Load Characteristics

and Load Modelling

Introduction
Electrical energy consumers and utilization organizations to estimate the total requirement of power demand and
like industries etc., require energy for different purposes energy, a few qualities and characteristics relating to the
and their requirements will be at different times. In order requirements are to be defined.

2.1 DEFINITIONS

Load Electrical power needed in kW or kVA

Demand The power requirement (in kVA or kW) at the load averaged over a specified interval (15
min or 30 min). Sometimes it is given in amperes at a specified voltage level.
Demand Intervals The time interval specified for demand (Dt), usually 15 min or 30 min. This is
obtained from daily demand curves or load duration curves.
Maximum Demand The maximum load (or the greatest if a unit or group of units) that occurred in
a period of time as specified. This can be daily, weekly, seasonal or on annual basis (for billing purpose
in India it is monthly and in kVA).
Demand Factor The ratio of maximum demand to the total load connected to the system
Connected Load The sum total of the continuous rating of all the apparatus, equipment, etc., Con-
nected to the system.
Utilization Factor The ratio of maximum demand to the rated capacity of the system.
Load Factor The ratio of average load in given interval of time to the peak during that interval.
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 9

Annual Load Factor The ratio of total energy supplied in an year to annual peek load multiplied
by 8760.
Diversity Factor (Df) The ratio of sum of the individual maximum demands of various sub-divisions
of the system to the maximum demand of the entire or complete system.
Coincident Maximum Demand (Dg) Any demand that occurs simultaneously with any other
demand and also the sum of any set of coincident demands.
Coincidence factor (Cf) This is usually referred to a group of consumers or loads. It is defined as
the ratio of coincident maximum demand Dg to sum total of maximum demands of individual or group
of loads.
Generally, it is taken as the reciprocal of the diversity factor.
Load Diversity The difference between the sum of peaks of two or more individual loads and the
peak of combined load.
Load diversity = Di – Dg (2.1)
Di = individual maximum demand
Dg = coincident maximum demand
Contribution Factor This is a factor that is usually referred in distribution systems regarding the
importance of weighted effect of a particular load.
If C1, C2 … Cn are the contribution factors of each of the n individual loads and D1, D2, D3 ............ Dn
are their maximum demands.
Dg = coincident maximum demand is taken as
n
Dg = C1D1 + C2D2 + .............CnDn = Â Ci Di .... (2.2)
i =1

 Ci Di
Hence cf = coincidence factor is = .... (2.3)
 Di
The contribution factor Ci = Cf when all the demands equally affect or influence the maximum
demand.
Loss Factors This is the ratio of average power loss in the system to power loss during peak load
period and referred to the variable power losses, i.e., copper losses or power loss in conductors or wind-
ings but not to no load losses in transformers, etc.

2.2 LOADS AND LOAD CHARACTERISTICS

A load or power requirement (also kVA) of a consumer varies widely. But in general the consumers can
be grouped into a few categories as their needs and demands are the same.
A broad classification of loads are
(i) Domestic and residential loads
(ii) Only lighting loads (such as for street lights etc.)
10 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

(iii) Commercial loads (shops, business establishments, hospitals)

(iv) Industrial loads
(v) Agricultural loads and other rural loads
All these loads will have peak demands at different times and for different durations. Industrial
and commercial loads may have two peak load periods. Agricultural loads are seasonal and vary very
differently.
Lighting loads such as street lighting etc. may have almost zero demand during day time and constant
load during 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. and a slightly higher demand between 6p.m. to 10 p.m.
Another classification of electrical loads is the billing categories used by the electrical distribution
authorities or State electricity boards. This includes categories such as residential and domestic,
industrial, commercial, rural, HT consumers and others. A better approach to the classification of loads
is to divide them into individual load components. The components of a particular load are individually
defined and modeled. All the components put together form the composite load and can be defined as a
‘LOAD WINDOW’ as per IEEE definition. See Section 2.6.
System Power Factor In ac systems, kVA demand is more appropriate than kW and load power
factor is of importance. Typical p.f of residential, commercial and Industrial loads are as follows.
Fluorescent lamps : 0.6
Arc lamps and neon signs : 0.4 to 0.7
Fans and small motors : 0.5 to 0.8
Electronic gadgets : 0.6 to 0.8
Domestic appliance (like washing-
machines, vacuum cleaners etc.) : 0.6 to 0.7
F.H.p. motors (1 kW or less) : 0.4 to 0.75
Water pumps (Large size ≥ 5 h.p) : 0.65 to 0.8
Chemical industries : 0.70 to 0.85

