A Stylistic Approach to Species Counterpoint

Donald Loach

Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 1, No. 2. (Nov., 1957), pp. 181-200.

Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2909%28195711%291%3A2%3C181%3AASATSC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F

Journal of Music Theory is currently published by Yale University Department of Music.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/about/terms.html. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained
prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in
the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/journals/yudm.html.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

JSTOR is an independent not-for-profit organization dedicated to and preserving a digital archive of scholarly journals. For
more information regarding JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

http://www.jstor.org
Tue Jun 19 14:29:52 2007
 A STYLISTIC APPROACH TO

SPECIES COUNTERPOINT

Donald Loach

Yale University

Contrapuntal writing with respect t o the polyphonic practice of

the 16th century h a s received considerable attention over the last four
decades. The investigations of P r o f e s s o r s R. 0. Morris, Knud Jep-
pesen, Arthur Tillman M e r r i t t and Gustave Soderland, t o mention a
few, and the teaching methods which they have provided a r e known t o
every instructor of iodalcounterpoint. The species method established
by Johann Joseph Fux in his famous Gradus ad P a r n a s s u m (1725), hav-
ing enjoyed a long and brilliant c a r e e r despite the loftyposition harmo-
ny attained in Kompositionslehren, h a s gradually suffered a decline.
F u x recognized P a l e s t r i n a l s stature. T o b e a contrapuntalist like
~alestrinw a as the goal t o be attained. It h a s been found, however, that
Fux did not explain, (nor perhaps did he e v e r intend to!), the Palestrina
style a s such. Yet it cannot be denied that many of his students in two
hundred y e a r s have been, like Palestrina, fine m a k e r s of counterpoint.
Now, instructors searching f o r a m o r e general approach t o contrapuntal
writing have turned t o Hindemithf s E x e r c i s e s i n Two-Part Writing,
while those whose specific d e s i r e it h a s been t o explain the style of the
"Golden ~ g e "have turned to the style itself.

With the upsurge of interest in counterpoint a s a method

of composition in the 20th century, t h e r e have been at-
tempts t o go back beyond both the Bach type of harmonic
counterpoint and the species and t o b a s e the study on the
r e s u l t s of careful analysis of music of the great poly-
phonic e r a of the late 16th century, o r in s o m e c a s e s
even e a r l i e r . 1

Those who have based t h e i r teaching of modal counterpoint on the

r e s u l t s of careful stylistic analysis of late Renaissance music warn
against beginning with chords. Attention, they advise, should be focused
on the linear element - melody - f o r chords r e s u l t only from the happy
coincidence of melodies sounding simultaneously. Freedom from the
controls which harmony h a s imposed upon melody in m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s
is n e c e s s a r y if this melodic style is t o b e understood and simulated.
Yet the informationprovided t o insure a melodic approach is frequently
vague or, perhaps necessarily, incomplete. F o r the nature of melody
in any style i s problematical. The r a r e commingling of intellectual,
cultural and psychoiogical f a c t o r s which contribute t o the composer's
intuitive genius for producing melody i s little understood. Melody's
alliance with that relatively unknown quantity, rhythm, i n c r e a s e s the
mystery. p e r h a p s it is due t o an inadequate symbolic vocabulary which

1. Merritt, Arthur Tillman, "counterpoint, I' Harvard Dictionary

of Music, p. 192.
keeps t h e o r i s t s from a r e a l t h e o r y of melody; perhaps it is only now, in
o u r s and subsequent times, that a theory of rhythm which can explain
the nature of form and, thence, melody, will begin t o b e written.

Our understanding of renaissance melodic style r e m a i n s empiri-

cal; we must r e l y on description and experience gained from perform-
ance. P r i m a r y sources, by and large, a r e disappointing, although their
ultimate value is extreme. T r e a t i s e s on melody exist, but they a r e
p r i m a r i l y devoted t o the a r t of singing. These manuals a r e concerned
foremost with the singers' precious domain, improvisation - the a r t
of "enlivening the counterpoint. " T h e i r clues regarding the disposition
of florid figures are, of course, invaluable. As f o r the t r e a t i s e s on
counterpoint, they, like their modern counterparts, deal almost exclu-
sively with harmonic practice, problems of mode, cadence patterns and
the like, and r e s t r i c t discussion of melodic s t r u c t u r e t o details of
voice-leading and vague suggestions about, literally, the r i s e and fall
of the line. The student in the 16th century, having melody everywhere
about him, undoubtedly encountered fewer ambiguities during his in-
struction than we, s o f a r removed, do tpday. Our observations a r e at
b e s t speculative. Yet it r e m a i n s that if this style is truly primarily
melodic, s o through melody it must be approached. Any other approach
is, at best, made through the back door. A realization of the su-
p r e m a c y of melody and the underlying rhythmic flow which is responsi-
b l e f o r i t s g r a c e and subtle, tantalizing undulation is imperative.

