Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance

Author(s): B. Guy Peters

Source: AlMuntaqa , December 2020, Vol. 3, No. 2 (December 2020), pp. 23-34
Published by: Arab Center for Research & Policy Studies

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.31430/almuntaqa.3.2.0023

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  (2020) - 3 (2) Articles

Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and

Practical Significance(1)
B. Guy Peters(2)

The study focuses on public policy studies as an essential pillar of public policy education in academic
universities on the one hand, and as an important player in determining the role of the state and government
in the field of policymaking on the other. It suggests eight commonalities in the study of public policies, arguing
that although public policy making has been influenced by the cultural and social features of the political
system, these participants can be presented as a new theoretical contribution to public policy education. It
recommends that focus should be on preparing public policy analysis models based on an analysis of the
regional context and an understanding of the diversity and impacts of different theoretical contributions in
the areas of policy analysis and policy studies.

Public Policy   Policy Analysis   Comparative Policy Studies   Public-private partnerships 

Public policy studies exist in many different lives of citizens”. This definition privileges the role
forms. Most visibly, it is an academic pursuit, with of the State in policy and governance more than
departments and schools of public policy in many some scholars might like, but does note that agents
universities around the world. Public policy also are involved, and frequently involved, in service
has an important role in the world of practice, with delivery. The most fundamental point, however, is
governments needing to understand the policies they that what really matters is what happens to citizens
are implementing and to design new and, one hopes, as a result of the interventions of the public sector
better policies. Finally, although less obviously (and its agents) into the economy and society.
perhaps, policy studies also exist at the level of the The development of several lines of inquiry into
citizen who is the consumer of those policies. But public policy – policy studies, policy sciences, policy
citizens need to be more than passive consumers of analysis – has contributed to a rich array of studies
policy and should have the capacity to assess the in a group of related domains surrounding policy.
goods and services being produced by governments Some, such as policy analysis, focus on the dynamics
and advocate for improvements.(3) of the individual policy and attempts to enable the
If we accept the importance of public policy and policy maker to make the best choices among a set
policy studies then the next question to be asked of available alternative policies. Some such as policy
is what exactly do we mean by the term “public studies are concerned with the success and failure of
policy”? There is a widely diffused common-sense policies, but also are interested in the reasons that
understanding of the term, but is there a more precise certain policies are selected when governments and
definition? One standard definition of public policy their allies are faced with a particular problem. The
is “...the sum of government activities, whether policy sciences tend to integrate the other two, but
pursued directly or by agents, as they affect the also focus on decision-making as choices are made

1 This study was originally published in Issue 42, January 2020 of the Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies’ bimonthly peer-reviewd political science
and international relations journal Siyasat Arabiya
2 Maurice Falk Professor of Government, University of Pittsburgh.
3 The late Duncan MacRae argued that the ultimate purpose of policy education was to create more informed, more active citizens.

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

about which policies to implement.(4) The distinctions The remainder of this essay will develop eight
between these different strands of policy research points about the study of public policy. I will be
are far from watertight, and may be contested by using the term “policy studies” throughout, but all
some scholars, but clearer distinctions between these of the strands of thinking about policy mentioned
various disciplines and sub-disciplines need to be previously will be considered. I will be discussing
these eight propositions independently, but it will
made if good policy is to be made clear.
rapidly become apparent that they are intertwined.
As a contribution to this special issue on public policy Attempting to disentangle the relationships within
in the Arab countries, it is important also to argue that policy studies, or within any area of inquiry for that
policy studies is at once universal and culture-bound. matter, is useful for purposes of exposition, but may
Many of the models of policy, whether about the also attempt to tear apart a complex whole too readily.
assessment of policy or the process by which policies These eight propositions about the study of public
are made are universal: The actors involved may differ, policy are applicable in almost any setting, although
but the underlying dimensions of analysis are the they may be influenced by culture and the social and
same. On the other hand, however, the way in which political characteristics of the political system that is
policies are assessed, and the interpretations that may making and implementing the policy. Some aspects of
be applied to the policies and their outcomes, tend to be policy are culturally embedded, while other aspects of
policy may be more or less universal. The question for
embedded in the society and culture. Thus, the policy
the analyst is which aspects are which? The focus of this
analyst needs to be very careful when s/he attempts to
special issue on public policies in the Arab countries
offer advice about what is a “good” policy or attempts may provide an opportunity to consider to what extent
to understand why particular policy choices have been history, culture, social variables and politics influence
made. Without an understanding of the society, it is policy choices and policy success. And the impacts of
very easy to make the wrong decisions, even with those social and cultural variables may be even on the
policies that appear reasonable in other settings.(5) way in which policy is conceptualized.