2.2.1 Domestic and Residential Loads

The important part in the distribution system is domestic and residential loads as they are highly
variable and erotic. These consist of lighting loads, domestic appliances such as water heaters, washing
machines, grinders and mixes, TV and electronic gadgets etc. The duration of these loads will be few
minutes to few hours in a day. The power factor of these loads in less and may vary between 0.5 to
0.7. In residential flats and bigger buildings, the diversity between each residence will be less typically
between 1.1 to 1.15. The load factor for domestic loads will be usually 0.5 to 0.6.

2.2.2 Industrial Loads

Industrial loads are of greater importance in distribution systems with demand factor 0.7 to 0.8 and load
factor 0.6 to 0.7. For heavy industries demand factor may be 0.9 and load factor 0.7 to 0.8
Typical power range for various loads
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 11

Cottage and small-scale industries: 3 to 20 kW.

Medium industries (like rice mills, oil mills, workshops, etc.) : 25 to 100 kW
Large industries connected to distribution feeders (33 kV and below): 100 to 500 kW.

2.2.3 Water supply and Agricultural Loads

Most of the panchayats, small and medium municipalities have protected water system which use
pumping stations. They normally operate in off peak time and use water pumps ranging from 10 h.p to
50 h.p or more, depending on the population and area.

2.2.4 Agricultural and Irrigation Loads

Most of the rural irrigation in India depends on ground water pumping or lifting water from tanks or
nearby canals. In most cases design and pump selection is very poor with efficiencies of the order of
25%. Single phase motors are used (up to 10 h.p.) for ground water level 15 m in depth or less with
discharge of about 20 l/sec while multi stage submersible pumps with discharge of 800 to 1000 l/m may
require motors of 15 to 20 h.p.

2.2.5 Sensitive and Important Loads

With computer applications in every area, computer loads and computer controlled process loads are
often non-linear and sensitive. They require close tolerance limits for voltage and frequency (voltage
limit ± 5% and frequency ± 0.5 Hz with unbalance and wave form distortion less than 3%. This requires
special attention while providing the distribution of electric power.

2.3 LOAD CURVES AND LOAD-DURATION CURVES

The consumption of electrical power or energy by any utility varies from time to time in a day as well
as during a week, month, season or year. For example in summer fans, AC units, coolers etc. are used
but not during winter or cold season. Industries working during day time will consume only lighting
load during night (10 pm to 6 am). Hence knowledge of variation of loads and their nature is essential
for distribution planning. The load characteristics are usually presented as load curves and load duration
curves.

2.3.1 Load Curves and Load-Duration Curves

(a) Load Curves The load (power requirement) of any concern or unit is tabulated as the amount
of power required or consumed during a certain period in a day, week or a given season. Typical load
data for suburban area is given in table 2.1. The same data is also presented as a graph between duration
(time) and the demand or load during that period (Fig. 2.1)
(b) Load-Duration Curves This is a graph obtained from load curve showing the load in (kw) and
duration over which it occurs in descending order of load magnitudes.
12 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Table 2.1a: Load data on a typical feeder

Duration type 0 TO 6 7 AM 8 AM 9 AM 10 TO 1 2 TO 5 6 PM 7 TO 9 10 PM 11 PM 0 HRS

of load (kW) AM PM PM PM

Lighting 100 - - - - - 50 100 100 100 100

Domestic 200 300 400 400 500 500 600 1000 800 600 200
Commercial 250 300 500 700 1000 1200 800 400 250 250 250

Table 2.1b Load duration computation for data of Table 2.1a

TYPE OF LOAD MAGNITUDE DURATION

Lighting 100 11
50 1
0 12
Domestic 1000 3
800 4
600 8
500 16
400 18
300 19
200 24
Commercial 1200 2
800 3
600 5
500 12
400 14
300 15
200 24