The r e m a r k s on melody which follow a r e directed t o t h i s end.

The e x e r c i s e s which culminate this discussion a r e designed t o help the
student r e t a i n a full awareness of the freely flowing rhythmic independ-
ence of melody while the problems of harmony a r e being solved.
Through writing and accurate performing of such exercises, and
through further creative efforts, the student may consciously, not ac-
cidentally, embrace the style and come t o know the meaning of counter-
point.

Rhythmic Aspects of the Melodic Style

Sixteenth-century music is a s outstanding on account

of the elasticity and diversity of i t s rhythms a s it is on
account of i t s singable intervals. The e a s e and grace
with which it moves rhythmically a r e astonishing t o one
who knows only eighteenth-and nineteenth-century music
...This freedom.. . l i e s not only in the rhythm of the en-
semble but a l s o in the rhythmic diversity that the vari-
ous individual voices have in contrast with each other. 2

What i s meant by rhythmic diversity o r freely flowing melodic

rhythm? Of the many factors which contribute t o melodic flow, the
f o r c e s of rhythm a r e probably paramount. The exact nature of such

2. Merritt, Arthur Tillman, Sixteenth-Century Polyphony: A

b a s i s for the study of counterpoint, p. 35.
forces remains, a s was suggested previously, unclear. It i s recog-
nized, however, that movement through time is achieved in large part
by the succession of simple rhythmic units which may be likened t o
units of energy. The construction of a simple rhythmic unit may be
one of only two possibilities, either binary o r ternary, i. e., the unit
may be composed of two o r three pulses. Furthermore, only one pulse
in a rhythmic unit may be considered dominant or, if you will, accented.

A large portion of late renaissance music is notated under those

conditions imposed by the symbol $, tempus imperfectum diminutum
cum prolatione minore, and under this sign the basic pulse, in most
cases. i s the minim represented in all but one c a s e here as a half-
note. The simple rhythmic unit in this style is the organization of
two o r three of these basic pulses. Without recourse t o prosodic analo-
gies it may be seen that the curious flow of renaissance melody is due
primarily t o the peculiar disposition of rhythmic units. Unobliged t o
establish a pattern of sameness, o r ally itself with meter, binary and
ternary units may succeed each other in any order t o produce the f r e e
rhythmic quality of this style.

It is necessary to bear in mind, when speaking of the accented

pulse of the rhythmic unit, that accent here c a r r i e s with it no implica-
tion of dynamic s t r e s s . There is no evidence in the music o r docu-
ments of the time to indicate that the dynamic accent was part of the
composers1 o r performers1 vocabulary. How, then, is the rhythmic
order clarified? What a r e the aural qualities which give melody i t s
rhythmic flow?

The accented pulse of a binary o r ternary rhythmic unit is most

often clarified by some kind of non-dynamic stress, audible o r im-
agined. A s t r e s s may be achieved by one particular means, o r by the
interaction of several.

Perhaps the most frequently cited method for achieving s t r e s s is

the so-called agogic accent.

So strongly, indeed, is the force of the "agogic"

accent felt that it may almost be said t o c a r r y its own
s t r e s s with it, making the listener imagine it has been
s o reinforced by s t r e s s , when a s a matter of fact it has
not been s o reinforced [i. e., dynamically] .. .a note
which is either preceeded o r followed (and still more

3. In conformity with 16th-century practice, this basic pulse will

proceed at a tempo of 120-144 M.M. per minute. Gafurius, in his
Practica musicae (1496) states that the length of the semibreve may be
equated with the normal human pulse-beat. There is some evidence
which suggests that, a s one progresses further into the 16th century,
the duration of the semibreve increases.
4. The term agogic o r agogik i s of recent origin havingappeared
for the first time in H. Riemannls Musikalische Dynamik und Agogik
(1887).
 strongly, one that is both preceeded and followed) by

notes of s m a l l e r value than itself tends t o have the force

of an accent . 5

This accent, achieved by length o r duration, is unmistakable. The

t e m p o r a r y cessation of movement provides a s t r e s s which is usually
s t r o n g enough t o clarify the rhythm (Example 1). It is convenient t o

Example l6

I--

r e f e r t o the accented pulse a s the f i r s t pulse in the rhythmic unit and

t o bracket the t e r n a r y units, thereby aiding the inexperienced per-
f o r m e r o r student in the recognition of the rhythmic units. This is not
designed t o contradict the various rhythmic patterns of prosody, but
only t o clarify the position of s t r e s s e d pulses.

