BeachesAndCoasts Davis and Fitzgerald

Beaches and
Coasts
Beaches and Coasts
SECOND EDITION
Richard A. Davis, Jr.

University of South Florida,
Texas, USA
Duncan M. FitzGerald
Boston University,
Massachusetts, USA
This second edition first published 2020
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Edition History
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Davis, Richard A., Jr., 1937– author. | FitzGerald, Duncan M., author.
Title: Beaches and coasts / Richard A. Davis, Jr, Texas, US, Duncan M. FitzGerald, Massachusetts, US.
Description: Second Edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2019] |
“Wiley-Blackwell (1e, 2004)”–T.p. verso. | Includes index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018061448 (print) | LCCN 2019001886 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119334514
(Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119334552 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119334484(Cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Beaches. | Coasts. | Coast changes.
Classification: LCC GB451.2 (ebook) | LCC GB451.2 .D385 2019 (print) | DDC 551.45/7–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018061448
Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Courtesy of Duncan M. Fitzgerald
Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Brief Contents
1 Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment 1
2 The Earth’s Mobile Crust 15
3 Sediments and Rocks: Materials of Coastal Environments 55
4 Sea‐Level Change and Coastal Environments 69
5 Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes 95
6 Waves and the Coast 133
7 Tides of the Ocean 153
8 River Deltas: The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments 177
9 Estuaries 203
10 Coastal Lagoons 229
11 Tidal Flats 247
12 Coastal Wetlands 281
13 Beach and Nearshore Environment 307
14 Coastal Dunes 339
15 Barrier Systems 359
16 Tidal Inlets 405
17 Glaciated Coasts 453
18 Rocky Coasts 489
Index 513
vii
Contents
1 Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment 1

1.1 Coastal Settings 1
1.2 Population and the Coast 3
1.2.1 History of Coastal Occupation 3
1.3 General Coastal Conditions 3
1.4 Coastal Environments 4
1.5 Historical Trends in Coastal Research 8
Suggested Reading 13
2 The Earth’s Mobile Crust 15

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Earth’s Interior 18
2.3 Plate Boundaries 21
2.3.1 Divergent Boundaries 21
2.3.2 Convergent Boundaries 24
2.3.3 Transform Boundaries 28
2.3.4 Plate Movement 29
2.4 Continental Margins 31
2.4.1 Tectonic Evolution of Continental Margins 34
2.5 Tectonic Coastline Classification 36
2.5.1 Collision Coasts 37
2.5.2 Trailing Edge Coasts 42
2.5.3 Marginal Sea Coasts 46
2.6 Tectonic Effects on Coastal Sediment Supply 47
2.6.1 Continental Drainage 48
2.6.2 Location of Rivers 49
2.6.3 Continental Shelf Width 51
2.7 Summary 52
Reference 53
3 Sediments and Rocks: Materials of Coastal Environments 55

3.1 Rock Types 55
3.2 Sediment Texture 56
3.2.1 Grain Size 56
3.2.2 Grain Shape 59
3.3 Mineralogy 60
3.4 General Origin and Distribution of Sediments 60
viii Contents
3.4.1 Composition 61
3.4.2 Texture 64
3.5 Summary 65
Reference 66
4 Sea‐Level Change and Coastal Environments 69

4.1 Changing the Size and Shape of the Container 71
4.1.1 Tectonic Causes 71
4.2 Climate and Sea‐Level Change 74
4.2.1 Seasonal Changes 74
4.2.2 Non‐seasonal Cyclic Changes 75
4.2.3 Long‐term Climatic Effects 76
4.3 Sea‐level Rise due to Sediment Compaction and Fluid Withdrawal 77
4.4 Isostasy 81
4.5 Changes in the Volume of the World Ocean 81
4.5.1 Advance and Retreat of Ice Sheets 81
4.6 Post‐Glacial Rise in Sea Level 85
4.7 Current and Future Sea‐Level Changes 86
4.7.1 Impact of Increasing Rise in Sea Level on Modern Coastal Environments 90
4.8 Summary 93
References 94
5 Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes 95

5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Basic Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Patterns 97
5.2.1 Wind 97
5.2.2 Atmospheric Circulation 97
5.2.3 Prevailing Winds 101
5.2.4 Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Systems 101
5.2.5 Land‐breezes and Sea‐breezes 102
5.3 Mid‐latitude Storms 102
5.3.1 Frontal Weather 103
5.3.2 Cyclogenesis 105
5.3.3 Extratropical Storms 106
5.4 Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 109
5.4.1 Low Latitude Storms 109
5.4.2 Origin and Movement of Hurricanes 110
5.4.3 Anatomy of a Hurricane 113
5.4.4 Hurricanes at the Coast 115
5.5 Summary 125
6 Waves and the Coast 133

6.1 Water Motion and Wave Propagation 136
6.2 Wind Wave Types 140
6.3 Distribution and Transfer of Wave Energy 142
Contents ix
6.4 Other Types of Waves 146

6.5 Wave‐Generated Currents 148
6.6 Summary 150
7 Tides of the Ocean 153

7.1 Introduction 153
7.2 Tide‐Generating Forces 153
7.2.1 Gravitational Force 153
7.2.2 Centrifugal Force 154
7.2.3 Tide‐Producing Force 156
7.3 Equilibrium Tide 157
7.3.1 Tidal Cycle 157
7.3.2 Orbiting Moon 158
7.3.3 Inclination of Moon’s Orbit 159
7.4 Interaction of Sun and Moon 159
7.5 Effects of Orbital Geometry 161
7.6 Effects of Partitioning Oceans 162
7.7 Tidal Signatures 163
7.8 Tides in Shallow Water 167
7.9 Summary 175
References 176
8 River Deltas: The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments 177

8.1 How Deltas Develop 178
8.2 Deltas and Sea Level 182
8.3 Delta Environments 184
8.4 Delta Plain 184
8.4.1 Delta Front 186
8.5 Delta Processes 189
8.6 River Processes 189
8.7 Delta Classification 190
8.7.1 River‐Dominated Deltas 192
8.7.2 Tide‐Dominated Deltas 193
8.7.3 Wave‐Dominated Deltas 193
8.8 Intermediate Deltas 195
8.9 Human Influence 195
8.10 Summary 200
References 200
9 Estuaries 203
9.1 Estuarine Hydrology 206
9.1.1 Classification of Estuaries 207
9.1.2 Estuarine Processes 208
9.1.3 Time–Velocity Relationships 209
x Contents
9.1.4 Model Estuary 214

9.1.5 Estuary Types 219
9.2 Human Impact on Estuaries 222
9.3 Summary 227
References 227
10 Coastal Lagoons 229

10.1 Definition 229
10.2 Morphology and Setting 229
10.3 General Characteristics 231
10.4 Lagoonal Processes 233
10.5 Lagoonal Sediments 235
10.6 Example Lagoons 239
10.7 Summary 244
11 Tidal Flats 247

11.1 Morphology of Tidal Flats 247
11.2 Sediments 249
11.3 Organisms 249
11.3.1 Vagrant Organisms 250
11.3.2 Sessile Organisms 250
11.3.3 Limiting Factors 250
11.3.4 Bioturbation 254
11.4 Sedimentary Structures 254
11.5 Tidal Flat Processes 260
11.5.1 Tides 260
11.5.2 Waves 263
11.6 Tidal Channels 265
11.7 Some Examples 267
11.7.1 German Wadden Sea and Jade Bay 267
11.7.2 The Wash 272
11.7.3 Bay of St.‐Malo 273
11.7.4 Bay of Fundy 273
11.8 Human Impact on Tidal Flats 274
11.9 Summary 276
References 278
12 Coastal Wetlands 281

12.1 Characteristics of a Coastal Marsh 281
12.1.1 Marsh Plants 281
12.1.2 Global Distribution 284
12.2 Marsh Characteristics 285
12.2.1 Marsh Classification 287
12.3 Marsh Sedimentation 289
12.3.1 Sediments 290
Contents xi
12.3.2 Sea Level and Marsh Development 292

12.4 Human Impact on the Marsh Environment 293
12.5 Marsh Summary 293
12.6 Mangrove Coasts 297
12.7 Mangrove Distribution 297
12.7.1 Global Distribution 297
12.7.2 Local 297
12.7.3 Zonation 298
12.8 Mangroves and Coastal Processes 300
12.9 Human Impact on Mangroves 303
12.10 Summary 303
References 305
13 Beach and Nearshore Environment 307

13.1 Nearshore Environment 307
13.2 Foreshore 312
13.3 Backbeach 322
13.4 Human Impact on Beaches 328
13.5 Summary 331
14 Coastal Dunes 339

14.1 Types of Coastal Dunes and Their Distribution 339
14.2 Dune Formation 345
14.3 Dune Dynamics 349
14.3.1 Dune Structures 351
14.4 Human Influence on Dunes 352
14.5 Summary 353
15 Barrier Systems 359

15.2 Physical Description 359
15.3 Distribution and Coastal Setting 362
15.4 Summary 366
15.5 Barrier Types 366
15.5.1 Barrier Spits 367
15.5.2 Welded Barriers 374
15.5.3 Barrier Islands 376
15.6 Prograding, Retrograding, and Aggrading Barriers 380
15.6.1 Prograding Barriers 381
15.6.2 Retrograding Barriers 384
15.6.3 Aggrading Barriers 388
15.7 Barrier Stratigraphy 390
15.8 Barrier Coast Morphology 393
15.8.1 Hayes Models 394
15.8.2 Georgia Bight 396
xii Contents
15.9 Barrier Coasts: Morphology and Evolution 399

15.9.1 Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia 399
15.9.2 Mississippi River Delta Barriers 400
15.10 Summary 403
References 403
16 Tidal Inlets 405

16.2 What Is a Tidal Inlet 405
16.3 Inlet Morphology 409
16.3.1 Tidal Deltas 409
16.3.2 Ebb‐Tidal Delta Morphology 413
16.4 Tidal Inlet Formation 415
16.4.1 Breaching of a Barrier 415
16.4.2 Spit Building across a Bay 415
16.4.3 Drowned River Valleys 417
16.4.4 Ephemeral Inlets 419
16.5 Tidal Inlet Migration 419
16.6 Tidal Inlet Relationships 423
16.6.1 Inlet Throat Area–Tidal Prism Relationship 423
16.6.2 Ebb‐Tidal Delta Volume–Tidal Prism Relationship 425
16.7 Sand Transport Patterns 426
16.7.1 General Sand‐Dispersal Trends 427
16.7.2 Inlet Sediment Bypassing 427
16.8 Tidal Inlet Effects on Adjacent Shorelines 438
16.8.1 Number and Size of Tidal Inlets 439
16.8.2 Tidal Inlets as Sediment Traps 440
16.8.3 Changes in Ebb‐Tidal Delta Volume 441
16.8.4 Wave Sheltering 442
16.8.5 Effects of Inlet Sediment Bypassing 445
16.8.6 Human Influences 446
16.9 Summary 448
References 451
17 Glaciated Coasts 453

17.2 The World’s Glaciers 454
17.2.1 Glacier Formation 456
17.2.2 Glacier Movement 457
17.2.3 Distribution and Types of Glaciers 458
17.3 Pleistocene Glaciation 462
17.3.1 Introduction 462
17.3.2 Defining the Pleistocene 463
17.3.3 Causes of the Ice Ages 464
17.3.4 The Late Pleistocene 466
Contents xiii
17.4 Glacial Effects on Coastlines 467

17.4.1 General Erosional Processes 467
17.4.2 Fjords 468
17.4.3 Rocky Coasts 469
17.4.4 General Depositional Processes 471
17.4.5 Depositional Landforms 473
17.5 Examples of Glaciated Coastlines 477
17.5.1 Cape Cod 477
17.5.2 Drumlin Coasts 480
17.5.3 Sand and Gravel Beaches 482
17.5.4 Uplifted Coasts 482
17.5.5 Drowned River Valleys 485
17.6 Summary 485
References 487
Suggested Readings 488
18 Rocky Coasts 489

18.2 Types and Distribution 490
18.2.1 Tectonic Settings 490
18.2.2 Glaciated Regions 490
18.2.3 Other Bedrock Coasts 491
18.3 Erosional Processes 493
18.3.1 Physical Processes 493
18.3.2 Biological Processes 497
18.3.3 Chemical Processes 498
18.4 Factors Affecting Rates of Erosion 498
18.5 Morphology 500
18.5.1 Sea Cliffs 501
18.5.2 Horizontal Erosional Landforms 504
18.5.3 Sea Stacks, Arches, and Erosional Features 506
18.6 Summary 511
Index 513
1
Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment
The surface of the earth is covered by two 1.1 Coastal Settings

contrasting media; land and sea. They meet
at the coast. There are, of course, glaciers The coast is global in its distribution but it is
that span parts of both the land and sea such limited in width. We cannot give an average
as in Greenland, Iceland, parts of Alaska and width, an average character, or any other aver-
the Canadian Arctic, and on Antarctica. Each age category that adequately typifies the coast.
of these two surfaces may cover millions of It is much too varied and complicated in its
square kilometers over continents and characteristics. In some places the coastal
oceans or much less in the case of small oce- zone might be only a few hundred meters
anic islands or some lakes within continental wide, whereas in others it might be more than
masses. Nevertheless, a narrow coastal zone 100 km wide. Some coastal zones include a
separates these two major parts of the earth’s wide range of environments that separate the
surface. We are defining the coastal zone as true ocean from the terrestrial environment.
that combination of environments that is In other situations, a single coastal environ-
influenced by marine waters. Typically this ment may define the land–sea boundary.
includes barrier‐inlet systems, anything that In this book we will consider the control-
is subjected to astronomical tides, including ling factors that determine what type of coast
wetlands and coastal bays. develops. The processes that develop and
The world coastline extends for about maintain coastal environments, as well as
440,000 km, but the coastal zone comprises those that destroy the coast, are discussed in
less than 0.05 % of the area of the landmasses order to convey the dynamic nature of all
combined. Because nearly half of the global coastal environments. Each of the major
population lives within less than 100 km of environments will be considered in light of
the coastline, the coastal zone has become these controlling factors and processes. The
arguably the most critical part of the earth’s impact of human activity along the coast has
surface in terms of global economy and strat- been enormous, especially over the past cen-
egies, and management needs. Unfortunately, tury. Many examples of this impact appear
the coastal zone is also the most desirable throughout the book. Most of the emphasis
property for human development. Much of here is directed toward geologic and physical
our development of the coast has had nega- attributes of the coast, although organisms
tive impacts on various environments and are not overlooked.
has caused problems that are very expensive Some coasts are chronically eroding and
or even impossible to correct. others tend to be depositional and are
Beaches and Coasts, Second Edition. Richard A. Davis, Jr. and Duncan M. FitzGerald.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 Chapter 1
a ccreting. Both situations can take place in others. Parts of Greenland and the Antarctic
any of the coastal environments and even in coast are covered with ice continually
close proximity to each other. These changes whereas some of the coasts of Alaska,
may be cyclical, for instance seasonal, typi- Canada, the Scandinavian countries, and
cally with erosion in the winter because of Russia have ice cover at least a few months
storms and deposition in the summer. There each year. Desert conditions can directly
are also places where one or the other is an influence coastal environments as well. Few
ongoing process. In addition, coasts are, very significant rivers and therefore few river del-
rarely, impacted by hugely destructive tsu- tas are produced from desert areas. Some
nami (Figure 1.1). The controlling factors coastal deserts are dominated by huge sand
tend to be one or more of three factors: dunes such as along Namibia on the south-
energy imparted to the environment, sedi- west coast of Africa. Along the Persian Gulf
ment availability, or human impact. the arid, low‐latitude environment produces
Depositional coasts include a wide spec- extensive coastal environments called sab-
trum of systems such as river deltas, barrier khas that are nearly at sea level and have an
island systems, strandplain coasts, and almost horizontal surface dominated by
glaciated coasts. Each of these may contain chemically precipitated carbonates, salts and
numerous distinct environments. The vari- other minerals.
ety of morphologic features and the complex The tectonics of the earth’s crust also pro-
interaction of coastal morphodynamics is duce a major influence on the coastal zone.
emphasized in this book. Coasts that coincide with or that are near
Climatic differences may cause a wide vari- plate boundaries tend to have more relief and
ety of coastal types in that temperature and are narrow as compared to those that are
rainfall exert a major influence on coastal away from plate boundaries. Collision coasts
development. Extreme climates such as those that are produced by colliding plates provide
in the very high latitudes can cause coastal a particularly rugged coast such as we see
areas to be covered with ice; all the time in along the Pacific side of both North and
some places, and for only a few months in South America. The opposite situation exists
Figure 1.1 Photograph of an irregular coast with high relief in northern California. (Source: NOAA, https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration.)
Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment 3
on trailing edge coasts where sediment Many centuries later, cities in the New
is abundant and deposition dominates. World such as Boston, New York, Baltimore
Relationships between plate tectonics and and San Francisco owe their location to the
coastal development will be treated in detail presence of a protected harbor. In their early
in Chapter 2. stages of development many of the major
civilizations of the world were either directly
on the coast or had important interaction
1.2 Population with it.
and the Coast In the early civilizations, reasons for this
extensive occupation of coastal areas were
The coast is many things to many people. strictly pragmatic. Coasts were essential for
Depending on where and how we live, work harboring ships, a primary means of trans-
and recreate, our perception of it varies porting goods, one of the major activities of
greatly. Large populations live on or near the the times. The adjacent sea was also a pri-
coast because it is typically very beautiful mary source of food. Similar reasons were
and interesting. Many more visit the coast the cause for the settlement of many of the
for the same reasons. A large number of peo- great cities of Europe such as London,
ple gain their livelihood directly or indirectly Amsterdam, Venice and Copenhagen. All
from the coast, and some have the task of were settled on the edge of the water because
protecting it from intruders or enemies. their location fostered commerce that
depended on transportation over water.
1.2.1 History of Coastal