Explanation for Table 2.1b: Procedure for obtaining load-duration data from load (demand)
data
(i) Lighting load of 100 kW exist for 7 p.m. to 00 hrs to 6 a.m., i.e., for 11 hours (6 p.m. to 7 p.m.,
hence total duration of 50 kW is 11 + 1 = 12 hrs. ‘0’ load exists for rest of the time, i.e., 12 hrs.
(ii) Domestic load A load of 1000 kW exists from 7 p.m. to 9 p.m. and up to 10 p.m. Hence, total
load of 1000 kW exists from 7 p.m. to 10 p.m. and total duration is 3 hours.
Load of 800 kW exists for 1 hr, i.e, 10 p.m to 11 p.m and total duration is 3 + 1 = 4 hours.
Load of 600 kW exists from 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. and 11 p.m. to 00 hours, i.e., 3 + 1 = 4 hours. Hence, total
duration for 600 kW = 4 + 4 = 8 hours.
A load of 500 kW exists from 10 to 1 p.m. to 6 p.m. hence duration is 8 hours. Total duration for 500 kW
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 13

load is 8 + 8 = 16 hours.

Fig. 2.1 Load and load duration curves for data given in Table 2.1

A 400-kW load exists from 8 a.m. to 10 a.m., i.e., 2 hrs total duration for the 400-kW load is 16 + 2
= 18 hours.
A 300-kW load exists from 7 a.m. to 8 a.m., i.e., 1 hour. Hence, total duration is 18 + 1 = 19 hours.
A 200-kW load exists for the rest of the time, i.e., 24 hours.
In a similar manner, duration for commercial load is computed.
The load curves of different loads on a week day for loads mentioned in Section 2.2 are given in
Fig. 2.2. It may be observed that they are two load peaks (the maximum load that occurs during that
14 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

day) for industrial and commercial loads. The load curves are given taking maximum or peak load as
100 % and the loads as percentage of the peak load.
4,000 System
load peak

Industrial Residential
3,000 load peak load peak
load kw

2,000

1,000

0
12A.M 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
noon
time in h
Fig. 2.2 Typical load curve for two different loads

Fig. 2.3 Typical load curve for different loads mentioned in Section 2.2
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 15

2.3.2 Load-Duration Curves

Typical load (or demand) curves for different kinds of load mentioned in section 2.3 are shown in
Fig. 2.3
Typical daily demand curve and load-duration curve shown in Fig. 2.4 (a) are (b) on unit basis.
Peak load is taken as 1.0 unit.

(a) Daily demand curve (load curve)

(b) Load duration curve for daily demand shown in Fig.2.4 (a)

Fig. 2.4 Typical daily demand (load) curve and corresponding load duration curve

The load data on a 11-kV feeder during a day is given in Table 2.2 and the load-duration table
corresponding to the load data given in Table 2.2, is given in Table 2.3.The load curve and load duration
curves for the above data are depicted in Fig 2.5 Using the data given in tables 2.2 and 2.3 different
factors mentioned earlier are computed in example 2.1 to 2.6
16 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Table 2.2 Load data on a typical feeder

TIME HOUR/ STREET LIGHT RESIDENTIAL COMMERTIAL INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURAL

LOAD KW.

0.00 – 6.00 AM 80 200 320 100 600

6.00 – 8.00 AM - 700 400 100 400
8.00 – 9.00 AM - 800 400 300 -
9.00 – 10.00 AM - 600 400 400 -
10.00 – 5.00 PM - 500 700 400 -
5.00 – 6.00 PM - 600 900 400 -
6.00 – 7.00 PM 80 800 1200 320 -
7.00 – 8.00 PM 80 1000 1200 320 -
8.00 – 9.00 PM 80 1000 1200 220 -
9.00 – 10.00 PM 80 800 1050 170 -
10.00 – 12.00 PM 80 500 320 100 400
(The data refers to a typical 11 kV line)
Power cut imposed from 8 a.m. to 10 p.m. on agricultural loads. Load (kW) is rounded of to the
nearest 10s of kW.

Fig. 2.5 Load curves and load duration curves for data given in table 2.3
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 17

Table 2.3 Load duration table for different loads of Table 2.2

TYPES OF LOAD MAGNITUDE (KW) DURATION (HOURS)

Street light 80 12
0 12
Residential 1000 2
800 4
700 6
600 8
500 17
200 24
Commercial 1200 3
1050 4
900 5
700 12
600 13
400 16
320 24
Industrial 400 9
320 11
300 12
220 13
170 14
100 24
Agricultural 600 6
400 10

0 24

Example 2.1 What are the peak (maximum) demands of individual load, system maximum de-
mand and contribution factors? Given that system peak is 1700 kW between 2 p.m. to 5 p.m.
18 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Solution MD of lighting load: 80kW (7pm to 6am)

MD of domestic load: 1000 kW (7pm to 9pm)
MD of commercial load: 1200 kW (2 pm to 5 pm)
System maximum demand: 1700 kW (2 to5 pm)

Example 2.2 what is the contribution factor for each of the loads? System peak occurs at 2 pm
to 5 pm.