The establishment of rhythmic flow frequently r e s u l t s from the

placement of accented syllables of the text. In the motets and madri-
g a l s of the late 16th century the rhythm of melody and text a r e closely
allied. The combined operation of s t r e s s e d text syllables and agogic
accents clarifies the f r e e rhythmic flow even m o r e exactly. The cantus
of Thomas M o r l e y t s Canzonet f o r t h r e e voices, " w h e r e Art Thou
Wanton," s e r v e s to demonstrate this (Example 2). A mixture of binary
and t e r n a r y rhythmic units is realized through the grouping of s t r e s s e d
and non-stressed pulses. S t r e s s is provided by the notes of longer
duration, i. e., semibreves and dotted minims, and by the rhythm of
the text.8 Quite rightly no rhythmic pattern is discernable until the
fourth note since rhythm willnot develop until thepulse i&established.

5. Morris, R. 0.. Contrapuntal Technique in the Sixteenth Cen-

-
tury, p. 22.
6. Isaac. Heinrich. Missa Carminum.
7. See Zarlino, Gioseffo, Istitutioni harmoniche, Book IV, trans.
i n part by Oliver Strunk in Source Readings in Music History, p. 253 ff;
F e l l e r e r , K. G., Die Deklamations - Rhythmik in d e r Vokalen Poly-
phonie d e s 16. Jahrhunderts; the editions of English Madrigals by
Edmund H. Fellows; Scott, Ch. Kennedy, Madrigal Singing.
-
8. Reliance on text placement can, however. be dangerous. The
coincidence of rhythmic accent in text with musical rhythm i s common
only in styles after 1540. In plainsong, f o r example, the relationships
a r e quite different. In the music of e a r l i e r renaissance composers,
too, a close t i e between text and music, in this sense, is r a r e . The in-
fluences of extra-musical doctrines had not yet been felt.
 Example 2 demonstrates s t i l l another way in which s t r e s s is

Example 2

thee? and Z ro Lon

B a-

achieved. Through melodic shape, particularly through the accent

s t r e s s e d by leaps, further support of agogic s t r e s s is made t o define
the rhythm even m o r e clearly.

A performance of Example 3, the opening section of Lassus1- Sicut

Rosa,
- sung with careful r e g a r d f o r the rhythmic organization of each
voice, will demonstrate the ;rigorous counterpoint which r e s u l t s from
the f r e e rhythmic flow of melodies sounding together.

Example 3

SL - - cut *o -- - - --'&a A - - - -

A full appreciation ofthe implications of f r e e rhythmic flow i s not

a s easily realized and enjoyed a s one would hope, f o r certain "tradi-
tional" concepts, s o m e of which may even b e considered basic hypothe-
s e s , a r e frequently s o imposed upon this melodic style that the vitality
of rhythmic diversity is clouded o r even lost. The admonition "not t o
begin with chords" in approaching the 16th-century style is clearly
made t o relieve melody of unnecessary harmonic burdens and concen-
t r a t e attention onthe linear elements. Some s u c c e s s h a s been achieved.
Yet, the removal of harmony t o a slightly m o r e subordinate position
hardly s e t s things aright. Probably no single force may inhibit melodic
flow m o r e than an emphasis on the "traditional" r o l e of meter.

It would seem, in the examples above, that the t i m e signature

h a s been completely disregarded. The usual questions arise: How is
it possible t o disregard the accents which m e t e r imposes? I s not the
symbol 4 an indication of a basic m e t e r , f o r does it not imply 412 time
with a p r i m a r y and secondary accent falling on beats one and t h r e e re-
spectively, while beats two and four remain relatively unaccented?
Unhappily, this is not entirely the case.

In white m e n s u r a l notation, the system of notation employed in

the 15th and 16th centuries, symbols such a s this one indicate that
written notes will receive particular temporal values. In other words,
a mensuration sign informs the p e r f o r m e r that certain specific r u l e s
f o r determining note duration a r e t o be followed.