Occupation 1.3 General Coastal
The ancient civilizations of the eastern Conditions
Mediterranean Sea were largely associated
with the coast, including the famous Greek, Varied geologic conditions provide different
Roman and Phoenician settlements and for- settings for the coast, and give variety and
tifications of biblical times and before. Many beauty to that part of the earth’s surface. As a
of the great cities of the time were located on consequence, some coasts are quite rugged
the natural harbors afforded by the geologic with bedrock cliffs and irregular shorelines
and physiographic conditions along the (Figure 1.2) whereas others are low‐lying,
coast. These cities provided a setting that almost featureless areas with long, smooth
was conducive to trade and that could be shorelines (Figure 1.3). To be sure, with time,
defended against enemies. any coast may change extensively but some
Far to the north, Viking settlements in the important relationships continue through
Scandinavian countries of Norway, Sweden geologically significant periods of time, up to
and Denmark were typically located along many millions of years.
the coast as well. Here the great fjords pro- Changes at a given part of the coast are
vided shelter and fortification along with typically slow and continuous, but they may
ready access to the sea, which was a primary be sporadic and rapid. Rocky cliffs tend to
food source and the main avenue of trans- erode slowly but hurricanes can change
portation; they were the sites of many battles. beaches or deltas very quickly. Overprinted
At about the same time, the northern coast of on this combination of slow and rapid pro-
what is now Germany and the Netherlands cesses of change is a fluctuation in sea level, a
was also occupied for similar reasons but in a very slow change throughout time of about
very different coastal setting; one of lowlands 3 mm year−1. In the geologic past this rate has
and barrier islands. been both much faster and even slower. The
4 Chapter 1
Figure 1.2 Photograph of a depositional coast on the Texas coast.
across the shallow continental shelf and the

adjacent coastal zone, producing long, slow,
but relatively steady, coastal change.
Each specific coastal setting, regardless of
scale, is unique yet is quite similar to other
coastal settings of the same type. Although
each delta is different, a common set of fea-
tures characterizes all of them. The general
approach of this book will be to consider the
general attributes of each of the various types
of coastal environments. Numerous examples
of each environmental type will provide some
idea of the range available for each. Finally, the
overprint of time will demonstrate the dynamic
nature of all of these coastal elements.
1.4 Coastal Environments
Coastal environments vary widely. This sec-
tion will briefly introduce each of the major
Figure 1.3 Fluvial delta that empties into the environments to demonstrate this variety. All
Atchafalaya Bay on the Louisiana coast. of these and more will be discussed in detail
(Source: earthobservatory.nasa.gov.) in the following chapters.
Rivers carry tremendous quantities of sedi-
point is, as coastal processes work to shape ment to their mouths, where they deposit it.
the substrate and the adjacent land, the posi- Much of the sediment is then entrained by
tion of the shoreline changes as well. This waves and currents but commonly there is a
translates the processes and their effects net accumulation of sediment at the river
Figure 1.4 River Exe estuary in Devon on the coast of England. (Source: Steve Lee, https://www.flickr.com/
photos/94466642@N00/178926998/. Licensed under CC BY‐SA 2.0.)
mouth—a delta (Figure 1.4). In fact, most of island. These elongate water bodies—
the sediment along all types of depositional lagoons—have no significant influx of fresh
coasts owes its presence, at least indirectly, to water or tidal exchange. Tidal flats and
a river. Deltas range widely in size and shape. marshes are uncommon along this type of
Most are dominated by mud and sand but a bay because of an absence of tidal flux.
few have gravel. The primary conditions for Other coastal embayments that cannot be
delta formation are a supply of sediment, considered as either an estuary or a lagoon
a place for it to accumulate, and the inability are simply termed coastal bays.
of the open‐water processes to rework Barrier islands are another important part
and remove all of the sediment from the of the scheme of coastal complexes. They are
river mouth. a seaward protection of the mainland, typi-
Sea level has risen considerably over the cally fronting lagoons and/or estuaries. The
past several thousand years as the result of barriers include beaches, adjacent dunes,
glaciers melting and a combination of other washover fans and other environments
factors. This increase in sea level has flooded (Figure 1.6), and wetlands, especially salt
many parts of the land and developed exten- marshes, are widespread on their landward
sive and numerous coastal bays. Streams feed side. Barrier islands may be dissected by tidal
most of these bays. These bays are called inlets (Figure 1.7), which are among the most
estuaries (Figure 1.5) and are commonly sur- dynamic of all coastal environments. They
rounded by some combination of wetlands; not only separate adjacent barrier islands,
usually either salt marshes or mangrove but also provide for the exchange of water,
mangals, and tidal flats. nutrients and fauna between the open‐ocean
Another common type of coastal bay is and estuarine systems.
one that tends to parallel the coast and is Strandplain coasts are low‐relief coastal areas
protected from the open ocean by a barrier of a mainland that have many characteristics
6 Chapter 1
Figure 1.5 Overview of a barrier island from open‐water beaches to washover fans that extend into the
estuary behind the barrier.
Figure 1.6 Oblique aerial photo of the North Carolina coast with Drum Inlet bisecting the barrier island on the
Outer Banks. (Source: Courtesy of A.C. Hine.)
of the seaward side of a barrier island. They The presence of rocky or headland coasts
contain beaches and dunes but lack the can be present as short isolated sections
coastal bay (Figure 1.8). Examples include within extensive sandy depositional coasts,
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and the such as along parts of the east coast of
Nayarit Coast of western Mexico. Australia or the Pacific Northwest coast
Figure 1.7 Coast of South Carolina near Myrtle Beach which is a strand plain coast without any open water in
the backbarrier. (Source: Data SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO. Image c 2018 TerraMetrics.)
Figure 1.8 Cliff on erosional coast in Oregon with a narrow beach.

8 Chapter 1
Figure 1.9 Large groin to protect the beach from erosion on the North Sea coast of the Netherlands. There is a
small dike landward of the dry beach.
(Figure 1.9). Other geomorphically different had spent his career in both academia and
coasts may have their origin in glacial private enterprise.
deposits, with New England being a good Engineers have also given special attention
example. to the coast over many centuries. Their inter-
est has been directed toward construction of
dikes, harbors, docks, and bridges, on one
1.5 Historical Trends hand, and stabilization of the open coast on
in Coastal Research the other (Figure 1.10). Although geomor-
phologists and engineers direct their efforts
Early systematic efforts for studying the toward different aspects of the coast, their
coast in the early twentieth century were interests overlap in many circumstances.
made by geomorphologists, scientists who Ancient people recognized that the coast is
study the morphology or landforms of the potentially dangerous during storms and is
earth. Geomorphologists also investigate continually changing due to processes asso-
mountains, deserts, rivers, and other earth ciated with wind, waves and storms. They
features. Their studies produced various understood that the shoreline is one of the
classifications, maps, and reports on coastal most dynamic areas on the earth. Erosion
landforms. Some scientists focused on the was a particularly important problem, and
evolution of coasts and the processes settlements were lost or threatened as the
responsible for molding them. For example, shoreline retreated. For centuries, dikes have
Douglas W. Johnson, a professor at Columbia been constructed along the North Sea coast
University, wrote a classic and pioneering of Holland and Germany, both for protection
book in 1919 entitled Shore Processes and (Figure 1.10) and for land reclamation. In
Shoreline Development, a monograph that many other areas, however, construction on
is still commonly referenced. Another more the open coast was designed to slow or pre-
recent individual who has contributed a great vent erosion. As a result, various types of
deal to our knowledge and terminology of structures were emplaced at critical locations
coastal dynamics is Dr. Miles O. Hayes, who along densely inhabited areas of the coast in
Figure 1.10 South end of the Galveston sea wall on the Texas coast showing how it is protecting the shoreline
from erosion.
Figure 1.11 Allied troops landing on a steep and narrow beach at Gallipoli during the early stages of
World War I. (Source: Courtesy of Australian War Memorial.)
attempts to stabilize the beach and prevent trol the response of the coast to natural pro-
erosion (Figure 1.11). cesses. World War II was also an important
For decades these activities represented period in furthering our understanding of
the major efforts of science and technology the coast. Major war efforts took place along
to understand, and in some respects, to con- the coast, particularly the landing of troops
10 Chapter 1
(Figure 1.12), supplies and equipment,

whether on the European mainland or on
Pacific islands (see Box 1.1). All branches of
the military were involved in studying
coastal geomorphology, coastal processes
including waves, tides and currents, and the
analysis of weather patterns along the coast.
Much of the world’s coast was mapped in
detail during this period. The Beach Erosion
Board, a research committee of the U.S.
Army, Corps of Engineers, made many very
important contributions to our knowledge
of coasts. This group conducted extensive
research on beaches, waves, erosion and
other important aspects of the coast using
both their own staff and academic research-
Figure 1.12 Photograph of the late Douglas L. ers from many of the best universities.
Inman, famous professor at Scripps Institution of Francis P. Shepard and Douglas L. Inman
Oceanography and major contributor to research on (Figure 1.13) of the Scripps Institution of
the coast of southern California. (Source: Scripps Oceanography were prominent contribu-
Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego.
Reproduced with permission of Scripps Institution of
tors to the research programs of this group
Oceanography, UC San Diego.) and later became among the most promi-
nent coastal researchers in the world.
Box 1.1 Why is the Coast so Important?

This seems like a pretty stupid question but coastal cities that functioned both as impor-
maybe there are some reasons that you have tant economic centers and as places to protect
not considered before. Most of us think about their countries from invaders. In those days
the beach and swimming or surfing; maybe invasion by vessel was the most common way
fishing. All of these are important but they pale to conduct such activities. Ships were small
in comparison to some of the huge economic and required little water to float, so attackers
benefits of the coast. All of our ports and har- could beach their transport ships to unload
bors are on the coast. Many of the major cities the invading armies. This type of activity was
of the world are on the coast. These account also common in the Scandinavian countries
for many trillions of dollars in economic bene- when the Vikings were invading the high‐lati-
fit. Coastal tourism is also a huge business in tude parts of Europe.
many countries, with the United States leading As time marched on, coastal invasions con-
the pack. tinued but in somewhat different fashions.
Now think back into history and see if the During World War I some invasions were
coasts have always been important to civiliza- launched large transport ships from which sol-
tion. In early historical times eastern diers made their way to the coast in small land-
Mediterranean countries such as Greece, ing craft. This left the invading troops exposed
Turkey, Egypt and Italy all had established and vulnerable to well‐placed defenders on
land and, as a result, landing troops were often could proceed right to the shore because of
destroyed. More recently in World War II there the steep nearshore bottom (Box Figure 1.1.1),
were examples of how the coast, and the meaning that deep water extended very close
beach in particular, played an important role in to the beach. Tides on Pacific islands are low;
famous military events. The first to be consid- less than a meter. This steep beach of volcanic
ered is the landing of US troops at Iwo Jima in sand posed some difficulty for the landing
the Pacific. We all know of the famous picture and troops but they managed. Eventually the US
statue of the marines raising the flag on the troops prevailed, which led to the raising of
island. Here the landing craft and submarines the flag, but more US military were killed in
(a)
(b)
Box Figure 1.1.1 (a) Boats carrying troops right up to the beach at Iwo Jima and (b) marines on the steep
beach of volcanic sand. (Source: U.S. Department of Defense.)
12 Chapter 1
this battle in a few hours than in more than a quite the opposite of that on Iwo Jima. It is
decade of the wars in the Middle East and wide and flat with tides of near three meters in
Afghanistan in this century. magnitude. Bad weather was predicted for the
The other famous landing of World War II invasion, which included hundreds of aircraft
was the Normandy Invasion on the north coast as well as vessels. Tides also had to be consid-
of France (Box Figure 1.1.2). The beach here is ered because the Germans had placed various
(a)
(b)
Box Figure 1.1.2 (a) Aerial view of the huge task force landing on Normandy Beach, France (Source:
Wikipedia, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NormandySupply_edit.jpg); and (b) troops making
their way across the shallow nearshore to the wide, gently sloping beach. (Source: U.S. War Department/
National Archives, Washington, D.C.).
obstacles in the shallow water to hinder the These are just a couple of examples of
landing craft. The weather cleared and the extreme activities that benefited from the mili-
decision was mad to land at low tide which tary knowing the nature of the coast that they
would help to see the obstacles. It was the were invading. Knowledge of tides, wave
largest seaborne invasion in history, with climate, nearshore bottom and other environ-
150,000 participants. Fewer were killed than at mental parameters helped in these invasions.
Iwo Jima.
Figure 1.13 Photograph of the devastation near the coast of Japan where the 2011 tsunami came ashore.
Suggested Reading
Collier, M. (2009). Over the Coast: An Aerial Masselink, G., Hughes, M., and Knght, J.
View of Geology. New York: Mikaya Press. (2014). Introduction to Coastal Processes
Davidson‐Arnott, R. (2010). Introduction to and Geomorphology, 2e. New York:
Coastal Processes and Geomorphology. Routledge (Kindle Edition).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Nordstrom, K. (2000). Beaches and Dunes of
Press. Developed Coasts. Cambridge, UK:
Davis, R.A. Jr. (1993). The Evolving Coast. Cambridge University Press.
New York: Scientific American Library. Woodrofe, C.D. (2003). Coasts: Form, Processes
Johnson, D.W. (1919). Shorelines and Shoreline and Evolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Development. New York: Wiley. University Press.
15
The Earth’s Mobile Crust
2.1 Introduction continents and ocean basins, including the

overall geological character of coastlines is
Coastlines of the world exhibit a wide range known as Plate Tectonics
of morphologies and compositions in a vari- Plate tectonics theory has done for geology
ety of physical settings (Figure 2.1). There are what the theory of evolution did for biology,
sandy barrier island coasts such as those of the big bang theory for astronomy, the theory
the East and Gulf Coasts of the United States, of relativity for physics, and the establish-
deltaic coasts built by major rivers including ment of the periodic table for chemistry.
those at the mouths of the Nile and Niger Each of these advancements revolutionized
Rivers, glacial alluvial fan coasts of the their respective fields, explaining seemingly
Copper River in Alaska and the Skiedarsar unrelated features and processes. For exam-
Sandar coast of southeast Iceland, coastlines ple, in geology the cause and distribution
fronted by expansive tidal flats such as the of earthquakes, the construction of moun-
southeast corner of the North Sea in tain systems, the existence of deep ocean
Germany, volcanic coasts of the Hawaiian trenches, and the formation of ocean basins
Islands, carbonate coasts of the Bahamas and are all consequences of the unifying theory of
the South Pacific atolls, gravel beaches of plate tectonics. The germination of this the-
southern England, mangrove coasts of ory began many centuries ago with scientists’
Malaysia and southwestern Florida, bedrock and world explorers’ interest in the distribu-
cliff and wave‐cut platform coasts of the tion of continents and ocean basins. As early
Alaskan Peninsula and southwest Victoria in as the 1620s, Sir Francis Bacon recognized
Australia, and many other types of coast- the jigsaw puzzle fit of the eastern outline of
lines. The diversity of the world’s coastlines is South America and the western outline of
largely a product of the Earth’s mobile crust. Africa. By 1858, Antonio Snider had pub-
The eruptions of Mount Saint Helens in lished two maps illustrating how North and
Washington State (1980) and Mount South America were joined with Africa
Pinatubo in the Philippines (1991) and the and Europe during Carboniferous time
devastating earthquakes of in Mexico City (~300 million years ago) and how the conti-
(1985) and in Kobe, Japan (1995) are d ramatic nents had split apart to form the Atlantic
expressions of this mobility. The formation Ocean. He reconstructed the positions of
of pillow basalts and new oceanic crust at continents 300 million years ago to show why
mid‐ocean ridges as well as the presence of plant remains preserved in coal deposits of
hydrothermal vents at these sites are also a Europe are identical to those found in coal
manifestation of crustal movement. The seams of eastern North America. Snider’s
theory that explains the mobility of the
maps were an important step in promoting
Earth’s crust and the large‐scale features of a theory that later became known as
16 Chapter 2
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.1 Dissimilar tectonic settings produce very different types of coastlines. (a) The coastal plain setting
of South Carolina fronted by barriers and tidal inlets is in sharp contrast to the (b) mountainous fjord coast of
the Kenai, Alaska.
Continental Drift (the theory that envisions European scientific societies in 1912. Three
continents moving slowly across the surface years later he published his ideas in a book
of the Earth). entitled: Die Entstehung der Kontinente und
In the early 1900s, the idea of continental Ozeane (The Origin of Continents and
drift was popularized by Alfred Wegener, a Oceans). Wegener believed that all the conti-
German scientist at the University of Marburg nents were once joined together in a super
(Figure 2.2). Wegener was a meteorologist, continent he called Pangea (Greek for “all
astronomer, geologist and polar explorer, and Earth”) which was surrounded by a single
led several expeditions to Greenland. He was world ocean he named Panthalassa (all
the first to present a sophisticated and well‐ ocean) (Figure 2.3). The northern portion of
researched theory of continental drift, which this super continent, encompassing North
initially he did through a series of lectures to America and Eurasia, was called Laurasia,
The Earth’s Mobile Crust 17
and the southern portion consisting of all Wegener used a variety of supporting
the other continents was Gondwanaland. e vidence to bolster his theory of a single con-
Partially separating these two landmasses was tinent, including the continuity of ancient
the Tethys Sea. mountain fold belts and other geological
structures that extend across continents now
separated by wide oceans. He noted that the
coal deposits in frigid Antarctica and glacial
sediments in what are now the tropical
regions of South Africa, India, and Australia
could only be logically explained by moving
the continents to different latitudinal set-
tings. He also demonstrated that identical
fossils and rocks of similar age could not only
be found on widely separated continents but
actually plot side by side when Pangea is
reconstructed. Using additional fossil evi-
dence, he theorized that Pangea separated
into a number of pieces approximately 200
million years ago, forming the Atlantic Ocean
among other features. He reasoned that if
continents could move, then the presence of
Figure 2.2 This picture of Alfred Wegener was taken glacial deposits in India meant that India had
when he was 30 years old, before one of his once been close to Antarctica and that fol-
expeditions to Greenland. It was during this period lowing the breakup of Gondwanaland, its
of his life that he proposed his theory of “Continental
Drift.” (Source: Bildarchiv Foto Marburg, https://en.
northward movement and ultimate collision
wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wegener#/media/ with Asia caused the formation of the
File:Alfred_Wegener_ca.1924‐30.jpg). Himalayan mountains (Figure 2.4).
70 °
° 70
60 °
° 60
50 °
° 50
40 °
° 40
30
EURASIA
° 30°
NORTH
20°
AMERICA 20°
PANTHALASSA
10°
P
10°
A
N
160° 140° 120° 100° 80° G 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160°
A TETHYS
E SEA
10° PANTHALASSA A 10°
20° SOUTH 20°