0
Solution Lighting load Ci = =0
80
1200
Commercial load Ci = = 1.0
1200
500
Residential load Ci = = 0.5
1000

Example 2.3 What is the diversity factor and coincidence factor for the above loads?

100 + 1200 + 1000 2300

Diversity factor = Â i =
D
Solution = = 1.352
 i i
C D 1700 1700

100 + 1000 + 1200

Diversified MD = = 1700
1.352

( CiDi = 0 × 100 + 1.0 × 1200 + 0.5 ×1000 = 1700). This is same as system peak in
this case)
1
Coincidence factor C f = = 0.74
1.352

Example 2.4 For the feeder given in Table 2.3 at a peak load of 1500 kW, the power loss recorded
is 75 kW. If the annual loss factor is 0.2, what is (a) annual average power loss, and (b) total en-
ergy loss per year. ?

Solution Annual power loss = peak load power loss × loss factor
= 75 × 0.2 = 15 kW
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 19

energy loss per year = 15 × 8760 = 1,31,400 units

(Note: one year = 365 × 24 = 8760 hours)

Example 2.5 In the above example (Example 2.4).the system peak load is 3 MVA and power
loss in 2% of peak load. What is the total loss and annual energy loss?

2
Solution Power loss in feeder = ¥ 3000 = 60 kW
100

energy loss per year = 60 × 8760 = 5,25,600 units

Example 2.6 The load curves of two different categories of loads and system peak load are as
follows. Determine the diversity factor and coincidence factor for the system.

Peak load for industrial load 2000 kW

Peak load for Residential load =2000 kW
System peak load Dg = kW

 Di 2000 + 2000 4
Solution Diversity factor D f = = = = 1.333
Dg 3000 3

Load diversity ∑Di – Dg = 4000 – 3000 = 1000 kW

1 1 3
Coincidence factor = D = 1.333 = 4 = 0.75
f

2.4 RELATION BETWEEN LOAD AND LOSS FACTOR:

A SIMPLIFIED APPROACH
In general, load changes occur continuously for any type of load and the load pattern on any feeder
or distributor can be idealized and simplified approach for load on a feeder can be taken as shown in
Fig. 2.6.
20 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Fig. 2.6 Idealised load pa$ern

Let a peak load Pm exist for duration of ‘t’ and p2 be the off peak load during any interval ‘T ’
considered. Let Pa be the average load during the period ‘T ’.
Pm ¥ t + P2 (T - t )
Pa =
T …. (2.4)
P P
But load factor = aV = a
Ppeak Pm
For the duration ‘T ’considered

Pm ¥ t + P2 (T - t )
Load factor =
Pm ¥ T
t P (T - t )
= + 2
T Pm T …. (2.5)
( Power loss (avg ) in given time period )
and loss factor =
powoer loss (max. loss ) ¥ the total duration
This can be extended to the whole duration of 24 hours by considering P1, P2 …. Pk as the loads
occurring over a duration of t1,t2……..tk with Pm as the peak load. If PLS is average power loss and PLm
power loss corresponding to peak load Pm.
PLS PLS .t + Pm (T - t )
Loss factor = = …(2.6)
Plm Plm ¥ T
Since losses are proportional to I 2 × P 2
(∵ voltage is constant)
2
t Ê Pavg ˆ Ê T - t ˆ
Loss factor = + Á … (2.7)
T Ë Pm ˜¯ ÁË T ˜¯
(a) This is = t / T if off peak load i.e P2 × 0,(same as load factor)
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 21

Ê PaVg ˆ
(b) For short time peak t << T loss factor ª Á ˜ = (load factor ) 2 (2.8)
Ë Pm ¯
(c) In general for variable industrial loads loss factor, is taken as

= 0.3(load factor) + 0.7 (load factor)2 ... (2.9)

Example 2.7 Find the annual load factor and average demand, given that peak load is 3.5 MW
and energy supplied is 10 million units (107 kwh). Peak demand was recorded during April – June.

