Dip Notes

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
[EC612PE]
III Year B. Tech. ECE – II Sem
Prepared by
K.Aishwarya, Assistant Professor, ECE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
[Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India]
Permanently Affiliated to JNTUH, Approved by AICTE, ISO 9001;2015 Certified Institution
Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade, NIRF Indian Ranking 2018, Accepted by MHRD Govt. of India
AAA+ Rated by Careers 360 Magazine, Top Hundred Rank band by Outlook, 7 th Rank CSR
Maisammaguda, Dhulaplly, Secunderabad-500100
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

(Professional Elective – I)
B.Tech. III Year II Sem. LTPC
Course Code: EC612PE 3003
Course Objectives:
 To comprehend the relation between human visual system and machine perception and
processing of digital images.
 To provide a detailed approach towards image processing applications like enhancement,
segmentation, and compression.
Course Outcomes:
 Exploration of the limitations of the computational methods on digital images.
 Expected to implement the spatial and frequency domain image transforms on enhancement
and restoration of images.
 Elaborate understanding on image enhancement techniques.
 Expected to define the need for compression and evaluate the basic compression algorithms.
UNIT - I
Digital Image Fundamentals & Image Transforms: Digital Image Fundamentals, Sampling
and Quantization, Relationship between Pixels.
Image Transforms: 2-D FFT, Properties, Walsh Transform, Hadamard Transform, Discrete
Cosine Transform, Haar Transform, Slant Transform, Hotelling Transform.
UNIT - II
Image Enhancement (Spatial Domain): Introduction, Image Enhancement in Spatial Domain,
Enhancement through Point Processing, Types of Point Processing, Histogram Manipulation,
Linear and Non – Linear Gray Level Transformation, Local or Neighborhood criterion, Median
Filter, Spatial Domain High-Pass Filtering.
Image Enhancement (Frequency Domain): Filtering in Frequency Domain, Low Pass
(Smoothing) and High Pass (Sharpening) Filters in Frequency Domain.
UNIT - III
Image Restoration: Degradation Model, Algebraic Approach to Restoration, Inverse Filtering,
Least Mean Square Filters, Constrained Least Squares Restoration, Interactive Restoration.
UNIT – IV
Image Segmentation: Detection of Discontinuities, Edge Linking And Boundary Detection,
thresholding, Region Oriented Segmentation.
Morphological Image Processing: Dilation and Erosion: Dilation, Structuring Element
Decomposition, Erosion, Combining Dilation and Erosion, Opening and Closing, Hit or Miss
Transformation.
UNIT - V
Image Compression: Redundancies and their Removal Methods, Fidelity Criteria, Image
Compression Models, Huffman and Arithmetic Coding, Error Free Compression, Lossy
Compression, Lossy and Lossless Predictive Coding, Transform Based Compression, JPEG 2000
Standards.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Digital Image Processing- Rafael C. Gonzalez, Richard E. Woods, 3rd Edition,
Pearson, 2008
2. Digital Image Processing- S Jayaraman, S Esakkirajan, T Veerakumar- MC GRAW
HILL EDUCATION, 2010.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Digital Image Processing and Analysis-Human and Computer Vision Application
with using CVIP Tools - Scotte Umbaugh, 2nd Ed, CRC Press, 2011
2. Digital Image Processing using MATLAB – Rafael C. Gonzalez, Richard E Woods
and Steven L. Eddings, 2nd Edition, MC GRAW HILL EDUCATION, 2010.
3. Digital Image Processing and Computer Vision – Somka, Hlavac, Boyle- Cengage
Learning (Indian edition) 2008.
4. Introductory Computer Vision Imaging Techniques and Solutions- Adrian low, 2008,
2nd Edition
INDEX
TITLE PAGE No.
Chapter-I Digital Image Fundamentals & Image Transforms 1
Chapter-II Image Enhancement 32
Chapter-III Image Restoration 57
Chapter-IV Image Segmentation 71
Chapter-V Image Compression 107
Question Bank 119
Previous Question Papers 133

MALLA REDDY ENGINEEERING COLLEGE FOR WOMEN Department of E.C.E
UNIT-1
DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS & IMAGE TRANSFORMS
DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS:

The field of digital image processing refers to processing digital images by means of
digital computer. Digital image is composed of a finite number of elements, each of which
has a particular location and value. These elements are called picture elements, image
elements, pels and pixels. Pixel is the term used most widely to denote the elements of
digital image.
An image is a two-dimensional function that represents a measure of some
characteristic such as brightness or color of a viewed scene. An image is a projection of a 3-
D scene into a 2D projection plane.
An image may be defined as a two-dimensional function f(x,y), where x and y are
spatial (plane) coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x,y) is called
the intensity of the image at that point.
The term gray level is used often to refer to the intensity of monochrome images.
Color images are formed by a combination of individual 2-D images.
For example: The RGB color system, a color image consists of three (red, green and
blue) individual component images. For this reason many of the techniques developed for
monochrome images can be extended to color images by processing the three component
images individually.
An image may be continuous with respect to the x- and y- coordinates and also in
amplitude. Converting such an image to digital form requires that the coordinates, as well as
the amplitude, be digitized.
DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 1

APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Since digital image processing has very wide applications and almost all of the technical
fields are impacted by DIP, we will just discuss some of the major applications of DIP.
Digital image processing has a broad spectrum of applications, such as

 Remote sensing via satellites and other spacecrafts
 Image transmission and storage for business applications
 Medical processing,
 RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)
 SONAR(Sound Navigation and Ranging) and
 Acoustic image processing (The study of underwater sound is known as underwater
acoustics or hydro acoustics.)
 Robotics and automated inspection of industrial parts.
Images acquired by satellites are useful in tracking of
 Earth resources;
 Geographical mapping;
 Prediction of agricultural crops,
 Urban growth and weather monitoring
 Flood and fire control and many other environmental applications.
Space image applications include:
 Recognition and analysis of objects contained in images obtained from deep
space-probe missions.
 Image transmission and storage applications occur in broadcast television
 Teleconferencing
 Transmission of facsimile images(Printed documents and graphics) for office
automation
Communication over computer networks
 Closed-circuit television based security monitoring systems and
 In military communications.

 Medical applications:
 Processing of chest X- rays
 Cineangiograms
 Projection images of transaxial tomography and
 Medical images that occur in radiology nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR)
 Ultrasonic scanning
IMAGE PROCESSING TOOLBOX (IPT) is a collection of functions that extend the
capability of the MATLAB numeric computing environment. These functions, and the
expressiveness of the MATLAB language, make many image-processing operations easy to

write in a compact, clear manner, thus providing a ideal software prototyping environment
for the solution of image processing problem.
Components of Image processing System:
Figure : Components of Image processing System

Image Sensors: With reference to sensing, two elements are required to acquire digital
image. The first is a physical device that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we
wish to image and second is specialized image processing hardware.

Specialize image processing hardware: It consists of the digitizer just mentioned, plus
hardware that performs other primitive operations such as an arithmetic logic unit, which
performs arithmetic such addition and subtraction and logical operations in parallel on images.
Computer: It is a general purpose computer and can range from a PC to a supercomputer
depending on the application. In dedicated applications, sometimes specially designed
computer are used to achieve a required level of performance
Software: It consists of specialized modules that perform specific tasks a well designed
package also includes capability for the user to write code, as a minimum, utilizes the
specialized module. More sophisticated software packages allow the integration of these
modules.
Mass storage: This capability is a must in image processing applications. An image of size
1024 x1024 pixels, in which the intensity of each pixel is an 8- bit quantity requires one
Megabytes of storage space if the image is not compressed .Image processing applications
falls into three principal categories of storage
i) Short term storage for use during processing
ii) On line storage for relatively fast retrieval
iii) Archival storage such as magnetic tapes and disks
Image display: Image displays in use today are mainly color TV monitors. These monitors
are driven by the outputs of image and graphics displays cards that are an integral part of
computer system.
Hardcopy devices: The devices for recording image includes laser printers, film cameras,
heat sensitive devices inkjet units and digital units such as optical and CD ROM disk. Films
provide the highest possible resolution, but paper is the obvious medium of choice for written
applications.
Networking: It is almost a default function in any computer system in use today because of
the large amount of data inherent in image processing applications. The key consideration in
image transmission bandwidth.
Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing:
There are two categories of the steps involved in the image processing –
1. Methods whose outputs are input are images.
2. Methods whose outputs are attributes extracted from those images.

Fig: Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing
Image acquisition: It could be as simple as being given an image that is already in digital
form. Generally the image acquisition stage involves processing such scaling.
Image Enhancement: It is among the simplest and most appealing areas of digital image
processing. The idea behind this is to bring out details that are obscured or simply to
highlight certain features of interest in image. Image enhancement is a very subjective area of
image processing.
Image Restoration: It deals with improving the appearance of an image. It is an objective

approach, in the sense that restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or
probabilistic models of image processing. Enhancement, on the other hand is based on human
subjective preferences regarding what constitutes a ―good‖ enhancement result.

Color image processing: It is an area that is been gaining importance because of the use of
digital images over the internet. Color image processing deals with basically color models
and their implementation in image processing applications.
Wavelets and Multiresolution Processing: These are the foundation for representing image
in various degrees of resolution.
Compression: It deals with techniques reducing the storage required to save an image, or the
bandwidth required to transmit it over the network. It has to major approaches a) Lossless
Compression b) Lossy Compression
Morphological processing: It deals with tools for extracting image components that are
useful in the representation and description of shape and boundary of objects. It is majorly
used in automated inspection applications.
Representation and Description: It always follows the output of segmentation step that is,
raw pixel data, constituting either the boundary of an image or points in the region itself. In
either case converting the data to a form suitable for computer processing is necessary.
Recognition: It is the process that assigns label to an object based on its descriptors. It is the
last step of image processing which use artificial intelligence of software.
Knowledge base:
Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into an image processing system in the form of
a knowledge base. This knowledge may be as simple as detailing regions of an image where
the information of the interest in known to be located. Thus limiting search that has to be
conducted in seeking the information. The knowledge base also can be quite complex such
interrelated list of all major possible defects in a materials inspection problems or an image
database containing high resolution satellite images of a region in connection with change
detection application.

A Simple Image Model:

An image is denoted by a two dimensional function of the form f{x, y}. The value or
amplitude of f at spatial coordinates {x,y} is a positive scalar quantity whose physical
meaning is determined by the source of the image. When an image is generated by a physical
process, its values are proportional to energy radiated by a physical source. As a
consequence, f(x,y) must be nonzero and finite; that is o<f(x,y) <co The function f(x,y) may
be characterized by two components- The amount of the source illumination incident on the
scene being viewed.
(a) The amount of the source illumination reflected back by the objects in the scene
These are called illumination and reflectance components and are denoted by i(x,y) an r (x,y)
respectively.
The functions combine as a product to form f(x,y). We call the intensity of a monochrome
image at any coordinates (x,y) the gray level (l) of the image at that point l= f (x, y.)
L min ≤ l ≤ Lmax
Lmin is to be positive and Lmax must be finite

Lmin = imin rmin
Lmax = imax rmax
The interval [Lmin, Lmax] is called gray scale. Common practice is to shift this interval
numerically to the interval [0, L-l] where l=0 is considered black and l= L-1 is considered
white on the gray scale. All intermediate values are shades of gray of gray varying from
black to white.
SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION:
To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed data into digital from.
This involves two processes – sampling and quantization. An image may be continuous with
respect to the x and y coordinates and also in amplitude. To convert it into digital form we
have to sample the function in both coordinates and in amplitudes.
Digitalizing the coordinate values is called sampling. Digitalizing the amplitude values is
called quantization. There is a continuous the image along the line segment AB. To simple
this function, we take equally spaced samples along line AB. The location of each samples is
given by a vertical tick back (mark) in the bottom part. The samples are shown as block
squares superimposed on function the set of these discrete locations gives the sampled
function.

In order to form a digital, the gray level values must also be converted (quantized) into
discrete quantities. So we divide the gray level scale into eight discrete levels ranging from
eight level values. The continuous gray levels are quantized simply by assigning one of the
eight discrete gray levels to each sample. The assignment it made depending on the vertical
proximity of a simple to a vertical tick mark.
Starting at the top of the image and covering out this procedure line by line produces a two
dimensional digital image.
Digital Image definition:
A digital image f(m,n) described in a 2D discrete space is derived from an analog
image f(x,y) in a 2D continuous space through a sampling process that is frequently referred
to as digitization. The mathematics of that sampling process will be described in subsequent
Chapters. For now we will look at some basic definitions associated with the digital image.
The effect of digitization is shown in figure.
The 2D continuous image f(x,y) is divided into N rows and M columns. The
intersection of a row and a column is termed a pixel. The value assigned to the integer
coordinates (m,n) with m=0,1,2..N-1 and n=0,1,2…N-1 is f(m,n). In fact, in most cases, is
actually a function of many variables including depth, color and time (t).
There are three types of computerized processes in the processing of image

1) Low level process -these involve primitive operations such as image processing to reduce
noise, contrast enhancement and image sharpening. These kind of processes are characterized
by fact the both inputs and output are images.
2) Mid level image processing - it involves tasks like segmentation, description of those
objects to reduce them to a form suitable for computer processing, and classification of
individual objects. The inputs to the process are generally images but outputs are attributes
extracted from images.

3) High level processing – It involves ―making sense‖ of an ensemble of recognized objects,

as in image analysis, and performing the cognitive functions normally associated with vision.
Representing Digital Images:
The result of sampling and quantization is matrix of real numbers. Assume that an
image f(x,y) is sampled so that the resulting digital image has M rows and N Columns. The
values of the coordinates (x,y) now become discrete quantities thus the value of the
coordinates at orgin become 9X,y) =(o,o) The next Coordinates value along the first signify
the iamge along the first row. it does not mean that these are the actual values of physical
coordinates when the image was sampled.
Thus the right side of the matrix represents a digital element, pixel or pel. The matrix can be
represented in the following form as well. The sampling process may be viewed as
partitioning the xy plane into a grid with the coordinates of the center of each grid being a
pair of elements from the Cartesian products Z2 which is the set of all ordered pair of
elements (Zi, Zj) with Zi and Zj being integers from Z. Hence f(x,y) is a digital image if gray
level (that is, a real number from the set of real number R) to each distinct pair of coordinates
(x,y). This functional assignment is the quantization process. If the gray levels are also
integers, Z replaces R, the and a digital image become a 2D function whose coordinates and
she amplitude value are integers. Due to processing storage and hardware consideration, the
number gray levels typically is an integer power of 2.
k
L=2
Then, the number, b, of bites required to store a digital image is B=M *N* k When M=N, the
2
equation become b=N *k
When an image can have 2k gray levels, it is referred to as ―k- bit‖. An image with 256
8
possible gray levels is called an ―8- bit image‖ (256=2 ).

Spatial and Gray level resolution:

Spatial resolution is the smallest discernible details are an image. Suppose a chart can be
constructed with vertical lines of width w with the space between the also having width W,
so a line pair consists of one such line and its adjacent space thus. The width of the line pair
is 2w and there is 1/2w line pair per unit distance resolution is simply the smallest number of
discernible line pair unit distance.
Gray levels resolution refers to smallest discernible change in gray levels. Measuring
discernible change in gray levels is a highly subjective process reducing the number of bits R
while repairing the spatial resolution constant creates the problem of false contouring.
It is caused by the use of an insufficient number of gray levels on the smooth areas of
the digital image . It is called so because the rides resemble top graphics contours in a map. It
is generally quite visible in image displayed using 16 or less uniformly spaced gray levels.
Image sensing and Acquisition:
The types of images in which we are interested are generated by the combination of an
―illumination‖ source and the reflection or absorption of energy from that source by the
elements of the ―scene‖ being imaged. We enclose illumination and scene in quotes to
emphasize the fact that they are considerably more general than the familiar situation in
which a visible light source illuminates a common everyday 3-D (three-dimensional) scene.
For example, the illumination may originate from a source of electromagnetic energy such as
radar, infrared, or X-ray energy. But, as noted earlier, it could originate from less traditional
sources, such as ultrasound or even a computer-generated illumination pattern. Similarly, the
scene elements could be familiar objects, but they can just as easily be molecules, buried rock
formations, or a human brain. We could even image a source, such as acquiring images of
the sun. Depending on the nature of the source, illumination energy is reflected from, or
transmitted through, objects. An example in the first category is light reflected from a planar
surface.

An example in the second category is when X-rays pass through a patient‘s body for the
purpose of generating a diagnostic X-ray film. In some applications, the reflected or
transmitted energy is focused onto a photo converter (e.g., a phosphor screen), which
converts the energy into visible light. Electron microscopy and some applications of gamma
imaging use this approach. The idea is simple: Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage
by the combination of input electrical power and sensor material that is responsive to the
particular type of energy being detected. The output voltage waveform is the response of the
sensor(s), and a digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by digitizing its response. In
this section, we look at the principal modalities for image sensing and generation.
Fig:Single Image sensor
Fig: Line Sensor
Fig: Array sensor

Image Acquisition using a Single sensor:
The components of a single sensor. Perhaps the most familiar sensor of this type is
the photodiode, which is constructed of silicon materials and whose output voltage waveform
is proportional to light. The use of a filter in front of a sensor improves selectivity. For
example, a green (pass) filter in front of a light sensor favors light in the green band of the
color spectrum. As a consequence, the sensor output will be stronger for green light than for
other components in the visible spectrum.

In order to generate a 2-D image using a single sensor, there has to be relative displacements
in both the x- and y-directions between the sensor and the area to be imaged. Figure shows an
arrangement used in high-precision scanning, where a film negative is mounted onto a drum
whose mechanical rotation provides displacement in one dimension. The single sensor is
mounted on a lead screw that provides motion in the perpendicular direction. Since
mechanical motion can be controlled with high precision, this method is an inexpensive (but
slow) way to obtain high-resolution images. Other similar mechanical arrangements use a flat
bed, with the sensor moving in two linear directions. These types of mechanical digitizers
sometimes are referred to as microdensitometers.
Image Acquisition using a Sensor strips:
A geometry that is used much more frequently than single sensors consists of an in-line
arrangement of sensors in the form of a sensor strip, shows. The strip provides imaging
elements in one direction. Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in the other
direction. This is the type of arrangement used in most flat bed scanners. Sensing devices
with 4000 or more in-line sensors are possible. In-line sensors are used routinely in airborne
imaging applications, in which the imaging system is mounted on an aircraft that flies at a
constant altitude and speed over the geographical area to be imaged. One dimensional
imaging sensor strips that respond to various bands of the electromagnetic spectrum are
mounted perpendicular to the direction of flight. The imaging strip gives one line of an image
at a time, and the motion of the strip completes the other dimension of a two-dimensional
image. Lenses or other focusing schemes are used to project area to be scanned onto the
sensors. Sensor strips mounted in a ring configuration are used in medical and industrial
imaging to obtain cross-sectional (―slice‖) images of 3-D objects.

Fig: Image Acquisition using linear strip and circular strips.
Image Acquisition using a Sensor Arrays:
The individual sensors arranged in the form of a 2-D array. Numerous electromagnetic and some
ultrasonic sensing devices frequently are arranged in an array format. This is also the predominant arrangement
found in digital cameras. A typical sensor for these cameras is a CCD array, which can be manufactured with a
broad range of sensing properties and can be packaged in rugged arrays of elements or more. CCD sensors are
used widely in digital cameras and other light sensing instruments. The response of each sensor is proportional
to the integral of the light energy projected onto the surface of the sensor, a property that is used in astronomical
and other applications requiring low noise images. Noise reduction is achieved by letting the sensor integrate
the input light signal over minutes or even hours. The two dimensional, its key advantage is that a complete
image can be obtained by focusing the energy pattern onto the surface of the array. Motion obviously is not
necessary, as is the case with the sensor arrangements This figure shows the energy from an illumination source
being reflected from a scene element, but, as mentioned at the beginning of this section, the energy also could
be transmitted through the scene elements. The first function performed by the imaging system is to collect the
incoming energy and focus it onto an image plane. If the illumination is light, the front end of the imaging
system is a lens, which projects the viewed scene onto the lens focal plane. The sensor array, which is
coincident with the focal plane, produces outputs proportional to the integral of the light received at each sensor.
Digital and analog circuitry sweep these outputs and convert them to a video signal, which is then digitized by
another section of the imaging system.