AMERICA AFRICA
30° 30°
40
° INDIA 40
°
AUSTRALIA 50
50° °
°
60
° ANTARCTICA
70
Figure 2.3 One of the compelling pieces of evidence that Wegener used to argue for his Continental Drift
theory was the geometric fit of South America and Africa. In fact, he believed that about 200 million years ago
all the continents were joined together in a super continent he called Pangea. (Source: D.J. Miller, United States
Geological Survey.)
18 Chapter 2
Ocean ridge
ASIA
INDIA
e
Lithospher
sphere
Astheno
N
Ocean ridge
Hi
m
al
INDIA ay
as
e
Lithospher
osphere
Asthen N
Figure 2.4 According to Wegener (and later verified) the Indian subcontinent traveled northward following
the break‐up of Gondwanaland and eventually collided with Asia, forming the Himalayan mountains.
Although Wegener’s book and ideas were In this chapter we will demonstrate that the
initially very popular, the geological commu- overall physical character of the edge of con-
nity of that time ultimately scorned his new tinents for several thousands of kilometers of
theory. His failure to convince the scientific coast, such as the West Coasts of North and
community stemmed from his weak argu- South America, is a function of plate tectonic
ment that the continents plowed their way processes. Plate tectonics explains the seis-
through or slid over the oceanic crust. He micity of some coasts and the distribution of
believed that this movement was caused by active volcanism, mountain ranges, a broad
the gravitational pull of the sun and moon coastal plain, or something in between, and
(tidal force) acting with a differential force on whether the coast is fronted by a narrow or
the surface crust relative to the underlying wide continental shelf. Plate tectonics will
mantle. Contemporary scientists showed also be shown to have an important influence
that the tidal forces were much too weak to on the supply of sediment to a coastline and
account for the drifting of continents and the extent of depositional landforms such as
thus his theory was abandoned. Wegener did deltas, barrier chains, marshes, and tidal flats.
not live long enough to witness the revival
and acceptance of many aspects of his theory
as he perished in 1930 at age 50 during a 2.2 Earth’s Interior
fourth expedition to Greenland while on a
rescue mission. Indeed, it was not until the In order to grasp why continents have
late 1950s and early 1960s that scientists “drifted” to new positions, why ocean basins
solved the puzzle of the moving continents have opened and closed, how mountain sys-
and Wegener’s theory was revived! tems and ocean trenches have formed, as
well as the dimensions of these systems, it is migrate toward the Earth’s center while at the
necessary to understand the composition, same time the lighter rocky constituents rose
layering, and processes that occur within the toward the surface. These processes, which
Earth’s interior. In its early beginning, the have decreased considerably as the Earth has
Earth was essentially a homogeneous mass cooled, ultimately led to a layered Earth con-
consisting of an aggregate of material that taining a core, mantle and crust. The layers
was captured through gravitational collapse differ from one another both chemically and
and meteoric bombardment. The heat gener- physically (Figure 2.5). Most of our knowl-
ated by these processes, together with the edge of the Earth’s interior comes from the
decay of radioactive elements, produced at study of seismic waves that pass through the
least a partial melting of the Earth’s interior. Earth and are modified by its different layers.
This melting allowed the heavier elements, The center of the Earth is divided into two
specially the metals of nickel and iron, to zones: a solid inner core (radius = 1250 km)
Continental
crust
Oceanic
crust
Lithosphere
(rigid solid)
Depth (km)
100
Upper
200 mantle
Asthenosphere
(capable of flow)
300
660
Lower Crust 5–70 km

mantle
m
Inner Outer 0k
core 290 Upper mantle
core
m
0k
227
6
121
km
Figure 2.5 The layered Earth reflects gross chemical and physical changes of the rocks with depth. These
changes (which are really gradual changes) are responsible for the major boundaries in Earth including the
inner and outer core, lower and upper mantle, and thin crust. As the blow‐up shows, the lithosphere is
composed of oceanic and continental crust and the upper rigid portion of the mantle. The lithosphere is
broken up in lithospheric plates that move across and descend into the semi‐plastic region of the mantle
called the asthenosphere.
20 Chapter 2
having a density almost six times that of the The lithosphere is approximately 100 km
crust, with a temperature comparable to the thick and behaves as solid, rigid slab. In
surface of the sun, and a viscous molten outer comparison to the diameter of the Earth, the
core (radius = 2220 km) some four times as lithosphere is very thin and stands compari-
dense as the crust. The mantle is 2880 km son to the shell of an egg. The outer shell is
thick and contains over 80 % of the Earth’s broken up into eight major plates and
volume and over 60 % of its mass. It is com- numerous smaller plates. The Pacific plate is
posed of iron and magnesium‐rich silicate the largest plate, encompassing a large por-
(silica–oxygen structure) minerals, which we tion of the Pacific Ocean, whereas the Juan
have observed at locations where material de Fuca plate off the coasts of Washington
from the mantle has been intruded into the and Oregon is one of the smallest. The
overlying crust and subsequently exposed at tectonic or lithospheric plates, as they are
the Earth’s surface. The chemical composi- called, are dynamic and are continuously
tion is consistent throughout the mantle; moving, although very slowly with an
however, due to the increasing temperature average rate varying from a few to several
and pressure the physical properties of the centimeters per year. Whereas once this
rocks change with increasing depth. movement was calculated through indirect
Compared to the inner layers, the outer means, such as age determinations of oce-
skin of the Earth is cool, very thin, much less anic crust, rates can now be measured
dense, and rigid. The crust is rich in the directly from satellites orbiting the Earth.
lighter elements that rose to the surface dur- 2) Asthenosphere – The lithospheric plates
ing the Earth’s melting and differentiation float on top of a semi‐plastic region of the
stage, forming minerals such as quartz and mantle called the asthenosphere, which
feldspar. There are two types of crust: the extends to a depth of about 350 km. In
relatively old (up to 4.0 billion years) and thick this part of the mantle the high tempera-
granitic crust of the continents (20–40 km ture and pressure causes the rock to
thick), and the thin and geologically young partially melt, resulting in about 1–2 %
(less than 200 million years) basaltic crust liquid. The partially melted rock allows
beneath the ocean basins (5–10 km thick). the asthenosphere to be deformed plasti-
Continental crust can be up to 70 km thick at cally when stress is applied. Geologists
major mountain systems. The lower density have compared this plasticity to cold taffy,
and greater thickness of the continental crust hot tar, and red‐hot steel. One way of
(2.7 g cm−3) as compared to the thinner, more illustrating this concept to yourself is by
dense (2.9 g cm−3) ocean crust has important putting a chunk‐sized piece of ice between
implications for the way that these two crusts your back teeth and applying slow
have formed and the stability of the crusts. constant pressure. You will see that the ice
The divisions described above are based will deform without breaking, the asthe-
mostly on the different chemical character nosphere behaves in a similar manner
of the layers. when stressed. In terms of plate tectonics,
However, in terms of plate tectonic pro- the semi‐plastic nature of this layer allows
cesses, especially in understanding the move- the lithospheric plates to move.
ment of plates, the crust and mantle are 3) Mesosphere – Below the asthenosphere
reconfigured into three layers on the basis of is the mesosphere, which extends to the
physical changes in the nature of the rocks: mantle–core boundary. Although this
layer has higher temperatures than the
1) Lithosphere – This is the outer shell of asthenosphere, the greater pressure pro-
Earth and it is composed of oceanic and duces a rock with a different and more
continental crust and the underlying cooler, compact mineralogy. This portion of the
uppermost portion of the mantle (Figure 2.5). mantle is mechanically strong.
2.3 Plate Boundaries another (Transform Boundary). It should be

noted that a single lithospheric plate can
In a general sense, the edges of the eight contain many different plate boundaries. For
major lithospheric plates as well as those of example, the Arabian plate is separating
the smaller ones are defined by a number of from the African plate along the Red Sea
tectonic processes and geological features (divergent boundary), which is causing a
(Figure 2.6). Most of the significant earth- convergent zone with the Eurasian plate at
quakes and volcanic eruptions coincide with the Zagros Mountains (along northern Iraq
plate boundaries, as do major mountain sys- and Iran). Finally, the northwestern edge of
tems, ocean trenches, and mid‐ocean ridges. the Arabian plate is slipping past the African
As we will discuss in more detail later, the plate (transform boundary) along the Dead
movement of plates is a consequence of heat Sea Fault, which coincides the Gulf of Aqaba,
transferal from interior of the Earth toward Dead Sea, Sea of Galilee, and the border
the surface. Because the plates are rigid between Israel and Jordan.
slabs, when they move over the surface of
the Earth they interact with other plates. 2.3.1 Divergent Boundaries
This produces three types of plate bounda-
ries (Figure 2.7): plates that move apart from This type of boundary, also called a spread-
one another (Divergent Boundary), plates ing zone and a rift zone, occurs in the middle
that move toward one another (Convergent of ocean basins, or in the middle of conti-
Boundary), and plates that slide past one nents (Figure 2.8). Today, most divergent
90° 135° 180° 135° 90° 45° 0° 45°
60° 60°
Eurasian plate
North American plate
Juan de Fuca plate

Caribbean
30° Cocos plate 30°
San plate
Andreas
fault
Mi d
Pacific -A African plate
0° 0°
se
plate
t l anti c Ridg e
An
Ri
de
Paci f i c
s Mountai ns
Indian-Australian Nazca
plate South
30° plate American 30°
E as t
plate
60° 60°
Antarctic plate Antarctic plate
90° 135° 180° 135° 90° 45° 0° 45°
Divergent boundary Convergent boundary Transform boundary
Figure 2.6 The outermost rigid portion of Earth, termed the lithosphere, is broken into eight major and
several smaller lithospheric plates. Plates are separated from adjacent plates by divergent, convergent, and
transform boundaries. Arrows indicate directions of plate movement.
22 Chapter 2
(a) Oceanic (b)

Mid-ocean
Sea level crust Ocean trench
ridge
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Subduction
Asthenosphere zone Benioff zone
earthquakes Magma
Lithosphere
Earthquakes
(c)
Oceanic crust
Asthenosphere Lithosphere
Figure 2.7 There are three types of plate boundaries: (a) convergent, (b) divergent, and (c) transform boundaries.
boundaries are found in ocean basins; how- Mid‐Atlantic Ridge, which marks the location
ever, 200 million years ago extensive rift where North America and South America
zones on land produced the breakup of separated from Europe and Africa, is only
Pangea. In ocean basins, as the two lith- part of an extensive mid‐ocean ridge system
ospheric plates move apart, the astheno- that winds it way through the world’s oceans
sphere wells up between the diverging plates for some 65,000 km (41,000 miles).
forming new oceanic crust. The decrease in The exact boundary between two plates is
pressure of the upwelling mantle produces defined by a central rift valley. A view of this
partial melting of the asthenosphere and the type of valley can be seen in the northern
formation of molten rock called magma. Atlantic where the rift valley of the Mid‐
Some of the magma ascends to the sea floor Atlantic Ridge is exposed in western Iceland.
producing submarine volcanoes. The combi- The valley is steep‐sided and there is active
nation of volcanism, intrusion of magma in volcanism. The volcanic rock comprising
the overlying ocean crust, and the doming the large island of Iceland increases in
effect of the upwelling mantle, creates a age away from the rift valley. Likewise, the
submarine ridge that extends along the length age of the oceanic crust on either side of
of the divergent boundary. The ridge, which the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge gets older toward
rises approximately 2 km (6600 ft) above the the b ordering continents. This leads to
sea floor, rivals some mountain systems on greater sediment accumulation away from
land in size and stature. It is the longest the ridge, resulting in a general smoothing
continuous feature on the Earth’s surface. The of the once irregular, young seafloor and the
(a)
Magma
chamber
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
AFRICA
M
i d-
At
l an
ti cR
idg
e
SOUTH
AMERICA
(b)
Figure 2.8 The divergent boundary of the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge system is (a) conceptualized in cross‐section
and (b) shown as it appears on land where the divergent boundary moves onshore and bisects Iceland.
(Source: Photo by Albert Hine, University of South Florida.)
24 Chapter 2
formation of the relatively flat abyssal plains. granitic continental crust. This leads to three
Thus, divergent boundaries are like two types of plate convergences (Figure 2.9), each
conveyers moving newly formed oceanic dominated by different tectonic processes
crust away from a central ridge to cool, sink and resulting landforms: an oceanic plate
and become covered with sediment. colliding with an oceanic plate; an oceanic
plate colliding with a continental plate; and a
continental plate colliding with a continental
2.3.2 Convergent Boundaries
plate. The contact between the plates is not
Lithospheric plates moving toward one always head‐on but rather the two plates
another are composed of the upper rigid commonly meet in an oblique convergence.
portion of the mantle and topped by either Ocean–ocean plate convergences occur
the dense basaltic oceanic crust or the lighter throughout the margins of the northern and
Continental
volcanic arc
(a)
Trench
Continental crust Continental

Subducting ocean lithosphere
ic l
i t ho
sph
100 km ere
Melting
Asthenosphere
200 km
(b)
Island arc
Trench
Continental
crust
Oceanic crust
Oceanic crust
Lithosphere
Subducting oc
ean
ic l
itho Rising magma
100 km sph Melting sediments
ere
Asthenosphere
200 km
(c)
Continental
Continental lithosphere
lithosphere
100 km De
lithotache
sph d Oc
Asthenosphere eric ean
pla ic
te
200 km
Figure 2.9 Convergent zones involve three types of lithospheric plate collisions: (a) Oceanic–continental plate
collision (Nazca and South American plates). (b) Oceanic–oceanic plate collision (Pacific and Philippine plates).
(c) Continental–continental collision (Arabian and Eurasian plates).
western Pacific Ocean where the Pacific Pacific, which is more than 2 km deeper than
oceanic plate, moving northwestward, Mount Everest (8.8 km) is high. Ocean trenches
collides with the oceanic crust of the
are relatively steep on the descending plate
Eurasian and North American plates. This side whereas the over‐riding plate margin has a
type of plate boundary is also found along shallow slope. As the oceanic plate is sub-
the Caribbean Islands and in the Southern ducted, much of the sediment that has accu-
Atlantic (South Sandwich Islands). When mulated on the ocean floor is scraped off and
two oceanic lithospheric plates converge, plastered against the adjacent plate margin.
the older and hence cooler and denser plate This produces an accretionary sedimentary
descends beneath the younger and more prism that manifests itself as low submarine
buoyant ocean plate. Thus, the Pacific plate ridge along the length of the ocean trench.
is sliding under the Eurasian and North Paralleling the overriding plate margin is a
American lithospheric plates and is chain of volcanic islands referred to as an
descending into the semi‐plastic astheno- island arc. Examples include the Philippine
sphere. This process whereby plates that are Islands in the western Pacific and the
created at mid‐ocean ridges descend into Aleutian Islands that extend 2500 km
the mantle and are consumed at convergent westward from the Alaskan Peninsula

zones is called subduction (Figure 2.10). (Figure 2.11). As the subducted plate
The depth to which the plate descends into descends into the mantle, water is released
the mantle and geometry of the down‐going from the downgoing slab. This water lowers
slab is known from the numerous earth- the melting point of the already hot sur-
quakes that are produced during the rounding rock facilitating the generation of
subduction process. magma at a depth of about 120 km in the
One of the major features associated with overlying asthenosphere. Being less dense
subduction zones is deep ocean trenches, than the mantle rock, the magma rises
which are caused by the flexure of the downgo- toward the surface. Some of the magma
ing plate. Trenches are the deepest regions in intrudes and solidifies within the overlying
the oceans, being 8–11 km below sea‐level or ocean crust. A small portion of the magma
3–5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean reaches the surface and erupts on the ocean
floor. They can be thousands of kilometers floor. As this process proceeds, the volcanic
long. The deepest region on Earth is found in pile coupled with the thickening ocean crust
the Mariana Trench (11 km) in the western produces the island arc. It should be noted
Volcano
Peru–Chile
Trench Andes South
Sediments Mountains American Depth
plate
0
Ocean Diapirs of Continental
rising
Oceanic crust crust
magma
Oceanic
Continental
lithosphere
lithosphere
100 km
(62 miles)
Su Melting
bd
uc sediments
Asthenosphere tin
g and crust
Na
zc
ap 200 km
la
te (124 miles)
Figure 2.10 Subduction is the process whereby an oceanic lithospheric plate descends into the mantle at a
zone of plate convergence. Earthquake activity, volcanism, mountain‐building and formation of oceanic
trenches characterize subduction zones.
26 Chapter 2
Aleutian
Kuril Trench Trench
Japan Trench
Mariana Trench Caribbean

