association approach. The association approach involves the use of a
picture or word which related to the existential realities of the learners.
According to Avoseh (1990) Paulo Freire departed from the association

approach and used the sentence approach in his literacy work.
Conscientization for Freire is a critical attempt to make people especially the
marginalized illiterates to see the reality of the world around them. This takes
place when the illiterates come together in dialogue to discuss situations
affecting their existence. Conscientization is thus a dialectical process that
relates critical reflection on past action to continuing struggle for a better future.
Therefore, as a literacy process conscientization is dialectical between the
Page | 68
practice or between reflection and action. For Freire, the object of literacy
education is liberation through conscientization and its method is dialogue.
Implicit in the conscientization approach is the study of the environment and

developing the content of literacy from the very environment. It means that you
begin with the „story‟ or an „issue‟ and from it you identify the „key words‟ or
„themes‟ (Freire, 1987). In this approach issues identified include causes, effects,
and prevention methods and so on. The Freirean approach emphasizes the
need of the reading material emanating from the environment. It must be
based on the concerns of the people and not imagined but real issues (Freire,
1985).
The analytical method in the Freirean context will also entail that
conscientization is a process of growing and developing awareness whose
target is to know and transform reality. In this particular respect the concept is
employed to mean transformation. According to Freire (1985) the first task in this
approach is to make the subjects of the literacy programme (illiterates) to be
aware of the causes of their plight. This means that changing their consciousness
at the same time making an attempt to free the oppressed. Literacy education
at this point stands out to be a liberation act that involves a radical
transformation of dehumanized individuals and unjust social economic and
political conditions.
What needs to be understood regarding the analytical method is that all what it
involves is to relate a small thing to the whole thing. The other approach to
literacy teaching is called synthetic method.
Page | 69
Synthetic Method
It starts with smaller units and then built into bigger units. It is a word which is
derived from the word synthesis which means a combination or amalgamation.
With this approach, before learners are introduced to reading and writing, they
are taught letter sounds. After the first few of these have been taught they are
shown how these sounds can be blended together to build up words (Johnston
and Watson, 2005). For example, when taught the letter sounds /m/ a/y/ o/, the
learners can build up the words 'mayo', 'yamo', and so forth.
Synthetic method teaches reading through the alphabet. Sometimes referred to

as names of letters. By using phonetic sounds- sounds of letters. The tone of a
voice on a given word determines the meaning of the word. One word can
mean two things. Within this methods is a technique called syllabic. This involves
a group of letters that can be pronounced together to give a sound (syllable). In
this approach letters are put together to form a syllable and finally a word.
Most syllables have families such as „a‟ belongs to the family of vowels which
are:
a e i o u
ba be bi bo bu
ca ce ci co cu
da de di do du
Page | 70
and so forth.
All in all synthetic method begins with a letter, to a word, sentence, paragraph,
chapter and finally a book. Therefore, synthetic simply means building up.
Eclectic Method
Electric method is referred to as a trend because it uses both synthetic and

analytic methods. The choice of method is entirely dependent on the user‟s
ability and acceptability of the learners. Rowlingson (2012) explains that analysis
of words and building of words cannot be done forever. There has to be
appoint when the building and analysis of words is done. Then what should
follow is giving meaning to the synthesised and analysed word. It is at this point
that electric method comes in.

Freire, P. (1985). The Politics of Education. South Hadley: Begin &Garvey.
Freire, P. (1987). Literacy: Reading the Word and the World. New York: Sage
Publishers.
Hughes, L.D. & Schwab, M. (2010). Teaching Literacy Education. New York:
Green bird.
Johnston, R. and Watson, Y. (2005). The Effects of Synthetic Phonics Teaching On
Reading and Spelling Attainment. A Seven Year Longitudinal Study.
Retrieved from http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications.
Page | 71
Rowlingson, K. (2012). A Step at a Time, Synthetic Phonics: Different Methods to
Teach Litercay. Retrieved from http//: www.astepatatime.co.nz.
Accessed on 8/03/2014.
Westwood, P. (2008). What Teachers Should Know About Teaching Methods. Victoria:
ACER Press.
Page | 72

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THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

COURSE: AED 4110

AED 4110: LITERACY AND THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Institute of Distance Education

The University of Zambia

P.O Box 32379

Fax: +211 253952

The University of Zambia (UNZA) Institute of Distance Education (IDE) wishes to

UNIT 1 The Concept of Literacy…………….............................................................. 10

UNIT 2 The Scope of Illiteracy Problem in Zambia.................................................. 18

UNIT 3 Efforts made to Eradicate illiteracy in Zambia............................................. 25

UNIT 4 Constraints in the Provision of Literacy education...................................... 42

UNIT 5 Issues of Gender in Literacy……………………............................................... 47

UNIT 6 Illiteracy and Poverty ……………………………………………………………... 57

UNIT 7 Methods of Teaching Literacy…………………………………………………... 63

Vocational Education: Interfaces and Policy Perspectives. Nomos, Baden:

Clark, J. (1991). Democratizing Development. London: Earth scans Publications.

Hughes, L.D.& Schwab, M. (2010). Teaching Literacy Education. New York:

Okedard, J.N. (1981). The Power of Literacy. New York: Seabury.

Sharmin, A. (2006). Concept of Literacy: Past-Present Future. Washington, DC:

Mwansa, D.M. (1982). Training for the Marginal – A Critique of Literacy

THE CONCEPT OF LITERACY

At the end of this unit learners should be able to:

1. Distinguish literacy from education?

The concept literacy lends itself to several definitions. It is a concept which

Generally, there is a tendency of defining literacy on the basis of core elements

In this course, literacy is not seen as only a decoding (interpreting) and

Literacy should also be understand as a process by which illiterate people

In view of the foregoing discussion the concept of literacy is not universal, it is

1.4 Types of Literacy

A person is functionally literate if he can engage in all those activities in which

c. Work Oriented Literacy

This type of literacy is aimed at improving efficiency of a given work. It is

1.5 Some attributes of Literacy

The attributes of literacy may among others include the following:

a. It is a tool for communication that goes beyond face to face. It should be

b. Literacy broadens understanding. There is no doubt that a literate person

e. Literacy puts the learners in another world by broadening the spectra of

REFERENCES & RECOMMENDED READINGS

THE SCOPE OF THE ILLITERACY PROBLEM IN ZAMBIA

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

a. Explain the problem of illiteracy;

1. Why is illiteracy a problem?

2.3 The Problem of Illiteracy

Illiteracy became a problem particularly in Africa from the onset of human

In the national context, Zambia at independence found itself in the national

2.4 The Scope of the Illiteracy Problem in Zambia

Illiteracy has been described as the enemy of human development (UNESCO,

b. Before the introduction of the free primary education in Zambia, about

c. Zambia‟s population is growing at 4 % per year and school enrolment

d. School drop outs before illiteracy levels. It is estimated that 40 % of those

f. Poor funding for adult literacy programmes. There is generally poor

g. There are few NGOs currently involved in the provision of instruction in

a. Lack of teaching and learning materials

2.5 Proposed Solutions to the Problem of Illiteracy in Zambia

a. Introduction of the Vouture system. It involves a minimal budgetary

b. There has to be a deliberate increase in funding education, particularly

c. Equal distribution of education resources for both child and adult