Image sampling and Quantization:

To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed data into digital form.
This involves two processes: sampling and quantization. A continuous image, f(x, y), that we
want to convert to digital form. An image may be continuous with respect to the x- and y-
coordinates, and also in amplitude. To convert it to digital form, we have to sample the
function in both coordinates and in amplitude. Digitizing the coordinate values is called
sampling. Digitizing the amplitude values is called quantization.

Digital Image representation:

Digital image is a finite collection of discrete samples (pixels) of any observable object. The
pixels represent a two- or higher dimensional ―view‖ of the object, each pixel having its own
discrete value in a finite range. The pixel values may represent the amount of visible light,
infra red light, absortation of x-rays, electrons, or any other measurable value such as
ultrasound wave impulses. The image does not need to have any visual sense; it is sufficient
that the samples form a two-dimensional spatial structure that may be illustrated as an image.
The images may be obtained by a digital camera, scanner, electron microscope, ultrasound
stethoscope, or any other optical or non-optical sensor. Examples of digital image are:
 digital photographs
 satellite images
 radiological images (x-rays, mammograms)
 binary images, fax images, engineering drawings
Computer graphics, CAD drawings, and vector graphics in general are not considered in this
course even though their reproduction is a possible source of an image. In fact, one goal of
intermediate level image processing may be to reconstruct a model (e.g. vector
representation) for a given digital image.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PIXELS:
We consider several important relationships between pixels in a digital image.
NEIGHBORS OF A PIXEL
• A pixel p at coordinates (x,y) has four horizontal and vertical neighbors whose
coordinates are given by:
(x+1,y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x,y-1)
This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors or p, is denoted by N4(p). Each pixel is one
unit distance from (x,y) and some of the neighbors of p lie outside the digital image if (x,y) is
on the border of the image. The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates and are
denoted by ND (p).

(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)
These points, together with the 4-neighbors, are called the 8-neighbors of p, denoted
by N8 (p).
As before, some of the points in ND (p) and N8 (p) fall outside the image if (x,y) is on
the border of the image.
ADJACENCY AND CONNECTIVITY
Let v be the set of gray –level values used to define adjacency, in a binary image, v={1}.
In a gray-scale image, the idea is the same, but V typically contains more elements, for
example, V = {180, 181, 182, …, 200}.
If the possible intensity values 0 – 255, V set can be any subset of these 256 values.
if we are reference to adjacency of pixel with value.
Three types of adjacency
 4- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 4 –adjacency if A is in the
set N4(P)
 8- Adjacency – two pixel P and Q with value from V are 8 –adjacency if A is in the
set N8(P)
 M-adjacency –two pixel P and Q with value from V are m – adjacency if (i) Q is in
N4(p) or (ii) Q is in ND(q) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no pixel whose values are
from V.
• Mixed adjacency is a modification of 8-adjacency. It is introduced to eliminate the
ambiguities that often arise when 8-adjacency is used.
• For example:

Fig:1.8(a) Arrangement of pixels; (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent (shown dashed) to the
center pixel; (c) m-adjacency.
Types of Adjacency:
• In this example, we can note that to connect between two pixels (finding a path
between two pixels):
– In 8-adjacency way, you can find multiple paths between two pixels
– While, in m-adjacency, you can find only one path between two pixels
• So, m-adjacency has eliminated the multiple path connection that has been generated
by the 8-adjacency.
• Two subsets S1 and S2 are adjacent, if some pixel in S1 is adjacent to some pixel in S2.
Adjacent means, either 4-, 8- or m-adjacency.
A Digital Path:
• A digital path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinate (x,y) to pixel q with coordinate (s,t)
is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates (x0,y0), (x1,y1), …, (xn, yn) where (x0,y0) =
(x,y) and (xn, yn) = (s,t) and pixels (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
• n is the length of the path
• If (x0,y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed.
We can specify 4-, 8- or m-paths depending on the type of adjacency specified.
• Return to the previous example:
Fig:1.8 (a) Arrangement of pixels; (b) pixels that are 8-adjacent(shown dashed) to the
center pixel; (c) m-adjacency.
In figure (b) the paths between the top right and bottom right pixels are 8-paths. And
the path between the same 2 pixels in figure (c) is m-path

Connectivity:
• Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image, two pixels p and q are said to be
connected in S if there exists a path between them consisting entirely of pixels in S.
• For any pixel p in S, the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is called a connected
component of S. If it only has one connected component, then set S is called a
connected set.
Region and Boundary:
• REGION: Let R be a subset of pixels in an image, we call R a region of the image if R
is a connected set.
• BOUNDARY: The boundary (also called border or contour) of a region R is
the set of pixels in the region that have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of pixels in the first
and last rows and columns in the image. This extra definition is required because an image
has no neighbors beyond its borders. Normally, when we refer to a region, we are referring to
subset of an image, and any pixels in the boundary of the region that happen to coincide with
the border of the image are included implicitly as part of the region boundary.
DISTANCE MEASURES:
For pixel p,q and z with coordinate (x.y) ,(s,t) and (v,w) respectively D is a distance function
or metric if
D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q] = O iff p=q}
D [p.q] = D [p.q] and
D [p.q] ≥ O {D[p.q]+D(q,z)
• The Euclidean Distance between p and q is defined as:
De (p,q) = [(x – s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2
Pixels having a distance less than or equal to some value r from (x,y) are the points
contained in a disk of radius „ r „centered at (x,y)

• The D4 distance (also called city-block distance) between p and q is defined as:
D4 (p,q) = | x – s | + | y – t |
Pixels having a D4 distance from (x,y), less than or equal to some value r form a
Diamond centered at (x,y)
Example:
The pixels with distance D4 ≤ 2 from (x,y) form the following contours of
constant distance.
The pixels with D4 = 1 are the 4-neighbors of (x,y)
• The D8 distance (also called chessboard distance) between p and q is defined as:
D8 (p,q) = max(| x – s |,| y – t |)
Pixels having a D8 distance from (x,y), less than or equal to some value r form a
square Centered at (x,y).

Example:
D8 distance ≤ 2 from (x,y) form the following contours of constant distance.
• Dm distance:
It is defined as the shortest m-path between the points.
In this case, the distance between two pixels will depend on the values of the
pixels along the path, as well as the values of their neighbors.
• Example:
Consider the following arrangement of pixels and assume that p, p2, and p4
have value 1 and that p1 and p3 can have can have a value of 0 or 1 Suppose
that we consider the adjacency of pixels values 1 (i.e. V = {1})
Now, to compute the Dm between points p and p4

Here we have 4 cases:
Case1: If p1 =0 and p3 = 0
The length of the shortest m-path
(the Dm distance) is 2 (p, p2, p4)
now, p1 and p will no longer be adjacent (see m-adjacency definition)
then, the length of the shortest

path will be 3 (p, p1, p2, p4)

The same applies here, and the shortest –m-path will be 3 (p, p2, p3, p4)
The length of the shortest m-path will be 4 (p, p1 , p2, p3, p4)
IMAGE TRANSFORMS:
2-D FFT:
The 2D-FFT of a rectangular image f(m,n) of size MXN is represented as F(k,l)
f(m,n) ---2D-FFT--> F(k,l)
where F(k,l) is defined as
F(k,l) = ∑𝑀−1 𝑁−1

𝑚=0 ∑𝑛=0 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛)𝑒
−𝑗(2𝜋/𝑀)𝑚𝑘 −𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑛𝑙
𝑒
F(k,l) = ∑𝑀−1 𝑁−1

𝑚=0 ∑𝑛=0 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛)𝑒
−𝑗(2𝜋/𝑀)𝑛𝑙 −𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑚𝑘
𝑒
For a square image f(m,n) of size NXN , the 2 D DFT is defined as
F(k,l) = ∑𝑁−1 𝑁−1
𝑚=0 ∑𝑛=0 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑛)𝑒
−𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑚𝑘 −𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑛𝑙
𝑒
The inverse 2D DFT is given by,
1
f(m,n) = 𝑁2 ∑𝑁−1 𝑁−1
𝑘=0 ∑𝑙=0 𝐹(𝑘, 𝑙)𝑒
𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑚𝑘 𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑛𝑙
𝑒
The fourier transform F(k,l) is given by

F(k,l) = R(k,l) + jI(k,l)
Where R(k,l) represents the real part of spectrum and I(k,l) represents the imaginary part.
The Fourier transform F(k,l) can be expressed in polar coordinates as

F(k,l) = |𝑭(𝒌, 𝒍)|𝒆𝒋𝝋(𝒌,𝒍)
Where |𝑭(𝒌, 𝒍)| = (R2 { F(k,l)} + I2{ F(k,l)})1/2 is called as magnitude spectrum of the fourier transform
𝐼{𝐹(𝑘,𝑙)}
and 𝝋(𝒌, 𝒍) = tan−1 is called as phase angle or phase spectrum.
𝑅{𝐹(𝑘,𝑙)}
PROPERTIES OF 2D-DFT
1. Separable property
2. Spatial shift property
3. Periodicity property
4. Convolution property
5. Correlation property
6. Scaling property
7. Conjugate symmetry property
8. Rotation property
SEPARABLE PROPERTY
The separable property allows a 2D transform to be computed in two steps by successive 1D operations
on rows and columns of an image.
2𝜋
−𝑗 𝑚𝑘
F(k,l) = ∑𝑁−1
𝑚=0 𝑓(𝑚, 𝑙)𝑒 𝑁
Thus performing a 2D fourier transform is equivalent to performing two 1D transform as
a. Peforming a 1D transform on each row of image f(m,n) to get F(m,l)

b. Performing a 1D transform on each column of F(m,l) to get F(k,l)
SPATIAL SHIFT PROPERTY
The 2D DFT of a shifted version of the image f(m,n) i.e., f(m-m0,n) is given by
f(m-m0,n) –DFT---> ∑𝑁−1 𝑁−1

𝑚=0 ∑𝑛=0 𝑓(𝑚 − 𝑚0 , 𝑛)𝑒
−𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑚𝑘 −𝑗(2𝜋/𝑁)𝑛𝑙
𝑒
where m0 represents the number of times that the function f(m,n) is shifted.
PERIODICITY PROPERTY
The 2D DFT of a funcyion f(m,n) is said to be periodic with a period N if
F(k,l) --- > F(k+pN, l+qN)

CONVOLUTION PROPERTY
Convolution is one of the most powerful operations in digital image processing. Convolution in spatial
domain is equal to multiplication in the frequency domain.Convolution of two sequence x(n) and h(n) is
defined as
x(n) * h(n) = ∑∞𝑘=−∞ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘)
convolution of two arrays f(m,n) and g(m,n) is given by
f(m,n) * g(m,n) = ∑𝑁−1 𝑁−1

𝑎=0 ∑𝑏=0 𝑓 (𝑎, 𝑏 )𝑔(𝑚 − 𝑎, 𝑛 − 𝑏)
CORRELATION PROPERTY
Correlation property is basically ued to find the relative similarity between two signlas.The process of
finding similarity of a signal to itself is autocorrelation whereas the process of finding the similarity
between two different signals is cross correlation.
DFT(Rx,h) = H(k) .X(-k)
The correlation property tells us that the correation of two sequences in time domain is equal to the
multiplication of DFT of one sequence and time reversal of the DFT of another sequence in the
frequency domain.
SCALING PROPERTY
Scaling is basically used to increase or decrease the size of an image. According to this property,the
expansion of a signal in one domain is equal to compression of the signal in another domain.
The 2D DFT of a function f(m,n) is defined as
f(m,n) ---DFT--- > F(k,l)
1 𝑘
If DFT of f(m,n) is F(k,l) then DFT [f(am,bn)] = |𝑎𝑏| 𝐹(𝑎 , 𝑙/𝑏)
CONJUGATE SYMMETRY
If the DFT of f(m,n) is F(k,l) then the DFT [f*(m,n)] = F*(-k,-l)
F(k,l) = F*(-k,-l)

ORTHOGONALITY PROPERTY
The orthogonality property of a 2D DFT is given as

𝑁−1 𝑁−1
1
∑ ∑ 𝑎𝑘,𝑙 (𝑚, 𝑛)𝑎𝑘∗ ′,𝑙′ (𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝛿(𝑘 − 𝑘 ′ , 𝑙 − 𝑙 ′ )
𝑁2
𝑚=0 𝑛=0
ROTATION PROPERTY
The rotation property states that if a function is rotated by the angle , its fourier transform also rotates by
an equal amount.
f(m,n) --- > f(rcosθ, rsinθ)
DFT[f(rcosθ, rsinθ)]--- > F[R cosϕ,sinϕ]
DFT[f(rcos(θ+θ0))] --- > F[Rcos(ϕ + ϕ0),Rsin(ϕ+ϕ0)]
WALSH TRANSFORM:
We define now the 1-D Walsh transform as follows:
The above is equivalent to:
The transform kernel values are obtained from:
Therefore, the array formed by the Walsh matrix is a real symmetric

matrix. It is easily shown that it has orthogonal columns and rows
1-D Inverse Walsh Transform
The above is again equivalent to

The array formed by the inverse Walsh matrix is identical to the one formed by the forward
Walsh matrix apart from a multiplicative factor N.
Walsh Transform
We define now the 2-D Walsh transform as a straightforward extension of the 1-D transform:
•The above is equivalent to:
Inverse Walsh Transform

We define now the Inverse 2-D Walsh transform. It is identical to the forward 2-D Walsh
transform
•The above is equivalent to:
HADAMARD TRANSFORM:
We define now the 2-D Hadamard transform. It is similar to the 2-D Walsh transform.

We define now the Inverse 2-D Hadamard transform. It is identical to the forward 2-D
Hadamard transform.
DISCRETE COSINE TRANSFORM (DCT) :

The discrete cosine transform (DCT) helps separate the image into parts (or spectral sub-
bands) of differing importance (with respect to the image's visual quality). The DCT is
similar to the discrete Fourier transform: it transforms a signal or image from the spatial
domain to the frequency domain.
The general equation for a 1D (N data items) DCT is defined by the following equation:
and the corresponding inverse 1D DCT transform is simple F-1(u), i.e.:

where
The general equation for a 2D (N by M image) DCT is defined by the following equation:
and the corresponding inverse 2D DCT transform is simple F-1(u,v), i.e.:

where

The basic operation of the DCT is as follows:

 The input image is N by M;
 f(i,j) is the intensity of the pixel in row i and column j;
 F(u,v) is the DCT coefficient in row k1 and column k2 of the DCT matrix.
 For most images, much of the signal energy lies at low frequencies; these appear in
the upper left corner of the DCT.
 Compression is achieved since the lower right values represent higher frequencies,
and are often small - small enough to be neglected with little visible distortion.
 The DCT input is an 8 by 8 array of integers. This array contains each pixel's gray
scale level;
 8 bit pixels have levels from 0 to 255.
DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM (DWT):
There are many discrete wavelet transforms they are Coiflet, Daubechies, Haar,
Symmlet etc.
Haar Wavelet Transform
The Haar wavelet is the first known wavelet. The Haar wavelet is also the simplest
possible wavelet. The Haar Wavelet can also be described as a step function f(x) shown in Eq
1 0 ≤ x< ½,
f (x)  -1 ½ ≤ x < 1,
0 otherwise.
Each step in the one dimensional Haar wavelet transform calculates a set of wavelet
coefficients (Hi-D) and a set of averages (Lo-D). If a data set s0, s1,…, sN-1 contains N
elements, there will be N/2 averages and N/2 coefficient values. The averages are stored in
the lower half of the N element array and the coefficients are stored in the upper half.
The Haar equations to calculate an average ( ai ) and a wavelet coefficient ( ci ) from

the data set are shown below Eq
si  si  1 si  si  1
ai  ci 
2 2

In wavelet terminology the Haar average is calculated by the scaling function. The
coefficient is calculated by the wavelet function.
Two-Dimensional Wavelets
The two-dimensional wavelet transform is separable, which means we can apply a
one-dimensional wavelet transform to an image. We apply one-dimensional DWT to all rows
and then one-dimensional DWTs to all columns of the result. This is called the standard
decomposition and it is illustrated in figure 4.8.
Figure The standard decomposition of the two-dimensional DWT.

We can also apply a wavelet transform differently. Suppose we apply a wavelet
transform to an image by rows, then by columns, but using our transform at one scale only.
This technique will produce a result in four quarters: the top left will be a half-sized version
of the image and the other quarter‟s high-pass filtered images. These quarters will contain
horizontal, vertical, and diagonal edges of the image. We then apply a one-scale DWT to the
top-left quarter, creating smaller images, and so on. This is called the nonstandard
decomposition, and is illustrated in figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9 The nonstandard decomposition of the two-dimensional DWT.

Steps for performing a one-scale wavelet transform are given below:

Step 1: Convolve the image rows with the low-pass filter.
Step 2 : Convolve the columns of the result of step 1 with the low-pass filter and rescale this
to half its size by sub-sampling.
Step 3 : Convolve the result of step 1 with high-pass filter and again sub-sample to obtain an
image of half the size.
Step 4 : Convolve the original image rows with the high-pass filter.
Step 5: Convolve the columns of the result of step 4 with the low-pass filter and recycle this
to half its size by sub-sampling.
Step 6 :Convolve the result of step 4 with the high-pass filter and again sub-sample to obtain
an image of half the size.
At the end of these steps there are four images, each half the size of original. They are
1. The low-pass / low-pass image (LL), the result of step 2,
2. The low-pass / high-pass image (LH), the result of step 3,
3. The high-pass / low-pass image (HL), the result of step 5, and
4. The high-pass / high-pass image (HH), the result of step 6
These images can be placed into a single image grid as shown in the figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10 the one-scale wavelet transforms in terms of filters.

Figure 4.11 describes the basic dwt decomposition steps for an image in a block
diagram form. The two-dimensional DWT leads to a decomposition of image into four
components CA, CH, CV and CD, where CA are approximation and CH, CV, CD are details
in three orientations (horizontal, vertical, and diagonal), these are same as LL, LH, HL, and
HH. In these coefficients the watermark can be embedded.

Figure 4.11 DWT decomposition steps for an image.
Figure Original image and DWT decomposed image.
An example of a discrete wavelet transform on an image is shown in Figure above.

On the left is the original image data, and on the right are the coefficients after a single pass
of the wavelet transform. The low-pass data is the recognizable portion of the image in the
upper left corner. The high-pass components are almost invisible because image data contains
mostly low frequency information.

SLANT TRANSFORM:
The Slant transform matrix of order N x N is the recursive expression S n is given by

1 0 1 0
0 0
aN bN -aN bN SN/2 0
0 I(N/2)-2 0 I(N/2)-2
:
0 1 0 -1
0 0
-bN aN -bN aN 0 SN/2
0 I(N/2)-2 0 -I(N/2)-2
Where Im is the identity matrix of order M x M, and
1 1
S2 =
1 -1
The coefficients are

2 1/2
aN = 3N
2
4(N -1)
and
The coefficients are
2 1/2
aN = N -4
2
4(N -1)
The slant transform for N = 4 will be
1 1 1 1
S4 =
1 -1 -1 -1

Properties of Slant transform
(i) The slant transform is real and orthogonal.
S = S*
S-1 = ST
(ii) The slant transform is fast, it can be implemented in (N log 2N) operations on an N x 1 vector.
(iii) The energy deal for images in this transform is rated in very good to excellent range.
(iv) The mean vectors for slant transform matrix S are not sequentially ordered for n ≥ 3.
HOTELLING TRANSFORM:
The basic principle of hotelling transform is the statistical properties of vector representation.
Consider a population of random vectors of the form,
X1
X2
.
X =
.
.
Xn
And the mean vector of the population is defined as the expected value of x i.e.,
mx = E{x}
The suffix m represents that the mean is associated with the population of x vectors. The
expected value of a vector or matrix is obtained by taking the expected value of each elememt.
The covariance matrix Cx in terms of x and mx is given as
Cx = E{(x-mx) (x-mx)T}
T denotes the transpose operation. Since, x is n dimensional, {(x-mx) (x-mx)T} will be of n

x n dimension. The covariance matrix is real and symmetric. If elements xi and xj are uncorrelated,
their covariance is zero and, therefore, cij = cji = 0.
For M vector samples from a random population, the mean vector and covariance matrix
can be approximated from the samples by
mx k and
T
Cx kX k - m x mxT.