Philippine Trench
Trench Middle America
Trench
Java Kermadec–Tonga
Trench Trench Peru–Chile
New Hebrides Trench
Trench
South Sandwich
Trench
Figure 2.11 Distribution of oceanic trench systems. Trenches are sites of the greatest depths in the oceans.
that the volcanic islands are the surface One example of this type of convergent
expression of this arc and comprise only a boundary occurs where the Nazca plate, mov-
small portion of the system. As the island arc ing eastward, is being subducted beneath
increases in elevation, more and more sedi- the South American plate moving westward.
ment is shed from the volcanic arc and some The convergent boundary is marked by the
of the sediment is transported to the ocean 5900 km‐long Peru‐Chile Trench. The thick-
trench where it is metamorphosed and ening of the South American plate margin is
deformed by the compressive forces of the evidenced by the immense Andes Mountains
converging plates. Mature island arcs, such that reach over 6 km in elevation and are the
as the Japanese arc, consist of a complex mix site of frequent volcanic and earthquake activ-
of volcanic rocks, deformed sedimentary and ity. Another ocean–continent convergent
metamorphic rocks, and intruded igneous boundary is found where the Juan de Fuca and
rocks. Because of the varying angle of Gorda Plates are descending beneath North
descending plate, the formation of the island America along northern California, Oregon,
arc along the adjacent plate margin occurs and Washington, forming the Cascade
50–200 km from the ocean trench. Mountain chain. The devastating eruption in
Ocean–continent plate convergences Washington State on 18 May 1980 in which a
occur where a lithospheric plate containing cubic kilometer of rock was ejected, lowering
relatively thin and dense oceanic crust is sub- the mountain by 410 m (14 % of its height)
ducted beneath a lighter, thicker continental is a product of this subduction process
crustal plate. As with the ocean–ocean plate (Figure 2.12). During the initial eruption of
convergences, the flexure of the downgoing Mount Saint Helens 59 people were killed.
plate causes a deep ocean trench offshore of Mount Rainier, also located along the Cascade
the continent. Likewise, dewatering of the chain, beautifies the scenery of Tacoma,
subducting slab produces partial melting of Washington (Figure 2.13) and will continue to
the asthenosphere. Although most of the ris- do so until the mountain erupts, as it inevita-
ing magmatic plume solidifies within the bly will, potentially sending a devastating wall
overlying crust, some of the magma reaches of mud and volcanic debris toward the city.
the surface causing explosive volcanic activity. In some ocean–continent plate conver-
The combined processes of magma intrusions gences, such as the former western margin of
and volcanic eruptions produce thick conti- North America 180–80 million years ago, the
nental crust and high mountain systems. long‐term subduction of oceanic crust led to
(a)
Mt Baker
Seattle
WASHINGTON
on Zon e
Ridge Mt Rainier
e Fuca
c ti
Juan de Mt St Helens
Subdu
Fuca plate
Juan d
Portland Mt Hood
ia
Cascad
OREGON
Three Sisters
Blanco Fracture
Zone
Crater Lake
Gorda
Mt
Ridge
Gorda
plate Shasta
Medocino
Fracture Zone CALIF.
San Andreas
Fault
(b)
Trench
Oceanic crust
an
Oce e
ific ng
Pac Juan de Fuca
plate Ra
e
ad st
Mt.St. H sc c ru
elens Ca tal
en er
e
Nor th n tin ph
Americ Co s
Subcr an litho
ust lith plate st
osphe u
re b cr
Su
0 50 100 km
Figure 2.12 Subduction of the Juan de Fuca and Gorda Plates beneath the North American Plate has
produced (a) the Cascade Range and is responsible for (b) the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.
the “docking” of numerous micro‐continents. leading edge of this plate consisted of oceanic
These terrains, such as island arc systems, crust. Several thousand kilometers of oceanic
rode the ocean plate eastward toward North lithosphere were subducted beneath Eurasia
America but were not subducted into the before Eurasia was impacted by the sub‐
mantle because they were too light. Instead, continent of India, approximately 45 million
they are added to the continental margin, years ago. During the period of oceanic–
widening the continent by up to 1000 km. continental convergence, the margin of Eurasia
Continent–continent plate convergences was greatly thickened by magmatic intrusion
are responsible for the closure of ocean basins and volcanic accumulation. As the subcontinent
and the formation of majestic mountain of India approached and the ocean basin closed,
systems. A geologically young and spectacular the great pile of sediment, that had been shed
example of this type of convergence occurred by rivers draining Eurasia and deposited into
as a result of the breakup of Pangea when India the adjacent sea, was bulldozed, along with
rifted away from Antarctica and rode a some of the oceanic crust, onto the continental
northward moving plate toward Eurasia. The margin (Figure 2.14). The formation of this
28 Chapter 2
Figure 2.13 View of Mount Rainier from downtown Tacoma, Washington, which is only 60 miles away. Lahars
due to volcanic activity could threaten Tacoma and its suburbs. (Source: https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/
mount_rainier/mount_rainier_multimedia_gallery.html).
accretionary sedimentary prism in combination created or destroyed at transforms. The most

with the aforementioned crustal thickening common site of transforms is along mid‐
produced the highest mountains on Earth, the ocean ridges. The spreading that occurs at
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. Although ridges is produced by upwelling magma from
we know that the Indian–Australian plate many different magma chambers. These
continues to collide with Eurasia, geologists are magma sources are not aligned and may not
uncertain what is happening to the down‐going even be connected. Consequently, the ocean
portion of the plate. Continental crust is too ridges and spreading that occur at these sites
buoyant to be subducted and therefore most are not aligned. A close inspection of mid‐
geologists believe that the oceanic part of the ocean ridges, such as the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge,
Indian–Australian plate has broken from the shows that while the ridge is continuous, it is
rest of the plate and continues to descend and offset along its axis. On either side of the
be consumed into the mantle. offset the newly formed ocean crust moves in
In addition to the formation of the opposite directions, but only between the
Himalayas, other continental–continental two ridges. Beyond the ridge axis the crust
convergences have occurred in the geological spreads in the same direction. These shear
past including the collision between North zones are called transforms because the
America and northern Africa (during the motion along the boundary can terminate or
formation of Pangea), which was responsible change abruptly. They are sites of shallow
for the development of the Appalachian earthquake activity.
Mountains. The suture of Europe to Asia Transforms not only lie between spreading
formed the north–south trending Ural ocean ridges but also between other types of
Mountains. plate boundaries. One of the most famous is
the San Andreas fault, which is a transform
boundary between the Pacific and North
2.3.3 Transform Boundaries
American plates (Figure 2.15). This trans-
Transform boundaries occur where crustal form connects the spreading zone of the Juan
plates shear past one another. Unlike the de Fuca ridge and a spreading zone centered
other plate boundaries, lithosphere is neither in the Gulf of California. It is almost 1300 km
(a) Continental
volcanic arc
Continental shelf Developing

deposits accretionary TIBET
INDIA wedge
Ocean basin
Continental crust
Subducting ocean
ic
li t h
os
ph
Asthenosphere ere Melting
(b)
(c)
India today Himalayas
Tibetan
Ganges plain Plateau
10 million
year
ago
38 million Suture
years ago
55 million Asthenosphere
years ago
71 million
years ago
Figure 2.14 Evolutionary model of the Indian–Eurasian continental collision. (a) The actual collision of the two
landmasses, which began approximately 45 million years ago, was preceded by the subduction of extensive
oceanic lithosphere beneath Eurasia. (b) During this period of oceanic and continental convergence, the
margin of Eurasia was greatly thickened through magmatic intrusions, thrust sheets, and an accreting volcanic
arc. (c) Ultimately, the collision with India further uplifted the margin of Eurasia producing the majestic
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau.
(780 miles) long and encompasses a large

2.3.4 Plate Movement
segment of western California. Because the
boundary is located on a continent, the side- While satellite technology can now accurately
ways grinding movement between the two measure the exact rate at which North
plates involves a much greater thickness of America and Northern Africa are moving
crust than oceanic transforms. Hence, the apart from one another and the how fast the
energy released when the plates abruptly Hawaiian Islands are approaching the Aleutian
slide past one another can be large and cata- Trench where they will be consumed, the
strophic, such as the great San Francisco mechanism that drives the lithospheric plates,
Earthquake of 1906. The San Andreas fault and the continents and island chains that they
has been active for approximately the last carry, is much less well‐known. Most scientists
30 million years and lateral movement along believe that plate movement is due to some
the fault has amounted to more than 550 km type of convection process produced by the
(340 miles). unequal distribution of heat within the Earth.
30 Chapter 2
mantle and crust through radioactive decay of

200 km unstable atoms as they change to more stable
atomic configurations. The expulsion of this
M Magnitude
heat likely involves convection cells whereby
hot material rises toward the surface and cool
material descends (Figure 2.16).
Convection cells operate in a manner simi-
lar to the way in which a beaker full of liquid
reacts to being heated at the bottom along a
single side. As the liquid heats, it expands
and rises upward. Upon reaching the surface,
the warm liquid moves out laterally toward
M8 the opposite side of the beaker and cools.
At the same, the void left by the upwelling
San heated liquid is replaced by cool liquid
Francisco Oakland moving along the bottom. The circulation
M 6.5–7
cell is completed as the moderately cool liq-
M 6.5
uid at the surface descends along the other
side of the beaker.
There is still considerable debate concern-
M? ing the dimensions of convections cells
within the Earth and the processes that pro-
M6 duce them. Proposed models range from
convection cells that are relatively shallow
M8
and circulate material within the upper man-
tle to cells that encompass the whole mantle
M 7.5–8 down to the core boundary. One synthesis of
various theories envisions large masses of
Los Angeles M 6.5–7 very hot rock forming at the core–mantle
Long Beach boundary and ascending toward the litho-
sphere. Upon reaching the relatively cool
M 7.5–8 lithosphere the mantle plumes, as they are
San Diego called, are believed to mushroom and spread
laterally. The doming process and shear force
of the expanding plume ultimately lead to a
rifting apart of the overlying plate. Once
spreading (divergent zone) is initiated, move-
Figure 2.15 The San Andreas fault in western ment of the plates is facilitated by a number
California has been site of some of the largest
recorded earthquakes in the Northern Hemisphere. of forces including:
Land on the western side of the transform is part of
the Pacific Plate moving in a northwesterly direction, 1) Gravitational sliding: Spreading zones are
whereas the land on the eastern side of the fault is hot elevated regions due to upwelling
attached to the North American Plate. mantle material. The newly formed litho-
sphere at these sites is thin and hot. As the
Although considerable heat has been given off plate spreads from the ridge, it thickens,
since the Earth’s original melting phase, addi- cools, and sinks as the doming effect is
tional heat is still being conveyed to the lost. Thus, the base of the newly forming
surface. This heat is derived from the molten lithosphere slopes away from the ridge.
core and from heat that is produced in the This slope may produce a condition
Continental
Oceanic crust
Lithosphere crust
Ocean
Hot
molten rock to
surface
Convection Convection
cell cell
Asthenosphere
Figure 2.16 A simplified view of the convection process that drives plate motion and is involved with the
ascension of magma at mid‐ocean ridges and the descent of oceanic lithosphere at subduction zones.
whereby movement of the plate is caused have also shown that the magma chambers
by gravitational sliding. responsible for formation of new lithosphere
2) Slab pull: Lithospheric plates float on top at mid‐ocean ridges appear to be no deeper
of the asthenosphere because they are less than 350 km. Therefore, while deep mantle
dense. As stated above, when a plate plumes may produce the rifting apart of con-
spreads away from the mid‐ocean ridge tinents, they may not sustain the spreading
where it was formed, it gradually cools and process along the entire length of the plate.
thickens. At some distance, the contraction Submersible investigation of the axial valleys
of the lithosphere due to cooling produces of the mid‐ocean ridges reveals evidence of
a slab denser than the underlying astheno- giant cracks and fissures, suggesting that
sphere. At this point, the plate descends these sites are not a product of magma push-
into the mantle and a subduction zone is ing the plates to the side, but rather the
formed. It is thought that the subducting upwelling magma is a passive response to
plate may pull the rest of the plate with it. the plates moving apart by some other force.
These descending slabs have been traced Thus, we are left with a working hypothesis
by earthquake activity as deep as 700 km that plates are formed, move laterally, and are
into the mantle. subducted into the mantle as a result of some
type of convection cell encompassing the
In trying to assess the importance and via- lithosphere and mantle, but the details of the
bility of the convection processes described process are still being discovered!
above, geologists have made a number of
important observations that help to constrain
the various models. The North American 2.4 Continental Margins
plate that is spreading westward from the
Mid‐Atlantic ridge contains no subduction Continental margins are the edges of conti-
zone, indicating that the slab pull is not a nents and the container sides of the deep
required force in the movement of all plates. ocean basins. Geologically, they represent a
Similarly, when ocean basins are first being transition zone where thick granitic conti-
formed, such as in the Red Sea, there is no nental crust changes to thin basaltic oceanic
topographically high mid‐ocean ridge system crust. The margin includes the physio-
to produce gravity sliding. Earthquake studies graphic regions known as the continental
32 Chapter 2
shelf, c ontinental slope, and continental rise cover may consist of calcium carbonate
(Figure 2.17). (main component of sea shells) that is bio-
Continental Shelves are the submerged, genically derived (e.g. exoskeletons of various
shallow extensions of continents stretching organisms including coral) or precipitated
from the shoreline seaward to a break in directly from seawater (particles called oolites,
slope of the seafloor. Beyond the shelf break, a calcium carbonate concretion).
water depths increase precipitously. The Although all shelves are relatively flat, their
average shelf break occurs at 130 m but this gradients and widths vary considerably. The
depth ranges widely. Continental shelves are widest shelves occur in the region surround-
underlain by granitic crust and covered with ing the Arctic Ocean and in a band extending
a wedge of sediment that has been delivered from northern Australia northward toward
to the shore primarily by rivers where it has Southeast Asia. Here the shelves may be
been redistributed by tides, waves, and shelf more than 1000 km wide. At other sites, such
currents. In glaciated regions much of the as the eastern margin of the Pacific Ocean,
sediment may have been derived through continental shelves are comparatively nar-
glacial deposition (Georges Bank east of row. The average shelf is 75 km wide and has
Cape Cod). In equatorial areas the sediment a slope of 0° 07′. This is equivalent to the
(a) Continental margin
Submarine Shelf break

canyons
Deep-sea fan
Continental shelf
Abyssal plain
Continental slope
Continental rise
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
(b)
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS
Feature Width Relief Water depth Bottom gradient
Continental shelf <300 km <20 m <150 m <1:1,000 (~0.5°)*
Continental slope <150 km locally >2 km drops from 100+–2000+ m ~1:40 (3–6°)
Continental rise <300 km <40 km 1.5–5 km 1:1,000–1:700 (0.5–1°)
Submarine canyon 1–15 km 20–2,000 m 20–2,000 m <1:40 (3–6°)
Deep-sea trench 30–100 km >2 km 5,000–12,000 m –
Abyssal hills 100–100,000 m (100 km) 1–1,000 m variable –
Seamounts 2–100 km >1,000 m variable –
Abyssal plains 1–1,000 km 0 >3 km 1:1,000–1:10,000 (>0.5°)
Midocean ridge flank 500–1,500 km <1 km >3 km –
Midocean ridge crest 500–1,000 km <2 km 2–4 km –
—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
* A bottom gradient of 1:1,000 means that the slope rises 1 m vertically across a horizontal distance of 1,000 m.
Figure 2.17 (a) Physiographic provinces of continental margins including the continental shelf, continental
slope, and continental rise. (b) Depths and dimensions of continental margins and other ocean regions.
(Source: Adapted from B.C. Heezan and L. Wilson, “Submarine geomorphology,” in Encyclopedia of
Geomorphology, R.W. Fairbridge, ed. (New York: Reinhold, 1968); and C.D. Ollier, Tectonics and Landforms
(Harlow: Longman, 1981).)
slope of a football field (100 yards long) in of continental slopes varies greatly from 1° to
which one goal line is 6 in. (15 cm) higher 25°. The average gradient is slightly steeper
than the other goal line; such slopes appear along the margin of the Pacific Ocean (5°)
flat to the human eye. However, the topo- than in the Atlantic or Indian Oceans (3°) due
graphic expression of continental shelves is to the number and extent of deep ocean
not always flat. There can be tens of meters trenches that are associated with the Pacific
of relief in the form of valleys, hills, sand margin’s subduction zones.
ridges and other features that can be attrib- Continental Rises are formed from the
uted to the erosional and depositional transport of sediment down continental
processes associated with glaciers, rivers,
slopes and its accumulation in an apron‐like
tidal currents and storms. fashion at the base of the slope. The thick-
Continental Slopes mark the edge of the ness of these deposits can be more than
continental shelves. Here the sea floor gradi- several kilometers. The slope of the rise