Policy Studies is Academic and it is Practical

The first point about policy studies is that its status as The good student emerging from an education in
an academic enterprise does not diminish its important public policy will know the relevant theory, but will
practical implications. Indeed, good academic work also know when to abandon theoretical speculation
in public policy will usually have implications for the and begin to apply the knowledge. This may be true
real work of government. Thus, public policy studies even for students who choose academic careers in
can be conceptualized as a discipline like architecture public policy who must have one foot, or at least a
or engineering, with a strong academic foundation few toes, in practical policy analysis.
but also with a substantial potential to contribute to Although both purely academic and more applied
solving practical problems. It must be seen as being studies of policy have an essential place in public
at once intellectually demanding and substantively policy studies, there is more than a little tension
useful. between them. The academic version of policy studies
One of the tasks for schools of public policy is training is interested in explanation, and often is retrospective.
the analysts who will do the policy analysis within At least when practiced by political scientists and by
government and within think tanks. That training is public administration scholars, academic research is
in academic and theoretical approaches to policy, less interested in the details of costs and benefits in
along with methods that can be used to supply policy economic terms and more interested in the political
analysis to policymakers working in the “real world”. and social costs and benefits. In other words, these

4 This to some extent reflects the role of Harold Lasswell and his advocacy of the policy sciences.
5 See the discussion below on policy transfer and “evidence-based policy”.

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

disciplines (see below) want to know how politics less interested in why a policy was selected than if
and society shape policy and its implementation. it will work once it is selected. Thus, this strand of
policy studies is inherently prospective, and must
Usually described as policy analysis, the more have strong theories about the ways in which policies
applied version of policy studies may be somewhat (and the societies and economies within which they
less interested in the correlates of choice than it is are implemented) function to be able to make their
with the correlates of success. The policy analyst is analyses and make their predictions.

Policy Studies Involves Insights from Other Disciplines

Leaving aside the question of whether policy studies supplied analytic perspectives such as principal-agent
itself constitutes an academic discipline, public policy models and transaction cost analysis that can aid in
has a number of dimensions, and consequently, policy the design of public programs.
studies is informed by a variety of different academic
Mathematics and statistics have also contributed to
disciplines and approaches. The effective student
the study of public policy. The contribution of these
of policy studies will therefore have to have some
disciplines is both in providing means of measurement
acquaintance with a range of academic approaches. He
and analysis and in supplying ideas about the design
or she may be, and indeed should be, strongly grounded
of programs. The first set of contributions may be
in one discipline but need to be able to integrate findings
rather obvious, involving the use of statistical analysis
from others into their research on policy.
in particular, to analyze the possible causes of desired
My own discipline, political science, has a great deal outcomes of policy interventions and to evaluate the
to say about public policy. That is perhaps natural success of programs. The second sort of contribution
since political science explores how the public sector involves approaches such as game theory that enable
functions, and the processes through which legislation modeling of decision contexts that may enhance the
is adopted.(6) As well as examining the processes capacity to design programs.(8)
by which policies are made, political science also
attempts to explain the choices that governments Economics, along with mathematics and statistics, are
make, using a variety of political and social variables. perhaps especially important in public policy studies
And a burgeoning body of literature examines how because they permit the modeling of the future impact
the agendas of government are determined, and which of policy interventions. Economics provides a strong
issues are addressed and which are not.(7) theoretical base for such models, and its assumptions
about the behavior of individuals in society when faced
Economics constitutes a second foundation for
with certain incentives and disincentives permit more
policy studies. Many of the techniques central to
prospective analysis than might be possible for other
policy analysis, e.g. cost-benefit analysis, are based
approaches. And obviously mathematics and statistics
on the utilitarian logic of economics. These methods
provide the techniques to develop and to evaluate those
that utilize a common measuring rod for public
efforts at modeling future impacts of policy choices.
program based on money enable the policy analyst
to compare policies and help decide which will be Public management and public administration are
of greatest benefit for society. While some argue that also important for public policy. Any policy that is
the monetization of the outcomes of public programs formulated and adopted will have to be implemented,
is misguided and ignores many important features of and if the designers of programs do not take into
public action, economic analysis of policies remains account sufficiently implementation questions their
central to studying public policy. Economics has also programs will be more prone to failure. Within many