UNIT -2
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT
Image enhancement approaches fall into two broad categories: spatial domain
methods and frequency domain methods. The term spatial domain refers to the image plane
itself, and approaches in this category are based on direct manipulation of pixels in an image.
Frequency domain processing techniques are based on modifying the Fourier
transform of an image. Enhancing an image provides better contrast and a more detailed image as
compare to non enhanced image. Image enhancement has very good applications. It is used to
enhance medical images, images captured in remote sensing, images from satellite e.t.c. As indicated
previously, the term spatial domain refers to the aggregate of pixels composing an image.
Spatial domain methods are procedures that operate directly on these pixels. Spatial domain
processes will be denoted by the expression.
g(x,y) = T[f(x,y)]
where f(x, y) is the input image, g(x, y) is the processed image, and T is an operator
on f, defined over some neighborhood of (x, y). The principal approach in defining a
neighborhood about a point (x, y) is to use a square or rectangular subimage area centered at
(x, y), as Fig. 2.1 shows. The center of the subimage is moved from pixel to pixel starting,
say, at the top left corner. The operator T is applied at each location (x, y) to yield the output,
g, at that location. The process utilizes only the pixels in the area of the image spanned by the
neighborhood.
Fig.: 3x3 neighborhood about a point (x,y) in an image.
ENHANCEMENT THROUGH POINT PROCESSING AND ITS TYPES:

The simplest form of T is when the neighborhood is of size 1*1 (that is, a single pixel). In this
case, g depends only on the value of f at (x, y), and T becomes a gray-level (also called an
intensity or mapping) transformation function of the form

s=T(r)
where r is the pixels of the input image and s is the pixels of the output image. T is a
transformation function that maps each value of „r‟ to each value of „s‟.
For example, if T(r) has the form shown in Fig. 2.2(a), the effect of this transformation would
be to produce an image of higher contrast than the original by darkening the levels below m
and brightening the levels above m in the original image. In this technique, known as
contrast stretching, the values of r below m are compressed by the transformation function
into a narrow range of s, toward black. The opposite effect takes place for values of r above
m.
In the limiting case shown in Fig. 2.2(b), T(r) produces a two-level (binary) image. A
mapping of this form is called a thresholding function.
One of the principal approaches in this formulation is based on the use of so-called
masks (also referred to as filters, kernels, templates, or windows). Basically, a mask is a small
(say, 3*3) 2-D array, such as the one shown in Fig. 2.1, in which the values of the mask
coefficients determine the nature of the process, such as image sharpening. Enhancement
techniques based on this type of approach often are referred to as mask processing or
filtering.
Fig. 2.2 Gray level transformation functions for contrast enhancement.

Image enhancement can be done through gray level transformations which are
discussed below.
HISTOGRAM PROCESSING:
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a discrete function
of the form
H(rk)=nk
where rk is the kth gray level and nk is the number of pixels in the image having the level rk..

A normalized histogram is given by the equation

p(rk)=nk/n for k=0,1,2,…..,L-1
P(rk) gives the estimate of the probability of occurrence of gray level rk.
The sum of all components of a normalized histogram is equal to 1.
The histogram plots are simple plots of H(rk)=nk versus rk.
In the dark image the components of the histogram are concentrated on the low (dark) side of the
gray scale. In case of bright image the histogram components are baised towards the high side of
the gray scale. The histogram of a low contrast image will be narrow and will be centered
towards the middle of the gray scale.
The components of the histogram in the high contrast image cover a broad range of the gray
scale. The net effect of this will be an image that shows a great deal of gray levels details and has
high dynamic range.

Histogram Equalization:
Histogram equalization is a common technique for enhancing the appearance of images. Suppose
we have an image which is predominantly dark. Then its histogram would be skewed towards the
lower end of the grey scale and all the image detail are compressed into the dark end of the
histogram. If we could „stretch out‟ the grey levels at the dark end to produce a more uniformly
distributed histogram then the image would become much clearer.
Let there be a continuous function with r being gray levels of the image to be enhanced. The
range of r is [0, 1] with r=0 repressing black and r=1 representing white. The transformation
function is of the form
S=T(r) where 0<r<1
It produces a level s for every pixel value r in the original image.

The transformation function is assumed to fulfill two condition T(r) is single valued and
monotonically increasing in the internal 0<T(r)<1 for 0<r<1.The transformation function
should be single valued so that the inverse transformations should exist. Monotonically
increasing condition preserves the increasing order from black to white in the output image.
The second conditions guarantee that the output gray levels will be in the same range as the
input levels. The gray levels of the image may be viewed as random variables in the interval
[0.1]. The most fundamental descriptor of a random variable is its probability density
function (PDF) Pr(r) and Ps(s) denote the probability density functions of random variables r
and s respectively. Basic results from an elementary probability theory states that if Pr(r) and
Tr are known and T-1(s) satisfies conditions (a), then the probability density function Ps(s) of
the transformed variable is given by the formula
Thus the PDF of the transformed variable s is the determined by the gray levels PDF of the
input image and by the chosen transformations function.
A transformation function of a particular importance in image processing
This is the cumulative distribution function of r.

L is the total number of possible gray levels in the image.
Histogram Matching
In some cases it may be desirable to specify the shape of the histogram that we wish the
processed image to have. Histogram equalization does not allow interactive image
enhancement and generates only one result: an approximation to a uniform histogram.
Sometimes we need to be able to specify particular histogram shapes capable of highlighting
certain gray-level ranges. The method use to generate a processed image that has a specified
histogram is called histogram matching or histogram specification.

Algorithm
1. Compute sk=Pf (k), k = 0, …, L-1, the cumulative normalized histogram of f .
2. Compute G(k), k = 0, …, L-1, the transformation function, from the given histogram hz
3. Compute G-1(sk) for each k = 0, …, L-1 using an iterative method (iterate on z), or in effect,
directly compute G-1(Pf (k))
4. Transform f using G-1(Pf (k))

BASIC GRAY LEVELTRANSFORMATIONS:
 Image negative
 Log transformations
 Power law transformations
 Piecewise-Linear transformation functions
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION:
First we will look at the linear transformation. Linear transformation includes simple
identity and negative transformation. Identity transformation has been discussed in our
tutorial of image transformation, but a brief description of this transformation has been given
here.
Identity transition is shown by a straight line. In this transition, each value of the
input image is directly mapped to each other value of output image. That results in the same
input image and output image. And hence is called identity transformation. It has been
shown below:
Fig. Linear transformation between input and output.

NEGATIVE TRANSFORMATION:
The second linear transformation is negative transformation, which is invert of
identity transformation. In negative transformation, each value of the input image is
subtracted from the L-1 and mapped onto the output image
IMAGE NEGATIVE: The image negative with gray level value in the range of [0, L-1] is obtained by
negativetransformationgivenby

S = T(r) or
S = L-1 – r
Where r= graylevel value at pixel (x,y)
Lis the largest graylevel consists in the image
It results in getting photograph negative. It is useful when for enhancing white details embedded in dark
regions ofthe image.
The overall graph of these transitions has been shown below.
Negative
nth root
Log
nth power
Identity Inverse Log
Input gray level, r
Fig. Somebasic gray-level transformation functions used for image enhancement.

In this case the following transition has been done.
s = (L – 1) – r
since the input image of Einstein is an 8 bpp image, so the number of levels in this image are
256. Putting 256 in the equation, we get this
s = 255 – r
So each value is subtracted by 255 and the result image has been shown above. So what
happens is that, the lighter pixels become dark and the darker picture becomes light. And it
results in image negative.
It has been shown in the graph below.
Fig. Negative transformations.

LOGARITHMICTRANSFORMATIONS:
Logarithmic transformation further contains two type of transformation. Log transformation
and inverse log transformation.
LOGTRANSFORMATIONS:
The log transformations can be defined by this formula
s = c log(r + 1).
Where s and r are the pixel values of the output and the input image and c is a constant. The
value 1 is added to each of the pixel value of the input image because if there is a pixel
intensity of 0 in the image, then log (0) is equal to infinity. So 1 is added, to make the
minimum value at least 1.
During log transformation, the dark pixels in an image are expanded as compare to the
higher pixel values. The higher pixel values are kind of compressed in log transformation.
This result in following image enhancement.
An another way of representing LOG TRANSFORMATIONS: Enhance details in the darker regions of an
image at theexpenseof detail in brighter regions.
T(f) = C * log (1+r)
 Here C is constantand r ≥ 0.
 The shape of the curve shows that this transformation maps the narrow range of low gray level
values in theinputimageintoa widerrangeofoutputimage.
 Theoppositeis trueforhighlevelvalues of inputimage.
Fig. log transformation curve input vs output

POWER – LAWTRANSFORMATIONS:
There are further two transformation is power law transformations, that include nth
power and nth root transformation. These transformations can be given by the expression:
s=crγ
This symbol γ is called gamma, due to which this transformation is also known as
gamma transformation.
Variation in the value of γ varies the enhancement of the images. Different display
devices / monitors have their own gamma correction, that‟s why they display their image at
different intensity.
γ
where c and g are positive constants. Sometimes Eq. (6) is written as S = C (r +ε)
to account for an offset (that is, a measurable output when the input is zero). Plots of s versus
r for various values of γ are shown in Fig. 2.10. As in the case of the log transformation,
power-law curves with fractional values of γ map a narrow range of dark input values into a
wider range of output values, with the opposite being true for higher values of input levels.
Unlike the log function, however, we notice here a family of possible transformation curves
obtained simply by varying γ.
In Fig that curves generated with values of γ>1 have exactly The opposite effect as those
generated with values of γ<1. Finally, we Note that Eq. (6) reduces to the identity
transformation when c=γ=1.
Fig. 2.13 Plot of the equation S = crγ for various values of γ (c =1 in all cases).
This type of transformation is used for enhancing images for different type of display
devices. The gamma of different display devices is different. For example Gamma of CRT
lies in between of 1.8 to 2.5, that means the image displayed on CRT is dark.
Varying gamma (γ) obtains familyof possible transformation curves S = C* r γ

Here C and γ are positive constants. Plot of Sversus r forvarious values of γ is

γ > 1 compresses darkvalues
Expandsbrightvalues
γ < 1 (similar to Logtransformation)
Expandsdark values
Compressesbrightvalues
When C= γ = 1 , it reduces to identitytransformation .
CORRECTING GAMMA:
s=crγ
s=cr (1/2.5)
The same image but with different gamma values has been shown here.
Piecewise-Linear Transformation Functions:
A complementary approach to the methods discussed in the previous three sections is
to use piecewise linear functions. The principal advantage of piecewise linear functions over
the types of functions we have discussed thus far is that the form of piecewise functions can
be arbitrarily complex.
The principal disadvantage of piecewise functions is that their specification requires
considerably more user input. Contrast stretching: One of the simplest piecewise linear functions is
a contrast-stretching transformation. Low-contrast images can result from poor illumination, lack
of dynamic range in the imaging sensor, or even wrong setting of a lens aperture during image
acquisition. S= T(r)
Figure x(a) shows a typical transformation used for contrast stretching. The locations
of points (r1, s1) and (r2, s2) control the shape of the transformation
Function. If r1=s1 and r2=s2, the transformation is a linear function that produces No
changes in gray levels. If r1=r2, s1=0and s2= L-1, the transformation Becomes a thresholding
function that creates a binary image, as illustrated In fig. 2.2(b).
Intermediate values of ar1, s1b and ar2, s2b produce various degrees Of spread in the
gray levels of the output image, thus affecting its contrast. In general, r1≤ r2 and s1 ≤ s2 is
assumed so that the function is single valued and Monotonically increasing.

Fig. x Contrast stretching. (a) Form of transformation function. (b) A low-contrast stretching.
(c) Result of contrast stretching. (d) Result of thresholding (original image courtesy of
Dr.Roger Heady, Research School of Biological Sciences, Australian National University
Canberra Australia.
Figure x(b) shows an 8-bit image with low contrast. Fig. x(c) shows the result of contrast
stretching, obtained by setting (r1, s1 )=(rmin, 0) and (r2, s2)=(r max,L-1) where rmin and r max
denote the minimum and maximum gray levels in the image, respectively.Thus, the
transformation function stretched the levels linearly from their original range to the full range
[0, L-1]. Finally, Fig. x(d) shows the result of using the thresholding function defined
previously, with r1=r2=m, the mean gray level in the image. The original image on which
these results are based is a scanning electron microscope image of pollen, magnified
approximately 700 times.
Gray-level slicing:
Highlighting a specific range of gray levels in an image often is desired. Applications
include enhancing features such as masses of water in satellite imagery and enhancing flaws
in X-ray images.
There are several ways of doing level slicing, but most of them are variations of two
basic themes.One approach is to display a high value for all gray levels in the range of
interest and a low value for all other gray levels.

This transformation, shown in Fig. y(a), produces a binary image. The second
approach, based on the transformation shown in Fig.y (b), brightens the desired range of gray
levels but preserves the background and gray-level tonalities in the image. Figure y (c) shows
a gray-scale image, and Fig. y(d) shows the result of using the transformation in Fig.
y(a).Variations of the two transformations shown in Fig. are easy to formulate.
Fig. y (a)This transformation highlights range [A,B] of gray levels and reduces all others to a
constant level (b) This transformation highlights range [A,B] but preserves all other levels.
(c) An image . (d) Result of using the transformation in (a).
Bit-Plane Slicing:
Instead of highlighting gray-level ranges, highlighting the contribution made to total
image appearance by specific bits might be desired. Suppose that each pixel in an image is
represented by 8 bits. Imagine that the image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from
bit-plane 0 for the least significant bit to bit plane 7 for the most significant bit. In terms of 8-
bit bytes, plane 0 contains all the lowest order bits in the bytes comprising the pixels in the
image and plane 7 contains all the high-order bits.
Figure 3.12 illustrates these ideas, and Fig. 3.14 shows the various bit planes for the
image shown in Fig. 3.13. Note that the higher-order bits (especially the top four) contain the
majority of the visually significant data.The other bit planes contribute to more subtle details
in the image. Separating a digital image into its bit planes is useful for analyzing the relative
importance played by each bit of the image, a process that aids in determining the adequacy
of the number of bits used to quantize each pixel.

In terms of bit-plane extraction for an 8-bit image, it is not difficult to show that the
(binary) image for bit-plane 7 can be obtained by processing the input image with a
thresholding gray-level transformation function that (1) maps all levels in the image between
0 and 127 to one level (for example, 0); and (2) maps all levels between 129 and 255 to
another (for example, 255).The binary image for bit-plane 7 in Fig. 3.14 was obtained in just
this manner. It is left as an exercise
(Problem 3.3) to obtain the gray-level transformation functions that would yield the other bit
planes.
ADAPTIVE FILTER:
Adaptive filters are filters whose behavior changes based on statistical characteristics
of the image inside the filter region defined by the m X n rectangular window Sxy.
Adaptive, local noise reduction filter:
The simplest statistical measures of a random variable are its mean and variance.
These are reasonable parameters on which to base an adaptive filler because they are
quantities closely related to the appearance of an image. The mean gives a measure of
average gray level in the region over which the mean is computed, and the variance gives a
measure of average contrast in that region.
This filter is to operate on a local region, Sxy. The response of the filter at any point (x,
y) on which the region is centered is to be based on four quantities: (a) g(x, y), the value of
the noisy image at (x, y); (b) a2, the variance of the noise corrupting /(x, y) to form g(x, y);
(c) ray, the local mean of the pixels in S xy; and (d) σ2L , the local variance of the pixels in S xy.
The behavior of the filter to be as follows:

1. If σ2η is zero, the filler should return simply the value of g (x, y). This is the trivial, zero-noise
case in which g (x, y) is equal to f (x, y).
2. If the local variance is high relative to σ2η the filter should return a value close to g (x, y). A
high local variance typically is associated with edges, and these should be preserved.
3. If the two variances are equal, we want the filter to return the arithmetic mean value of the
pixels in Sxy. This condition occurs when the local area has the same properties as the overall
image, and local noise is to be reduced simply by averaging.
Adaptive local noise filter is given by,
The only quantity that needs to be known or estimated is the variance of the overall noise,
a2. The other parameters are computed from the pixels in Sxy at each location (x, y) on
which the filter window is centered.
Adaptive median filter:
The median filter performs well as long as the spatial density of the impulse noise is not large
(as a rule of thumb, Pa and Pb less than 0.2). The adaptive median filtering can handle
impulse noise with probabilities even larger than these. An additional benefit of the adaptive
median filter is that it seeks to preserve detail while smoothing nonimpulse noise,
something that the "traditional" median filter does not do. The adaptive median filter also
works in a rectangular window area Sxy. Unlike those filters, however, the adaptive median
filter changes (increases) the size of Sxy during filter operation, depending on certain
conditions. The output of the filter is a single value used to replace the value of the pixel at
(x, y), the particular point on which the window Sxy is centered at a given time.
Consider the following notation:
zmin = minimum gray level value in S xy
zmax = maximum gray level value in Sxy
zmcd = median of gray levels in S xy
zxy = gray level at coordinates (x, y)
Smax = maximum allowed size of Sxy.

The adaptive median filtering algorithm works in two levels, denoted level A and level B,
as follows:
Level A: A1 = zmed - zmin

A2 = zmed - zmax
If A1 > 0 AND A2 < 0, Go to level B
Else increase the window size
If window size ≤ Smax repeat level A
Else output zxy
Level B: B1 = zxy - zmin
B2 = zxy - zmax
If B1> 0 AND B2 < 0, output zxy
Else output zmed
SPATIAL DOMAIN HIGHPASS FILTERS:
Fig.. Spatial representation of typical (a) ideal (b) Butter-worth and (c) Gaussian
frequency domain high-pass filters, and corresponding intensity profiles through their centers.
We can expect IHPFs to have the same ringing properties as ILPFs. This is demonstrated
clearly in Fig.. which consists of various IHPF results using the original image in Fig.(a) with
D0 set to 30, 60,and 160 pixels, respectively. The ringing in Fig. (a) is so severe that it
produced distorted, thickened object boundaries (e.g.,look at the large letter ―a‖). Edges of the
top three circles do not show well because they are not as strong as the other edges in the
image (the intensity of these three objects is much closer to the background intensity, giving
discontinuities of smaller magnitude).

IDEAL HIGH-PASS FILTER:

A 2-D ideal high-pass filter (IHPF) is defined as
H (u,v) = 0, if D(u,v) ≤ D0
1, if D(u,v) ˃ D0
Where D0 is the cutoff frequency and D(u,v) is given by eq. As intended, the IHPF is
the opposite of the ILPF in the sense that it sets to zero all frequencies inside a circle of
radius D0 while passing, without attenuation, all frequencies outside the circle. As in
case of the ILPF, the IHPF is not physically realizable.
FILTERED RESULTS: IHPF:
Fig.. Results of high-pass filtering the image in Fig.(a) using an IHPF with D0 = 30,
60, and 160.
The situation improved somewhat with D0 = 60. Edge distortion is quite evident still,
but now we begin to see filtering on the smaller objects. Due to the now familiar inverse
relationship between the frequency and spatial domains, we know that the spot size of this
filter is smaller than the spot of the filter with D0 = 30. The result for D0 = 160 is closer to
what a high-pass filtered image should look like. Here, the edges are much cleaner and less
distorted, and the smaller objects have been filtered properly.
Of course, the constant background in all images is zero in these high-pass filtered images
because highpass filtering is analogous to differentiation in the spatial domain.
IMAGE ENHANCEMENT IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN

BLURRING/NOISE REDUCTION: Noise characterized by sharp transitions in image
intensity. Such transitions contribute significantly to high frequency components of Fourier
transform. Intuitively, attenuating certain high frequency components result in blurring and
reduction of image noise.
IDEAL LOW-PASS FILTER:
Cuts off all high-frequency components at a distance greater than a certain distance
from origin (cutoff frequency).