Speaking of the sign $, P r o f e s s o r Van den B o r r e n writes:

It i s , after all, an empirical way of informing in-

t e r p r e t e r s , s o they may be guided, of the value of the
notes, and nothing but that, after the proper r u l e s ac-
cording t o tempus imperfectum, prolatio minor. As
these r u l e s a r e much s i m p l e r than those which govern
tempus perfectum, prolatio minor, represented by 0 o r
@, it is not surprising that @ was, in the final analysis,
p r e f e r r e d t o those two latter signatures f o r u s e a s a
general indicator for i n t e r p r e t e r s . T h i s is surely, it
s e e m s , the reason f o r i t s almost exclusive use begin-
ning with the second third of the 16th century, the 0, the
$ o r other analogous signs being m o r e ordinarily r e -
s e r v e d f o r brief passages in which one hears, by the
skillful intervention of a m o r e o r l e s s p r e c i s e t e r n a r y
rhythm, a contrast with the m o r e o r l e s s indeterminate
rhythm represented by $. l o

9. See Apel. Willi, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900-1600,

4th ed.,- pp. - - 96ff.
10. Van den Borren, Charles. 6 t u d e s s u r l e ~ u i n z i s m e~ i G c l e
Musical. D.- 129.-
. - I 1~ -

C'est, en somme, un moyen empirique d'indiquer aux interprktes

q u f i l s doivent s e guider, pour l a valeur d e s notes, et r i e n que pour
cela, dqapr'es l e s r s g l e s p r o p r e s au tempus imperfectum, prolatio
-
m inor. Comme c e s r s g l e s sont beaucoup plus simples que,celles qui
gouvernent 15 tempus perfectum, prolatio minor, repr&ente p a r un 0
ou un 0 b a r r e , i l n'est pas surprenant que le C b a r r e ait gt;, en fin de
 F o r some, the establishment of a m e t e r a s the regular r e c u r -
r e n c e of accented o r unaccented beats is thought t o be accomplished by
the tactus. Throughout most of the 16th century the tactus unit was the
semibreve, which, a s we have seen, proceeded at the human pulse-
rate. The tactus i s formed of two parts, a t h e s i s and an &, which
n a m e s a r e applied t o the two minims of the semibreve in &, the f i r s t
being thetic and the second being a r s i c . Likening the words'thesis and
-
a r s i s t o downbeat and upbeat, respectively, is irresistable. Yet, r e -
gretably, the idea of the thesis being accented and the arsis being un-
accented is not implicit in the t e r m tactus. The t h e s i s and the arsis
a r e m e r e l y pulses which receive their n a m e s from the motion of the
c h o i r m a s t e r ' s a r m a s he provides the beat which will hold a l l voices of
the concento together.

Assuredly, a rhythm may frequently be established which coin-

cides with the tactus. Yet again, Example 1 demonstrates that the
tactus is providing only the basic pulse which i s the minim; a coincident
rhythmic organization seldom exists.

The implications attached t o m e t e r in those s t y l e s which come

after 1600 cannot b e successfully imposed upon the renaissance style.
It is with the r i s e of functional harmony and the n e c e s s a r y vertical o r -
ganization of texture which accompanied it along with the iqcreasing
importance of dance music and the development of a primarily homo-
phonic style, that m e t e r a s the regular r e c u r r e n c e of strong and weak
beats is felt. But t o cause a conscious accent t o f a l l on every other
pulse in a renaissance melody would deny the melodic line i t s own
rhythmic independence. At a l l c o s t s it is n e c e s s a r y t o be f r e e of m e t e r
a s a persistent underlying motor pattern under which a l l flow becomes
subsumed. Although the harmonic flow may be allied with meter, the
articulation of rhythmic o r d e r is not coincident with the m e t r i c order.

Meter, in the 16th century, means measure, i.e., m e t e r is a

m e a s u r e of duration. This measurement i s made not by the regular
r e c u r r e n c e of accents, but r a t h e r the measurement i s made i n t e r m s
of t i m e units. T o r e g a r d the mensuration sign $ a s representing 412
t i m e may not be inappropriate provided it i s understood only a s a
m e a s u r e of duration - the length of tones in time.

What becomes, then, of the syncopation? Without a strong

m e t r i c a l beat, does it not lose i t s meaning, since we tend to r e g a r d
the syncopation a s a misplacement of the m e t r i c beat employed t o dis-
t u r b the dominant m e t r i c flow? Many examples from the literature of
the period can b e found which would s e e m t o support this definition. In

compte, pr6f6rd c e s deux d e r n i e r s signes pour s e r v i r d'indicateur

g&6ral aux interpr\etes. C'est bien li, semble-t-il, l a raison pour
laquelle on n'utilise plus gu&e que le, C b a r & ? pia r t i r du deuxieme
t i e r s du XVIe si&le, le 0, le 0 b a r r e ou d'autres signes analogues
&ant le plus ordinairement r & e r v 6 s 2 de b r e f s passages, dans lesquels
on entend mgnager, p a r l'intervention d'un rythme t e r n a i r e plus ou
moins pr6cis, un contras,te avec l e rythme plus ou moins indgtermin;
repr6sent6 p a r l e C b a r r e .
Example 4, the opening p h r a s e of a L a s s u s bicinia, a syncope s e e m s
clearly evident. Yet it r e m a i n s that in such a style a s this one, a syn-

Example 4

cope which depends upon a strong beat f o r definition is lacking, f o r the

idea of a consistent rhythm i s foreign t o this style.