6 Birkland, T. A. (2015) An Introduction to the Policy Process, 4th ed. (New York: Routledge).
Jones, C. O. (1984) Introduction to the Study of Public Policy, 3rd ed. (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole).
7 John, P. (2006) The Policy Agendas Project; A Review, Journal of European Public Policy 13, 975-86.
8 McCain, R. A. (2009) Game Theory and Public Policy (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar).

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

academic institutions, policy administration and when thinking through policies. Some classic studies
public policy are closely linked, but there are also of policy issues, e.g. Calabrese and Bobbitt have
approaches that denigrate the public administration built on ethical challenges facing decision-makers
and focus only on the more “scientific” economics in the public sector, and the ethical challenges for
and statistical issues rather than the more unruly policy will only become more pressing as continued
issues of actually making a program work. austerity, demographic changes and technology require
Students of public policy ought also to have some thoughtful decisions about complex issues.(9)
grounding in law. In all societies, public policies
Finally, it is imperative that policy studies are informed
are generally written as law, so simply being able
by the academic disciplines that are concerned with
to convert policy ideas to viable legal statements
is important. And understanding law will also help policy problems–policy analysis requires substantive
understand the administrative process, perhaps policy knowledge. Policy analysts involved in health
especially the process of writing secondary legislation policy, for example, would be well served by an
necessary for implementation. understanding of public health issues and the structure
of the medical industry. Without this substantive
Policy scholars, and perhaps especially policy
practitioners need to have a grounding in philosophy, knowledge, they can make some very fundamental
and particularly ethics. What is a good policy? Is it mistakes when designing programs. Some aspects
more than just one that creates the greatest economic of policy analysis are fungible across policy fields,
benefits for society, regardless of the distribution? but many are not, so the task of the analyst is to
Questions such as these illustrate how and why analysts bring policy analytic expertise to bear in a field that
need to be prepared to bring a set of principles to bear is already crowded with experts.

Policy Studies Is an Approach of its Own

Although policy studies has borrowed a great perspectives on instruments. For example, some
deal from other academic disciplines, it also has a approaches have focused on catalogs of instruments
distinctive set of questions and approaches of its own. and attempts to detail the choices available for
These go beyond the rather obvious focus on policy policymakers. Others have examined the way in
and the emphasis on decision-making about policy to which those decisions on instrument choices are
include specific bodies of research that are in some made.(12) Still other components of the instruments
ways the core of policy studies. Other disciplines will literature attempt to link instruments with political
have something to say about these research questions, and social forces operating within the policy process.
but the bulk of the discussion has been among policy A second distinctive element of policy studies has
scholars themselves. been the emphasis on policy problems. To attempt
One of the most distinctive elements in policy studies to improve the economy and society, governments
is the study of policy instruments.(10) Although this and their allies must solve problems, but to do that
focus of policy research has some roots in economics they must understand the nature of the problems.
and in political science, it has developed more While there may be “solve leverage” gained by
autonomously within policy studies.(11) Like so many using common sense functional names for policy
other aspects of policy studies, there are different problems–health, infrastructure, etc.–more leverage

9 Calabrese, G. And P. Bobbitt (1978) Tragic Choices (New York: W. W. Norton).

10 Hood, C. (1984) The Tools of Government (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House).
Salamon, L. M. (2002) The Tools of Government: A Guide to the New Governance (New York: Oxford University Press).
Lascoumes, P. And P. Le Gales (2007) Introduction: Understanding Public Policy Through its Instruments–From the Nature of Instruments to the Sociology of
Public Policy Instrumentation, Governance 20, 1-21.
11 Kirschen, E. S. (1964) Economic Policy in Our Time (Amsterdam: North Holland).
12 Linder,S. H. And B. G. Peters (1984) From Social Theory to Policy Design, Journal of Public Policy 4, 237-59.