H (u,v) = 1, if D(u,v) ≤ D0
0, if D(u,v) ˃ D0
Where D0 is a positive constant and D(u,v) is the distance between a point (u,v) in the
frequency domain and the center of the frequency rectangle; that is
D(u,v) = [(u-P/2)2 + (v-Q/2)2] 1/2

Where as P and Q are the padded sizes from the basic equations
Wraparound error in their circular convolution can be avoided by padding these
functions with zeros,
VISUALIZATION: IDEAL LOW PASS FILTER:

Aa shown in fig.below
Fig: ideal low pass filter 3-D view and 2-D view and line graph.
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT CUTOFF FREQUENCIES:

Fig.below(a) Test pattern of size 688x688 pixels, and (b) its Fourier spectrum. The spectrum
is double the image size due to padding but is shown in half size so that it fits in the page.
The superimposed circles have radii equal to 10, 30, 60, 160 and 460 with respect to the full-
size spectrum image. These radii enclose 87.0, 93.1, 95.7, 97.8 and 99.2% of the padded
image power respectively.
Fig: (a) Test pattern of size 688x688 pixels (b) its Fourier spectrum

Fig: (a) original image, (b)-(f) Results of filtering using ILPFs with cutoff frequencies
set at radii values 10, 30, 60, 160 and 460, as shown in fig.2.2.2(b). The power removed by
these filters was 13, 6.9, 4.3, 2.2 and 0.8% of the total, respectively.
As the cutoff frequency decreases,

 image becomes more blurred
 Noise becomes increases
 Analogous to larger spatial filter sizes
The severe blurring in this image is a clear indication that most of the sharp detail
information in the picture is contained in the 13% power removed by the filter. As the filter
radius is increases less and less power is removed, resulting in less blurring. Fig. (c ) through
(e) are characterized by ―ringing‖ , which becomes finer in texture as the amount of high
frequency content removed decreases.
WHY IS THERE RINGING?
Ideal low-pass filter function is a rectangular function
The inverse Fourier transform of a rectangular function is a sinc function.

Fig. Spatial representation of ILPFs of order 1 and 20 and corresponding intensity

profiles through the center of the filters( the size of all cases is 1000x1000 and the cutoff
frequency is 5), observe how ringing increases as a function of filter order.
BUTTERWORTH LOW-PASS FILTER:
Transfor funtion of a Butterworth lowpass filter (BLPF) of order n, and with cutoff
frequency at a distance D0 from the origin, is defined as
Transfer function does not have sharp discontinuity establishing cutoff between
passed and filtered frequencies.
Cut off frequency D0 defines point at which H(u,v) = 0.5
Fig. (a) perspective plot of a Butterworth lowpass-filter transfer function. (b) Filter displayed as an
image. (c)Filter radial cross sections of order 1 through 4.

Unlike the ILPF, the BLPF transfer function does not have a sharp discontinuity that
gives a clear cutoff between passed and filtered frequencies.
BUTTERWORTH LOW-PASS FILTERS OF DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES:
Fig. (a) Original image.(b)-(f) Results of filtering using BLPFs of order 2, with cutoff
frequencies at the radii
Fig. shows the results of applying the BLPF of eq. to fig.(a), with n=2 and D0 equal to
the five radii in fig.(b) for the ILPF, we note here a smooth transition in blurring as a function
of increasing cutoff frequency. Moreover, no ringing is visible in any of the images
processed with this particular BLPF, a fact attributed to the filter‟s smooth transition
between low and high frequencies.
A BLPF of order 1 has no ringing in the spatial domain. Ringing generally is
imperceptible in filters of order 2, but can become significant in filters of higher order.
Fig.shows a comparison between the spatial representation of BLPFs of various

orders (using a cutoff frequency of 5 in all cases). Shown also is the intensity profile along a
horizontal scan line through the center of each filter. The filter of order 2 does show mild
ringing and small negative values, but they certainly are less pronounced than in the ILPF. A
butter worth filter of order 20 exhibits characteristics similar to those of the ILPF (in the
limit, both filters are identical).

Fig.2.2.7 (a)-(d) Spatial representation of BLPFs of order 1, 2, 5 and 20 and

corresponding intensity profiles through the center of the filters (the size in all cases is 1000 x
1000 and the cutoff frequency is 5) Observe how ringing increases as a function of filter
order.
GAUSSIAN LOWPASS FILTERS:
The form of these filters in two dimensions is given by
 This transfer function is smooth , like Butterworth filter.

 Gaussian in frequency domain remains a Gaussian in spatial domain
 Advantage: No ringing artifacts.
Where D0 is the cutoff frequency. When D(u,v) = D0, the GLPF is down to 0.607 of its
maximum value. This means that a spatial Gaussian filter, obtained by computing the IDFT
of above equation., will have no ringing. Fig..shows a perspective plot, image display and
radial cross sections of a GLPF function.

Fig.(a) Original image. (b)-(f) Results of filtering using GLPFs with cutoff
frequencies at the radii shown in fig.2.2.2. compare with fig.2.2.3 and fig.2.2.6
Fig. (a) Original image (784x 732 pixels). (b) Result of filtering using a GLPF with
D0 = 100. (c) Result of filtering using a GLPF with D0 = 80. Note the reduction in fine skin
lines in the magnified sections in (b) and (c).
Fig. shows an application of lowpass filtering for producing a smoother, softer-
looking result from a sharp original. For human faces, the typical objective is to reduce the
sharpness of fine skin lines and small blemished.

IMAGE SHARPENING USING FREQUENCY DOMAIN FILTERS:

An image can be smoothed by attenuating the high-frequency components of its
Fourier transform. Because edges and other abrupt changes in intensities are associated with
high-frequency components, image sharpening can be achieved in the frequency domain by
high pass filtering, which attenuates the low-frequency components without disturbing high-
frequency information in the Fourier transform.
The filter function H(u,v) are understood to be discrete functions of size PxQ; that is
the discrete frequency variables are in the range u = 0,1,2,…….P-1 and v = 0,1,2,…….Q-1.
The meaning of sharpening is
 Edges and fine detail characterized by sharp transitions in image intensity
 Such transitions contribute significantly to high frequency components of
Fourier transform
 Intuitively, attenuating certain low frequency components and preserving high
frequency components result in sharpening.
Intended goal is to do the reverse operation of low-pass filters
 When low-pass filter attenuated frequencies, high-pass filter passes them
 When high-pass filter attenuates frequencies, low-pass filter passes them.
A high pass filter is obtained from a given low pass filter using the equation.
H hp (u,v) = 1- Htp (u,v)
Where Hlp (u,v) is the transfer function of the low-pass filter. That is when the low-
pass filter attenuates frequencies, the high-pass filter passed them, and vice-versa.
We consider ideal, Butter-worth, and Gaussian high-pass filters. As in the previous
section, we illustrate the characteristics of these filters in both the frequency and spatial
domains. Fig.. shows typical 3-D plots, image representations and cross sections for these
filters. As before, we see that the Butter-worth filter represents a transition between the
sharpness of the ideal filter and the broad smoothness of the Gaussian filter. Fig.discussed in
the sections the follow, illustrates what these filters look like in the spatial domain. The
spatial filters were obtained and displayed by using the procedure used.

Fig: Top row: Perspective plot, image representation, and cross section of a typical
ideal high-pass filter. Middle and bottom rows: The same sequence for typical butter-worth
and Gaussian high-pass filters.
BUTTER-WORTH HIGH-PASS FILTERS:

A 2-D Butter-worth high-pass filter (BHPF) of order n and cutoff frequency D 0 is defined as
Where D(u,v) is given by Eq.(3). This expression follows directly from Eqs.(3) and (6). The
middle row of Fig.2.2.11. shows an image and cross section of the BHPF function.
Butter-worth high-pass filter to behave smoother than IHPFs. Fig.2.2.14.shows the
performance of a BHPF of order 2 and with D0 set to the same values as in Fig.2.2.13. The
boundaries are much less distorted than in Fig.2.2.13. even for the smallest value of cutoff
frequency.

FILTERED RESULTS: BHPF:
Fig. Results of high-pass filtering the image in Fig.2.2.2(a) using a BHPF of order 2
with D0 = 30, 60, and 160 corresponding to the circles in Fig.2.2.2(b). These results are much
smoother than those obtained with an IHPF.
GAUSSIAN HIGH-PASS FILTERS:
The transfer function of the Gaussian high-pass filter(GHPF) with cutoff frequency
locus at a distance D0 from the center of the frequency rectangle is given by
Where D(u,v) is given by Eq.(4). This expression follows directly from Eqs.(2) and
(6). The third row in Fig.2.2.11. shows a perspective plot, image and cross section of the
GHPF function. Following the same format as for the BHPF, we show in Fig.2.2.15.
comparable results using GHPFs. As expected, the results obtained are more gradual than
with the previous two filters.
FILTERED RESULTS:GHPF:
Fig. Results of high-pass filtering the image in fig.(a) using a GHPF with D0 = 30, 60
and 160, corresponding to the circles in Fig.(b).

UNIT-3
IMAGE RESTORATION
IMAGE RESTORATION:
Restoration improves image in some predefined sense. It is an objective process.
Restoration attempts to reconstruct an image that has been degraded by using a priori
knowledge of the degradation phenomenon. These techniques are oriented toward
modeling the degradation and then applying the inverse process in order to recover the
original image. Restoration techniques are based on mathematical or probabilistic
models of image processing. Enhancement, on the other hand is based on human
subjective preferences regarding what constitutes a ―good‖ enhancement result. Image
Restoration refers to a class of methods that aim to remove or reduce the degradations
that have occurred while the digital image was being obtained. All natural images when
displayed have gone through some sort of degradation:
 During display mode
 Acquisition mode, or
 Processing mode
 Sensor noise
 Blur due to camera mis focus
 Relative object-camera motion
 Random atmospheric turbulence
 Others
Degradation Model:
Degradation process operates on a degradation function that operates on an input
image with an additive noise term. Input image is represented by using the notation
f(x,y), noise term can be represented as η(x,y).These two terms when combined gives
the result as g(x,y). If we are given g(x,y), some knowledge about the degradation
function H or J and some knowledge about the additive noise teem η(x,y), the objective
of restoration is to obtain an estimate f'(x,y) of the original image. We want the estimate
to be as close as possible to the original image. The more we know about h and η , the
closer f(x,y) will be to f'(x,y). If it is a linear position invariant process, then degraded
image is given in the spatial domain by
g(x,y)=f(x,y)*h(x,y)+η(x,y)

h(x,y) is spatial representation of degradation function and symbol * represents

convolution. In frequency domain we may write this equation as
G(u,v)=F(u,v)H(u,v)+N(u,v)
The terms in the capital letters are the Fourier Transform of the corresponding terms in
the spatial domain.
Fig: A model of the image Degradation / Restoration process

Noise Models:
The principal source of noise in digital images arises during image acquisition
and /or transmission. The performance of imaging sensors is affected by a variety of
factors, such as environmental conditions during image acquisition and by the quality of
the sensing elements themselves. Images are corrupted during transmission principally
due to interference in the channels used for transmission. Since main sources of noise
presented in digital images are resulted from atmospheric disturbance and image sensor
circuitry, following assumptions can be made i.e. the noise model is spatial invariant
(independent of spatial location). The noise model is uncorrelated with the object
function.
Gaussian Noise:
These noise models are used frequently in practices because of its tractability in both spatial
and frequency domain. The PDF of Gaussian random variable is
Where z represents the gray level, μ= mean of average value of z, σ= standard deviation.

Rayleigh Noise:
Unlike Gaussian distribution, the Rayleigh distribution is no symmetric. It is given by
the formula.
The mean and variance of this density is
(iii) Gamma Noise:

The PDF of Erlang noise is given by
The mean and variance of this density are given by

Its shape is similar to Rayleigh disruption. This equation is referred to as gamma density
it is correct only when the denominator is the gamma function.
(iv) Exponential Noise:
Exponential distribution has an exponential shape. The PDF of exponential noise is given as
Where a>0. The mean and variance of this density are given by
(v) Uniform Noise:

The PDF of uniform noise is given by
The mean and variance of this noise is

(vi) Impulse (salt & pepper) Noise:

In this case, the noise is signal dependent, and is multiplied to the image.
The PDF of bipolar (impulse) noise is given by
If b>a, gray level b will appear as a light dot in image. Level a will appear like a dark dot.
Restoration in the presence of Noise only- Spatial filtering:

When the only degradation present in an image is noise, i.e.
g(x,y)=f(x,y)+η(x,y)
or
G(u,v)= F(u,v)+ N(u,v)
The noise terms are unknown so subtracting them from g(x,y) or G(u,v) is not a
realistic approach. In the case of periodic noise it is possible to estimate N(u,v)
from the spectrum G(u,v).
So N(u,v) can be subtracted from G(u,v) to obtain an estimate of original image.
Spatial filtering can be done when only additive noise is present. The following
techniques can be used to reduce the noise effect:

i) Mean Filter:
ii) (a)Arithmetic Mean filter:
It is the simplest mean filter. Let Sxy represents the set of coordinates in the sub
image of size m*n centered at point (x,y). The arithmetic mean filter computes the
average value of the corrupted image g(x,y) in the area defined by Sxy. The value of the
restored image f at any point (x,y) is the arithmetic mean computed using the pixels in
the region defined by Sxy.
This operation can be using a convolution mask in which all coefficients have
value 1/mn A mean filter smoothes local variations in image Noise is reduced as a result
of blurring. For every pixel in the image, the pixel value is replaced by the mean value
of its neighboring pixels with a weight .This will resulted in a smoothing effect in the
image.
(b) Geometric Mean filter:
An image restored using a geometric mean filter is given by the expression
Here, each restored pixel is given by the product of the pixel in the sub image window,
raised to the power 1/mn. A geometric mean filters but it to loose image details in the
process.
(c) Harmonic Mean filter:
The harmonic mean filtering operation is given by the expression
The harmonic mean filter works well for salt noise but fails for pepper noise. It does
well with Gaussian noise also.
(d) Order statistics filter:
Order statistics filters are spatial filters whose response is based on ordering the pixel
contained in the image area encompassed by the filter. The response of the filter at any
point is determined by the ranking result.

(e) Median filter:

It is the best order statistic filter; it replaces the value of a pixel by the median of gray
levels in the Neighborhood of the pixel.
The original of the pixel is included in the computation of the median of the filter are
quite possible because for certain types of random noise, the provide excellent noise
reduction capabilities with considerably less blurring then smoothing filters of similar
size. These are effective for bipolar and unipolor impulse noise.
(e) Max and Min filter:
Using the l00th percentile of ranked set of numbers is called the max filter and is given
by the equation
It is used for finding the brightest point in an image. Pepper noise in the image has very
low values, it is reduced by max filter using the max selection process in the sublimated
area sky. The 0th percentile filter is min filter.
This filter is useful for flinging the darkest point in image. Also, it reduces salt noise
of the min operation.
(f) Midpoint filter:
The midpoint filter simply computes the midpoint between the maximum and minimum
values in the area encompassed by
It comeliness the order statistics and averaging .This filter works best for randomly
distributed noise like Gaussian or uniform noise.
Periodic Noise by Frequency domain filtering:
These types of filters are used for this purpose-
Band Reject Filters:
It removes a band of frequencies about the origin of the Fourier transformer.

Ideal Band reject Filter:

An ideal band reject filter is given by the expression
D(u,v)- the distance from the origin of the centered frequency rectangle.
W- the width of the band
Do- the radial center of the frequency rectangle.
Butterworth Band reject Filter:
Gaussian Band reject Filter:
These filters are mostly used when the location of noise component in the frequency
domain is known. Sinusoidal noise can be easily removed by using these kinds of
filters because it shows two impulses that are mirror images of each other about the
origin. Of the frequency transform.
Band pass Filter:

The function of a band pass filter is opposite to that of a band reject filter It allows a specific
frequency band of the image to be passed and blocks the rest of frequencies. The transfer
function of a band pass filter can be obtained from a corresponding band reject filter with
transfer function Hbr(u,v) by using the equation

These filters cannot be applied directly on an image because it may remove too much details
of an image but these are effective in isolating the effect of an image of selected frequency
bands.
Notch Filters:
A notch filter rejects (or passes) frequencies in predefined neighborhoods about a
center frequency.
Due to the symmetry of the Fourier transform notch filters must appear in symmetric
pairs about the origin.
The transfer function of an ideal notch reject filter of radius D 0 with centers a (u0 , v0)
and by symmetry at (-u0 , v0) is
Ideal, butterworth, Gaussian notch filters

Inverse Filtering:
The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering where we complete
an estimate of the transform of the original image simply by dividing the

transform of the degraded image G(u,v) by degradation function H(u,v)
We know that
Therefore
From the above equation we observe that we cannot recover the undegraded image
exactly because N(u,v) is a random function whose Fourier transform is not known.
One approach to get around the zero or small-value problem is to limit the filter
frequencies to values near the origin. We know that H(0,0) is equal to the average
values of h(x,y). By Limiting the analysis to frequencies near the origin we reduse the
probability of encountering zero values.
Minimum mean Square Error (Wiener) filtering:
The inverse filtering approach has poor performance. The wiener filtering approach
uses the degradation function and statistical characteristics of noise into the restoration
process.
The objective is to find an estimate of the uncorrupted image f such that mean square
error between them is minimized.
The error measure is given by

Where E{.} is the expected value of the argument.

We assume that the noise and the image are uncorrelated one or the other has zero
mean. the
The gray levels in the estimate are a linear function of the levels in the degraded image.
Where H(u,v)= degradation function H*(u,v)=complex conjugate of H(u,v)

| H(u,v)|2=H* (u,v) H(u,v)
Sn(u,v)=|N(u,v)|2= power spectrum of the noise Sf(u,v)=|F(u,v)|2= power spectrum of
the underrated image. The power spectrum of the undegraded image is rarely known.
An approach used frequently when these quantities are not known or cannot be
estimated then the expression used is
Where K is a specified constant.
Constrained least squares filtering:

The wiener filter has a disadvantage that we need to know the power spectra of the
undegraded image and noise. The constrained least square filtering requires only the
knowledge of only the mean and variance of the noise. These parameters usually can be
calculated from a given degraded image this is the advantage with this method. This
method produces a optimal result. This method require the optimal criteria which is
important we express the

in vector-matrix form
The optimality criteria for restoration is based on a measure of smoothness, such as the
second derivative of an image (Laplacian).
The minimum of a criterion function C defined as
Subject to the constraint
Where is a euclidean vector norm fˆ is estimate of the undegraded

image. is laplacian operator.
The frequency domain solution to this optimization problem is given by
Where γ is a parameter that must be adjusted so that the constraint is satisfied. P(u,v) is
the Fourier transform of the laplacian operator
ITERATIVE METHOD OF IMAGE RESTORATION:

In the iterative method of image restoration, landweber iteration is derived by
solving the least-squares solution iteratively instead of directly. The error metric is
given by
e = ║ g  Hfˆ║2
e = ( g  Hfˆ)T ( g  Hfˆ )

The partial derivative of the error metric with respect to image estimate is given by
e / fˆ  ( g  Hfˆ )
f0 ˆ HT g
fˆ k+1  fkˆ + HT  g  Hfk ˆ 
Where 0 < β < . If β is constant and no constraints are imposed then the result after N iterations is
equivalent to a single filtering step which can be represented in fourier domain as
FˆN ( k, l) = ( 1 – ( 1 – β| H ( k, l ) |2 ) N+1 ) x
However, if a positive constraint is imposed on the solution after each iteration then the
algorithm becomes non-linear. Alternatively, a steepest descent approach can be taken to
optimize the step length which is given by
β k = pk T p k
 pk )  pk
T
To increase the rate of convergence, a conjugate gradient method can be applied to

algorithm. Regularisation can be accompolished by simply terminating the restoration
process before the noise amplification becomes prevalent.
The flow chart of iterative image restoration is shown below.
From the flow chart shown below, the following conclusions can be drawn.

The iterative image-restoration procedure starts with an initial estimate of the

original image. It then compares the observed image with the blurred image and the
error is used to update the estimate. The iterative restoration algorithm can be
terminated after the specified conditions are met.