P r o f e s s o r Van den Borren, discussing the development of the

renaissance style from that of the preceeding A r s Nova, e x p r e s s e s
himself quite clearly on this matter:

.. . t h e further evolution proceeded clearly in the direc-

tion of a progressive breakdown of the rhythmic regu-
larity, by means of contrivances which exhibit the ap-
pearance of syncopes in modern transcriptions. These
syncopes, or, m o r e exactly, these pseudo-syncopes -
because they have not in any way the effect of hindering
the rhythm and causing that which we call today the syn-
copation -these pseudo-syncopes encounter, in the bar-
line, a factitious obstacle, which it i s im ortant t o p a s s
over by making it a simple abstraction. 1 f
The syncopation i s a result of the rhythmic flow of melody. An
explanation of it in something approaching i t s own t e r m s is found in the
theoretical writings of the 14th century where "syncopation is explained,
not a s it is today, (such an explanation being impossible since accent
o r strong beat i s a concept foreign t o e a r l y theory), but a s a separation
of a normal group of notes by the insertion of l a r g e r values. "12

In Example 5 a binary rhythm is clearly established by the intro-

ductory semibreves and paired minims. This rhythm may be expected
t o perpetuate itself. Under such a condition a psychological accent will
be felt on the third minim in the word manus only t o be followed on the
next pulse, the w, by another accent of a stronger nature. (Any
dynamic bump on the following thesis is, of course, completely outside

11. m, p. 128. ... l'&olution ultcrieure s ' e s t nettement

poursuivie dans le s e n s d'une b r i s u r e progressive de l a rggularitG
rythmique, au moyen d'artifices qui offrent ltapparence de syncopes
dans l e s transcriptions modernes. C e s syncopes ou, plus exactement,
c e s pseudo-syncopes - c a r e l l e s nlont nullement pour effet de r e t e n i r
le rythme et de provoquer c e que nous appelons aujourd'hui d e s con-
tretemps - c e s pseudo-syncopes r e contrent, d a n s l a b a r r e de mesure,
un obstacle ill/egitime, qu'il importe de f r a n c h i r e n en faisant purement
e t simplement abstraction.
12. Apel, Willi, Harvard Dictionary of Music, p. 727.
of the style. ) Two rhythmic accents have o c c u r r e d without an i n t e r -
vening pulse. T h i s pulse, however, h a s only been displaced. The two
p u l s e s ( 0 u ) of a b i n a r y unit have been s e p a r a t e d by an i n s e r t e d

Example 513
) u
(------ /
n-

-
I
h - 0 A h 0 h
/ y.0 b I- I 1 I
rl

- d;t
I

Et A- ma- - - - - - - nus

b i n a r y unit. All i s rectified before the next semibreve. Proceeding

f u r t h e r another syncope o c c u r s when, again, an unaccented pulse is
displaced. T h e pulse which should follow the one on the syllable 9
of manus i s s e p a r a t e d f r o m i t by t h e i n s e r t e d binary groups on the
s y l l a b l e s s u a s in cae-, but the disposition is arighted immediately
t h e r e a f t e r . Still another displacement follows.

Example 6 d e m o n s t r a t e s even m o r e extensive syncopations:

Example 614

Zarlino's explanation, in no way contradictory t o the above ex-

planation, s e r v e s a s a convenient definition useful in the p r a c t i c a l
c r e a t i v e work in 16th century counterpoint: A note which begins on the
arsis of the t a c t u s and is retained beyond t h e next pulse, the t h e s i s ,
m a y be called a syncope.15 In other words, a s e m i b r e v e o r dotted
minim which begins i t s sound on the a r s i s may b e s a i d t o be synco-
pated.