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

can be gained by thinking about the problems in policy researcher on to thinking about problems of
a more analytic manner.(13) For example, does the complexity in policy problems, and the policymaking
problem involve public goods or private goods? How process.(18) Most of our thinking about public policy is
complex is the problem? These analytical categories linear, while the world is often extremely non-linear:
can be linked, at least to a limited degree, with the in other words, small changes in one variable may
design of interventions by government.(14) produce large and unruly changes in other variables.
“Wicked” problems are an important subset of the Consequently, many of the most important problems
problems faced by the public sector in a number of facing governments entail a fundamental rethinking
countries and may require more detailed attention. of our conceptions of policy and policy analysis.
Although there are a number of characteristics that Evaluation research is a third distinctive element
describe wicked problems in full, the fundamental of social science research within policy research.(19)
notion is that it is difficult to identify causation, or Although evaluation research has roots in academic
even to define the problem in any definitive manner.(15) disciplines such as public administration and sociology
These problems are also linked with other problems it has developed and flourished within policy studies.(20)
and differentiating those issues can be difficult or As the name implies evaluation research is dedicated
impossible. To those difficulties for policymakers to assessing the impacts of public policies and using
scholars have added the problem of time and the that information to improve policies. Although many
absence of governing institutions to create “super- of the research techniques used in evaluation research
wicked problems”.(16) are similar or identical to those used in other social
The study of wicked problems is not important only sciences, the questions being asked may not be. For
because of the interesting name; the category of example, for a good evaluation researcher it may not
problems grouped as “wicked” represent the most be sufficient to know if a particular intervention was
difficult challenges for contemporary governments successful, he or she would want to understand the
and includes issues such as climate change, poverty, unintended consequences as well, and include them
and obesity.(17) In addition, these problems lead the in the analysis.(21)

Public Policy is a Game many People Can Play

Up to this point, the discussion of public policy has is, however, generally useful to begin with the formal
been more centered on government than might be policy activities of the State and then see what other
true of actually policymaking and implementation in actors are involved. After all, public policy depends
the real world, or in much of the academic literature on the authority of the State, regardless of what entity
on public policy. Public policy commonly involves may actually be making and implementing the policy.
some relationship between State actors and the But even with a legitimate and effective State for
private sector, whether market or not-for-profit. It making public policy, involving private sector

13 Hoppe, R. (2010) The Governance of Public Problems: Puzzling, Powering and Participation (Bristol: Policy Press).
Peters, B. G. And J. A. Hoornbeek (2017) Understanding Policy Problems: A Refinement of Past Work, Policy and Society, forthcoming
14 Peters, B. G. (2018b) Policy Problems and Policy Design (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar).
15 Rittel, H. W. J. and Webber, M. M. (1973) Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences 4, 2, 155-169.
16 Levin, K., Cashore, B., Bernstein, S. and Auld, G. (2012) Overcoming the tragedy of super wicked problems: Constraining our future selves to ameliorate
global climate change. Policy Sciences 45, 2, 123-152.
17 The concept of wicked problems has become extremely popular, and any number of problems that by no means meet the criteria for “wickedness”. See
Candel and Peters (2017).
18 Geyer, R. And S. Rihani (2010) Complexity and Public Policy (London: Routledge).
19 Vedung, E. (2007) Policy Evaluation, in B.G. Peters and J. Pierre (eds), Handbook of Public Policy (London: Sage)
20 Freeman H.E. and Rossi P.H., and Wright, S.R. 1980. Evaluating Social Projects in Developing Countries. Paris: OECD.
21 Sieber, S. D. (1980) Fatal Remedies: Dilemmas of Social Intervention (New York: Plenum).