ent steepens dramatically as the continental decreases toward the flat abyssal plains and is
crust thins and is replaced by oceanic crust. typically less than 1°. Continental rise widths
Continental slopes descend to depths rang- vary greatly but average a few hundred
ing from 1500 to 4000 m but may extend kilometers. Continental rises are not found
much deeper at ocean trenches. They are where the continental borderlands coincide
commonly only 20 km in width. Slopes are with subduction zones. In these regions,
composed of sediment that forms the outer continental rises are replaced by deep‐sea
portion of the tilted sedimentary layers com- trenches (e.g. the Mariana Trench).
prising the continental shelf. In regions Submarine Canyons are the conduits
where oceanic lithospheric plates are being through which sediment is delivered to
subducted offshore of a continent (e.g. the continental rises (Figure 2.18). As the names
west coast of South America) or an island arc suggests, they are V‐shaped, usually steep‐
(the Aleutian Islands off Alaska) the slope walled valleys, and they resemble river‐cut
may also consist of oceanic sediment that is canyons on land in both size and relief. Most
scraped off the downgoing slab. The gradient commonly, they are incised into the edge of
(a) (b)
Monterey Canyon
Moss
Landing
Monterey
Canyon
Figure 2.18 (a) Physiographic drawing of Monterey Canyon off the California coast. Note that canyons are
erosional features that form along the shelf–slope break and are found ubiquitously on continental margins
throughout the world. (Source: USGS, https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/bathymetry‐monterey‐canyon‐
and‐soquel‐canyon‐tributary. Inset‐ Source: Brian Romans.) (b) Photograph of sand cascading down the head
of a submarine canyon. (Source: Courtesy of Robert Dill).
34 Chapter 2
continental shelves and extend down the earthquake or underwater landslide. As the
continental slope to the rise. They occur suspended sediment moves downslope, the
ubiquitously throughout the world’s oceans. sedimentary particles entrain water, forming
Their origin has been the subject of contro- the turbidity current. In a manner identical
versy since they were discovered and studied to rivers, the moving sedimentary particles,
by the late Francis P. Shepard (1898–1985) of including sand and silt, act as abrading agents
Scripps Institute of Oceanography in and erode the valley, producing submarine
California. Because of their likeness to river canyons. At the base of the continental slope
canyons and the fact that some submarine the sediment carried by turbidity currents
canyons extend across portions of the conti- through canyons is deposited, creating a sub-
nental shelf toward major rivers, they were marine fan. It is the coalescence of these fans
once believed to have formed by river ero- that forms the continental rise. The largest
sion when sea level was much lower than it is submarine fans in the world coincide with
today and the shelf edge was exposed. some of the greatest sediment‐discharge
However, some canyons begin at water rivers of the world. The Bengal Fan (2500 km
depths much lower than sea level is ever long) and Indus Fan (1600 km long) are a
thought to have dropped. Additionally, the direct product of the Ganges‐Brahmaputra
fact that canyons extend across continental and Indus Rivers, respectively, draining huge
slopes requires some mechanism of subma- quantities of sediment from the Himalayan
rine erosion. It is important to note that the Mountains and the gradual transport of this
relationship between rivers and submarine sediment into deep water by turbidity
canyons cannot be totally discounted. For currents. The Amazon Cone is another very
example, Hudson Canyon off the eastern sea- large submarine fan forming from a high
board of the United States can be traced to sediment‐discharge river.
the mouth of the Hudson River.
It is now generally accepted that subma-
2.4.1 Tectonic Evolution
rine canyons are formed due to erosion by
of Continental Margins
turbidity currents. A turbidity current is a
sediment‐laden torrent of water moving Although the morphological character of mar-
downslope under the influence of gravity. gins ranges widely throughout the world, much
Turbidity currents are initiated along the of the variability can be traced to different
shelf edge by sediment being put into sus- stages of two evolutionary tectonic styles; the
pension by a turbulent event such as an Atlantic and Pacific models (Figure 2.19).
An active (Pacific-type) margin A passive

(Atlantic-type)
Narrow
margin
continental shelf
Plate
Andes SOUTH Plate
boundaries Broad continental
Peru–Chile Mountains AMERICA boundaries
shelf
Trench S. Atlantic
Pacific Ocean Ocean
South America plate Deep basin
Nazca plate African plate

Plate
Plate movement Plate
movement Subduction Mid-Atlantic Ridge movement
zone earthquakes (spreading center)
Figure 2.19 Cross‐sectional view of Atlantic (passive) and Pacific (active) continental margins using South
America as a model.
Atlantic Margin – This type of margin, granitic crust subsides due to a deflation of
which is also referred to as a Passive Margin, the mantle plume, the rift valley is ultimately
occurs where the edge of a continent coin- transformed into a juvenile ocean. Shallow
cides with the middle of a lithospheric plate, marine sediments then cover the land‐based,
hence there is no tectonic plate interaction. river‐lain deposits. The incipient shelf con-
Because of this location, there is little seismic tinues to develop and the sedimentary wedge
activity and no volcanism. As the name slowly thickens as sediment is shed from the
implies, the eastern margin of North and adjacent continent and dispersed by waves,
South America and the western margin of tidal currents, and storm processes. During
Africa and Europe are examples of this mar- this phase the slowly subsiding shelf provides
gin type. The margin surrounding India and accommodation space for continued sedi-
most of Australia fits into this category too. mentation while maintaining a shallow
During its early history, the evolution of marine platform. Subsidence of the shelf
Atlantic‐type margins involves the rifting results from cooling and contraction of the
apart of large landmasses such as the breakup mantle plume as well as from the weight of
of Pangea. In the initial phase the continental the accumulating sedimentary deposits. In
crust is bulged upward by a rising mantle warm water environments, coral reef forma-
plume, perhaps ascending from the core– tion along the edge of the shelf aids the trap-
mantle boundary as discussed earlier in this ping of sediment by providing a barricade to
chapter or from elsewhere within the mantle. the deep sea. The end product of these
This stage may be represented by Yellowstone sedimentation processes is the formation of a
National Park in northwestern Wyoming and broad, shallow, flat continental shelf.
the Rio Grande region of Colorado and New Along the eastern margin of the United
Mexico, where high heat flow values have States, oceanographic studies have revealed
been measured, and uplift and crustal thin- that some of the sedimentary basins are
ning are occurring. As the plume mushrooms more than 10 km thick and their average
and spreads laterally, the overlying crust is thickness is 4–5 km. The outermost por-
stretched and thinned until it ruptures pro- tion of the shelf from Florida to New
ducing down‐dropped continental crustal England contains the framework of a bur-
blocks that form a series of elongated basins. ied coral reef that is s everal kilometers in
The central basin of this system is called the height. It appears that this extensive coral
rift valley, which marks the separating land- reef system lived in relatively shallow water
masses. In the early stages, basaltic lava (10–30 m) and was able to grow vertically
derived from the mantle plume may flow as the shelf platform slowly subsided.
onto the valley floor. As the central valley Sometime, approximately 100 million years
widens and deepens, the ocean invades, ago, the coral reefs died and were subse-
forming a linear sea. The Red Sea and Gulf of quently buried by shallow marine sands,
California are examples of this stage of silts, and clays. Not all Atlantic‐type mar-
Atlantic margin development. Continued gins are identical to that of the east coast of
spreading of the landmasses through the cre- the United States. The widths and gradients
ation of oceanic crust leads to the formation vary greatly, as do the sediment thicknesses
of a new deep‐ocean basin and mid‐ocean and the topography of the shelf. For exam-
ridge system. ple, along northwestern margin of Africa
As the ocean basin evolves, so too do the the continental shelf is very narrow (30 km
continental margins. The linear basins that wide) only about one sixth the width of the
were formed by the down‐dropped continen- eastern United States. The variability of
tal blocks during the initial rifting phase Atlantic margins is related to the original
become depocenters for sediment delivered processes of rifting, the extent of crustal
chiefly by river systems. As the underlying subsidence, the supply of sediment to the
36 Chapter 2
shelf, climatic factors (e.g. controlling reef s edimentary wedge comprising Pacific shelf
development), the strength of oceanic cur- margins is relatively thin when compared to
rents, and other factors. most Atlantic margins.
Pacific Margin – This type of continental
margin occurs at the edge of lithospheric
plates and thus it is also called an Active 2.5 Tectonic Coastline
Margin. These margins are confined primar-
ily to the rim of the Pacific Ocean where
Classification
oceanic plates are being subducted beneath
In the early 1970s, plate tectonic theory,
continental plates. Because they coincide
which had served to enlighten and transform
with subduction zones, they are tectonically
many subdisciplines of geology, was applied
active and are characterized by earthquake
to the field of coastal geology. Two scientists
activity and onshore volcanism. Pacific mar-
from Scripps Institute of Oceanography
gins have narrower continental shelves and
in California, Douglas Inman and Carl
steeper continental slopes than Atlantic mar-
Nordstrom, produced their now classic
gins. Continental slopes of Pacific margins
work: On the Tectonic and Morphologic
descend deep into adjacent oceanic trenches
Classification of Coasts. This scheme pro-
and thus continental rises are usually absent.
vides a first‐order characterization of the
An exception to this trend occurs along
morphology and tectonic processes of
much of the west coast of North America,
1000 km‐long stretches of continental mar-
south of Alaska, where there is no subduc-
gin, including not only a description of the
tion zone today but where one existed
coastline but also the continental shelf and
25 million years ago. Here, sediment trans-
the uplands bordering the coast. The classifi-
ported across the narrow shelf drains through
cation is based primarily on the tectonic
submarine canyons and is building large sed-
setting of the coast (Pacific‐ versus Atlantic‐
iment fans on the floor of the deep ocean.
type margins). Secondary factors dictating
Differences in the dimensions and mor-
coastline sub‐classes include: tectonic setting
phology of Pacific versus Atlantic margins
of the opposite side of the continent; geologi-
are the result of contrasting tectonic histo-
cal age of the coast; and exposure of the coast
ries. Whereas Atlantic margins develop wide
to open ocean conditions.
continental shelves due to rifting, the slow
It is important to note that this classifica-
subsidence of broken up continental blocks,
tion is meant as a first‐order characterization
and the accumulation of great thicknesses of
of a coastline along the length of a continent.
sedimentary deposits (several kilometers),
There will be many exceptions to the general
Pacific margins are narrow and are a product
trends presented here due to secondary fac-
of the compressive forces of an oceanic plate
tors such as the presence of a major river, the
being subducted beneath a continent. As the
effects of glaciation, or climatic influences,
oceanic plate flexes downward, forming the
which may have widespread effects too.
seaward margin of the ocean trench, the deep
The Inman and Nordstrom classification
sea sediment that overlies the basaltic ocean
consists of the following (Figure 2.20):
crust is scraped off and plastered onto the
adjacent continental margin. The forces I) Collision Coasts
involved in this process chemically alter the A) Continental Collision Coasts
sedimentary layers and physically disrupt the B) Island Arcs Collision Coasts
sedimentary prism through folding and fault- II) Trailing Edge Coasts
ing. The shelf region receives some sediment A) Neo‐trailing Edge Coasts
from material that is eroded from adjacent B) Afro‐trailing Edge Coasts
continental hinterlands and delivered to C) Amero‐trailing Edge Coasts
the coast via river systems. However, the III) Marginal Sea Coasts
Atlantic Pacific
Ocean Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
Indian
Ocean
Oceanic Ridge
System
Tectonic classification of coasts

Trailing edge
Collision Neo
Leading edge Afro
Marginal sea Amero
Figure 2.20 Global tectonic coastal classification. (Source: Adapted from Inman and Nordstrom (1971)).
2.5.1 Collision Coasts

Because the subduction process along most
A. Continental Collision Coasts coincide of California ceased tens of millions of years
with convergent, Pacific‐type margins where ago, most of the Sierra’s volcanic pile has
oceanic lithospheric plates are being sub- been removed through erosion, exposing the
ducted into the mantle beneath the conti- underlying granite plutons. These rocks are
nent. Characteristically, these coasts have evidence of the magma that solidified within
narrow continental shelves that terminate the crust during the subduction process.
next to deep ocean trenches. The coastlines Continental shelf widths along collision
are backed by high mountain systems such coasts are a function of how steeply the ocean
as the Andes, a system containing many plate descends into the mantle. Along Chile
peaks over 6000 m (Figure 2.21). Mountain‐ and Peru there is almost no continental shelf
building is a product of crustal thickening because the Nazca Plate dips very steeply
and volcanism caused by upwelling magma beneath South America. In contrast, the con-
emanating from the subducted slab. In some tinental shelf along the coasts of Oregon and
locations, including the Coast Ranges along Washington is comparatively wide because
northern California, the mountains adjacent the Juan de Fuca Plate descends at a shallow
to the coast are relatively low in elevation angle beneath North America and material
because they consist of ocean sediments and has scraped off the Juan de Fuca Plate to form
pieces of ocean crust that were scraped off a moderately narrow shelf.
the subducted plate and thrust onto the con- Collision coasts tend to be rocky due to the
tinental margin. Located much further inland scarcity of sediment; where sediment does
are the considerably higher Sierra Nevadas exist, gravel‐sized material is often a major
(>6000 m), which are similar in origin to the component. This is particularly true at high‐
Andes but now consist primarily of granite. latitude coasts due to the effects of glaciation
38 Chapter 2
Figure 2.21 Alaska. Mountainous coast along a tectonically active continental margin.
and frost weathering. The lack of major rivers northern hemisphere, registering 8.6 on the
leads to localized sediment sources that pro- Richter scale,1 shook much of the central
duce isolated accumulation forms such as Alaskan coast along an 800 km‐long tract
small barrier spits and pocket beaches. (Figure 2.22). The effect on Anchorage and
Extensive barrier development is normally many other coastal communities was one of
absent. Exceptions to this trend occur in complete devastation, including the loss of
regions where glacial meltwater streams 131 lives. The primary shock lasted from
transport large quantities of sand and gravel three to four minutes and produced large‐
to the coast or near the mouths of moderate scale slumps, landslides, and avalanches. The
to large rivers that exist along collision coasts. earthquake also created tsunamis (seismic
The south‐central coast of Alaska and the sea waves) that completely wiped out native
mouth of the Columbia River, respectively, communities in Prince William Sound and
are examples of these conditions. large sections of several seaports including
Collision coasts are not only majestic and Valdez and Seward. These giant waves are
ruggedly beautiful, they also experience not only be triggered by movements of the
some of the Earth’s most dramatic processes. ocean floor, but in case of some Alaskan
The southern coast of Alaska exhibits many fjords, they also may be caused by earth-
of the features and processes that typify quake‐induced gigantic rock falls that crash
collision coasts. The Pacific plate is being into the heads of deep, elongated water bod-
subducted beneath North American along ies, sending walls of water toward the mouth
the south‐central margin of Alaska continu- of the fjords (see Box 2.1). The great 1964
ing along the Aleutian Islands. This tectonic Alaskan earthquake produced permanent
setting produces volcanism, frequent earth- changes along much of the central coast due
quakes, and large crustal displacements. The
coastal mountains of the region are young 1 Scientists have re-evaluated the 1964 Alaskan
and their uplift has been rapid. Coastal earthquake and determined that it was a magnitude
Alaska is the site of some of the world’s 9.2, second only to the 9.5 Chilean earthquake of 1960.
largest earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The new calculations are used for very large
earthquakes whose signal saturates the recording
On March 27, 1964, at the head of Prince instruments. The moment magnitude, as it is called, is
William Sound (130 km west of Anchorage) based on the amount of fault slippage and surface area
the largest earthquake ever recorded in the of the plates involved.
Figure 2.22 Map of displacement contours illustrating the regional effects of the 1964 Great Alaskan
Earthquake. Note that portions of the Alaskan coast east of Anchorage experienced uplift, whereas areas
southwest of Kodiak Island underwent subsidence.
to uplift and subsidence (down‐faulting). In volcanoes have erupted with a tremendous

the Prince William Sound region, the Island ferocity. In 1912, Mount Katmai erupted,
of Montague rose as much as 9 m, and there ejecting 15 km3 of volcanic debris. Much of
are many other areas along the coast in which the ash was blown southwestward blanketing
results of the uplift can be seen today in the portions of Kodiak Island, 150 km away, with
form of raised beaches and intertidal plat- up to a half meter of ash. This enormous
forms. Contrastingly, 200 km southwest of eruption is the third largest during recorded
Anchorage, the earthquake caused a general history with only Tambora and Krakatoa in
subsidence of 2–3 m along the Kenai Indonesia being larger. Truly Alaska is a very
Peninsula, resulting in drowned forests. active collision coast.
In addition to being earthquake prone, B. Island Arc Collision Coasts are similar to
coastal Alaska experiences continual volcan- continental collision coasts and are active
ism, particularly along the Alaska Peninsula tectonically with characteristic volcanism
where at least 17 volcanoes have erupted and earthquakes. They differ from continen-
during the past 10,000 years. Some of these tal collision coasts because the convergence
40 Chapter 2
Box 2.1 Lituya Bay, Alaska: Site of the Largest Waves Ever Seen (Box)
Lituya Bay is located on the rugged southeast The mountainous landscape of southeast
coast of Alaska along the southwest side of the Alaska is the result of the collision between the
Fairweather Mountain Range (Box Figure Pacific and North American Plates. The plate
2.1.1). Frenchman Jean Francois La Perouse boundary in the Lituya Bay region is a trans-
first explored the region in 1788. He noted that form that has caused considerable vertical
the bay provided good harborage although motion as well horizontal slip. It is known as
navigating the strong currents at its mouth the Fairweather fault and it coincides with the
was hazardous. He was unaware, however, of overall trend of Lituya and Crillon Glaciers and
the apocalyptic waves that frequent this site. the inlets that form the upper T‐shaped por-
From the coast the bay extends 13 km inland, tion of the bay. On the evening of July 9, 1958
where it is bordered by mountains and glacier‐ at 10:16 p.m. a section of the fault ruptured
filled valleys (Box Figure 2.1.2). In his study of approximately 23‐km southeast of upper
the region Don J. Miller of the U.S. Geological Lituya Bay producing an 8.3 magnitude earth-
Survey concluded that the bay was once occu- quake. Measurements taken along the fault
pied by the confluence of at least two major revealed vertical ground displacements of
glaciers, which had deepened the valley and 1.05 m and horizontal slip of 6.5 m. The earth-
deposited a moraine at its mouth. Slight quake was felt throughout southeastern
reworking of the terminal moraine created a Alaska as far south as Seattle, Washington and
spit‐like landmass, La Chaussee Spit, which as far east as Whitehorse, Yukon Territory,
narrows the bay’s entrance, forming a tidal Canada, covering an area of over 1,260,000 km2.
inlet about 300 m across. Two inlets, Gilbert On the evening of July 9, 1958, three fishing
Inlet and Crillon Inlet, open onto the head of boats were anchored at the entrance to Lituya
Lituya Bay. Gilbert and Crillon Inlets are cur- Bay. The boatsmen were enjoying the late
rently enlarging as Lituya Glacier retreats to evening sunlight that accompanies Alaskan
the northwest and North Crillon Glacier summers. Only four people lived to tell the
recedes to the southeast, respectively (Box story of a giant wave that filled the bay. At the
Figure 2.1.3). onset of the earthquake the ground around
N
00
10 Lituya
Glacier 4000
Rock 300
0
fall area
300 r
0 Gilbert lac i e
eG
2000
10
Inlet
00
ad
sc
2000
1000 Ca
Maximum
line wave run-up
Trim Crillon
Inlet
North
Crillon
B AY Glacier
Cenotaph
A Island
UY
LIT
00
10
00
20
La Chaussee
Spit Trimline
1 mile
Harbor
Point
Box Figure 2.1.1 Location map of Lituya Bay in Alaska.