T h e u s e of the t e r m syncope synonymously with suspension, a s

s o m e do, is, of c o u r s e , an e r r o r . A syncope l i e s completely within
t h e r e a l m of rhythm. It h a s only t o d o with t h e rhythmic o r d e r a s i t i s

13. Des P r e s , Josquin, Stetit autem Saloman.

14. Isaac. Heinrich. M i s s a Carminum.
15. Zarlino, Gioseffo. Istitutioni harmoniche, Book 111, Venice,
1558, p. 209.
related t o the basic pulse, the minim. The suspension is an harmonic
fact. This dissonance, which must occur .anthe thesis, is dependent
upon an existing syncope, but occurs m o r e infrequently than the synco-
pe. It is primarily relegated t o cadence formulae where it participates
in the clarification of s t r u c t u r e by helping t o make harmonic, rhythmic
and tonal o r d e r s explicit.

The balance of musical factors is indeed difficult t o retain in any

discussion of style. Emphasis is bound t o be given one a r e a a t the
sacrifice of another. But it is hoped that a s the elements of melody,
rhythm, m e t e r and harmony a r e rebound together, their respective
r o l e s may be enjoyed with new vigor.

Exercises in Contrapuntal Writing

The various approaches t o composition in the 16th-century style

seemingly deny melody i t s rightful place. Despite continuous reference
t o this style a s an essentially melodic one and despite the recognition
and altogether too brief exposition of the f r e e rhythmic nature of this
melodic style, the harmonic problems invariably smother melodic con-
cepts. While it is t r u e that certain 16th-century theorists concentrated
t h e i r efforts in explainingthe harmonic style, melody being everywhere
about them, we can hardly expect our students t o have an inherent
understanding of this melodic style. If they have a natural melodic ut-
terance at all, it will be founded primarily uponthe "be1 canto'' of m o r e
recent times. It s e e m s appropriate t o provide work materials which
will afford a continuous awareness of melody and help the student de-
velop a skill in the handling of melodic rhythm, r a t h e r than propagating
a variation of the study of harmony.

The t e r m "species counterpoint" c a r r i e s with it today certain un-

fortunate connotations; however, the value of contrapuntal exercises is
considerable. F o r without f i r s t pointing the concentration t o particular
stylistic problems, the f r e e creative work in the style will be f o r the
student discouragingly difficult. The e x e r c i s e s which follow a r e de-
signed t o help the student develop techniques in both melody and harmo-
ny. The f r e e rhythmic nature of this melodic style is dealt with con-
currently with the harmonic problems t o provide skill in both areas.
A careful performance of each exercise completed must, of course,
follow. The vitality of the resulting counterpoint will be clearly evi-
dent.

E x e r c i s e Type I

The f i r s t e x e r c i s e is note-against-note counterpoint. Since peda-

gogy in counterpoint began, no c l e a r e r method has been found t o ex-
plain the basic harmonic material. The cantus-firmus employed comes
from the Gregorian r e p e r t o i r e and should be one already familiar t o the
student. l 6

16. The close similarity between the music of the Renaissance

 The note value employed need not conform t o the whole-note with
which we a r e familiar. If the student has transcribed the notes of the
chant a s eighth-notes, it may be practical t o u s e eighth-notes here. It
s e e m s m o r e advantageous, however, t o choose nowthe note value which
will be, from this point on, the tactus. Therefore, each note may be
written a s a whole-note o r a s a half-note. The l a t t e r is highly practi-
c a l if frequent reference t o modern performing editions is made. The
whole-note s e r v e s the present exposition better because of i t s exact
correspondence t o the s e m i b r e v e of the m e n s u r a l notation system.

The rhythmic flow of Gregorian melodies is important. A study

of the rhythm of chant a s s e t forth by the Benedictines of Solesmes is
essential if chant is t o be used a s a pedagogical instrument t o demon-
s t r a t e the f r e e rhythmic flow of renaissance melody. l 7 Any haphazard
grouping of the rhythmic units o r "rubato" approach t o the melodic
patterns will only reduce the usefulness of chant a s an introduction t o
this style.

When the cantus-firmus is s e t down it is well t o clarify the

rhythm by bracketing the t e r n a r y units and placing an ictus, o r vertical
line, under the note which corresponds t o the s t r e s s e d pulse. F o r ex-
ample, the Alleluia in Mode IV (Example 7) becomes, when written in
whole-notes, the cantus-firmus in Example 8 of note-against-note
counterpoint.