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

actors in the policy process is still common and A number of Arab countries have achieved progress
even necessary. Many of those organizations in establishing PPPs and improving the contribution
have substantial legitimacy of their own and can of the private sector in providing public services, such
also provide public sector decision-makers with as the United Arab Emirates. Private corporations play
information that can improve the quality of policy. an increasing role in providing security services for
The State can also coopt private actors, making them public entitites and even in providing troops in military
in part responsible for the policy and minimizing combat. Again, the UAE provides an interesting
future opposition. Finally, involving the private sector example. This reliance raised its own questions marks
can reduce costs for the public sector and leverage regarding public accountability and human rights.
private resources and expertise. The role of the private contractors, including
The means for involving the private sector in public international consultants, received its share of
policy are numerous, and in some instances rather scrutiny in the countries that utilized this approach.
complex. At the stage of policy formulation and One clear example has been the implementation
design a number of advisory committees can structure of School Based Management (SBM) in Qatar – a
the provided inputs from social actors, and think project that was contracted to RAND Corporation.
tanks often linked with political parties or interest This project raised unfamiliar public opposition and
groups also become involved. There may also be open criticism of the government educational policies
mechanisms for ordinary citizens to make comments for reasons that range from capacity limitations
on proposed legislation in open hearings and the like. that affected implementation, to fears of cultural
The most powerful example of such mechanisms is invasion and diluting the Islamic and Arab character
clearly the referendum.(22) All of these mechanisms of the country. After 13 years between 2004 and
may help improve policy, and also improve the 2016, Qatar’s public school system reverted back to
democratic nature of policymaking. centralized control by the Ministry of Education.
The role of the private sector in implementing Making and implementing public policy using the
policy can be even more important than that for private sector assumes, of course, that there is a
policy formulation. Many public policies are viable private sector, just as it assumes there is a
contracted out to private sector actors, whether viable State. Both assumptions may be incorrect.
market or non-market. These services may range In many developing societies the civil society is
from protective services, e.g. private prisons to the weak and does not have the proliferation of not-for-
full range of social services including health and profit organizations, other than perhaps religious
education. Public-private partnerships may also be organizations, that are so much involved in public
used to implement and perhaps to design, public policy in developed systems. And likewise the market
policies. The modern State is much less a direct may be weak and poorly organized, meaning that
provider of public services than the designer and many means of delivering services such as contracting
source of funds of those services,(23) and therefore to out will not be viable. And those deficiencies may
understand policy one must additionally understand be faced within the context of a weak state in which
the role of the private sector. effective policymaking is already difficult.

Policy Studies Should be Comparative

Most policy studies are conducted within a single research may make a good deal of sense for more
country and for a single policy question, or within practical studies of public policy, attempting to
a single policy domain. This narrow focus of policy provide the best answer for a policy question facing a

22 Qvortrup, M. (2018) Referendums Around the World (London: Macmillan).

23 This corresponds to the advice coming from the New Public Management that government should “steer and not row”. That is, governments are better at
setting goals than they are in actually delivering the policies.