107 kWh
Solution Average demand = = 1141 kW
8760

Peak load = 3500 kW

1141
Annual load factor = = 0.326
3500

Example 2.8 A feeder supplies 2 MW to an area. The total losses at peak load are 100 kW and
units supplied to that area during an year are 5.61 million. Calculate the loss factor.

5.61 ¥ 106
Solution Load factor = = 0.32 (unit supplied/ peak load × 8760)
200 ¥ 8760
Loss factor = 0.3 (load factor) + 0.7 (load factor)2

= 0.3 × 0.32 + 0.7 × (0.32)2 = 0.168

Average power loss = 0.168 × (100 kW) = 16.8 kW

The above examples illustrate how the average power loss and loss factor can be estimated from the
peak load occurring and units supplied. The estimates give gross idea regarding power losses and hence
the revenue lost in a distribution system. The loss factor should be as low as possible so that the energy
efficiency will be high. In general, loss factor will be such that

(load factor)2 < (loss factor) < (load factor)

22 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Figure 2.7 shows how loss factor varies with load factor with different functional relations
assumed.

Fig. 2.7 Variation of loss factor with load factor

2.5 LOAD GROWTH AND DIVERSIFIED DEMANDS

As the residential or commercial areas grow with increased population and new areas area added, it
will be necessary to account for the new loads added and also to take in to account diversity between
similar loads and non coincidence between peaks of different types of loads added. This will optimize
the additional capacity to be added. For the purpose variation in the peaks of different kinds of loads
is taken. To illustrate this, an example of urban domestic and residential loads are considered. Actual
connected loads are
(i) Lighting and fans
(ii) Refrigerator
(iii) Home Ac/Home heating
(iv) Domestic appliances such as mixes, wet grinders, etc.
(v) TVs, music systems, and other Electronic gadgets
(vi) Other appliances such as washing machines, electric, driers, etc.
A study reveals that the time of variation of load factor for these loads during a day is as follows.
Table 2.4 Load factor for domestic loads

DURATION LIGHTING & FANS REFRIGERATORS HOME AC & HEATERS DOMESTIC APLIANCES ELECTRONIC GADGETS
L.F RADIO, TV ETC.
0 – 6 AM 0.1 to 0.2 0.75 to 0.85 0.3 to 0.4 0.1 0.3
6 – 8 AM 0.35 to 0.4 0.85 0.35 to 0.45 0.5 to 0.6 0.6 to 0.8
9 – 12 Noon 0.3 0.85 to 0.9 0.6 to 0.8 0.6 to 0.8 0.7 to 0.9
12 – 4 PM 0.25 to 0.3 0.9 0.8 to 0.95 0.3 to 0.5 0.6 to 0.8
4 – 6 PM 0.7 to 0.9 0.9 0.9 to 1.0 0.6 to 0.7 0.5 to 0.6
6 – 8 PM 1.0 1.0 0.8 to 0.9 1.0 0.5 to 0.6
8 – 10 PM 0.85 to 0.95 1.0 0.6 to 0.8 0.85 to 0.9 0.7 to 0.9
10 – 12 PM 0.4 to 0.7 0.95 to 0.95 0.4 to 0.6 0.4 to 0.5 0.9
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 23

From Table 2.4, it can be inferred that there is a lot of variation for certain types of loads such a
lighting and fans, domestic appliances, home ac & heating etc. In order to have an optimum supply
system, a diversified maximum demand depending on the customers and their connected loads have to
be taken.

The steps suggested are the following:

(i) Determine the total number of appliances by multiplying the total member of customers per
unit saturation i.e., the customers that use that particular load or appliance at the same time
(ii) Determine the diversified demand per customer from the house variation factors (load factors)
from the available data like Table 2.4.
(iii) Determine the maximum demand using steps (ii) and (i).
(iv) Determine the contribution factor for each type of load.

The procedure is illustrated with the following example.

Example 2.9 Let there be 500 residential flats connected to a feeder line, with 10 flats connected
to distribution transformer (11 kV/415 V 3Ph).Load survey indicated that the maximum diversified
demand per customer is as follows.