UNIT-4
IMAGE SEGMENTATION
DERIVATIVE OPERATORS USEFUL IN IMAGE

SEGMENTATION AND THEIR ROLE IN
SEGMENTATION:
Gradient operators:
First-order derivatives of a digital image are based on various approximations of the 2-D
gradient. The gradient of an image f (x, y) at location (x, y) is defined as the vector
It is well known from vector analysis that the gradient vector points in the direction of
maximum rate of change of f at coordinates (x, y). An important quantity in edge detection is
the magnitude
of this vector, denoted by Af, where
This quantity gives the maximum rate of increase of f (x, y) per unit distance in the direction
of Af. It is a common (although not strictly correct) practice to refer to Af also as the
gradient. The direction of the gradient vector also is an important quantity. Let α (x, y)
represent the direction angle of the vector Af at (x, y). Then, from vector analysis,
where the angle is measured with respect to the x-axis. The direction of an edge at (x, y) is
perpendicular to the direction of the gradient vector at that point. Computation of the gradient
of an image is based on obtaining the partial derivatives &f/&x and &f/&y at every pixel
location. Let the 3x3 area shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) represent the gray levels in a neighborhood of
an image. One of the simplest ways to implement a first-order partial derivative at point z5 is to

use the
following Roberts cross-gradient operators:
These derivatives can be implemented for an entire image by using the masks shown in Fig.
1.1(b). Masks of size 2 X 2 are awkward to implement because they do not have a clear center.
An approach using masks of size 3 X 3 is given by
Fig.1.1 A 3 X 3 region of an image (the z‘s are gray-level values) and various masks used to
compute the gradient at point labeled z5.

A weight value of 2 is used to achieve some smoothing by giving more importance to the
center point. Figures 1.1(f) and (g), called the Sobel operators, and are used to implement
these two equations. The Prewitt and Sobel operators are among the most used in practice for
computing digital gradients. The Prewitt masks are simpler to implement than the Sobel
masks, but the latter have slightly superior noise-suppression characteristics, an important
issue when dealing with derivatives. Note that the coefficients in all the masks shown in Fig.
1.1 sum to 0, indicating that they give a response of 0 in areas of constant gray level, as
expected of a derivative operator.
The masks just discussed are used to obtain the gradient components Gx and Gy. Computation
of the gradient requires that these two components be combined. However, this
implementation is not always desirable because of the computational burden required by
squares and square roots. An approach used frequently is to approximate the gradient by
absolute values:
This equation is much more attractive computationally, and it still preserves relative changes
in gray levels. However, this is not an issue when masks such as the Prewitt and Sobel masks
are used to compute Gx and Gy.
It is possible to modify the 3 X 3 masks in Fig. 1.1 so that they have their strongest responses
along the diagonal directions. The two additional Prewitt and Sobel masks for detecting
discontinuities in the diagonal directions are shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig.1.2 Prewitt and Sobel masks for detecting diagonal edges
The Laplacian:
The Laplacian of a 2-D function f(x, y) is a second-order derivative defined as
For a 3 X 3 region, one of the two forms encountered most frequently in practice is
Fig.1.3 Laplacian masks used to implement Eqns. above.

where the z's are defined in Fig. 1.1(a). A digital approximation including the diagonal
neighbors is given by
Masks for implementing these two equations are shown in Fig. 1.3. We note from these
masks that the implementations of Eqns. are isotropic for rotation increments of 90° and 45°,
respectively.
EDGE DETECTION:
Intuitively, an edge is a set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between two
regions. Fundamentally, an edge is a "local" concept whereas a region boundary, owing to the
way it is defined, is a more global idea. A reasonable definition of "edge" requires the ability to
measure gray-level transitions in a meaningful way. We start by modeling an edge intuitively.
This will lead us to formalism in which "meaningful" transitions in gray levels can be
measured. Intuitively, an ideal edge has the properties of the model shown in Fig. 2.1(a). An
ideal edge according to this model is a set of connected pixels (in the vertical direction here),
each of which is located at an orthogonal step transition in gray level (as shown by the
horizontal profile in the figure).
In practice, optics, sampling, and other image acquisition imperfections yield edges
that are blurred, with the degree of blurring being determined by factors such as the quality of
the image acquisition system, the sampling rate, and illumination conditions under which the
image is acquired. As a result, edges are more closely modeled as having a "ramp like" profile,
such as the one shown in Fig.2.1 (b).

Fig.2.1 (a) Model of an ideal digital edge (b) Model of a ramp edge. The slope of the ramp
is proportional to the degree of blurring in the edge.
The slope of the ramp is inversely proportional to the degree of blurring in the edge. In this
model, we no longer have a thin (one pixel thick) path. Instead, an edge point now is any point
contained in the ramp, and an edge would then be a set of such points that are connected. The
"thickness" of the edge is determined by the length of the ramp, as it transitions from an initial
to a final gray level. This length is determined by the slope, which, in turn, is determined by
the degree of blurring. This makes sense: Blurred edges lend to be thick and sharp edges tend
to be thin. Figure 2.2(a) shows the image from which the close-up in Fig. 2.1(b) was extracted.
Figure 2.2(b) shows a horizontal gray-level profile of the edge between the two regions. This
figure also shows the first and second derivatives of the gray-level profile. The first derivative
is positive at the points of transition into and out of the ramp as we move from left to right
along the profile; it is constant for points in the ramp; and is zero in areas of constant gray
level. The second derivative is positive at the transition associated with the dark side of the
edge, negative at the transition associated with the light side of the edge, and zero along the
ramp and in areas of constant gray level. The signs of the derivatives in Fig. 2.2(b) would be
reversed for an edge that transitions from light to dark.

We conclude from these observations that the magnitude of the first derivative can be used to
detect the presence of an edge at a point in an image (i.e. to determine if a point is on a ramp).
Similarly, the sign of the second derivative can be used to determine whether an edge pixel
lies on the dark or light side of an edge. We note two additional properties of the second
derivative around an edge: A) It produces two values for every edge in an image (an
undesirable feature); and B) an imaginary straight line joining the extreme positive and
negative values of the second derivative would cross zero near the midpoint of the edge. This
zero-crossing property of the second derivative is quite useful for locating the centers of thick
edges.
Fig.2.2 (a) Two regions separated by a vertical edge (b) Detail near the edge, showing a
gray- level profile, and the first and second derivatives of the profile.

EDGE LINKING PROCEDURES:

The different methods for edge linking are as follows
(i) Local processing
(ii) Global processing via the Hough Transform
(iii) Global processing via graph-theoretic techniques.
(i) Local Processing:
One of the simplest approaches for linking edge points is to analyze the characteristics of
pixels in a small neighborhood (say, 3 X 3 or 5 X 5) about every point (x, y) in an image that
has been labeled an edge point. All points that are similar according to a set of predefined
criteria are linked, forming an edge of pixels that share those criteria.
The two principal properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels in this kind of
analysis are (1) the strength of the response of the gradient operator used to produce the
edge
pixel; and (2) the direction of the gradient vector. The first property is given by the value of Af.
Thus an edge pixel with coordinates (xo, yo) in a predefined neighborhood of (x, y), is
similar in magnitude to the pixel at (x, y) if
The direction (angle) of the gradient vector is given by Eq. An edge pixel at (x o, yo) in
the predefined neighborhood of (x, y) has an angle similar to the pixel at (x, y) if
where A is a nonnegative angle threshold. The direction of the edge at (x, y) is

perpendicular to the direction of the gradient vector at that point.
A point in the predefined neighborhood of (x, y) is linked to the pixel at (x, y) if both
magnitude and direction criteria are satisfied. This process is repeated at every location in the
image. A record must be kept of linked points as the center of the neighborhood is moved
from pixel to pixel. A simple bookkeeping procedure is to assign a different gray level to each
set of linked edge pixels.

(ii) Global processing via the Hough Transform:
In this process, points are linked by determining first if they lie on a curve of specified shape.
We now consider global relationships between pixels. Given n points in an image, suppose
that we want to find subsets of these points that lie on straight lines. One possible solution is to
first find all lines determined by every pair of points and then find all subsets of points that are
close to particular lines. The problem with this procedure is that it involves finding n(n - 1)/2 ~
n2 lines and then performing (n)(n(n - l))/2 ~ n3 comparisons of every point to all lines. This
approach is computationally prohibitive in all but the most trivial applications.
Hough [1962] proposed an alternative approach, commonly referred to as the Hough

transform. Consider a point (xi, yi) and the general equation of a straight line in slope-
intercept form, yi = a.xi + b. Infinitely many lines pass through (xi, yi) but they all
satisfy the equation yi = a.xi + b for varying values of a and b. However, writing this
equation as b = -a.xi + yi, and considering the ab-plane (also called parameter space) yields the
equation of a single line for a fixed pair (xi, yi). Furthermore, a second point (xj, yj) also has a
line in parameter space associated with it, and this line intersects the line associated with (xi,
yi) at (a', b'), where a' is the slope and b' the intercept of the line containing both (xi, yi) and (xj,
yj) in the xy-plane. In fact, all points contained on this line have lines in parameter space that
intersect at (a', b'). Figure 3.1 illustrates these concepts.
Fig.3.1 (a) xy-plane (b) Parameter space

Fig.3.2 Subdivision of the parameter plane for use in the Hough transform
The computational attractiveness of the Hough transform arises from subdividing the
parameter space into so-called accumulator cells, as illustrated in Fig. 3.2, where (a max ,
amin) and (bmax , bmin), are the expected ranges of slope and intercept values. The cell at
coordinates (i, j), with accumulator value A(i, j), corresponds to the square associated with
parameter space coordinates (ai , bi).
Initially, these cells are set to zero. Then, for every point (xk, yk) in the image plane, we
let the parameter a equal each of the allowed subdivision values on the fl-axis and solve for the
corresponding b using the equation b = - xk a + yk .The resulting b‘s are then rounded off to
the nearest allowed value in the b-axis. If a choice of ap results in solution bq, we let A (p, q) =
A (p,
q) + 1. At the end of this procedure, a value of Q in A (i, j) corresponds to Q points in the xy-
plane lying on the line y = ai x + bj. The number of subdivisions in the ab-plane determines the
accuracy of the co linearity of these points. Note that subdividing the a axis into K increments
gives, for every point (xk, yk), K values of b corresponding to the K possible values of a. With
n image points, this method involves nK computations. Thus the procedure just discussed is
linear in n, and the product nK does not approach the number of computations discussed at the
beginning unless K approaches or exceeds n.
A problem with using the equation y = ax + b to represent a line is that the slope
approaches infinity as the line approaches the vertical. One way around this difficulty is to
use the normal representation of a line:
x cosθ + y sinθ = ρ

Figure 3.3(a) illustrates the geometrical interpretation of the parameters used. The use of this
representation in constructing a table of accumulators is identical to the method discussed for
the slope-intercept representation. Instead of straight lines, however, the loci are sinusoidal
curves in the ρθ -plane. As before, Q collinear points lying on a line x cosθj + y sinθj = ρ, yield
Q sinusoidal curves that intersect at (pi, θj) in the parameter space. Incrementing θ and solving
for the corresponding p gives Q entries in accumulator A (i, j) associated with the cell
determined by (pi, θj). Figure 3.3 (b) illustrates the subdivision of the parameter space.
Fig.3.3 (a) Normal representation of a line (b) Subdivision of the ρθ-plane into cells
The range of angle θ is ±90°, measured with respect to the x-axis. Thus with reference to Fig.
3.3 (a), a horizontal line has θ = 0°, with ρ being equal to the positive x-intercept. Similarly, a
vertical line has θ = 90°, with p being equal to the positive y-intercept, or θ = - 90°, with ρ
being equal to the negative y-intercept.
(iii) Global processing via graph-theoretic techniques
In this process we have a global approach for edge detection and linking based on representing
edge segments in the form of a graph and searching the graph for low-cost paths that
correspond to significant edges. This representation provides a rugged approach that performs
well in the presence of noise.

Fig.3.4 Edge clement between pixels p and q
We begin the development with some basic definitions. A graph G = (N,U) is a finite,
nonempty set of nodes N, together with a set U of unordered pairs of distinct elements of N.
Each pair (ni, nj) of U is called an arc. A graph in which the arcs are directed is called a
directed graph. If an arc is directed from node ni to node nj, then nj is said to be a successor of
the parent node ni. The process of identifying the successors of a node is called expansion of
the node. In each graph we define levels, such that level 0 consists of a single node, called the
start or root node, and the nodes in the last level are called goal nodes. A cost c (ni, nj) can be
associated with every arc (ni, nj). A sequence of nodes n1, n2... nk, with each node ni being a
successor of node ni-1 is called a path from n1 to nk. The cost of the entire path is
The following discussion is simplified if we define an edge element as the boundary between
two pixels p and q, such that p and q are 4-neighbors, as Fig.3.4 illustrates. Edge elements are
identified by the xy-coordinates of points p and q. In other words, the edge element in Fig. 3.4
is defined by the pairs (xp, yp) (xq, yq). Consistent with the definition an edge is a sequence of
connected edge elements.
We can illustrate how the concepts just discussed apply to edge detection using
the 3 X 3 image shown in Fig. 3.5 (a). The outer numbers are pixel

Fig.3.5 (a) A 3 X 3 image region, (b) Edge segments and their costs, (c) Edge
corresponding to the lowest-cost path in the graph shown in Fig. 3.6
coordinates and the numbers in brackets represent gray-level values. Each edge element,
defined by pixels p and q, has an associated cost, defined as
where H is the highest gray-level value in the image (7 in this case), and f(p) and f(q) are the
gray- level values of p and q, respectively. By convention, the point p is on the right-hand side
of the direction of travel along edge elements. For example, the edge segment (1, 2) (2, 2) is
between points (1, 2) and (2, 2) in Fig. 3.5 (b). If the direction of travel is to the right, then p is
the point with coordinates (2, 2) and q is point with coordinates (1, 2); therefore, c (p, q) = 7 -
[7
- 6] = 6. This cost is shown in the box below the edge segment. If, on the other hand, we are
traveling to the left between the same two points, then p is point (1, 2) and q is (2, 2). In this
case the cost is 8, as shown above the edge segment in Fig. 3.5(b). To simplify the discussion,
we assume that edges start in the top row and terminate in the last row, so that the first element
of an edge can be only between points (1, 1), (1, 2) or (1, 2), (1, 3). Similarly, the last edge
element has
to be between points (3, 1), (3, 2) or (3, 2), (3, 3). Keep in mind that p and q are 4-neighbors,
as noted earlier. Figure 3.6 shows the graph for this problem. Each node (rectangle) in the
graph corresponds to an edge element from Fig. 3.5. An arc exists between two nodes if the
two corresponding edge elements taken in succession can be part of an edge.

Fig. 3.6 Graph for the image in Fig.3.5 (a). The lowest-cost path is shown dashed.
As in Fig. 3.5 (b), the cost of each edge segment, is shown in a box on the side of the arc
leading into the corresponding node. Goal nodes are shown shaded. The minimum cost path is
shown dashed, and the edge corresponding to this path is shown in Fig. 3.5 (c).

THRESHOLDING:
Because of its intuitive properties and simplicity of implementation, image thresholding enjoys
a central position in applications of image segmentation.
Global Thresholding:
The simplest of all thresholding techniques is to partition the image histogram by using a
single global threshold, T. Segmentation is then accomplished by scanning the image pixel by
pixel and labeling each pixel as object or back-ground, depending on whether the gray level of
that pixel is greater or less than the value of T. As indicated earlier, the success of this method
depends entirely on how well the histogram can be partitioned.
Fig.4.1 FIGURE 10.28 (a) Original image, (b) Image histogram, (c) Result of

global thresholding with T midway between the maximum and minimum gray levels.
Figure 4.1(a) shows a simple image, and Fig. 4.1(b) shows its histogram. Figure 4.1(c)
shows the result of segmenting Fig. 4.1(a) by using a threshold T midway between the
maximum and minimum gray levels. This threshold achieved a "clean" segmentation by
eliminating the shadows and leaving only the objects themselves. The objects of interest in
this case are darker than the background, so any pixel with a gray level ≤ T was labeled black
(0), and any pixel with a gray level ≥ T was labeled white (255).The key objective is merely
to generate a binary image, so the black-white relationship could be reversed. The type of
global thresholding just described can be expected to be successful in highly controlled
environments. One of the areas in which this often is possible is in industrial inspection
applications, where control of the illumination usually is feasible.
The threshold in the preceding example was specified by using a heuristic

approach, based on visual inspection of the histogram. The following algorithm can be used to
obtain T automatically:
1. Select an initial estimate for T.
2. Segment the image using T. This will produce two groups of pixels: G1 consisting of all pixels
with gray level values >T and G2 consisting of pixels with values < T.
3. Compute the average gray level values µ 1 and µ2 for the pixels in regions G1and G2.
4. Compute a new threshold value:
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 until the difference in T in successive iterations is smaller than a
predefined parameter To.
When there is reason to believe that the background and object occupy comparable areas in the
image, a good initial value for T is the average gray level of the image. When objects are small
compared to the area occupied by the background (or vice versa), then one group of pixels will
dominate the histogram and the average gray level is not as good an initial choice. A more
appropriate initial value for T in cases such as this is a value midway between the maximum
and minimum gray levels. The parameter T o is used to stop the algorithm after changes
become small in terms of this parameter. This is used when speed of iteration is an important
issue.

BASIC ADAPTIVE THRESHOLDING PROCESS:
Basic Adaptive Thresholding:
Imaging factors such as uneven illumination can transform a perfectly segmentable histogram
into a histogram that cannot be partitioned effectively by a single global threshold. An
approach for handling such a situation is to divide the original image into subimages and then
utilize a different threshold to segment each subimage. The key issues in this approach are
how to subdivide the image and how to estimate the threshold for each resulting subimage.
Since the threshold used for each pixel depends on the location of the pixel in terms of the
subimages, this type of thresholding is adaptive.
Fig.5 (a) Original image, (b) Result of global thresholding. (c) Image subdivided into
individual subimages (d) Result of adaptive thresholding.
We illustrate adaptive thresholding with a example. Figure 5(a) shows the image, which we
concluded could not be thresholded effectively with a single global threshold. In fact, Fig. 5(b)
shows the result of thresholding the image with a global threshold manually placed in the
valley of its histogram. One approach to reduce the effect of nonuniform illumination is to
subdivide the image into smaller subimages, such that the illumination of each subimage is
approximately uniform. Figure 5(c) shows such a partition, obtained by subdividing the image
into four equal parts, and then subdividing each part by four again. All the subimages that did
not contain a boundary between object and back-ground had variances of less than 75. All
subimages containing boundaries had variances in excess of 100. Each subimage with
variance greater than 100 was segmented with a threshold computed for that subimage using
the algorithm. The initial value for T in each case was selected as the point midway between
the minimum and maximum gray levels in the subimage. All subimages with variance less
than 100 were treated as one composite image, which was segmented using a single threshold
estimated using the same algorithm. The result of segmentation using this procedure is shown
in Fig. 5(d).
With the exception of two subimages, the improvement over Fig. 5(b) is evident. The
boundary between object and background in each of the improperly segmented subimages was
small and dark, and the resulting histogram was almost unimodal.
THRESHOLD SELECTION BASED ON BOUNDARY

CHARACTERISTICS:
Use of Boundary Characteristics for Histogram Improvement and Local Thresholding:
It is intuitively evident that the chances of selecting a "good" threshold are enhanced
considerably if the histogram peaks are tall, narrow, symmetric, and separated by deep valleys.
One approach for improving the shape of histograms is to consider only those pixels that lie
on or near the edges between objects and the background. An immediate and obvious
improvement is that histograms would be less dependent on the relative sizes of objects and
the background. For instance, the histogram of an image composed of a small object on a
large background area (or vice versa) would be dominated by a large peak because of the high
concentration of one type of pixels.
If only the pixels on or near the edge between object and the background were used,
the resulting histogram would have peaks of approximately the same height. In addition, the
probability that any of those given pixels lies on an object would be approximately equal to
the probability that it lies on the back-ground, thus improving the symmetry of the histogram
peaks.