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

government. For the academic pursuit of public policy, of certain types of policy, and their level of success
however, such a narrow focus is much less desirable. once adopted? There are numerous examples of
The world constitutes a natural laboratory for public failures when attempting to copy policies and make
policies, and by comparing policy interventions them work in different settings, most based on faulty
made in different settings there is the opportunity to assumptions about the generality of incentives and
develop stronger theoretical understanding of how motivations for individuals across cultures.(27)
public policies perform. This special issue is dedicated to public policy in
Comparison should not be limited to comparison the Arab countries, and as such may provide an
across political systems. (24) Comparisons across important opportunity to think about learning and
policy domains can also be useful for understanding policy transfer. This opportunity is available both
what factors influence the success or failure of within the countries of the Arab region as well as
public programs. Gary Freeman has argued that between the Arab region as a whole and the remainder
the differences across policy areas are often more of the world. Examples of policy learning within
significant than the differences across political the region are plentiful. Gulf Cooperation Council
systems.(25) Take for example, a policy domain such as (GCC) countries share similar policy directions
health that is dominated by skilled professionals and because of both policy transfer as well as regional
serves the entire population as compared to a domain competition. Economic liberalization and education
such as social welfare that has less powerful service decentralization are important examples that deserve
providers and serves only a relatively disempowered further examination. Recently, Egypt has started
segment of society. The politics will certainly be its Government Excellence Award building on the
different, as will the patterns of provision. experience of, and technical support from, the UAE.
The use of comparative evidence from other political Learning and engaging in reform experiments based
systems, and to some extent other policy domains, on international practices are also widespread.
has become all the more important as “evidence based The Arab Maghreb region is clearly influenced by
policymaking” has become a popular approach to Europe as well as other regions. Egypt’s education
designing public programs (Pawson, 2006).(26) While reform strategy in 2017 builds on cooperation with
one would hope, and expect, that all policymaking is international partners such as the UK and the World
based on evidence, this phrase has come to signify Bank, in addition to consultants and international
greater attempts to use evidence coming from policy corporations such as Pearson. Qatar’s neoliberal
interventions made in other settings as guides for education reform experience, which was originally
policymaking. This evidence not only can guide better designed by the RAND Corporation and ended up
policymaking but can be a means for policymakers to in 2016 with the return to the Ministry of Education
ensure that their own interventions appear validated (MOE) system, should draw attention to the
by experiences elsewhere. importance of surveying and understanding the local
But comparative policy analysis is not easy, and context as a pretext for successful reform.
successful evidence-based policy may be even more For the latter part of the exercise, developing some
difficult. To do comparative policy analysis requires idea of what the essential elements of policy and
both a strong foundation in policy studies and also policymaking are in Arab countries (28) and then
some understanding of comparative politics and/or attempting to see how they compare with what are
comparative sociology. What factors in the political the apparently dominant ideas about policy in other
and social systems are likely to influence the adoption countries could be important for comparative analysis.

24 Comparisons across subnational units within a single country can also be useful, especially in federal regimes where the states or provinces have a good
deal of autonomy to make their own policy choices.
25 Freeman, G. P. (1985) National Styles and Policy Sectors: Explaining Structured Variation” Journal of Public Policy. 5, 467-496.
26 Cairney, P. (2016) The Politics of Evidence Based Policy (Berlin: Springer).
27 Batory, A, A. Cartwright and D. Stone (2017) Trial and Error: Policy Experiments, Failures and Innovation in Central and Eastern Europe (Cheltenham:
Edward Elgar).
28 For some idea of principles that may guide policy and administration in Arab countries see Samier (2017).

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

This might be done first for non-Arab, majority Muslim from investing in learning from other policymaking
countries such as Indonesia and Pakistan before being systems. Rather than having to confront every new
expanded to include a broader cross-section of states. policy challenge with a tabula rasa the policymaker
Again, this comparison could inform both academic can learn from the experiences of others, provided
theory and more practical policymaking. he or she learns carefully. Meanwhile, the academic
student of policy can also learn more about what
In summary, although there are many challenges patterns of causation, or at least of association, exist,
in learning effectively about policy across political and how our theories and analytic schemes can be
systems, there are also many potential benefits improved through comparison.

Policy Studies Should be, at Least in Part, Prospective

As mentioned above, the policy analytic strand within choice until some final decision is made, but the
policy studies is very much future-oriented. The work newer design literature argues for focusing more on
of the policy analyst is in large part to advise policy broadening the range of options to be considered.(31)
makers which policies would be most likely to solve Similarly, rather than focusing on an individual
the policy problem at hand. That does not involve policy, or even policy domain, the new design
looking into some crystal ball but rather the application literature attempts to expand the analysis and to link
of social science models and methods to predict the any newly designed policy with relevant policies in
consequences of an intervention. This prediction of its own and surrounding policy domains.
future consequences has obvious perils but is necessary The new policy design approach is very appealing
if governments are to make informed decisions. intellectually, but it also may be difficult to implement
But even the more academic approaches to public politically. Political leaders want, and need, answers
policy have begun to think seriously about policies for their problems. They expect their policy analysts
prospectively. I say “begun” but there has been to provide those answers and not to be spending their
some interest in policy design in this strand of time generating more choices rather than narrowing
policy research for some time.(29) The earlier design the choices. Further, those policymakers may want
literature, and indeed much of the contemporary very specific answers for very specific questions
discussion of policy design, has focused on how rather than more diffuse answers that cover the
best to link policy instruments with policy problems.(30) interactions of a range of policy areas. While the new
This literature has been somewhat technocratic, with policy design methodology may ultimately produce
an assumption – implicit or explicit even – that it better answers, it may not do so in the timely manner
may be possible to develop an algorithm that maps that the policymakers would desire.
instruments into problems and provides the designer Whether the approach to policy design is old or
a clear and effective solution for the problem. new, the need for policy scholars to think about the
Some of the newer design literature in public policy future is inherent in the craft. While it is important
has, however, moved away from the technocratic to understand the political dynamics involved in the
approach that uses engineering as an exemplar to creation of a policy, and to understand policy history,
think about policy design as analogous to the design policy analysis is about thinking about the future.
of a product. The exemplar here may come more Even if the policy scholar is attempting to understand
from the arts than from engineering. For example, the past, s/he should be thinking about what can
much conventional design has emphasized narrowing be learned to make future policies more effective,