Example 718

A - - - - - lu. - - ia.
T h e student composing a counterpoint above and below the given
cantus-firmus will proceed in the customary way, bearing in mind
whatever "rules" have been established regarding the progression of

and plainsong h a s been pointed out frequently. It would be hoped that

no one would attempt t o explain the 16th-century style without f i r s t de-
votingconsiderable attention t o the style of Gregorian melodies. Twelve
full c l a s s sessions spent with chant in a normal. 39-hour s e m e s t e r is
not disproportionate. The study of the modes and the melodic patterns
which give each mode i t s particular individuality, and the analysis of
the f r e e rhythmic flow of these melodies, the cadential function and the
over-all structure, and the performing of these melodies and the writ-
ing of s i m i l a r ones will give the student a feeling f o r rhythmic and
melodic style which is invaluable. Nothing need be unlearned in ap-
proaching any l a t e r style, particularly the melodic style of the 16th
century and the rhythmic style of the 20th.
17. Liber Usualis, p. xxvi ff. F o r the theory, s e e Mocquereau,
Dom ~ n d r 6 ,L e Nombre musical gr&gorian, volume I, p a r t I, trans. by
Aileen Tone.
18. F o r the Solesmes edition of the Gregorian notation, s e e e r
Usualis (with introduction and r u b r i c s in English), p. 97.
intervals. l 9 He should be encouraged, however, to use long-notes
(breves) occasionally s o he may recognize how notes of longer duration
clarify the melodic rhythm. The greatest distance permitted between
the voices i s a m a t t e r for the instructor t o decide.

Example 8

The finished melody should be analyzed in o r d e r t o establish

clearly the flow of rhythmic units, remembering that length produces
s t r e s s and that "groups of one" a r e impossible. The exercise should
be sung f i r s t at a slow tempo with attention being paid t o intervals and
voice-leading, then s e v e r a l times at a moving tempo ( 0 = 120 M.M.).
T h e effect of the rhythmic counterpoint should be well tasted. It should
become a s much a p a r t of the student's aesthetic appreciation a s the
harmonic elements which s o unobtrusively bind the melodies together.

When the student h a s a solid g r a s p of techniques s o far, he may

b e asked t o write counterpoints against longer melodies of m o r e than
one phrase (Example 9). In his melodies, internal closes, which may
o r may not coincide with those of the cantus-firmus, should be created.

19. Such r u l e s do, indeed, vary according to the p r i m a r y and

secondary s o u r c e s the instructor chooses t o follow.
 Example g 2 0

/
I
1-
0
D
-
'
a
U O
- -
O
-
A D
t

a
l
C ~ A Q - n O
A
-
I I
1 I I

E x e r c i s e Type I1

The second e x e r c i s e s e r v e s two purposes: ( I ) it t r a i n s the stu-

dent in the u s e s of dissonance, and (2) it points up through exaggeration
the contrapuntal effect which o c c u r s when one voice moves i n t e r n a r y
rhythm against another in binary rhythm. The minim o r half-note is
the basic pulse ( d = 120-144 M.M.).

At f i r s t no dissonances may b e permitted (Example 10). Attention

should b e focused entirely on the melodic c h a r a c t e r of the voice being
written against the cantus-firmus. One o r two binary units may need t o
be employed t o bring both voices t o the final together. If the cantus-
f i r m u s permits, the final unison shouldbe preceeded with a minor third
o r the final octave with a m a j o r sixth.

20. Liber Usualis, p. 125. Cantus-firmus is a " ~ e n e d i c a m u s

~ o m i n o "in Mode 11.
 Example lo2'

The student who h a s heard and performed extensively certain

contemporary s t y l e s may have little trouble performing these e x e r -
c i s e s . F o r others and for l a r g e sections of concert audiences the
rhythmic delights in the music of the 16th and 20th centuries r e m a i n
mysterious. Truly, it may even be said that the rhythmic delights of
renaissance music a r e f a r from being mysterious; they a r e completely
absent. It i s important, if this style is t o be understood and appreci-
ated, that the rhythmic flow be always clear. T o achieve this end it
becomes necessary, f i r s t of all, t o r e f r a i n from giving any kind of
m e t r i c accent. The arrangement of consonant and dissonant intervals
will provide a l l the m e t r i c o r d e r that i s necessary: If a c l e a r pulse
beat i s maintained, the voices will move together properly. Second of
all, it will be found that the rhythmic vitality of this style will be ad-
ditionally clarified when the accented pulse of the rhythmic unit is
given the slightest dynamic ( ! ) s t r e s s . F u r t h e r , any unaccented pulse
which may fall on the thesis should be treated lightly. Some students
find that the rhythmic units will flow m o r e easily if numbers a r e given
t o the pulses a s shown above. No evidence of dynamic s t r e s s is found
in the music o r in the documents of the period, but f o r the 20th-century

21. -
Ibid., p. 97. Cantus-firmus i s an Alleluia in Mode VI.
audience such s t r e s s e s a r e frequently required; for through them the
integrity of the style may s t i l l be carefully maintained without s a c r i -
ficing, in the name of proper performance practice, those things which
the modern audience depends on f o r i t s understanding and enjoyment of
a style.