Finally, as indicated in the following paragraph, using pixels that satisfy

some simple measures based on gradient and Laplacian operators has a tendency to deepen the
valley between histogram peaks.
The principal problem with the approach just discussed is the implicit assumption that the
edges between objects and background arc known. This information clearly is not available
during segmentation, as finding a division between objects and background is precisely what
segmentation is all about. However, an indication of whether a pixel is on an edge may be
obtained by computing its gradient. In addition, use of the Laplacian can yield information
regarding whether a given pixel lies on the dark or light side of an edge. The average value of
the Laplacian is 0 at the transition of an edge, so in practice the valleys of histograms formed
from the pixels selected by a gradient/Laplacian criterion can be expected to be sparsely
populated. This property produces the highly desirable deep valleys.
The gradient Aƒ at any point (x, y) in an image can be found. Similarly, the Laplacian A2 f can
also be found. These two quantities may be used to form a three-level image, as follows:
where the symbols 0, +, and - represent any three distinct gray levels, T is a threshold, and the
gradient and Laplacian are computed at every point (x, y). For a dark object on a light
background, the use of the Eqn. produces an image s(x, y) in which (1) all pixels that are not
on an edge (as determined by Aƒ being less than T) are labeled 0; (2) all pixels on the dark
side of an edge are labeled +; and (3) all pixels on the light side of an edge are labeled -. The
symbols + and - in Eq. above are reversed for a light object on a dark background. Figure
shows the labeling produced by Eq. for an image of a dark, underlined stroke
written on a light background.
The information obtained with this procedure can be used to generate a
segmented, binary image in which l's correspond to objects of interest and 0's correspond to
the background. The transition (along a horizontal or vertical scan line) from a light
background to a dark object must be characterized by the occurrence of a - followed by a + in
s (x, y). The interior of the object is composed of pixels that are labeled either 0 or +. Finally,
the transition from the object back to the background is characterized by the occurrence of a +
followed by a -. Thus a horizontal or vertical scan line containing a section of an object has
the following structure:

Fig.6.1 Image of a handwritten stroke coded by using Eq. discussed above
where (…) represents any combination of +, -, and 0. The innermost parentheses contain
object points and are labeled 1. All other pixels along the same scan line are labeled 0, with
the exception of any other sequence of (- or +) bounded by (-, +) and (+, -).
Fig.6.2 (a) Original image, (b) Image segmented by local thresholding.

Figure 6.2 (a) shows an image of an ordinary scenic bank check. Figure 6.3 shows the
histogram as a function of gradient values for pixels with gradients greater than 5. Note that
this histogram has two dominant modes that are symmetric, nearly of the same height, and arc
separated by a distinct valley. Finally, Fig. 6.2(b) shows the segmented image obtained by
with T at or near the midpoint of the valley. Note that this example is an illustration of local
thresholding, because the value of T was determined from a histogram of the gradient and
Laplacian, which are local properties.
Fig.6.3 Histogram of pixels with gradients greater than 5
REGION BASED SEGMENTATION:

The objective of segmentation is to partition an image into regions. We approached this
problem by finding boundaries between regions based on discontinuities in gray levels,
whereas segmentation was accomplished via thresholds based on the distribution of pixel
properties, such as gray-level values or color.
Basic Formulation:
Let R represent the entire image region. We may view segmentation as a process that partitions
R into n subregions, R1, R2..., Rn, such that

Here, P (Ri) is a logical predicate defined over the points in set Ri and Ǿ` is the null set.
Condition (a) indicates that the segmentation must be complete; that is, every pixel must be in a
region. Condition (b) requires that points in a region must be connected in some predefined
sense. Condition (c) indicates that the regions must be disjoint. Condition (d) deals with the
properties that must be satisfied by the pixels in a segmented region—for example P (Ri) =
TRUE if all pixels in Ri, have the same gray level. Finally, condition (c) indicates that regions R i
and Rj are different in the sense of predicate P.
Region Growing:
As its name implies, region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions into larger
regions based on predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set of "seed" points and
from these grow regions by appending to each seed those neighboring pixels that have properties
similar to the seed (such as specific ranges of gray level or color). When a priori information is
not available, the procedure is to compute at every pixel the same set of properties that ultimately
will be used to assign pixels to regions during the growing process. If the result of these
computations shows clusters of values, the pixels whose properties place them near the centroid
of these clusters can be used as seeds.
The selection of similarity criteria depends not only on the problem under consideration, but also
on the type of image data available. For example, the analysis of land-use satellite imagery
depends heavily on the use of color. This problem would be significantly more difficult, or even
impossible, to handle without the inherent information available in color images. When the
images are monochrome, region analysis must be carried out with a set of descriptors based on
gray levels and spatial properties (such as moments or texture).
Basically, growing a region should stop when no more pixels satisfy the criteria for inclusion in
that region. Criteria such as gray level, texture, and color, are local in nature and do not take into
account the "history" of region growth. Additional criteria that increase the power of a region-
growing algorithm utilize the concept of size, likeness between a candidate pixel and the pixels
grown so far (such as a comparison of the gray level of a candidate and the average gray level of
the grown region), and the shape of the region being grown. The use of these types of descriptors
is based on the assumption that a model of expected results is at least partially available. Figure
7.1 (a) shows an X-ray image of a weld (the horizontal dark region) containing several cracks
and porosities (the bright, white streaks running horizontally through the middle of the image).
We wish to use region growing to segment the regions of the weld failures. These segmented
features could be used for inspection, for inclusion in a database of historical studies, for
controlling an automated welding system, and for other numerous applications.

Fig.7.1 (a) Image showing defective welds, (b) Seed points, (c) Result of region growing, (d)
Boundaries of segmented ; defective welds (in black).
The first order of business is to determine the initial seed points. In this application, it is known
that pixels of defective welds tend to have the maximum allowable digital value B55 in this
case). Based on this information, we selected as starting points all pixels having values of 255.
The points thus extracted from the original image are shown in Fig. 10.40(b). Note that many of
the points are clustered into seed regions.
The next step is to choose criteria for region growing. In this particular
example we chose two criteria for a pixel to be annexed to a region: (1) The absolute gray-level
difference between any pixel and the seed had to be less than 65. This number is based on the
histogram shown in Fig. 7.2 and represents the difference between 255 and the location of the
first major valley to the left, which is representative of the highest gray level value in the dark
weld region. (2) To be included in one of the regions, the pixel had to be 8-connected to at least
one pixel in that region.
If a pixel was found to be connected to more than one region, the

regions were merged. Figure 7.1 (c) shows the regions that resulted by starting with the seeds in
Fig. 7.2 (b) and utilizing the criteria defined in the previous paragraph. Superimposing the
boundaries of these regions on the original image [Fig. 7.1(d)] reveals that the region-growing
procedure did indeed segment the defective welds with an acceptable degree of accuracy. It is of
interest to note that it was not necessary to specify any stopping rules in this case because the
criteria for region growing were sufficient to isolate the features of interest.
Fig.7.2 Histogram of Fig. 7.1 (a)
Region Splitting and Merging:
The procedure just discussed grows regions from a set of seed points. An alternative is to
subdivide an image initially into a set of arbitrary, disjointed regions and then merge and/or split
the regions in an attempt to satisfy the conditions. A split and merge algorithm that iteratively
works toward satisfying these constraints is developed.
Let R represent the entire image region and select a predicate P. One approach for segmenting R
is to subdivide it successively into smaller and smaller quadrant regions so that, for any region
Ri, P(Ri) = TRUE. We start with the entire region. If P(R) = FALSE, we divide the image into
quadrants. If P is FALSE for any quadrant, we subdivide that quadrant into subquadrants, and so
on. This particular splitting technique has a convenient representation in the form of a so-called
quadtree (that is, a tree in which nodes have exactly four descendants), as illustrated in Fig. 7.3.
Note that the root of the tree corresponds to the entire image and that each node corresponds to a
subdivision. In this case, only R4 was subdivided further.

Fig. 7.3 (a) Partitioned image (b) Corresponding quadtree.
If only splitting were used, the final partition likely would contain adjacent regions with identical
properties. This drawback may be remedied by allowing merging, as well as splitting. Satisfying
the constraints, requires merging only adjacent regions whose combined pixels satisfy the
predicate P. That is, two adjacent regions Rj and Rk are merged only if P (Rj U Rk) = TRUE.
The preceding discussion may be summarized by the following procedure, in which, at any step
we
1. Split into four disjoint quadrants any region Ri, for which P (Ri) = FALSE.
2. Merge any adjacent regions Rj and Rk for which P (Rj U Rk) =TRUE.
3. Stop when no further merging or splitting is possible.
Several variations of the preceding basic theme are possible. For example, one possibility is to
split the image initially into a set of blocks. Further splitting is carried out as described
previously, but merging is initially limited to groups of four blocks that are descendants in the
quadtree representation and that satisfy the predicate P. When no further mergings of this type
are possible, the procedure is terminated by one final merging of regions satisfying step 2. At
this point, the merged regions may be of different sizes. The principal advantage of this
approach is that it uses the same quadtree for splitting and merging, until the final merging
step.












UNIT- 5
IMAGE COMPRESSION








TRANSFORM BASED COMPRESSION:
The redundancy removed coefficients/features are encoded. The process of transform-

based encoding or block quantization is shown in figure. The image is first partitioned into non-
overlapping blocks. Each block in then unitary transformed and the principal coefficients are
quantized and encoded.

In this technique, an image is transformed using one of the image transform. Here,
the concept is to produce a new set of coefficients that are decorrelated. Then, the set of
coefficients in which more information present in the image are converted into a small
number of coefficients. The coefficients which provide little image information are
discarded.
In the encoding, construction of n x n images from original image will be the first
step. These are transformed to generate (n/n)2 number of sub-images. The size of these
images is n x n. This information process is used to decorrelate the pixels of the sub
image.
The quantization block is used to eliminate the co-efficient which carry least
information. These omitted coefficients have the small impact of the reconstructed sub
images. Finally the co-efficient are encoded.
The following transform are used in encoder.

i) Karhunen-Loeve Transform (KLT)
ii) Discrete-Cosine Transform (DCT)
iii) Walsh-Hadamard Transform (WHT)
iv) Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
Mostly DFT or DCT used.
The decoder is used to extract the code words. These are applied to the dequantizer
which is used to reconstruct the set of quantized transform coefficients. Then, the set of
transform coefficients that represents the image is produced from the quantized
coefficients. These are generated by using dequantizer block.
These co-efficient are inverse transformed and give the lossy version of an image.
The transform coding can be done without the quantization and dequantization
(truncation) blocks. But, here the compression ratio is low.

JPEG 2000 STANDARDS:
JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group. It is used on 24-bit color files. Works well on
photographic images. Although it is a lossy compression technique, it yields an excellent quality
image with high compression rates.
It defines three different coding systems:

1. A lossy baseline coding system, adequate for most compression applications.
2. An extended coding system for greater compression, higher precision or progressive
reconstruction applications.
3. A lossless independent coding system for reversible compression.
Steps in JPEG compression:

1. (Optionally) If the color is represented in RGB mode, translate it to YUV.
2. Divide the file into 8 X 8 blocks.
3. Transform the pixel information from the spatial domain to the frequency domain with the
Discrete Cosine Transform.
4. Quantize the resulting values by dividing each coefficient by an integer value and rounding off
to the nearest integer.
5. Look at the resulting coefficients in a zigzag order. Do a run-length encoding of the coefficients
ordered in this manner. Follow by Huffman coding.

Entropy encoder is used to provide the lossless additional compression. The DC coefficients
are encoded using predictive coding.
JPEG standard can use two entropy coding methods namely Huffman coding (it is used by
baseline system) and arithmetic coding (it is used by extending system).
In the decoder, compressed image is given to entropy decoder. Is uses the inverse procedure
of Huffman coding or arithmetic coding to produce the output. This output is given to dequantizer
block. Here, inverse function of the quantization will be done. The output of the dequantizer block
is given to inverse DCT block. The output of this block can give the decompressed image.
Progressive JPEG Compression:

In this type, a sequence of scan is produced. Each scan contains a coded subset of DCT
coefficients. So, a buffer is required at the output of the quantizer to store the coefficients. These
are selectively encoded. The DC coefficients are transmitted first, then low frequency coefficients
are transmitted and then high frequency coefficients are transmitted.
Sequential lossless JPEG compression:

It uses simple predictive compression algorithm. Hence, Huffman coding is used to encode
the prediction coefficients.
Hierarchical JPEG compression:

The decoded images are displayed progressively or these can be displayed at different
resolutions. Here, each lower resolution image is used as a prediction for the next higher resolution
image.

UNIT – I DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS

PART-A
1. Define Image.
An image may be defined as two dimensional light intensity function f(x, y) where x and y denote spatial
co-ordinate and the amplitude or value of f at any point (x, y) is called intensity or grayscale or brightness
of the image at that point.
2. What is Dynamic Range?
The range of values spanned by the gray scale is called dynamic range of an image. Image will have high
contrast, if the dynamic range is high and image will have dull washed out gray look if the dynamic range
is low.
3. Define Brightness.
Brightness of an object is the perceived luminance of the surround. Two objects with different
surroundings would have identical luminance but different brightness.
4. Define Contrast .
It is defined as the difference in intensity between the highest and lowest intensity levels in an image
5. What do you mean by Gray level?
Gray level refers to a scalar measure of intensity that ranges from black to grays and finally to white.
6. What do you meant by Color model?
A Color model is a specification of 3D-coordinates system and a subspace within that system where each
color is represented by a single point.
7. List the hardware oriented color models.
1. RGB model 2. CMY model 3. YIQ model 4. HSI model
8. What is Hue & saturation?
Hue is a color attribute that describes a pure color where saturation gives a measure of the degree to which
a pure color is diluted by white light.
9. List the applications of color models.
1. RGB model--- used for color monitor & color video camera
2. CMY model---used for color printing 3. HIS model --- used for color image processing
4. YIQ model -- used for color picture transmission
10. Define Resolution
Resolution is defined as the smallest number of discernible detail in an image. Spatial resolution is the
smallest discernible detail in an image and gray level resolution refers to the smallest discernible change is
gray level.
11. What is meant by pixel?
A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements each of which has a particular location or value.
These elements are referred to as pixels or image elements or picture elements or pels elements.
12. Define Digital image? What is gray scale image?
When x, y and the amplitude values of f all are finite discrete quantities, we call the image as digital image.
13. What are the steps involved in DIP?
1. Image Acquisition 2. Preprocessing 3. Segmentation 4. Representation and Description
5. Recognition and Interpretation
14. What is recognition and Interpretation?
Recognition means is a process that assigns a label to an object based on the information provided by its
descriptors. Interpretation means assigning meaning to a recognized object.
15. Specify the elements of DIP system
1. Image Acquisition 2. Storage 3. Processing 4. Display
16. Explain the categories of digital storage?
1. Short term storage for use during processing. 2. Online storage for relatively fast recall.
3. Archival storage for infrequent access.
17. What are the types of light receptors?
The two types of light receptors are Cones and Rods
18. How cones and rods are distributed in retina?
In each eye, cones are in the range 6-7 million and rods are in the range 75-150 million.

19. Define subjective brightness and brightness adaptation

Subjective brightness means intensity as preserved by the human visual system.
Brightness adaptation means the human visual system can operate only from scotopic to glare limit. It
cannot operate over the range simultaneously. It accomplishes this large variation by changes in its overall
intensity.
20. Differentiate photopic and scotopic vision
Photopic vision Scotopic vision
1. The human being can resolve the fine details Several rods are connected to one nerve
with these cones because each one is connected end. So it gives the overall picture of the
to its own nerve end. image.
2. This is also known as bright light vision. This is also known as thin light vision.
21. Define weber ratio

The ratio of increment of illumination to background of illumination is called as weber ratio.(ie) ∆i/i
If the ratio (∆i/i) is small, then small percentage of change in intensity is needed (ie) good brightness
adaptation. If the ratio (∆i/i) is large, then large percentage of change in intensity is needed
(ie) poor brightness adaptation.
22. What is simultaneous contrast
The region reserved brightness not depend on its intensity but also on its background. All centre square
have same intensity. However they appear to the eye to become darker as the background becomes lighter.
23. What is meant by illumination and reflectance?
Illumination is the amount of source light incident on the scene. It is represented as i(x, y). Reflectance is
the amount of light reflected by the object in the scene. It is represented by r(x, y).
24. Define sampling and quantization
Sampling means digitizing the co-ordinate value (x, y). Quantization means digitizing the amplitude value.
25. Find the number of bits required to store a 256 X 256 image with 32 gray levels
32 gray levels = 25
No of bits for one gray level = 5; 256 * 256 * 5 = 327680 bits.
26. Write the expression to find the number of bits to store a digital image?
The number of bits required to store a digital image is
b=M X N X k where k is number bits required to represent one pixel
When M=N, this equation becomes b=N2k
27. What do you meant by Zooming and shrinking of digital images?
Zooming may be viewed as over sampling. It involves the creation of new pixel locations and the
assignment of gray levels to those new locations.
Shrinking may be viewed as under sampling. To shrink an image by one half, we delete every row and
column. To reduce possible aliasing effect, it is a good idea to blue an image slightly before shrinking it.
28. Write short notes on neighbors of a pixel.
The pixel p at co-ordinates (x, y) has 4 neighbors (ie) 2 horizontal and 2 vertical neighbors whose
co-ordinates is given by (x+1, y), (x-1,y), (x,y-1), (x, y+1). This is called as direct neighbors. It is
denoted by N4(P) Four diagonal neighbors of p have co-ordinates (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1, y-1),
(x-1, y+1). It is denoted by ND(4). Eight neighbors of p denoted by N8(P) is a combination of 4
direct neighbors and 4 diagonal neighbors.
29. Define the term Luminance
Luminance measured in lumens (lm), gives a measure of the amount of energy an observer perceiver from a
light source.
30. What is monochrome image and gray image?
Monochrome image is an single color image with neutral background. Gray image is an image with black
and white levels which has gray levels in between black and white. 8-bit gray image has 256 gray levels.
31. What is meant by path?
Path from pixel p with co-ordinates (x, y) to pixel q with co-ordinates (s,t) is a sequence of
distinct pixels with co-ordinates.

32. Define checker board effect and false contouring.

Checker board effect is observed by leaving unchanged the number of grey levels and varying the spatial
resolution while keeping the display area unchanged. The checkerboard effect is caused by pixel
replication, that is, lower resolution images were duplicated in order to fill the display area.
The insufficient number of intensity levels in smooth areas of digital image gives false contouring.
33.Define Mach band effect.
The spatial interaction of luminances from an object and its surround creates a phenomenon called the
Mach band effect. This effect shows that brightness in not the monotonic function of luminance.
34.Define Optical illusion.

Optical illusions are characteristics of the human visual system which imply that‖ the eye fills in
nonexisting information or wrongly perceives geometrical properties of objects.‖
Example images:
35. Explain the types of connectivity.