29 Linder,S. H. And B. G. Peters (1984) From Social Theory to Policy Design, Journal of Public Policy 4, 237-59.
Bobrow, D. And J. S. Dryzek (1987) Policy Analysis by Design (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press).
30 Howlett, M. I. Mukherjee and J. J. Woo (2015) From Tools to Toolkits in Policy Design Studies: The New Policy Design Orientation Toward Policy
Formulation Research, Policy & Politics 43, 291-311.
31 Peters, B. G. (2018b) Policy Problems and Policy Design (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar).

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

or what can be done to make the policy process the practical aspects of public policy studies are, and
function more effectively. Again, the academic and should be, closely intertwined.

Policymaking Never Ends

Much of the literature, and the practice, of public policy aware that many policies are in essence experiments.(32)
appears to assume that each policy is being written In policy domains such as social policy, and even
on a tabula rasa. Although each policy is designed climate change, the knowledge of causation and of
to meet the particular needs of the time, and even if the complex interactions among variables is so weak
it is successful at that time may well require revision that decision-makers are essentially experimenting.
and reform. Most policymaking is remaking existing Their experiments are done in good faith, may be
policies, based on changing circumstances, changing based on some evidence, and it is hoped that they
political priorities, or new ideas. In some ways the will, but they remain experiments.
remaking of policies is easier than actually making a The continuous process of policymaking is a means
truly new policy. The issue has already been accepted of learning and refining policies. Following from the
on the policymaking agenda and there is some general (almost inherently) experimental nature of policies,
understanding of the issue. On the other hand, however, policymaking must be open to refining policies, and
there are interests – clients and government employees remaking policies, more often than might be hoped
– who may have a vested interest in the existing policy by policymakers and by citizens.(33) But having the
and may feel threatened by attempts at change. openness and the capacity to refine policies should
The experimental nature of public policy is central produce better outcomes for citizens. That said,
to the continuous nature of policymaking. Although politicians often can make more gains for their careers
politically it may be necessary to advocate policies as if by advocating new and (presumably) innovative
they were the definitive solution for the problem being policies, rather than engaging in the difficult work
addressed, the policymaker and the analyst would be of refining existing programs.(34)

Policy Studies is a Normative Enterprise

When going through the catalog of disciplines that analyst will be conscious of his or her own values and
are related to public policy studies I mentioned the use them to assess policy proposals.
importance of philosophy and ethics. It is crucial to Public policies always involve values. They involve
understand the normative nature of public policy advantaging some portions of the society and
studies, and the need to integrate moral reasoning imposing burdens on other members of society,
usually the taxpayer. Deciding on social policies
into any analysis of policies.(35) Alan Meltsner once
involves deciding how much government values
argued that policy analysts who did not have their the well-being of less affluent citizens relative to
own values and did not use them when working on the well-being of more affluent citizens who will be
policy issues were only “baby analysts”.(36) The adult paying taxes to support the programs (Hills, 2017).(37)