LOAD (KW) APPLIANCE COINCIDE FACTOR

1.5 kW/flat For washing machine and drier 0.8
0.2 kW/flat Refrigerator 0.65
0.9 kW/flat Lighting and fans 0.9
0.5 kW/flat Electronic gadgets 0.7
0.6 kW/flat Other appliances & loads 0.5

Applying the load factor and diversity between maximum demands among the loads, the average
diversified maximum demands for the above load are

= 1.5 × 08 + 02 × 0.65 + 0.9 ×+ 0.5 × 0.7 + 0.6 × 0.5

1.2 + 0.13 + 0.81 + 0.35 + 0.30 = 2.79

For the 500 flats, the power requirement is 2.79 × 500 = 1395 kW
Since 10 flats are connected to each transformer
1395
Transformer rating = ª 28 kVA will be required
50
24 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Usually 25 kVA transformer with 10% overload capacity will be sufficient.

Total number of transformers required = 500/10 = 50.
Total kVA rating is 50 × 25 = 1250 kVA
NOTE: If all the maximum demands are numerically added the power requirement would have been
(1.5 + 0.2 + 0.9 + 0.5 + 0.6) × 500 = 1850kW, 35% more than the pervious value.

2.6 LOAD MODELING

It has been mentioned in Section 2.2 that a common classification for the loads of different types will be
useful for load modelling. The load components of different loads as a whole constitute a total composite
load and is usually modelled taking into the following factors. The model takes into consideration the
type of application, viz, static application which incorporate any voltage dependent nature of the loads.
They include the following:
(a) (i) Power flow—Distribution system power flow and transmission power flow studies
(ii) Voltage stability studies
(b) Dynamic application, i.e,
(i) Transient stability
(ii) Dynamic stability and the other type of analysis basis on both voltage and frequency depen-
dent loads
The other type analysis based on both voltage and frequency dependant the load.
The static load modelling usually takes the substation load into sub components as percentage of
total demand and duration. This is schematically shown as a “Load window” given in Fig. 2.8. The load
window shown here is for typical residential and commercial loads in residential localities.

Fig. 2.8 Typical load window for distribution system load

Construction of load window is based on the load data available like (i) maximum demand of a
certain component of load (example: air conditioners) (ii) the duration over which it is spread (iii) its
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 25

diversity (iv) its component part in the total load as a percentage (v) its operation like full load, part
load, and p.f at which it operates. To this, frequency dependent nature of the load can be added. In such
cases the load ‘S’ is split into two components ‘P’(active power ) and ‘Q’ reactive power and the load
is considered as
as P = P(V ) + [1+ Dpf ] … 2.10
Q = Q(V )[1 + DQ f ] …2.11
where P(V ) and Q (V ) depend on the voltage of the distribution system, f is the frequency change
that occurs and DP and DQ, the factors that correct the loads for frequency deviation. Correction factors
for certain loads like heaters, air conditioners etc, for ambient temperature change is also needed. This
is necessary only where “Transient or Dynamic” load modelling is needed. Typical variation * of real
power (P) and reactive power Q of a room air conditioner rated for 230 V is given P = 1.0 + 0.494V +
2.021(V)2 and Q = 0.497 + 2.445V + 8.604(V)2 where V is per unit derivation of voltage. Typical
composition of load window for there different categories of loads is illustrated in table 2.5
*(see Ref. 18. for further information)

Table 2.5 Composition of load window (Lw). For three different types of loads

TYPES OF LOAD LW 1 (%) LW 2 (%) LW 3 (%)

3ph central ac systems 25 10 40
Window type ac 05 20 -
Refrigerators 05 10 5
Incandescent lamps 10 10 -
Tube lights and other vapour lamps 20 35 30
Heaters, etc. 15 10 -
Others (including electronic gadgets) 20 05 5
Motor loads (pumps, industrials motors) - - 20

It may be noted that for static load modeling in distribution system, all loads are voltage dependent.
For example, if a water heater is rated for 2kW at 230 V, it will draw a power of 1.7 kW at 210 V and
2.12 kW at 240. Also the heater is a nonlinear resistor and the power drawn depends on the effective
resistance and heat dissipation. As such the representation of different loads for load modeling is quite
difficult.