4 connectivity, 8 connectivity and M connectivity (mixed connectivity)
36. Compare RGB and HIS color image models. (Dec’14)
RGB model HSI model
 RGB means red, green and blue color.  HSI represents hue, saturation and
 It represents colors of the image. intensity of colors.
 It is formed by either additive or  It decides the type of the color.
subtractive model.  It numerically represents the average
 It is subjective process of the equivalent RGB value.
 It is objective process
37. Give the formula for calculating D4 and D8 distance.
D4 distance (city block distance) is defined by D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t| D8 distance(chess board
distance) is defined by D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|).
PART-B
1. Explain the steps involved in digital image processing. (or) Explain various functional block of digital
image processing.
2. Describe the elements of visual perception.
3. Describe image formation in the eye with brightness adaptation and discrimination
4. Write short notes on sampling and quantization.
5. Describe the functions of elements of digital image processing system with a diagram. Or List and
explain various elements of digital image processing system
6. Explain the basic relationships between pixels?
i) Neighbours of a pixel ii) Connectivity iii) Distance measure iv) Path
7. Write the expressions for Walsh transform kernel and Walsh transform

8. Name and explain some important properties of 2-D DFT

9. Discuss in detail about the Slant transform in Image processing.
10. Determine the Hadamard transforms in Image processing
11. Staten and explain about the Haar transform in Image processing.
12. Discuss about the Hotelling transforms
13. State and prove separability property of 2D-DFT.
14. State and prove the translation property with example.
15. State distributivity and scaling property with example.
UNIT II IMAGE ENHANCEMENT

PART-A
1. Specify the objective of image enhancement technique.
The objective of enhancement technique is to process an image so that the result is more suitable than the
original image for a particular application.
2. Explain the 2 categories of image enhancement.
i) Spatial domain refers to image plane itself & approaches in this category are based on
direct manipulation of picture image.
ii) Frequency domain methods based on modifying the image by fourier transform.
3. What is contrast stretching?
Contrast stretching reduces an image of higher contrast than the original by darkening the levels below m
and brightening the levels above m in the image.
4. What is grey level slicing?
Highlighting a specific range of grey levels in an image often is desired. Applications include enhancing
features such as masses of water in satellite imagery and enhancing flaws in x-ray images.
5. Define image subtraction.
The difference between 2 images f(x,y) and h(x,y) expressed as g(x,y)=f(x,y)-h(x,y) is obtained by
computing the difference between all pairs of corresponding pixels from f and h.
6. What is the purpose of image averaging?
An important application of image averaging is in the field of astronomy, where imaging with very low
light levels is routine, causing sensor noise frequently to render single images virtually useless for analysis.
7. Give the formula for negative and log transformation.
Negative: S=L-1-r Log: S = c log(1+r) Where c-constant and r 0
8. What is meant by bit plane slicing?
Instead of highlighting gray level ranges, highlighting the contribution made to total image
appearance by specific bits might be desired. Suppose that each pixel in an image is represented by 8
bits. Imagine that the image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from bit plane 0 for LSB to
bit plane-7 for MSB
9. What is meant by masking?
Mask is the small 2-D array in which the values of mask co-efficient determines the nature of process. The
enhancement technique based on this type of approach is referred to as mask processing.
10. Define histogram.
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a discrete function h(rk)=nk.
rk-kth gray level; nk-number of pixels in the image having gray level r k.
11. What is meant by histogram equalization?
; where k=0, 1,2,…, L-1
This transformation is called histogram equalization.
12. What do you mean by Point processing?
Image enhancement at any Point in an image depends only on the gray level at that point is often
referred to as Point processing.
13. What is Image Negatives?
The negative of an image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is obtained by using the negative
transformation, which is given by the expression. s = L-1-r Where s is output pixel r is input pixel.

14. Define Derivative filter

For a function f (x, y), the gradient ∆f at co-ordinate (x, y) is defined as the vector
; mag (∆f) = {[(∂f/∂x) 2 +(∂f/∂y) 2 ]} 1/2

15. What is a Median filter?
The median filter replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray levels in the neighborhood of that
pixel.
16. Explain spatial filtering
Spatial filtering is the process of moving the filter mask from point to point in an image. For linear spatial
filter, the response is given by a sum of products of the filter coefficients, and the corresponding image
pixels in the area spanned by the filter mask
17. Give the mask used for high boost filtering.
18. What is maximum filter and minimum filter?

th th
The 100 percentile is maximum filter is used in finding brightest points in an image. The 0
percentile filter is minimum filter used for finding darkest points in an image.
19. Write the application of sharpening filters
1. Electronic printing and medical imaging to industrial application
2. Autonomous target detection in smart weapons.
20. Name the different types of derivative filters
1. Perwitt operators 2. Roberts cross gradient operators 3. Sobel operators
21. Define spatial averaging.
Spatial averaing is the process of finding out average of a center pixel and its neighbours. For linear spatial
averaging, the response is given by a sum of products of the average filter mask, and the corresponding
image pixels in the area spanned by the filter mask.
22.What is the need for transform?
1. Certain mathematical operations can easily be implemented in frequency domain.
2. Transforms are very useful in gaining valuable insight into concepts such as sampling
3. Image transforms help to design faster algorithms
4. Transforms result in energy compaction over few co-efficient
23. What is Image Transform?
An image can be expanded in terms of a discrete set of basis arrays called basis images. These basis
images can be generated by unitary matrices. Alternatively, a given NxN image can be viewed as an
N^2x1 vectors. An image transform provides a set of coordinates or basis vectors for vector space.
24. What are the applications of transform?
1) To reduce band width 2) To reduce redundancy 3) To extract feature.
25. Give the Conditions for perfect transform.
1. Transpose of matrix = Inverse of a matrix. 2. Orthoganality.
26. What are the properties of unitary transform? (Dec’13)
1) Determinant and the Eigen values of a unitary matrix have unity magnitude
2) The entropy of a random vector is preserved under a unitary Transformation
3) Since the entropy is a measure of average information, this means information is preserved under a
unitary transformation.
27. What is meant by bit plane slicing?
Instead of highlighting gray level ranges, highlighting the contribution made to total image appearance by
specific bits might be desired. Suppose that each pixel in an image is represented by 8 bits. Imagine that
the image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from bit plane 0 for LSB to bit plane-7 for MSB.

28. Write the steps involved in frequency domain filtering.

1. Multiply the input image by (-1) to center the transform.
2. Compute F(u,v), the DFT of the image from (1).
3. Multiply F(u,v) by a filter function H(u,v).
4. Compute the inverse DFT of the result in (3).
5. Obtain the real part of the result in (4). x+y
6. Multiply the result in (5) by (-1)
29. Give the formula for transform function of a Butterworth low pass filter.
The transfer function of a Butterworth low pass filter of order n and with cut off frequency at
distance D0 from the origin is, Where D(u,v) = [(u – M/2) + (v-N/2) ]
30. Give the properties of the first and second derivative around an edge
 First-order derivative is nonzero at the onset and along the entire intensity ramp, producing thick
edges
 The sign of the second derivative can be used to determine whether an edge pixel lies on the dark or
light side of an edge.
 It produces two values for every edge in an image.
 An imaginary straight line joining the extreme positive and negative values of the second
derivative would cross zero near the midpoint of the edge.
31. Define directional smoothing filter.
*Compute spatial average along several directions.

*Take the result from the direction giving the smallest changes before
and after filtering.
32. Distinguish between image enhancement and image restoration.

Enhancement technique is based primarily on the pleasing aspects it might present to the viewer. For
example: Contrast Stretching. Whereas Removal of image blur by applying a deblurrings function is
considered a restoration technique.
PART-B
1. Explain the types of gray level transformation used for image enhancement.
2. What is histogram? Explain histogram equalization and matching
3. Discuss the image smoothing filter with its model in the spatial domain.
4. What are image sharpening filters? Explain the various types of it.
5. Explain spatial filtering in image enhancement.
6. Explain image enhancement in the frequency domain.
7. Write short notes on ideal Butterworth filters and Gaussian filter.
8. Describe histogram equalization. Obtain histogram equalization for the following image
segment of size 5 X 5. Write the interference on the image segment before and after equalization.
20 20 20 18 16
15 15 16 18 15
15 15 19 15 17
16 17 19 18 16
20 18 17 20 15 (5 X 5) matrix
9. Describe histogram equalization. Obtain histogram equalization for the following 8 bit image
segment of size 5 X 5. Write the interference on the image segment before and after equalization.
200 200 200 180 240
180 180 180 180 190
190 190 190 190 180
190 200 220 220 240
230 180 190 210 230 (5 X 5) matrix

UNIT III IMAGE RESTORATION

PART-A
1.What are the types of noise models?

1. Gaussian noise 2. Rayleigh noise 3. Erlang noise 4. Exponential noise 5. Uniform noise
6. Impulse noise
2. Give the relation/PDF for Gaussian noise and Rayleigh noise
Gaussian noise: The PDF Gaussian random variable Z is given by
, Z->Gray level value;σ->standard deviation;σ2->variance of Z;µ->mean of the

gray level value Z.
Rayleigh noise: The PDF is
2
Mean µ=a+√πb/4; Standard deviation σ =b(4-π)/4
3. Give the relation for Gamma noise, Exponential noise.

Gamma noise: The PDF is
Mean µ=b/a; Standard deviation σ2=b/a2

Exponential noise : The PDF is
Mean µ=1/a; Standard deviation σ2=1/a2

4. Give the relation for Uniform noise and Impulse noise.
Uniform noise:The PDF is
Mean µ=a+b/2 ; Standard deviation σ2=(b-a)2/12

Impulse noise:The PDF is
5. What are possible ways for adding noise in images?

Image sensors, scanners, image acquisition, modify the pixel values, changing the background or
foreground of an image, addition of two images, arithmetic operations between two images and image
processing algorithms are the possible ways for adding noise in images.
6. What is meant by Image Restoration?
Restoration attempts to reconstruct or recover an image that has been degraded by using a clear knowledge
of the degrading phenomenon.
7. What are the two properties in Linear Operator? Explain additivity property in Linear Operator.
1. Additivity 2. Homogeneity
The additive property says that if H is the linear operator, the response to a sum of two is equal to
the sum of the two responses.H[f1(x,y)+f2(x,y)]=H[f1(x,y)]+H[f2(x,y)]
8. What is Local threshold and dynamic or adaptive threshold, global thresholding?
If Threshold T depends both on f(x,y) and p(x,y) is called local.
If Threshold T depends on the spatial coordinates x and y the threshold is called dynamic or
adaptive where f(x,y) is the original image.

9. How a degradation process is modeled? Or Define degradation model and sketch it.
A system operator H, which together with an additive white noise term η(x,y) operates on an input
image f(x,y) to produce a degraded image g(x,y).
10. What are the three types of discontinuity in digital image?
Points, lines and edges.
11. What is concept algebraic approach? What are the two methods of algebraic approach?
The concept of algebraic approach is to estimate the original image which minimizes a predefined criterion
of performances. The two methods of algebraic approach are
1. Unconstraint restoration approach 2. Constraint restoration approach
12. Define Gray-level interpolation
Gray-level interpolation deals with the assignment of gray levels to pixels in the spatially transformed
image
13. What is meant by Noise probability density function?
The spatial noise descriptor is the statistical behavior of gray level values in the noise component of the
model.
14. What is geometric transformation?
Transformation is used to alter the co-ordinate description of image.
The basic geometric transformations are 1. Image translation 2. Scaling 3. Image rotation
15. What is image translation and scaling?
Image translation means reposition the image from one co-ordinate location to another along straight line
path. Scaling is used to alter the size of the object or image (ie) a co-ordinate system is scaled by a factor.
16. Why the restoration is called as unconstrained restoration?
In the absence of any knowledge about the noise ‗n‘, a meaningful criterion function is to seek an
such that H approximates of in a least square sense by assuming the noise term is as small as possible.
Where H = system operator. = estimated input image. g = degraded image.
17. Which is the most frequent method to overcome the difficulty to formulate the spatial
relocation of pixels?
The point is the most frequent method, which are subsets of pixels whose location in the input (distorted)
and output (corrected) imaged is known precisely.
18. What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?
1. Observation 2. Experimentation 3. Mathematical modeling.
The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering, an estimate F^(u,v) of the transform of
the original image simply by dividing the transform of the degraded image G^(u,v) by the degradation
function.
19. What is pseudo inverse filter?
It is the stabilized version of the inverse filter. For a linear shift invariant system with frequency response
H(u,v) the pseudo inverse filter is defined as
H-(u,v)=1/(H(u,v) H#0
0 H=0
20. What is meant by least mean square filter or wiener filter?
The limitation of inverse and pseudo inverse filter is very sensitive noise. The wiener filtering is a method
of restoring images in the presence of blur as well as noise.
21. What is blur impulse response and noise levels?
Blur impulse response: This parameter is measured by isolating an image of a suspected object within a
picture.
Noise levels: The noise of an observed image can be estimated by measuring the image covariance over a
region of constant background luminance.

22. Give the difference between Enhancement and Restoration

Enhancement technique is based primarily on the pleasing aspects it might present to the viewer. For
example: Contrast Stretching. Whereas Removal of image blur by applying a deblurrings function is
considered a restoration technique.
23. What do you mean by Point processing?
Image enhancement at any Point in an image depends only on the gray level at that point is often referred
to as Point processing.
24. What is Image Negatives? Give the formula for negative and log transformation.
The negative of an image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is obtained by using the negative
transformation, which is given by the expression.
s = L-1-r Where s is output pixel r is input pixel
Negative: S=L-1-r; Log Transformation: S = c log(1+r) Where c-constant and ≥0
25. Why blur is to be removed from images?
The blur is caused by lens that is improper manner, relative motion between camera and scene and
atmospheric turbulence. It will introduce bandwidth reduction and make the image analysis as complex.
To prevent the issues, blur is removed from the images.
26. What is Lagrange multiplier? Where it is used?
The Lagrange multiplier is a strategy for finding the local minima and maxima of a function subject to
equality constraints. This is mainly used in the image restoration process like image acquisition, image
storage and transmission.
27. Compare constrained and unconstrained restoration(May’14)
Constrained Restoration Unconstrained Restoration
In the absence of any knowledge about the In the absence of any knowledge about the
noise ‗n‘, based on Lagrange multiplier and noise ‗n‘, a meaningful criterion function is
linear operator, a meaningful criterion function
to seek an such that H approximates of
is to seek an such that H approximates in a least square sense by assuming the noise
of in a least square sense by assuming the term is as small as possible. Where H = system
noise term is as small as possible. Where H =
operator. = estimated input image.
system operator. = estimated input image. g = degraded image.
g = degraded image.
28.What is the principle of inverse filtering?
Inverse filtering is given by
-restored image. G(u,v) – Degraded image H(u,v)-Filter transfer function
PART-B
1. Explain the algebra approach in image restoration. Describe how image restoration can be
performed for black and white binary images and blur caused by uniform linear motion.
2. Explain wiener filter or least mean square filter in image restoration.
3. What is meant by Inverse filtering? Explain it with equation.
4. Explain image degradation model /restoration process in detail.
5. Explain the causes for image degradation.
6. Describe constrained least square filtering for image restoration and derive its transfer function.
7. Explain different noise models in image processing

UNIT IV IMAGE SEGMENTATION AND

MORPHOLOGICAL IMAGE PROCESSING
PART-A
1. What is segmentation? Write the applications of segmentation.
Segmentation is the process of portioning an image into its constitute regions or objects based on certain
criteria. Image segmentation algorithms are based on either discontinuity principle or similarity principle.
* Detection of isolated points. * Detection of lines and edges in an image.
2. Write about linking edge points.
The approach for linking edge points is to analyze the characteristics of pixels in a small neighborhood
(3x3 or 5x5) about every point (x,y)in an image that has undergone edge detection. All points that are
similar are linked, forming a boundary of pixels that share some common properties.
3. What is edge? What are the two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels?
An edge is a set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between two regions edges are more closely
modeled as having a ramp like profile. The slope of the ramp is inversely proportional to the degree of
blurring in the edge.
Properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels :(1) The strength of the response of the
gradient operator used to produce the edge pixel. (2) The direction of the gradient
4. Define region growing .Give the principle of region growing.
Region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions in to layer regions based on predefined
criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set of seed points and from there grow regions by appending
to each seed these neighboring pixels that have properties similar to the seed.
5. State the problems in region splitting and merging based image segmentation.
 Initial seed points – different set of initial seed point cause different segmented result.
 Time consuming problem
 This method is not suitable for color images and produce fault colors sometime.
 Region growth may stop at any time when no more pixels satisfy the criteria.
6. What are factors affecting the accuracy of region growing?
The factors affecting the accuracy of region growing are like lightning variations, pixel‘s intensity value.
7. Write sobel horizontal and vertical edge detection masks.
Horizontal masking Vertical masking
-1 -2 -1 -1 0 1
0 0 0 -2 0 2
1 2 2 -1 0 1
8. Define region splitting and merging. Specify the steps involved in splitting and merging
Region splitting and merging is a segmentation process in which an image is initially subdivided into a set
of arbitrary ,disjoint regions and then the regions are merger and /or splitted to satisfy the basic conditions.
Split into 4 disjoint quadrants any region Ri for which P(Ri)=FALSE. Merge any adjacent regions Rj and
Rk for which P(RjURk)=TRUE. Stop when no further merging or splitting is positive.
9. Define and give the transfer function of mean and geometric mean filter
The arithmetic mean filter is a very simple one and is calculated as follows:
 g(s, t)
1
fˆ(x, y) 
mn ( s,t )Sxy
The transfer function of Geometric mean filter is
1
  mn
fˆ (x, y)    g(s, t)
( s,t )S xy 
•Each restored pixel value given by the product of all the pixel values in the filter window, raised to the
power 1/mn • Achieving smoothing comparable to the arithmetic mean filter, but tending to lose less image
detail in the process

PART-B
1. What is image segmentation. Explain in detail.
2. Explain Edge Detection and edge linking in detail?
3. Define thresholding and explain the various methods of thresholding in detail?
4. Discuss about region based image segmentation techniques. Compare threshold region based
techniques.
5. Explain the two techniques of region segmentation.
6. Explain region based segmentation and region growing with an example.
7. Explain strcuturing element decompisition od dilation.
8. Explain through the Erosion of opening and closing technique.
9. Discuss in detail about threshold selection based on boundary characteristics
10. What is meant by Hit or Miss Transformation? Explain in detail.
UNIT V IMAGE COMPRESSION

PART-A
1. What is image compression?
Image compression refers to the process of redundancy amount of data required to represent the given
quantity of information for digital image. The basis of reduction process is removal of redundant data.
2. What is Data Compression?
Data compression requires the identification and extraction of source redundancy. In other words, data
compression seeks to reduce the number of bits used to store or transmit information.
3.What are two main types of Data compression?
1. Lossless compression can recover the exact original data after compression. It is used mainly for
compressing database records, spreadsheets or word processing files, where exact replication of the
original is essential.
2. Lossy compression will result in a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for a substantial increase in
compression. Lossycompression is more effective when used to compress graphic images and digitized voice
where losses outside visual or aural perception can be tolerated
4. What are different Compression Methods?
Run Length Encoding (RLE) Arithmetic coding Huffman coding and Transform coding
5. Define coding redundancy
If the gray level of an image is coded in a way that uses more code words than necessary to represent each
gray level, then the resulting image is said to contain coding redundancy.
6. Define interpixel redundancy.
The value of any given pixel can be predicted from the values of its neighbors. The information carried by
is small. Therefore the visual contribution of a single pixel to an image is redundant. Otherwise called as
spatial redundant geometric redundant or interpixel redundant. Eg: Run length coding
7. What is run length coding?
Run-length Encoding or RLE is a technique used to reduce the size of a repeating string of characters. This
repeating string is called a run; typically RLE encodes a run of symbols into two bytes, a count and a
symbol. RLE can compress any type of data regardless of its information content, but the content of data to
be compressed affects the compression ratio.
8. Define compression ratio.
Compression Ratio = original size / compressed size
9. Define psycho visual redundancy.
In normal visual processing certain information has less importance than other information. So this
information is said to be psycho visual redundant.
10. Define source encoder.
Source encoder performs three operations
1) Mapper -this transforms the input data into non-visual format. It reduces the interpixel redundancy.
2) Quantizer - It reduces the psycho visual redundancy of the input images .This step is omitted if the
system is error free.
3) Symbol encoder- This reduces the coding redundancy .This is the final stage of encoding process.