32 Campbell, D. T. (1991) Methods for the Experimenting Society, American Journal of Evaluation 12, 223-60.
van Egen. N., L. Tummers, B. Bekkers and B. Stein (2016) Bringing History In: Policy Accumulation and General Policy Alienation, Public Management
Review, 18, 1085-1106.
33 Carter, P. (2012) Policy as Palimpsest, Policy & Politics 40, 423-43.
34 The continuing attempts to “repeal and replace” the Affordable Care Act in the United States is a good example. For ideological as well as political reasons
members of Congress have invested thousands of hours attempting to repeal the Act rather than working to make it perform better.
35 Klimczuk, A. (2015) Public Policy Ethics, in D. Wright, ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Oxford: Elsevier).
36 Meltsner, A. (1976) Policy Analysis in the Bureaucracy (Berkeley: University of California Press).
37 Hills, J. (2017) Good Times, Bad Times: The Welfare Myth of Them and Us, rev. ed. (Bristol, Policy Press).

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

Deciding on defense policy involves values of different solutions for the problem being addressed.
security and safety, as well as fundamental issues of No analysis of the costs and benefits of the programs
war and peace. Normative concerns are much more is likely to be able to resolve those differences–they
difficult to quantify than are the economic values that are much more fundamental.(38)
tend to dominate the consideration of public policy, And perhaps the most important normative feature
but they are no less real. of policy studies is the commitment to solving public
Policymaking does involve values, and it almost problems. While policy studies can be an interesting
always involves favoring one set of values at the academic exercise, its ultimate goal is to improve the
expense of others. When any significant policy is lives of citizens, whether in one nation or more broadly
being considered the values of the actors involved across the world. The tools that have been developed
will almost inevitably clash. Consider, for example, for analysis can be used to assess the best ways to make
the array of think tanks that dot the landscape in those improvements, but regardless of the methods the
Washington and in other national capitals. Within purpose of public policy studies is elimination, or at
these organizations there are advocates of programs least amelioration, of problems facing societies. In this
within the same policy domain that have very different sense policy analysis is apolitical, although the final
values and based on those values also have very choice of the policy will be intensely political.

Summary and Conclusions

This paper illustrates an attempt to present some of The complexity and the internal tensions are to some
the central features of public policy studies, and to extent what give policy studies its strength and its
demonstrate how policy research is developing, and dynamism. The interplay between academics focused
should develop. This is true for the Arab world, and on theory and analysis and applied analysts focused on
indeed for any other setting. Policy research both questions of “what works?” can enhance both strands
borrows from other academic disciplines and adds of thinking. That said, getting the two communities to
its own unique features to produce a comprehensive come together and to collaborate may be easier said
approach to the problems facing society. Policy than done. Each will stereotype the other in rather
studies is also both retrospective, attempting to unfortunate terms and may contest the control of the
explain outcomes; and prospective, attempting to field. But the opportunity for cross-fertilization of
shape those outcomes. Policy studies is a complex academic and applied approaches to policy research
and multi-faceted field of inquiry that has some is there for the taking.
elements that may appear contradictory. For all its virtues, policy studies can never be
Scholars of public policy in Arab countries need to a panacea for all the problems confronted by
understand that policy studies are culture-bound. present-day societies. Policy analysts can advise
Therefore, they need to develop models for policy decision-makers about the benefits and costs of
analysis, both retrospective and prospective, based policy options, and perhaps also generate some
on analyzing the context in the region. Arab scholars of those options, but policy analysis cannot make
also need to understand the diversity of influences decision-makers select the best option. Any number
and richness provided by the variety of theoretical of other factors–ideology, partisan politics, personal
contributions to the fields of policy analysis and preferences–can and do intervene to produce less
policy studies, mainly political science, economics, desirable policy choices. As Aaron Wildavsky argued
ethics, public administration and policy, and statistics. some decades ago, the task of policy analysts, and
In this endeavor, there is a need to draw lines between the discipline of policy studies, is to “speak truth to
universal and culture-bound approaches to analysis. power”, but power will not necessarily pay attention.

38 Cost-benefit analysis itself, and indeed almost all economic analyses of policy, involve values in an implicit manner. These analyses are utilitarian and
assume that consequences–measured in financial terms–are more relevant than other types of values. See Sunstein (2013).

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Public Policy Studies: Academic Roots and Practical Significance Articles

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