Example 2.10 In a load model study it is required to estimate the change in load of typical
industrial motors with variation of voltage and frequency. Taking the total nominal rating of the
motors as 415 V, 50 Hz, 3Ph, 100 kW at p.f = 0.85, estimate the new rating at
(i) V = 440V, f = 50.5 Hz
(ii) V = 380 V, f = 49.0 Hz. Use the power law as
P = 1.0 + 0.15 ∆V + 2(∆V)2, DP = 1.6
Q = 0.657 + 2.35 ∆V + 68.6 (∆V)2, DQ = –0.65
26 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

Solution P = P(V )(1 + D1’ f )

Q = Q(V )(1 + DQ f )

25 0.5
(i) DV = = 0.0568; D f = = 0.01
440 50
-20 -1
(ii) DV = = - 0.04545; D f = = - 0.02
440 50
100
Q at rated voltage and frequency = ¥ 0.5268 ª 62 RkVA (sin f = 0.5268)
0.85

(i) New P = 100 {1+ 0.15 × 0.0568 + 2 × (.0568)2}{1 + 1.6 × 0.01}

= 103.12 kW

New Q = 62 {0.657 + 2.35 × 0.0568 + 6.6 × (0.0568)2 } × {1 – 0.65 × 0.01}

= 49.93

New KVA = 114.97, p.f = 0.900

(ii) New P = 100 {1 – 0.15 × 0.04545 + 2 × (0.4545)2}×{1 – 1.6 × 0.02}

= 96.53

New Q = 62{0.657 – 2.35 × 0.04545 + 6.6 × (0.04545)} × [1 × 0.65 × 00.1]

= 35.18
New kVA = 102.74, p.f = 0.940

2.6.1 Load Models for 3-Phase,3-wire and 4-wire systems

The loads that occur in distribution network are generally

(a) three-phase balanced loads connected between the three line,
(b) single-phase loads connected between the phase wires and neutral; They form the unbalanced
loads,
(c) Single-phase loads connected between any two lines, which is generally rare, and
(d) other loads such as combination loads, 2-phase loads, etc.
The modelling that is usually done is to take them as
(i) Constant current loads
(ii) Constant impedance loads
(iii) Constant power (kVA) load—in this modelling both real power and reactive power is taken
as constant
 Load Characteristics and Load Modelling 27

(iv) Any combination of the above—usually in load-flow analysis, constant power per phase and
either phase to neutral or line-to-line voltage is defined and used for computation.

2.7 LOAD GROWTH AND FORECASTING

Population growth and energy requirement do not grow linearly but follow non linear power law or
exponential growth. The usual function that fits is
y = ka x, where y is the new value after a growth period ‘x’, k is the initial value of y i.e, when x = 0
and ‘a’ the rate at which y increases logarithemically.
Power growth, i.e., increase in load demand after a period x with and annual growth rate of ‘g’ is
usually expressed as

Pn = P0(1 + g)n ....(2.12)

P0 = initial power demand
g = growth rate
n = period

This is also known as compound interest law (here 1 + g = a of the previous equation, y = kax)
Future demands are normally estimated knowing the growth rate factor ‘g’.

Example 2.11 A rural area has a power demand of 500 kW and it was found that the growth
rate is 6%. What will be the demand after 5 years.

Solution Here Po = 500 kW, g = 0.06 and n = 5 years

 P after 5 years = 500 (1 + 0.06)5 = 669kW

2.7.1 Load Forecasting

Based on certain conditions and trends existing and assuming that they continue, load forecasting is a
method by which future increase in loads are predicted. There is a great need for accurate forecasting of
loads over a given period to meet with the power and energy requirements of the future and money to be
spent. In our country there is a lot of pressure due to limited financial and energy resources and hence
electrical load fore-casting is vital.
The models adopted for load fore casting are statistical models based on Markov process, Time
Series analysis and Sampling techniques. The method used is regression analysis.
28 Electrical Power Distribution Systems

2.7.2 Regression Analysis

The mathematical modelling is done by taking the previous growth over a period and the future trend is
extra polated. This is done by either fitting a linear or non linear curve for the growth to get least overall
error or fitting a sequence of discontinuous non linear curves from the pervious data extra polating
the results. The factors that are taken into account are (i) basic trends,(ii) seasonal variations, and (iii)
random and cyclic variations depending on weather conditions.
The trends are fitted into either
(i) Linear increase as P = a + bt
(ii) Exponential or compound interest law

Pn = Po(1 + g)n or

(iii) other power laws like

(a) P = Axb (exponential growth)
(b) P = A + Bx + Cx2 (quadratic law)
may also be used.
These trends and estimates are checked with typical correlations from available records and actual
values.
To conclude, load forecasting and energy forecasting for future years is difficult but necessary process
in order to plan for future power and energy requirements.

Summary
In this chapter different types of electric loads, their clari#ication and characteristics are discussed. Models
adopted for load analysis, load growth and forecasting are presented.