11. What is the need for Compression? Compare lossy and lossless compression technique
In terms of storage, the capacity of a storage device can be effectively increased with methods that
compress a body of data on its way to a storage device and decompress it when it is retrieved.
1. In terms of communications, the bandwidth of a digital communication link can be effectively
increased by compressing data at the sending end and decompressing data at the receiving end.
2. At any given time, the ability of the Internet to transfer data is fixed. Thus, if data can effectively
be compressed wherever possible, significant improvements of data throughput can be
achieved. Many files can be combined into one compressed document making sending easier.
Lossless compression technique Lossy compression technique
*In lossless data compression, the integrity of *Our eyes and ears cannot distinguish subtle
the data is preserved. The original data and changes. In such cases, we can use a lossy
the data after compression and decompression data compression method.
are exactly the same because, in these *These methods are cheaper—they take less
methods, the compression and decompression time and space when it comes to sending
algorithms are exact inverses of each other: millions of bits per second for images and
no part of the data is lost in the process. video.
*Redundant data is removed in compression *Several lossy compression techniques are
and added during decompression. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
*Lossless compression methods are normally encoding is used to compress pictures and
used when we cannot afford to lose any data. graphics, MPEG (Moving Picture Experts
*Some techniques are run-length encoding, Group) encoding is used to compress video,
Huffman coding, Lempel Ziv encoding and MP3 (MPEG audio layer 3) for audio
compression
12. Define encoder
Source encoder is responsible for removing the coding and interpixel redundancy and psycho visual
redundancy. There are two components A) Source Encoder B) Channel Encoder
13. Define channel encoder.
The channel encoder reduces the impact of the channel noise by inserting redundant bits into the source
encoded data. Eg: Hamming code
14. What are the types of decoder?
Source decoder- has two components a) Symbol decoder- This performs inverse operation of symbol
encoder. b) Inverse mapping- This performs inverse operation of mapper. Channel decoder-this is omitted
if the system is error free.
15. What are the operations performed by error free compression?
1) Devising an alternative representation of the image in which its interpixel redundant are reduced.
2) Coding the representation to eliminate coding redundancy
16. What is Variable Length Coding?
Variable Length Coding is the simplest approach to error free compression. It reduces only the coding
redundancy. It assigns the shortest possible codeword to the most probable gray levels.
17. Define Huffman coding and mention its limitation
Huffman coding is a popular technique for removing coding redundancy.
1. When coding the symbols of an information source the Huffman code yields the smallest possible
number of code words, code symbols per source symbol.
Limitation: For equiprobable symbols, Huffman coding produces variable code words.
18. Define Block code.
Each source symbol is mapped into fixed sequence of code symbols or code words. So it is called as block
code.
19. Define instantaneous code.
A code word that is not a prefix of any other code word is called instantaneous or prefix codeword.
20. Define uniquely decodable code.
A code word that is not a combination of any other codeword is said to be uniquely decodable code.

21. Define B2 code.

Each code word is made up of continuation bit c and information bit which are
binary numbers. This is called B2 code or B code. This is called B2 code because two information bits
are used for continuation bits
22. Define the procedure for Huffman shift coding
List all the source symbols along with its probabilities in descending order. Divide the total number of
symbols into block of equal size. Sum the probabilities of all the source symbols outside the reference
block. Now apply the procedure for reference block, including the prefix source symbol. The code words
for the remaining symbols can be constructed by means of one or more prefix code followed by the
reference block as in the case of binary shift code.
23. Define arithmetic coding.
In arithmetic coding one to one corresponds between source symbols and code word doesn‘t exist where as
the single arithmetic code word assigned for a sequence of source symbols. A code word defines an
interval of number between 0 and 1.
24. What is bit plane Decomposition?
An effective technique for reducing an image‘s interpixel redundancies is to process the image‘s bit plane
individually. This technique is based on the concept of decomposing multilevel images into a series of
binary images and compressing each binary image via one of several well-known binary compression
methods.
25. Draw the block diagram of transform coding system.
26. How effectiveness of quantization can be improved?

1. Introducing an enlarged quantization interval around zero, called a dead zero.
2. Adapting the size of the quantization intervals from scale to scale. In either case, the selected
quantization intervals must be transmitted to the decoder with the encoded image bit stream.
27. What are the coding systems in JPEG?
1. A lossy baseline coding system, which is based on the DCT and is adequate for most compression
application. 2. An extended coding system for greater compression, higher precision or progressive
reconstruction applications. 3. A lossless independent coding system for reversible compression.
28. What is JPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Joint Photographic Expert Group". It is an international standard in 1992. It
perfectly Works with color and grayscale images, Many applications e.g., satellite, medical.
29. What are the basic steps in JPEG?
The Major Steps in JPEG Coding involve:
1. DCT (Discrete Cosine Transformation) 2. Quantization 3. Zigzag Scan
4. DPCM on DC component 5. RLE on AC Components 6. Entropy Coding
30. What is MPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Moving Picture Expert Group". It is an international standard in 1992. It
perfectly Works with video and also used in teleconferencing
31. Define I-frame
I-frame is Intraframe or Independent frame. An I-frame is compressed independently of all frames. It
resembles a JPEG encoded image. It is the reference point for the motion estimation needed to generate
subsequent P and P-frame.
32. Define P-frame
P-frame is called predictive frame. A P-frame is the compressed difference between the current frame and a
prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame

33. Define B-frame

B-frame is the bidirectional frame. A B-frame is the compressed difference between the current frame and
a prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame or next P-frame. Accordingly the decoder must have
access to both past and future reference frames.
34. What is shift code?

The two variable length codes (Binary shift, Huffman Shift) are referred to as shift codes.
A shift code is generated by
i) Arranging probabilities of the source symbols are monotonically decreasing.
ii) Dividing the total number of symbols into symbol blocks of equal size.
iii) Coding the individual elements within all blocks identically.
iv) Adding special shift up/down symbols to identify each block.
35. Write the performance metrics for image compression.
 Bit error rate: The bit error rate (BER) is the number of bit errors per unit time.
36. List the advantages of transform coding.
Very efficient multiplier less implementation, to provide high quality digitization .
Transform Coding may also be used for the efficient encoding of sequences which are not
successive samples of a waveform, but samples of N correlated sources
PART - B
1. Explain three basic data redundancy? What is the need for data compression.
2. What is image compression? Explain any four variable length coding compression schemes.
3. Explain about Image compression model.
4. Explain about Error free Compression and Lossy compression.
5. Explain the schematics of image compression standard JPEG.
6. Explain the principle of arithmetic coding with an example.
7. Discuss about MPEG standard and compare with JPEG
8. Draw and explain the block diagram of MPEG encoder
9. Discuss the need for image compression. Perform Huffman algorithm for the following intensity
distribution, for a 64x64 image. Obtain the coding efficiency and compare with that of uniform length
code. r0=1008, r1=320, r2=456, r3=686, r4=803, r5=105, r6=417, r7=301
10. (i) Briefly explain transform coding with neat sketch.
(ii) A source emits letters from an alphabet A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5} with probabilities
P(a1) = 0.2 , P(a2) = 0.4 , P(a3) = 0.2 , P(a4) = 0.1 and P(a5) = 0.1.
(1) Find the Huffman code (2) Find the average length of the code and its redundancy.
11. Describe run length encoding with examples.
*************************** ALL THE VERY BEST ***************************

R13
Code No: 117CJ
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
B. Tech IV Year I Semester Examinations, April/May - 2018
(Common to ECE, ETM)
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 75
Note: This question paper contains two parts A and B. Part A is compulsory which carries 25
marks. Answer all questions in Part A. Part B consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full
question from each unit. Each question carries 10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub
questions.
PART- A
(25 Marks)
1.a) Define a digital image. [2]
b) Draw an image for image processing system. [3]
c) Present a note on smoothing linear filters. [2]
d) What are the applications of gray level slicing? [3]
e) Present a note on WEIGHT parameter. [2]
f) What are the spatial and frequency properties of noise? [3]
g) What are the applications of image segmentation? [2]
h) What is meant by watermarking? [3]
i) Define image compression. [2]
j) What is meant by error free compression? [3]
PART-B
(50 Marks)
2.a) Distinguish between digital image and binary image.
b) Explain a simple image model. [5+5]
OR
3.a) Explain the properties of slant transforrm.
b) Write short notes on hadamard transform. [5+5]
4. Explain image enhancement by point processing. [10]

OR
5.a) Explain about Ideal Low Pass Filter(ILPF) in frequency domain.
b) What is high frequency filtering? [5+5]
6.a) Write about component image observation model.

b) Discuss about Erlang noise. [5+5]
OR
7. Discuss about constrained and unconstrained restorations. [10]
www.manaresults.co.in
8.a) Explain about Hough transform with an example.
b) What is the role of thresholding in segmentation? [5+5]
OR
9.a) Write short notes on dilation and erosion.
b) Give an overview of digital image watermarking methods. [5+5]
10. Discuss various image compression models. [10]

OR
11.a) Write a short note on fidelity criterion.
b) Explain Huffman coding technique. [5+5]
--ooOoo--
www.manaresults.co.in
Code No: 117CJ R13
B. Tech IV Year I Semester Examinations, November/December - 2017
(Common to ECE, ETM)
Note: This question paper contains two parts A and B.
Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A. Part B
consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit. Each question
carries 10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.
Part- A
(25 Marks)
1.a) Define Sampling and Quantization. [2]
b) List the properties of Walsh Transform. [3]
c) Define histogram. [2]
d) What is the need of image enhancement? [3]
e) What is the difference between image restoration and image enhancement? [2]
f) Draw the model of Image Restoration process. [3]
g) List different types of discontinuities in digital image. [2]
h) What is global, Local and dynamic threshold? [3]
i) What is the need of image compression? [2]
j) Give the characteristics of lossless compression. [3]
Part-B
(50 Marks)
2. With mathematical expressions explain the Slant transform and explain how it is useful in
Image processing. [10]
OR
3.a) List and explain the fundamental steps in digital image processing.
b) Discuss briefly the following:
i) Neighbours of pixels ii) connectivity. [5+5]
4.a) Explain the use of histogram statistics for image enhancement.

b) How Gray level transformation helps in contrast enhancement? Discuss. [5+5]
OR
5.a) Compare and contrast spatial domain and frequency domain techniques of Image
enhancement.
b) Discuss any one frequency domain technique of Image smoothing. [5+5]
6. What is meant by image restoration? Explain the image degradation model. [10]
OR
7. Discuss in detail the image restoration using inverse filtering. [10]
www.ManaResults.co.in
8.a) Explain the basics of intensity thresholding in image segmentation.
b) Explain about morphological hit-or-miss transform. [5+5]
OR
9.a) Discuss in detail the edge linking using local processing.
b) Discuss briefly the region based segmentation. [6+4]
10.a) Discuss briefly the Image compression using Huffman coding.

b) What is the importance of compression in Image processing? [7+3]
OR
11.a) Draw and explain the image compression model.
b) List and explain the steps involved in JPEG compression. [6+4]
--ooOoo--
R13
Code No: 117CJ
B. Tech IV Year I Semester Examinations, March - 2017
(Electronics and Communication Engineering)
Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A.
Part B consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit. Each
question carries 10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.
Part- A (25 Marks)
1.a) Define image resolution. [2]

b) What are the steps involved in DIP? [3]
c) Specify the objective of image enhancement techniques. [2]
d) Differentiate between linear spatial filter and non-linear spatial filter. [3]
e) What is meant by image restoration? [2]
f) What is inverse filtering? [3]
g) Define region growing. [2]
h) What are the three types of discontinuity in digital image? [3]
i) Define huffman coding. [2]
j) What are different compression methods?
Part-B (50 Marks)
2.a) What is meant by digital image processing? What are the applications of it? How an
image is represented digitally?
b) Non uniform sampling is useful for what type of images. Give reasons. [5+5]
OR
3.a) Is fast algorithm applicable for computation of Hadamard transform, if so what are the
problems encountered in implementation.
b) Explain Discrete Cosine Transform and specify its properties. [5+5]
4.a) What is a histogram of an image? Sketch histograms of basic image types.

b) Discuss how histogram is useful for image enhancement. [5+5]
OR
5. What are the techniques used for image smoothing? Explain any one spatial and one
frequency techniques used for image smoothing. [10]
6. Describe constrained least square filtering technique for image restoration and derive its
transfer function. [10]
OR
7. Describe with mathematical model, both constrained and unconstrained restoration. [10]
8.a) Explain the segmentation techniques that are based on finding the regions.
b) Write the applications of segmentation. [7+3]
OR
9.a) Explain any two methods for linking the edge pixels to form a boundary of an object.
b) Explain with examples morphological operations dilation and erosion. [7+3]
10.a) Explain the schematics of image compression standard JPEG.

b) Draw and explain a general compression system model. [5+5]
OR
11.a) Describe in detail the lossless predictive coding error free compression.
b) Explain briefly the transform based compression. [5+5]
---ooOoo---
Code No: 117CJ R13
B. Tech IV Year I Semester Examinations, November/December - 2016
Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A. Part B
consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit. Each question carries
10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.
PART- A
(25 Marks)
1.a) Define Weber Ratio [2]
b) What is city block distance [3]
c) What is mean by Image Subtraction? [2]
d) What are Piecewise-Linear Transformations [3]
e) What is degradation function? [2]
f) What is Gray-level interpolation? [3]
g) What are the logic operations involving binary images [2]
h) What is convex hull? [3]
i) Define Compression Ratio [2]
j) What is Arithmetic Coding? [3]
PART-B
(50 Marks)
2.a) Discuss the role of sampling and quantization with an example.
b) With a neat block diagram, explain the fundamental steps in digital image processing.[5+5]
OR
3.a) Discuss the Relationship between Pixels in detail.
b) Discuss optical illusions with examples. [5+5]
4.a) State different types of processing used for image enhancement.

b) Explain in detail smoothing frequency-domain filters related to images. [5+5]
OR
5.a) Explain any two methods used for digital image zooming and shrinking.
b) Discuss two dimensional orthogonal unitary transforms. [5+5]
6.a) Discuss the minimum mean square error filtering.

b) Explain the model of image degradation process. [5+5]
OR
7.a) Discuss in detail the Inverse Filtering.
b) Write about Constrained Least Squares Restoration in detail. [5+5]
8.a) Write Edge Linking And Boundary Detection.

b) Write about detection of discontinuities. [5+5]
OR
9.a) Discuss the Region Oriented Segmentation.
b) Explain about Hit or Miss Transformation. [5+5]
10.a) Explain about Lossy and Lossless Predictive Coding

b) Explain about the methods of removal of redundancy. [5+5]
OR
11.a) Discuss the Transform Based Compression.
b) Write a short note on JPEG 2000 Standards. [5+5]
--ooOoo--
Code No:127CJ
R15
B.Tech IV Year I Semester Examinations, May/June - 2019
Time: 3 Hours Max.Marks: 75
Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A. Part B consists of
5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit. Each question carries 10 marks and may
have a, b, c as sub questions.
PART- A
(25 Marks)
1.a) How to represent the image? [2]
b) What is 4-, 8-, m- connectivity? [3]
c) What is High boost High pass filter? [2]
d) Compare linear and nonlinear gray level transformations. [3]
e) What are the advantages of Restoration? [2]
f) What are the different sources of degradation? [3]
g) What is erosion? [2]
h) How discontinuity property is used in image segmentation? [3]
i) What is mean by redundancy? [2]
j) What is fidelity? How it is used in image processing? [3]
PART-B
(50 Marks)
2.a) How to sample the image and how it differ from signal sampling?
b) Explore the relationship between pixels. [4+6]
OR
3.a) Define 2-D DFT and prove its convolution property and also write its applications.
b) Derive the 8 × 8 Slant transform matrix and write its order of sequence. [5+5]
4.a) Explain local enhancement techniques and compare it with global enhancement techniques.
b) Explain Histogram equalization method with example. [5+5]
OR
5.a) Consider the following image segment x and enhance it using the equation y = k x where k is
constant and y is output image.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
54 35 64 53 123 43 56 45
b) Explain how low pass filter is used to enhance the image in frequency domain? [5+5]
6.a) Explain how image restoration improves the quality of image.
b) What is inverse filter? How it is used for image restoration? [5+5]
OR
7.a) How wiener filter is used for image restoration? What are the limitations of it?
b) What are the applications of restoration? [6+4]
8.a) How edge linking process is used to segment the image?

b) How to choose the threshold value while segmenting the image? [5+5]
OR
9.a) What are necessary condition to apply region based segmentation?
b) What is mean by Hit and Miss morphological operation? Write some example. [5+5]
10. Suppose the alphabet is [A, B,C], and the known probability distribution is PA= 0.5, PB= 0.4,
Pc= 0.1. For simplicity, let's also assume that bothencoder and decoder know that the length of the
messages is always 3, so thereis no need for a terminator.
a) How many bits are needed to encode the message BBB by Huffmancoding?
b) How many bits are needed to encode the message BBB by arithmetic coding?
c) Analyze and compare the results of (a) and (b). [10]
OR
11.a) Draw the general block diagram of compression modal and explain the significance of each
block.
b) Explain the loss-less prediction code for image compression with neat diagrams and equations.
[5+5]
--ooOoo--
Code No: 136BD R16
B. Tech III Year II Semester Examinations, May – 2019
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 75

Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A. Part B consists of 5
Units. Answer any one full question from each unit. Each question carries 10 marks and may have a,
b, c as sub questions.
PART - A
(25 Marks)
1.a) Compare and contrast digital image and binary image. [2]
b) Define spatial and gray level resolution. [3]
c) List the various areas of application of image subtraction [2]
d) Explain about median filtering. [3]
e) Explain about alpha-trimmed mean filter? [2]
f) Write short notes on Max and Min filters. [3]
g) What is meant by edge in a digital image? [2]
h) What is meant by optimal Thresholding? [3]
i) Write short notes on spatial redundancy. [2]
j) Explain the Fidelity criteria. [3]
PART - B
(50 Marks)
2.a) State and prove separability property of 2D-DFT.

b) Explain the role of Discrete Cosine transform in image processing. [5+5]
OR
3.a) Obtain the slant transforms matrix For N=8.
b) Develop an FFT algorithm using successive doubling method. [5+5]
4. Sketch perspective plot of an 2-D Ideal Low pass filter transfer function and filter cross section and
explain its usefulness in Image enhancement. [10]
OR
5.a) What is meant by Histogram of an image. Write and explain with an example an algorithm for
histogram equalization.
b) What is meant by the Gradient and the Laplacian? Discuss their role in image enhancement.
[5+5]
6.a) Illustrate the use of adaptive median filter for noise reduction in an image.
b) Outline the different approaches to estimate the noise parameters in an image. [5+5]
OR
7.a) What are the different ways to estimate the degradation function? Explain.
b) Explain about noise reduction in an image using band reject and band pass filters. [5+5]
8.a) Explain about Global Processing by making use of Hough Transform?
b) Explain the following morphological algorithms [4+6]
i) Boundary extraction ii) Hole filling
OR
9.a) With necessary figures, explain the opening and closing operations.
b) Describe the procedure for image segmentation based on region growing with relevant examples.
[5+5]
10.a) Consider an 8- pixel line of gray-scale data, {12,12,13,13,10,13,57,54}, which has been uniformly
quantized with 6-bit accuracy. Construct its 3-bit IGS code.
b) What is bit-plane slicing? How it is used for achieving compression? [5+5]
OR
11.a) With the help of a block diagram explain about transform coding system.
b) Summarize the various types of data redundancies? [5+5]
---ooOoo---

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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

III Year B. Tech. ECE – II Sem

K.Aishwarya, Assistant Professor, ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Chapter-II Image Enhancement 32

Chapter-III Image Restoration 57

Chapter-IV Image Segmentation 71

Chapter-V Image Compression 107

Question Bank 119

Previous Question Papers 133

DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS:

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 1

APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Digital image processing has a broad spectrum of applications, such as

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 2

expressiveness of the MATLAB language, make many image-processing operations easy to

Figure : Components of Image processing System

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 3

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 4

Fig: Fundamental Steps in Digital Image Processing

Image Restoration: It deals with improving the appearance of an image. It is an objective

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 5

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 6

A Simple Image Model:

Lmin is to be positive and Lmax must be finite

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 7

There are three types of computerized processes in the processing of image

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 8

3) High level processing – It involves ―making sense‖ of an ensemble of recognized objects,

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 9

Spatial and Gray level resolution:

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 10

Fig:Single Image sensor

Fig: Line Sensor

Fig: Array sensor

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 11

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 12

Fig: Image Acquisition using linear strip and circular strips.

Image Acquisition using a Sensor Arrays:

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 13

Image sampling and Quantization:

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 14

Digital Image representation:

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 15

(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 16

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 17

De (p,q) = [(x – s)2 + (y - t)2]1/2

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 18

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 19

Now, to compute the Dm between points p and p4

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Page 20

path will be 3 (p, p1, p2, p4)

The 2D-FFT of a rectangular image f(m,n) of size MXN is represented as F(k,l)

f(m,n) ---2D-FFT--> F(k,l)

where F(k,l) is defined as

F(k,l) = ∑𝑀−1 𝑁−1

F(k,l) = ∑𝑀−1 𝑁−1

If the DFT of f(m,n) is F(k,l) then the DFT [f(m,n)] = F(-k,-l)