Box Figure 2.1.3 Aerial view of trimline cut by the

seismic wave. The northern end of Cenotaph Island
is in the foreground. (Source: Photo by D.J. Miller.)
Box Figure 2.1.2 Aerial photograph of Lituya Bay.

The terminal moraine known as La Chaussee Spit
narrows the entrance to the bay. The island of wave stripped away the vegetation and the
Cenotaph is situated in the middle of the bay. underlying soil down to the bedrock surface.
(Source: Courtesy of D. J. Miller, United States Where trees were rooted deeply in bedrock,
Geological Survey.) the trunks, some of which were more than a
meter in diameter, were sheared off as if they
were small twigs. Scientists have theorized
Lituya Bay shook violently and continued that generation of a wave of this magnitude
doing so for about a minute. Eyewitnesses would be similar to that caused by the impact
from the fishing vessels indicate that about of a small asteroid.
1–2.5 minutes after the earthquake began After carving away much of the southeast
there was a tremendous explosion in the mountainside of Gilbert Inlet the giant wave
upper bay. The noise they heard came from the swept down Lituya Bay with a speed of
mountain slope at the head of Lituya Bay giv- between 156 and 209 km h–1 (97–130 mi h–1)
ing way, sending 30 million cubic meters of advancing toward the fishing boats anchored
rock into northeast side of Gilbert Inlet (Box at the mouth. As the wave approached the first
Figure 2.1.4). Failure of the mountainside was fishing boat, Mr. Ulrich and his young son
caused by ground tremors, which weakened described the onslaught of a black wall of
the high‐angle bedrock slope that had been water that crested over a 30 m (100 ft). The
oversteepened by glacial erosion. Due to the giant wave snapped the boat’s anchor chain
steepness of the mountain slope (75–80°) and propelled the craft and occupants toward
the slab of rock fell almost directly into the the bay’s south shore where they were saved
inlet from an average height of about 610 m by the wave’s backwash, which carried the
(2000 ft). The huge mass of rock plunged boat and passengers back to the middle of the
through the water column cratering the sedi- bay. There they encountered several smaller
ment bottom of the bay. The displaced water but still terrifying waves, some reaching over
produced a massive wave that propagated 6 m (20 ft) in height. Miraculously, the Ulriches
across Gilbert Inlet traveling up the opposite sailed out Lituya Bay next day under the boat’s
cliff‐side to a maximum height of 530 m own power. A second boat with Mr. and
(1740 ft) (Figure 2.1.4). Here the force of the Mrs. Swanson aboard anchored closer to the
42 Chapter 2
915 m 914 m
524 m
732 m
230 m
0m
≈ 1,350 m
Box Figure 2.1.4 Oblique aerial photograph looking into Gilbert Inlet (fjord) illustrating where the slab
of rock fell into the bay (shown in red) producing a wave that trimmed trees to an elevation of 524 m.
(Source: Heller 2014, http://www.mdpi.com/2077‐1312/2/2/400/htm. Licensed under CC BY 3.0.)
northern bay shoreline was not so lucky. The (50–100 ft). These waves cut a neat trim line
Swanson’s fishing trawler was picked up by the along the tree‐covered slopes surrounding the
giant wave and carried out the bay like a bay. Other trim lines at even higher elevations
swimmer on a surfboard. By the Swanson’s have been reported by Don J. Miller of the U.S.
account as the trawler surfed over La Chaussee Geological Survey, indicating that giant waves
Spit the tops of the trees were 25 m (82 ft) repeatedly crashed along the bay shoreline.
below them. Once deposited in the ocean Trimlines have been found at elevations of
their boat immediately began to sink. 60–150 m (200–490 ft) (Box Figure 2.1.3). It is
Fortunately, they were able to climb aboard interesting to note that the 1936 waves were
their dinghy and were picked up by a passing not related to an earthquake and no bedrock
fishing boat a few hours later. The third boat scar corresponding to a rockfall was ever
was engulfed by the monstrous wave and found. Scientists have suggested that other
neither crew nor boat was ever found. mechanisms such as the drainage of a subgla-
The immense wave of July 9, 1958 was not cial lake or the frontal collapse of a glacier may
the first extraordinarily large wave to sweep also trigger giant wave formation. Lituya Bay is
through Lituya Bay. On October 27, 1936 four a beautiful anchorage site. However, boaters
people witnessed three waves traveling down beware of the roar in the upper bay that por-
the bay ranging in height from 15 to 30 m tends the coming of the great wave!
is between two oceanic plates. These coasts which experiences major earthquakes (Kobe,
are backed by low to moderately high moun- Japan) and volcanic eruptions.
tains and are fronted by narrow continental
shelves that are bordered by deep ocean
2.5.2 Trailing Edge Coasts
trenches. Most island arc collision coasts are
located in the northern and northwestern A. Neo‐Trailing Edge Coasts are geologically
Pacific and include the ocean coasts of the young coasts (<30 million years old) that
Aleutian Islands and the Philippine Islands. have formed as a consequence of continental
Japan is another collision island arc coast, rifting (Figure 2.23). Examples include the
(a) Upwarping
Continental crust
Lithosphere
(b) Rift valley
(c)
Linear sea
(d) Mid-ocean ridge
Rift
Continental Oceanic crust

crust
Figure 2.23 Four‐stage model of rifting of a continent and establishment of an ocean basin: (a) Doming
and stretching of lithosphere produced by upwelling magma; (b) Spreading causes rupture of
lithosphere and creation of a rift valley due to block faulting; (c) Continued spreading, subsidence and
ocean crust formation causes flooding of the rift valley and creation of a linear sea; (d) Long‐term spreading
creates an ocean basin.
coasts surrounding the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden Stage #3. Subsidence and widening of rift
and Gulf of California. These linear seas are a valley causes invasion of ocean and forma-
stage in the evolution of new ocean basins tion of a linear sea.
and are summarized below: Stage #4. Long‐term sea floor spreading leads
to ocean basin formation.
Stage #1a. Mantle plume causes doming and
stretching of overlying continental crust. Neo‐trailing edge coasts are rugged and
Stage #1b. Alternatively, plate motion causes coastal borderlands tend to have narrow to
passive rifting and ensuing mantle non‐existent coastal plains with adjacent
upwelling. mountains. Sediment tends to be scarce along
Stage #2. Thinning crust ruptures and down‐ these coasts and there is little barrier develop-
faulted blocks create a topographically low ment (Figure 2.24). Where sand is locally
rift valley. abundant, narrow mainland beaches or pocket
44 Chapter 2
Figure 2.24 Baja California. Neo‐trailing edge coasts tend to be rocky and mountainous with
few beaches and barriers. (Source: Courtesy of Miles Hayes.)
beaches form. A major exception to this trend thus it is also a trailing edge coast. Afro‐
occurs in the Gulf of California along the trailing edge types are found along the east
mainland coast of Mexico where there are and west coasts of Africa, the southwestern
extensive coastal lowlands and several barrier half of the Australian coast, and the coast of
island chains. Neo‐trailing edge coasts experi- Greenland. The lack of a collision zone
ence frequent low‐magnitude earthquakes along the east or west coast of Africa means
due to crustal adjustment associated with past that there is no large‐scale organization of
rifting. Volcanism is absent. river drainage within the continent.
The Gulf of Suez is a relatively narrow body Consequently, sediment delivery to the
of water which connects the northwestern margin of Africa, as well as other Afro‐
end of the Red Sea to the Suez Canal and the trailing edges, has only been local and gen-
Mediterranean Sea. The Sinai Peninsula, erally does not compare in magnitude to
which forms its northeast shoreline, is typical the quantity that has been transported to
of neo‐trailing edge coasts. The coast is Amero‐trailing edges. This condition is also
bordered by a narrow hilly region, which
a function of differences in climate. Similar
gives way to high mountains. Little sediment to Amero‐trailing edges, Afro‐trailing edges
reaches the coast and thus depositional land- are tectonically inactive with minor earth-
forms are mostly absent. The arid climate of quake activity and no volcanism.
the region and the lack of rivers contribute to Due to the sedimentation history of Afro‐
this condition. In the Ras Mohammed area, trailing edges, they exhibit a great deal of
at the southern tip of the Sinai, the barren morphological variability. For example, in

landscape along the coast belies the abun- some regions, such as most of the northeast
dant sea life immediately offshore. Not more coast of Africa, the continental shelf is quite
than a 100 m from the shoreline, a robust narrow (<25 km wide), whereas along much of
coral reef community provides some of the its southwest coast, shelf widths approach
best SCUBA diving in the world. 100 km. Coastal borderlands along Africa
B. Afro‐Trailing Edge Coasts differ from range from coastal plains and hilly settings to
Amero‐trailing edge coasts in that the oppo- cliffs and low mountains. Likewise, there are
site side of the continent is not a collision estuarine, barrier and deltaic coasts where sed-
zone. Rather, the opposite continental mar- iment is abundant and other long stretches of
gin coincides with the middle of a plate and coast that are rocky and barren of sediment.
The southern portion of South Africa is a dunes reach 10 m in height and the dune
good example of the variability of Afro‐trailing field extends several kilometers inland.
edge coastlines. The port of Cape Town is a Contrastingly, a few tens of kilometers from
mixture of lowland areas surrounded by sev- this site the coast consists of steep rocky cliffs
eral flat‐topped low mountains composed of devoid of any sediment.
layered sedimentary rocks. The coastline C. Amero‐Trailing Edge Coasts occur along
south of Cape Town extending to the Cape of passive, Atlantic‐type margins in which the
Good Hope is rugged, with high cliffs and low opposite side of the continent is a collision
mountains. The Indian and Atlantic Oceans coast. The mountain chains associated with
meet at this site and their unlimited fetches collision coasts organize the drainage of the
combine to produce huge 6 m and higher continent such that the major rivers flow
waves that crash upon the rocks sending salt from the mountains and away from the colli-
spray 40 m high, to the top of the cliffs sion coast, across the continent, and dis-
(Figure 2.25). East of this region is False Bay charge their loads along the passive margins.
where wave abrasion of sandstones has led to Amero‐trailing edge coasts include the east-
extensive sand accumulation. At the western ern margins of North and South America,
end of the inner bay the beach is 300 m wide the Atlantic coast of Europe, and the coast of
and fronted by a very wide surf zone. The India. These are geologically old margins, in
abundance of sand at this locality is most which long‐term deposition of sediment has
clearly demonstrated by the extensive dune led to the development of wide, low‐profile
system backing the beach where individual coastal plains and wide continental shelves.
The boundary between the coastal plain and
shelf is simply a function of sea level. This
boundary has changed dramatically during
the past two million years as sea level has
fluctuated in response to the growth and
decay of the continental ice sheets. When
the ice sheets advance and sea level falls, the
coastal plains expand; contrariwise, when
the ice sheets shrink and sea level rises, the
continental shelf widens landward.
Amero‐trailing edge coasts tend to be
tectonically inactive with relatively few major
earthquakes; the ones that do occur are of
low magnitude (<4 on the Richter Scale). The
Charleston, South Carolina Earthquake of
1886, magnitude 7.3, is a major exception to
this trend. These coasts also lack volcanic
activity.
One of the primary characteristics of
Amero‐trailing edge coasts is their deposi-
tional landforms including barrier island
chains, broad sediment‐filled lagoons,
marsh systems, tidal flats, and river deltas.
For example, almost the entire east coast of
the United States, south of glaciated New
Figure 2.25 The coast of South Africa where large
waves carve away at sandstone cliffs. In this region England, is fronted by barrier chains
beaches only occur in embayments where sediment interrupted by only a few major re‐entrants,
can accumulate under high wave‐energy conditions. such as Delaware and Chesapeake Bay
46 Chapter 2
Figure 2.26 Much of the east coast of the United States is characterized by a coastal plain setting fronted by
lagoons, marsh systems, and barrier chains. The drowned river valleys of Delaware (top) and Chesapeake Bay
(bottom) are major exceptions to trend.
(Figure 2.26) and several mainland beaches, The East and West Coasts of the United
including Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and States illustrate well the sharp contrasts in
Rehoboth Beach, Delaware. Some of these morphology that different tectonic settings
barrier systems, such as the Outer Banks of produce (Table 2.1).
North Carolina, are separated from the
mainland by wide shallow bays (Albemarle
2.5.3 Marginal Sea Coasts
Sound and Pamlico Sound), whereas other
barrier chains, including those along much Along much of the western and northern
of South Carolina and Georgia, are backed Pacific Ocean, a series of island arcs, includ-
by extensive marsh and tidal creeks. ing the Aleutians, Kuril Islands, Japan, and
Although there are no active river deltas Philippine Islands, separates the edge of con-
along the East Coast today, many existed in tinents from the open ocean. These pro-
the past including the Santee River delta in tected shorelines of Alaska and Asia are
South Carolina. This delta is no longer build- defined as marginal seacoasts (Figure 2.27).
ing and is now eroding because much of its Characteristically, they are fronted by shal-
river discharge, and hence its sediment low water bodies such as the Bering Sea, Sea
source, was diverted into Charleston Harbor of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, East China Sea, and
in the late 1800s. South China Sea. In the Atlantic Ocean, the
Table 2.1 Comparison of the East and West Coasts of the United States.
Feature or Process East Coast West Coast
1) Tectonic Class Amero‐trailing edge coast Collision coast

2) Earthquakes Small‐magnitude earthquakes Site of large earthquakes
3) Volcanism None 1980 eruption of Mount St.
Helens. Other mountains in
Cascade Range also active
4) Shelf width Wide and flat Narrow and steep
5) Coastal borderland Coastal plain Mountains, some very high
6) Sediment supply‐ Long‐term erosion of Appalachian Coming mostly from short
Mountains provided sediment to steep gradient rivers
the coast through numerous
moderately sized rivers.
7) Coastal morphology‐ Depositional coasts with extensive Rocky coast with mostly
extensive barrier island development. pocket beaches and small spits.
Numerous bays, lagoons, marshes,
tidal flats tidal deltas, and estuaries.
8) Wave energy‐ Low (0.7–0.8 m) Moderate (1.5–1.7 m)
9) Tidal range‐ Micro‐ to macro‐tidal (1–6 m) Micro‐ to macro‐tidal (1–3 m)
10) Description of car trip South of New York exceedingly Magnificent coastal vistas and
along the seaboard boring due to flatness of coastal view of mountain ranges.
plain. Only excitement is Pedro’s
“South of the border” signs.
Gulf Coast and east coast of Central America migrate onshore during the period of rising
are also marginal seacoasts and are protected sea level. Contrastingly, the Gulf coast of the
by the Caribbean island arc as well as by the US contains a wide, flat inner shelf and
landmasses of Florida and Cuba. coastal plain, and barriers occur ubiquitously
Marginal seacoasts exhibit considerable in this region. Along the marginal seacoasts
variability depending largely upon the of Asia, much of the sediment may go into
geological history of that portion of the con- filling valleys rather than building barriers.
tinent, but overall, they tend to be more simi- Generally, marginal seacoasts experience
lar to Amero‐trailing edges than any other low‐to‐moderate wave conditions due to their
class of coast. For example, many of the semi‐protected nature afforded by the shallow
world’s largest sediment‐discharge rivers seas and offshore island arcs. However, these
occur along these coasts, including the coasts can suffer damaging short‐term, high
Mississippi and Magdalena rivers, which wave‐energy conditions during the passage of
empty into the Gulf of Mexico and the major storms, such as hurricanes.
Caribbean Sea and the Huang Ho, Yangtze
and Mekong rivers, which discharge along
the Asian continent. Interestingly, despite 2.6 Tectonic Effects on
this apparent abundant supply of sediment, Coastal Sediment Supply
long barrier chains are sparse along the mar-
ginal seacoast of Asia. This condition may be The tectonic history of a continent strongly
related to the lack of a coastal plain and low‐ influences the distribution and abundance of
slope inner continental shelf, which would sediment along coastlines, which in turn
provide a continuous platform upon which controls the size and extent of depositional
barrier island chains could develop and features, such as barriers, deltas, marshes,
48 Chapter 2
Bering
Sea
Sea of
Okhotsk
Ale
utian ds
Islan
ds
an
Isl
ri l
Ku
Sea of
Japan
JAPAN
East
China
Sea
South
China
Sea
PHILIPPINES
Figure 2.27 Most of the marginal sea coasts of the world are found along the borders of the northern and
western Pacific Ocean where the Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath North American and Eurasian Plates.
and tidal flats. These influences can be on a the opening of the South Atlantic, approxi-
scale of continental‐wide drainage and the mately 130 million years ago. Thus, the
widths of continental shelves or they can be Andes mountain range is the major drainage
more regional such as dictating the position divide that runs the length of South America
of a river mouth. separating rivers that flow east from those
that drain west (Figure 2.28). Eastward‐
flowing rivers, including the Amazon,
2.6.1 Continental Drainage
Parana, Orinoco, and others, drain more
Drainage of a continent is determined by the than 90 % of South America. Their headwa-
distribution of major mountain ranges, ters begin along the eastern flank of the
which is a product of the continent’s tectonic Andes and flow long distances across the
history. For example, the collision between continent before discharging large quantities
the eastward‐moving Nazca plate and the of water and sediment along the Atlantic
westward‐moving South American plate margin. Conversely, the west coast of South
produced the Andes Mountains, which span America receives relatively small volumes of
the entire length of its Pacific margin. The sediment delivered by short, steep‐gradient
eastern margin of South America has experi- rivers. The diminutive size of the rivers
enced little mountain‐building activity since reflects their small drainage basins resulting
the effects of climate and the overall lesser