When the student has developed e a s e and accuracy in performing

these exercises, dissonance may be introduced (Example 11). F i r s t

Example 1 1 ~ ~

he may deal only with such"accidents" a s the passing o r returning note,

and the cambiata. The rule is simple: Never bring one of these dis-
sonances on the accented pulse of the rhythmic unit o r against an ac-
cented pulse in the other voice. Exceptions to this rule should be with-
held until the student i s ready t o consider certain elaborations of the
basic cadence formulae.

22. Liber Usualis, p. 789. The cantus-firmus of this and a l l

subsequent examples i s taken from the E a s t e r Sequence " ~ i c t i m a e
paschali laudes. "
 Finally the student is prepared t o deal with the suspension dis-
sonance (Example 12). The problem is e a s y if t h e s e conditions a r e
observed:

Example 12

1. The dissonance must occur onthe thesis ofthe cantus-firmus.

2. The rhythm of the voice which will c a r r y the suspension must

be such that an accented pulse falls on the preceeding (of the
cantus-firmus). Because it is an accent.ed pulse, it must be consonant
with the cantus-firmus. This note will be a semibreve ( o r later, a
dotted minim).

3. The cantus-firmus, of course, must have i t s accented pulse

on the thesis.

4. The suspension must resolve downward a diatonic step.

The suspension usually occurs, as in this exercise, within a

t e r n a r y group. The f i r s t pulse i s called the preparation (P), the second
pulse the suspension (S), and the third pulse (or last half ofthe second),
the resolution (R).
 Exercise Type 111

The next exercise is characterized by the alternation of binary

and t e r n a r y units (Example 13). Here the student's attention i s on
melodic and rhythmic factors primarily while practice with the h a r -
monic style continues. He may need t o be warned again not t o bring
a dissonance, except the suspension, on an accented pulse.

Example 13

If the student has gained a writing and performing proficiency

with melodic rhythm, the modern bar-line may be superimposed upon
his exercises. He must fully understand i t s function, however. It is
not an indicator of a p r i m a r y rhythmic organization, but s e r v e s only a s
a notational convenience for the r e a d e r when voice p a r t s a r e placed
above one another in score. The use of bar-lines of this type, like the
score, is a development of the 17th century. Examples of them in the
16th century a r e extremely r a r e , for a p e r f o r m e r usually had only h i s
own part before him, unbarred, of course. Anyone who has been obliged
t o "cut his part," reading from a part-book, can not help recognizing,
perhaps quite painfully, the beauty of this f r e e l y moving melodic style.
The student should be kept f r o m backsliding. Any tendency t o replace
rhythmic flow with a regular m e t e r should cost him his bar-line.
 Adopting the conventional barring system for this music, Example
13 becomes:

Example 14

Exercise Type IV

It is no longer n e c e s s a r y t o proceed in a stylistic vacuum. Ex-

ample 15 b e a r s no unrealistic elements. Rather, the successful work-
ing-out of this e x e r c i s e will produce a phrase of two-part music r e -
sembling hundreds of such biciniae from the literature of the period.

The cantus-firmus may now be drawn from any source. Just a s

the composers themselves drew upon each other for "subject" matter,
taking a phrase here, s e v e r a l b a r s there, o r even entire sections of
two-and three-part texture, we may adopt one o r two p h r a s e s o r even
e n t i r e sections of a 16th-century motet to s e r v e a s a tenor for bicinia
o r t r i c i n i a composition. The cantus-firmus o r tenor will, therefore,
b e a freely flowing melody against which the student will compose his
own counter-melody.
 Example 15

. me - ten+ Ch&-&i- a -- mi.

At t h i s time, he m a y benefit from a discussion of ornament, i. e.,

the various florid patterns of s m a l l e r notes which will eventually be-
come essential t o the melodic flow of h i s future compositions in the
style. In addition, he may be ready t o consider the problem of text-
setting with particular r e g a r d f o r the coincidence of s t r e s s e d syllables
and longer note values, and he m a y t r y his hand at imitation (Examples
16 and 17).
 Example 1 6

Example 1 7

T h e student should now have a g r a s p of the b a s i c techniques of

the s t y l e andthe meaning of counterpoint shouldbe quite c l e a r . Through
a n a l y s i s of the music o f t h i s period and f u r t h e r c r e a t i v e work he should
b e able t o build significant m u s i c a l s t r u c t u r e s in t h i s style.