Atlantic Ocean amounts of precipitation falling on Africa than
South America contribute to this condition.
A River drainage in the United States is
strongly affected by the tectonic history of
n
de
North America. Similar to South America,

s M ou
the western margin of the United States was

a collision zone up until 30 million years ago
nt
ai
ns
resulting in the formation of the Rocky
Mountains, Sierra Nevada Mountains, and
Drainage Basin and Range. It is the Rocky Mountains
divide
Pacific Ocean that form the western drainage divide of the
Mississippi River, whose drainage basin com-
An d es Mou n t ai n s
prises two thirds of the United States. The

eastern divide is defined by the Appalachian
Mountains that were formed when the land-
masses forming Pangea were being assembled.
Atlantic Ocean As demonstrated for three different conti-
nents, the delivery of sediment to the coast is
governed by the size of the rivers discharging
along the coast. This, in turn, is a function of
climatic factors and drainage basin size,
which is largely controlled by the tectonic his-
Figure 2.28 Physiographic map of South America tory of the continent (Figure 2.29). One other
illustrating that the Andes Mountains produce a
drainage divide along the entire length of the factor that influences the supply of sediment
continent. This asymmetric drainage pattern results to a coast is the geology of the drainage basin.
in all the major rivers discharging their sediment For example, the collision between the Indian
loads along the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, and Eurasian plates created the Himalayan
whereas only relatively small rivers empty into the Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau, some of
Pacific Ocean.
the highest landscapes on the surface of the
Earth. The elevation of the Himalayas cou-
from the proximity of the adjacent Andes pled with ongoing glaciation of this region
Mountain drainage divide. produce huge quantities of sediment. The
The African continent illustrates a very dif- rivers draining the Himalayas including the
ferent drainage condition. Because most of Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra Rivers, rank
Africa is in the middle of a plate, there is little as some of the largest sediment‐discharge
active mountain‐building and most of the rivers in the world.
existing mountain systems are geologically
very old. Unlike South America, there is no
2.6.2 Location of Rivers
large‐scale organization of river drainage
in Africa. Rather, Africa has moderate to In addition to the quantity of sediment deliv-
small‐sized rivers that discharge along its ered to the coast, tectonic processes dictate
Mediterranean coast (e.g. Nile River), Atlantic the location of many large river systems. As
coast (e.g. Niger and Congo Rivers), and described previously, the break‐up of a conti-
Indian coast (e.g. Zambezi River). Due to the nent involves several plumes of magma rising
relatively small volume of sediment reaching from the mantle that dome, stretch, and even-
the African coast, there are fewer deposi- tually rift apart the overlying lithosphere. If
tional features along this coast as compared we consider a single mantle plume, the dom-
to the East Coast of South America. Certainly ing and rifting process produces a three‐arm
50 Chapter 2
59
25
142
Yukon
30
444 River
100
131 Yellow
31 133 River
66
110
Nile 930 1,738

256 232 Amazon 67
210 River 3,000
River
1,438 286
Ganges
150 113 River 3,228
290
28
18 17
Sediment yield
(million tons per year) 154 42
1,438
Geographic limit of watersheds
Figure 2.29 Pattern of sediment‐discharge to the world’s oceans. These estimates are based on suspended
sediment loads and not contribution by bedload. Note that most of the suspended sediment discharged to
the ocean by rivers occurs along Amero‐trailing edge and marginal sea coasts. (Source: Adapted from Milliman
and Meade, 1983.)
tear in the lithosphere (Figure 2.30). As the landmasses such as North America separat-
mantle plume spreads laterally beneath the ing from Africa. In many cases the failed
lithosphere, two of the rift valleys widen and third arms of these systems coincide with
deepen while the third arm of the rift becomes sites where the internal drainage of a conti-
inactive. The third arm fails because the con- nent empties into the sea. It is believed that
tinued spreading of the other two arms of the because failed third arms are topographic
rift relieves the pressure of the upwelling lows that extend into continents, major
mantle plume. An example of this process is rivers either evolve at these locations or

seen where the Arabian Peninsula has rifted existing rivers migrate to these sites. The
away from northeast Africa. The Indian Niger River valley in western Africa and the
Ocean has invaded the two active arms of the Amazon River valley in eastern South
rift forming the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. America are examples of these develop-
The failed third arm of this system is the East ments. The Mississippi River valley may
African Rift that extends into the African also be the location of a geologically very
continent. Most of this region is a low‐lying old rift valley.
and parts of the valley are below sea level. The Another, unique form of tectonic control of
valley is bordered by escarpments and is still river drainage and sediment supply to a coast
tectonically active with infrequent earth- occurs in the Indian Ocean. The triangular
quakes and volcanism. shape of the Indian sub‐continent dictated
Many mantle plumes were involved in the that when it collided with Eurasia 50 million
break‐up of Pangea, each having its own years ago, not only was a sizable mountain
three‐arm rift system. The two active arms system produced with a large potential sedi-
of each rift widened, elongated and con- ment supply, but also the shortest route for
nected to one another eventually producing drainage to the sea was on either side of India.
the separation of entire continental‐sized Thus, the high sediment‐discharge rivers of
Figure 2.30 Four stage model in the Time 1 Dome above magma plume
development of internal drainage of a
continent: Time 1. Doming and thinning of Continent
lithosphere due to upwelling magma; Crustal
Time 2. Rupture of lithosphere and thinning
development of a three‐arm rift system;
Time 3. Linear sea development while third
arm of rift system becomes inactive; Time 4.
Evolution of ocean basin, interior of
continent drains through old rift valley.
Time 2 Outward flow from magma plume

Rift
Rift
Time 3 Linear sea
Oceanic
Failed rift
crust
Time 4 Ocean
Major
river
Oceanic
crust
Former rift valley
the Indus draining into the Arabian Sea (

passive) margins having relatively wide,
and the Ganges‐Brahmaputra emptying shallow gradient shelves (Figure 2.31). Shelf
into the Bay of Bengal is a predictable width and slope, in turn, influence the effects
outcome. of storms, wave energy and sediment disper-
sal, as well as cliff abrasion rates along rocky
coasts. Along collision coasts, such as the
2.6.3 Continental Shelf Width
west coasts of North and South America, the
To a large extent, plate tectonic setting dic- narrow shelf widths result in large wave
tates the width and slope of the continental energies and large potential rates of sedi-
shelf, with Pacific (active) margins tending ment transport. Remember, too, that these
to have narrow, steep shelves and Atlantic margins have localized sediment supplies
52 Chapter 2
Continental shelf width also influences

sediment supplies along continental margins
by dictating the proximity of submarine
canyons to the coast. For example, along the
coast of California the narrow shelf has led to
canyons being located only several hundred
meters seaward of the beach. During storms
and other high wave‐energy events, sand is
eroded from beaches at these sites and trans-
ported offshore. Some of this sand makes its
way into the heads of submarine canyons,
such as La Jolla and Scripps Canyons, where
eventually it is transported to deep sedimen-
tary basins. In contrast, this process does not
occur along the eastern margin of North
America because the submarine canyons of
this region are too far from shore to capture
inner shelf sands.
2.7 Summary
Plate tectonics provides a means for explain-
Figure 2.31 Physiographic map of southern South ing the overall features and major processes
America illustrating the difference in shelf width on the surface of the Earth including the
between the active western margin and the passive
eastern margin. Wide continental shelves lead to
character of the world’s continental margins
lower wave energy and submarine canyons being and its coastal settings. We are able to under-
located further offshore as compared to narrow stand why coastal regions on either side of a
shelves. continent can be so markedly different and
why the West Coast of the United States is
derived by relatively small river systems. bordered by mountains and experiences
Thus, sediment accumulation forms along volcanic eruptions and frequent earthquakes
these types of settings are dependent on whereas the tectonically inactive East Coast
nearby sediment input and embayments abuts a flat coastal plain and is fronted by an
where sediment can collect. almost uninterrupted chain of barriers. It
A very different pattern exists along has also been shown that the tectonic his-
Amero‐trailing edges and marginal sea tory combined with climatic factors deter-
coasts that are fronted by wide continental mines the drainage of a continent and how
shelves. In these regions, much of the deep- much sediment is delivered to a particular
water wave energy is attenuated by friction coast. Even the location of individual major
imparted by the shallow gradient continen- rivers has been shown to be a function
tal shelf. Longshore and offshore sediment of plate tectonic processes. In subsequent
transport along these coasts occurs during chapters it will be shown that coastlines are
the passage of major storms. Accretionary molded by numerous physical, chemical,
landforms are common along these coasts and biological processes, but all these oper-
and are coincident with abundant supplies ate on the backbone of the plate tectonic
of sediment. setting of the region.
Reference
Inman, D.L. and Nordstrom, C.E. (1971). On
the tectonic and morphologic classification
of coasts. J. Geol. 79: 1–21.
Suggested Reading
Bird, E.C.F. (2009). Coastal Geomorphology. University of South Carolina, Technical
Chichester, UK: Wiley. Report No. IICRD. Columbia, SC: Dept. of
Cox, A. and Hart, R.B. (1986). Plate Tectonics: Geology, University of South Carolina.
How it Works. Palo Alto, CA: Blackwell Masselink, G. and Gehrels, R. (2014). Coastal
Science. Environments and Global Change.
Davies, J.L. (1980). Geographical Variation in Chichester, UK: Wiley and American
Coastal Development. Harlow, UK: Longman. Geophysical Union.
Davis, R.A. (1994). Geology of Holocene Barrier Moores, E.M. (ed.) (1990). Shaping the Earth:
Island Systems. London: Springer‐Verlag. Tectonics of Continents and Oceans. New
Glaeser, J.D. (1978). Global distribution of York: McGraw‐Hill.
barrier islands in terms of tectonic setting. Woodroffe, C.D. (2003). Coasts: Form, Process,
J. Geol. 86: 283–297. and Evolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Hayes, M.O. and Kana, T. (1978). Terrigenous University Press.
Clastic Depositional Environments,
55
Sediments and Rocks
Materials of Coastal Environments
We learned in the previous chapter that the In this chapter both the textural and
earth’s crust has a wide range in composition, compositional aspects of sediments are
that is, it comprises many different rock discussed, along with a general treatment of
types. Most of the volume of the crust is the rocks from which they came.
igneous rock, but metamorphic rocks and
sedimentary rocks are also important. Most
of the earth’s surface is sedimentary rocks 3.1 Rock Types
and sediments. All of these rock types and
their contained assemblages of minerals may The igneous rocks that comprise most of
occur in the coastal zone. Rocky coasts are the earth’s crust form from magma that
widespread along the shorelines of the world originates in the mantle. They are composed
and are generally characterized by erosion primarily of what are called silicate minerals.
(see Chapter 18). In this book, we are more Silicates are compounds of a variety of cati-
interested in the depositional coastal envi- ons of various elements combined with sili-
ronments where various types of sediment con and oxygen; common elements in silicate
accumulate. The sediments that characterize compounds are iron, magnesium, potassium,
these depositional environments, such as calcium, sodium, and aluminum, although
beaches, dunes, estuaries and deltas, are there may be others. Depending upon where
products of the destruction of bedrock these minerals form within the earth’s crust
through various physical and chemical pro- they may result in granite, diorite, gabbro,
cesses we call weathering. basalt or other igneous rock types.
These weathering products will be trans- Weathering of igneous rocks can produce
ported on or near the earth’s surface, eventu- sediment particles of varying sizes that even-
ally coming to rest as an accumulation of tually become buried and cemented to form
particles which either settle due to a change sedimentary rocks such as arkose, quartz
in surface conditions, or are precipitated sandstone or mudstone. Heat and pressure
from solution (physicochemical action) or by may be applied to these rock types to produce
an organism (biochemical action). Even in metamorphic rocks or so‐called “changed
the coastal zone, some of these particles rocks.” These include gneiss, schist, slate
become buried and are cemented into sedi- and others.
mentary rocks, but most remain as uncon- In some cases sedimentary rocks can form
solidated particles of various sizes while at or from shells and other skeletal material,
near the earth surface. typically composed of calcium carbonate: the
56 Chapter 3
minerals calcite, aragonite and/or hi‐Mg time‐consuming because it requires us to

calcite. This produces limestone, which, treat each grain individually. The diameter
when metamorphosed, becomes marble. of a particle is far easier to measure and,
All of these rocks, as well as other, less although there is an infinite range of particle
common, types may occur in various combi- shapes, ranging from a sphere to a flat disc,
nations to produce rocky coasts. More and though relatively few perfect spheres
importantly to the development of deposi- are produced as erosion products, many
tional coastal environments, they produce sediment particles exhibit a rough approxi-
sediment as the result of physical and chemi- mation to a sphere.
cal weathering and abrasion. These sediment The range in grain size of sedimentary par-
products, regardless of where they form, ticles is almost infinite, from less than a
many eventually find their way to the coast micron to a meter in diameter to boulders as
where they accumulate in various coastal large as an automobile. Obviously, more than
environments. The bulk of our discussion in one technique must be utilized to measure
this chapter will focus on these sediments; such a wide spectrum of grain sizes, espe-
their size, composition, and arrangement cially because grain size analysis involves
within various coastal settings. extremely large numbers of grains. This
places further constraints on size‐analysis
techniques. Commonly, grains larger than a
3.2 Sediment Texture couple of centimeters or so in diameter are
measured individually with calipers or some
The production of sedimentary particles similar method. Grains ranging from a cen-
during erosion can be related to many phe- timeter down to about 50 μm in diameter
nomena including climate, waves, organisms, are commonly measured by sieving them
gravity processes such as rock falls or land- through as sequence of several sieves that
slides, stream transport or others. In this separate the grains into rather narrow size
discussion no attention will be paid to classes arranged in order of sieve opening
the composition of the sediment particles; from largest on top to smallest at the bottom.
instead the focus is on their size, shape and Another method is by allowing the grains to
distribution as they accumulate in various settle through a column of a fluid, usually
coastal environments. water. The rate at which particles settle is
proportional to their size, shape, and density,
although certain assumptions have to be
3.2.1 Grain Size
made. Settling tubes in which this type of
When determining the grain size of sediment analysis is conducted have become common
particles it is usual to examine a sample of in recent years and may be quite sophisti-
many grains. If we think about how we are cated, with direct connection to computers
going to try to measure so many grains we for rapid data processing. Sediment particles
can see problems. Though there are multiple smaller than 50 μm may also be measured by
ways whereby one might assign a size to a settling rates, although such methods are
sediment particle there are three common time‐consuming and not very accurate.
measures: particle diameter, volume or mass. Currently, instruments utilizing photoe-
Mass is rather easy to deal with because lectric sensors, lasers, or x‐ray beams have
shape is not a factor and it can easily be been developed for measuring grains ranging
related to the density of the material. from tens of microns to a few millimeters in
However, because of density differences, diameter.
mass is not practical as a parameter of Because sedimentary particles display such
grain size. Measurement of the volume of a wide range of sizes, it is practical to utilize
large number of grains is both difficult and a geometric or logarithmic scale for size
Sediments and Rocks: Materials of Coastal Environments 57
Table 3.1 Wentworth grain size scale, including Krumbein’s phi scale.
Millimeters Micrometers Phi

(mm) (μm) (φ) Wentworth size class Rock type
4096 −12 Boulder Gravel Conglomerate/ Breccia

256 −8 Cobble
64 −6
32 −5 Pebble
4 −2
2 −1 Granule
1 0 Very coarse sand Sand Sandstone

1/2 0.50 500 1 Coarse sand
1/4 0.25 250 2 Medium sand
1/8 0.125 125 3 Fine sand
1/16 0.0625 63 4 Very fine sand
1/32 0.031 31 5 Coarse silt Silt Siltstone

1/64 0.0156 15.6 6 Medium silt
1/128 0.0078 7.8 7 Fine silt
1/256 0.0039 3.9 8 Very fine silt
0.00006 0.06 14 Clay Mud Claystone
c lassification. Almost 100 years ago a scale c alculate statistical parameters which describe
was devised by William Wentworth based on the population of particles in the sediment
a factor of 2, such that as one moves from sample. Data obtained from the size analysis
unity there is a multiplier or divisor of 2; one are usually in the form of weight percentages
category is either twice or half the diameter for each size class. These raw grain‐size data
of the next one. Later modifications resulted may be plotted as a histogram or as a fre-
in the grain size scale as it is used today quency curve (Figure 3.1). A cumulative
in which the values used are the –log2 curve (Figure 3.2) is also used so that specific
(Table 3.1). W.C. Krumbein of Northwestern percentage values can be taken from it and
University came up with this conversion in used to calculate sediment parameters that
1937. He designated the simple numbers characterize individual samples.
produced by this formula as phi units (ø). The distribution of grain sizes in a sediment
Each size class possesses a name, e.g. fine population typically follows or approaches a
sand, as well as a size range. lognormal distribution, resulting in a normal
or bell‐shaped curve (Figure 3.3a). In a sym-
3.2.1.1 Statistical Analysis of Grain metrical curve for sediment distribution the
Size Data mean, mode and median are all the same
After sediment has been subjected to one of value; 50 % or the perfect middle. The mean
the standard methods for measuring grain grain size is the average, the median is the sta-
size, the measurements are then used to tistical middle grain size and the mode is the
58 Chapter 3
most abundant grain size. Most sediments do Two statistical parameters are commonly
not have a perfectly symmetrical grain size used to describe grain size distribution: the
distribution but are “skewed.” The skewness mean grain size and the standard deviation.
refers to the overall shape of the distribution Such parameters are easily derived from the
curve. Those samples that have more coarse raw data by statistics software. The mean is
grains than fine ones are called skewed to the the statistical average, determined in just the
left and those with more fines than coarse same way as a teacher determines the average
grains are right‐skewed (Figure 3.3b). score on an examination. The sizes of every
grain are summed and the total is divided by
(a) the number of grains in the population. The
standard deviation is the statistical determi-
nation of the deviation from the mean. In
other words, were all of the values bunched
together (a small standard deviation) or were
they spread out along a wide range (a large
standard deviation)? When dealing with sedi-
ments we generally refer to this measurement
as the sorting. A well‐sorted sediment has
(b) most of the grains about the same size,
whereas a poorly sorted sediment has a wide
range in particle sizes that comprise the pop-
ulation or sample (Figure 3.4). Quantitative
values for sorting can be obtained using the
key percentage parameters for a cumulative
curve. These values also have verbal designa-
tions (Figure 3.5)
Another statistical condition that com-
Figure 3.1 Graphs showing (a) the distribution monly occurs in natural accumulations of
curve and (b) a histogram format for the grain size sediment is the mixing of populations.
distribution of a sediment sample. Examples include the combination of quartz
100
95%
84%
80
Cumulative percent
(arithmetic scale)
60
50%
40
20
16%
5%
0
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5
ϕ Size
Figure 3.2 A cumulative curve for a sediment sample with the percentage values that are used in
calculating statistical data for the samples.
(a)
Coarse Median Fine

Mode
Mean
(b)
Coarse Fine Coarse Fine
Figure 3.3 (a) A symmetrical curve for a sediment with the mean grain size, the median, the mean and the
mode all falling at the 50% position, and (b) simple plots showing both fine-skewed (A) and coarse-skewed (B)
grain size distribution.
sand with shells or pebbles (Figure 3.6) which Some have simple and symmetrical shapes,
is common on many beaches. Each mode is whereas others are extremely complex.
derived from different sources and each has a The roundness of a particle refers to the
very different grain size; the quartz is sand sharpness or smoothness of its edges and
and the shells are gravel. Such sediment is corners. Both physical abrasion and chemical
said to be bimodal (Figure 3.7). Each popula- reactions contribute to this characteristic,
tion represents a mode, that is, a large num- although abrasion is generally the most
ber of particles of about the same size as the important of the two. Descriptive names for
shells—the coarser less abundant mode, and this characteristic range from “very angular”
the sand—the finer, more abundant mode to “well rounded” (Figure 3.8). Figure 3.9
(Figure 3.6). shows a well‐rounded, moderately sorted
gravel deposit.
The term sphericity refers to the degree
3.2.2 Grain Shape
to which a particle approaches a sphere.
Sediment particles display a great variety of Although many ways of determining sphe-
geometries in their shape. This variation is ricity are available, it is most common to
due to a combination of the internal struc- compare the lengths of three mutually per-
ture of minerals that comprise the particles pendicular axes. The closer this ratio is to
plus the origin and history of the particle. unity(1) the more spherical is the particle
60 Chapter 3
Poorly Sorted relatively thin skin near the surface of this

crust. Although there is a wide variety of
minerals present in these rocks, they contain
primarily four mineral types: feldspars,
quartz, clay minerals, and carbonates, with
%
feldspars being the least abundant of the four.
This difference in abundance between the
crust as a whole (mostly igneous) and sedi-
mentary rocks is largely a reflection of the
relative chemical stability of the minerals
0
present. Iron–magnesium silicate minerals
Coarse Fine weather readily and are not common in sedi-
mentary rocks. Most feldspars are relatively
stable, and they weather to produce clay min-
Well Sorted erals. Quartz is quite stable chemically and is
physically very durable (Figure 3.12). Thus,
during the cycle of weathering and transport,
quartz tends to persist because it is hard
and chemically inert at surface conditions.
%
Carbonate minerals are dominantly the result
of physicochemical or biochemical precipita-
tion from solution at or near the surface of
the earth. Most of the carbonate material that
we see in coastal sediments is in the form of
skeletal material; typically shells (Figure 3.13).
0
Coarse Fine The result is that sediments and sedimen-
tary rocks largely comprise a few minerals that
Figure 3.4 Plots of a poorly sorted and a well‐sorted
sediment. are the relatively stable products of erosion.
(Figure 3.10). Sphericity is more strongly

influenced by the origin of the particle than is
3.4 General Origin and
roundness. Some grains are inherently elon- Distribution of Sediments
gate or flat because of their crystallographic
or biogenic makeup (Figure 3.11). Examples Having discussed the broad aspects of the
are such minerals as mica, which tends to be composition of the earth’s crust and some
flat or disc‐shaped, and many shell types, aspects of sediment textures, we can now
such as bivalves or branching corals. turn our attention to where sediments on the
coast come from and what controls them in
their specific environment of deposition.
There are several factors that determine how
3.3 Mineralogy sediments are distributed throughout the
coastal zone. Some of the important ones are:
Although the crust of the earth is composed
of a wide variety of minerals, relatively few ●● composition of coastal sediments is a
are present in great abundance. Those that direct reflection of the composition of the
are include the feldspars, iron–magnesium source materials that produced them;
silicates such as pyroxenes and hornblendes, ●● dispersal of sediments is related to the pro-
and quartz, with feldspars being most abun- cesses that transport them from their source
dant. Sedimentary rocks are present as only a and throughout the coastal zone; and
Very well sorterd Well sorterd Moderately sorterd

<0.35 ϕ 0.35–0.71 ϕ 0.71–1.00 ϕ
Poorly sorterd Very poorly sorterd

1–2 ϕ 2–4 ϕ
Figure 3.5 Schematic depictions of a range of sorting categories.
Bimodal 3.4.1 Composition
sediment
Minerals and rocks that comprise the sedi-
ments of the coastal zone reflect the composi-
tion of the rocks and sediments that are in
the source area from which these sediments
%
come. On islands there is no significant fluvial
system to distribute sediment. The high relief
and short distance to the coast permits sedi-
ment particles of unstable composition to be
carried downslope to the beach, as in the
0 Pacific Islands (Figure 3.14). In most situations,
Gravel Sand Mud sediments are produced by some type of
Figure 3.6 Plot showing a bimodal grain size weathering and erosion, then they are trans-
distribution. ported by a river to the coastal zone where
they may end up in a river delta, are carried to
the open coast then distributed by currents
●● grain size and sorting of the sediments are and waves, or are dumped into an embayment
a reflection of the rigor of the processes along the coast. Fine sediments are commonly
acting in the environment in which they dominated by clay minerals, sand is generally
accumulate and the length of time involved. mostly quartz but might also have feldspar,
62 Chapter 3
Figure 3.7 Beach sediment with a coarse shell mode and a fine sand mode.
High
Sphericity
Low
Sphericity
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 Very 1 2 Sub 3 Sub- 4 5 Well- 6
Angular Rounded
angular angular rounded rounded
Figure 3.8 Plot of a spectrum of grain roundness appearances and values.
Figure 3.9 Example of a very well rounded gravel that is moderately sorted.
Oblate Equant
(Disk)
0.8
2
3
0.6
Bladed Prolate
(Roller)
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 2 0.8

3
Figure 3.10 Grain shape diagram showing the four main categories as developed by Zingg.
(Source: Adapted from Zingg (1935).)
Figure 3.12 Photograph showing a pure quartz

sample.
Figure 3.11 Photograph of very spherical quartz

similar match to source materials. The glacial
grains. sediments of these areas contain a wide range
of grain sizes and sediment particle composi-
tions (Figure 3.15). The coastal sediments
rock fragments and other minerals, and gravel derived from these materials also have this
could be similar to sand in composition spectrum of textures and compositions. The
although rock fragments tend to be the most New England coast is a good example of this
common. Coasts in glaciated areas show a situation (see Chapter 17).
64 Chapter 3
Regardless of how they originate or are

transported to the coast, all of the coastal envi-
ronments of the Bahamas are composed of a
single mineral; CaCO3 (calcium carbonate).
This is because there is nothing but calcium
carbonate in the entire Bahamas Platform;
hence we can be certain that the islands are
isolated from any landmass that could contrib-
ute other mineral and rock compositions.
3.4.2 Texture
Figure 3.13 Photograph of a carbonate shell The processes that dominate a particular
accumulation with a wide range of shapes. environment in the coastal zone are respon-
(Source: Courtesy of Alex Simms.) sible for the grain size of the sediments that
Figure 3.14 Tahiti. A Boulder and

cobble beach made of volcanic
material.
Figure 3.15 Exposure of

Pleistocene glacial sediment
composed of a wide range of
grain sizes and compositions.
accumulate there and, to an extent, the grain coast, or it may be carried to the beach from
shape (Figure 3.16). Mud carried by rivers offshore by waves.
ends up in the river delta, in bays where the In general, we can say that the grain size of
rivers discharge their load or it may be car- the sediment along the coast is directly propor-
ried offshore onto the continental shelf and tional to the rigor of the processes operating in
beyond. In general, mud and other fine sedi- the environment of sediment deposition.
ments tend to accumulate in places where
waves and currents are absent or weak. Sand
tends to accumulate where wind, waves and 3.5 Summary
currents are relatively strong (Figure 3.17).
This includes beaches, dunes, tidal inlets and The materials that make up the coast are fun-
other open coastal environments. In some damental in determining the nature of the
places this sand is brought to the coast by coast. Obviously, one of the most important
rivers, or it may erode from rocks along the factors is whether the coast is dominated by
bedrock or by sediment. Because sediments
are transported by a wide variety of pro-
cesses, and because there is a wide range in
the intensity of these processes, they are
important factors in determining the mor-
phology and scale of the various coastal envi-
ronments. Low‐energy processes tend to
accumulate sediments that are fine grained
and/or those that are not well sorted. More
energetic conditions result in sand and gravel
that tends to be well sorted. Regardless of the
nature or intensity of the processes operating
along a particular coastal location, sediment
Figure 3.16 Coarse beach gravel with a wide range is the product of the source materials in that
of grain shapes and compositions. vicinity.
Figure 3.17 Beach on the coast of Maine composed of sorted sand derived from shell debris.
(Source: Courtesy of Joe Kelley.)
66 Chapter 3
Box 3.1 The Late Robert G. Dean

The coastal world lost one of its greats in early University of Delaware where he was a major
2015 with the passing of, Dr. Robert Dean, player in the development of two of the
Graduate Research Professor Emeritus at the most prominent coastal engineering programs
University of Florida (Box Figure 3.1.1). Bob in the United States. He was named a
Dean was born in Wyoming and lived there Distinguished Research Professor at Florida in
and in Colorado as a boy. He and his family 1992. Bob supervised numerous graduate stu-
moved to Long Beach, California when he was dents while at both of these institutions, many
a teen, and after high school he attended a of whom are now leaders in the coastal research
local community college. He received his community. He was also very eager to help
BS in Civil Engineering from the University people at other institutions, both faculty and
of California – Berkeley. His graduate work students.
resulted in a MS in Oceanography from Texas Bob was a member of the prestigious
A&M University and a PhD in Civil Engineering National Academy of Engineering in recogni-
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. tion of the many contributions to the field of
Most of Bob’s career was spent on the coastal engineering. He also served on the
faculties of the University of Florida and the Beach Erosion Board of the U.S. Army, Corps of
Engineers, and was a member of multiple com-
mittees of the National Academy of Sciences.
Over the years he consulted for more than 100
firms and agencies all over the world. He was a
prolific author on a range of coastal topics.
These include the books titled Coastal Processes
with Engineering Applications, and Wave
Mechanics for Engineers and Scientists, both writ-
ten with former student Dr. Robert A. Dalrymple.
Unlike many of his coastal engineering col-
leagues, Bob was interested in sediment and
he recognized that geologists could make a
contribution to coastal research. One of his
important contributions, based largely on his
work on the Florida coast, was the impact that
tidal inlets made on beaches. He frequently
stated that at least half of the erosion prob-
lems experienced by beaches could be related
Box Figure 3.1.1 The late Robert G. Dean. to tidal inlets.
Reference
Zingg, T. (1935). Beitrage zur Schotteranalyse:
Min. Petrog. Mitt. Schweiz. 15: 39–140.
Suggested Reading
Boggs, S.N. (2011). Principles of Sedimentation Manaan, M. and Robin, M. (2015). Sediment
and Stratigraphy, 5e. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Fluxes in Coastal Areas. Dordrecht:
Prentice‐Hall, Inc. Springer.
Davis, R.A. (1992). Depositional Systems; an Middleton, G.V. (ed.) (2005). Encyclopedia of
Introduction to Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks, 2e.
2e. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‐Hall, Inc. Dordrecht: Springer.
69
Sea‐Level Change and Coastal Environments
When sea level changes, for any reason, the a lowering of sea level (Figure 4.2). The
coast responds with a change of its own. isostatic adjustment of removing the immense
Some changes in sea level are very abrupt ice mass from the land mass results in
and can be recognized easily. Others are rebounding of the crust, which is still occur-
shown by sophisticated instruments. There ring in parts of Scandinavia. Such changes
are sea‐level changes that take place globally in elevation result in old shorelines being
but there are also those that are local or many meters above present sea level. A good
regional in extent. This chapter will consider example of this is on the shoreline of Hudson
the causes of sea‐level change, the extent Bay in Canada (Figure 4.3). Here, numerous
over which they occur, and also the rates at shorelines chronicle the rebound of this area
which they take place. after the ice sheet melted.
Sea level is changing throughout the world These kinds of sea‐level change are all rela-
but it is doing so very slowly as a conse- tive, that is the position of sea level has
quence primarily of climate change and plate changed relative to the surface of the crust.
tectonics. It is also changing locally by a wide They also occur locally or regionally as
variety of means. In just a few moments, an opposed to globally. These local relative
earthquake can lower sea level by lifting the changes may be limited in extent to hundreds
earth at the shore, or can raise it by causing of meters but they may be regional, extend-
the ground to sink (Figure 4.1). All of these ing over a thousand kilometers or more.
phenomena cause the position of sea level to A eustatic sea‐level change takes place
change in comparison to patterns that shift throughout the world. For such a change to
over the seasons and as a result of the shifting occur there must be a change in the volume
positions of ocean currents. The El Νiño of water in the world ocean or there has to be
phenomenon also causes changes in current a change in the overall size, or shape of the
patterns that can change sea level seasonally. ocean container, i.e. the crustal basins in
In 2016 this occurred and influenced the which the oceans occur. For example, the
Gulf Stream causing sea level to rise substan- melting of glaciers due to global warming
tially on the southeast coast of the United will add water to the ocean system and
States near Miami. thereby cause sea level to rise globally. This
Slow and long‐term changes in sea level on has been going on since the melting of conti-
scales of decades to millennia take place as nental ice sheets began about 18,000 years
glaciers enlarge and subsequently melt in ago (Figure 4.4). In addition, the warmer
response to global changes in climate. The water resulting from climate change takes up
removal of the great mass of these glaciers more space than colder water, again causing
then permits the crust to rise due to the relative sea level to rise. Similarly, sea‐floor
removal of the large ice mass, thus producing spreading will change the shape of the ocean
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.1 (a) Photograph of the coast in the Anchorage, Alaska area showing uplift and (b) property damage
in the city associated with the earthquake of March 27, 1964. (Sources: (a) USGS, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/
earthquakes/events/alaska1964/1964pics.php (b) U.S. Army, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Alaska_
earthquake#/media/File:AlaskaQuake‐FourthAve.jpg).
West East
3000
2000
Surfaces after isostatic subsidence
Height (m)
1000
Modern surface
0
0 200 400 600 800

Scale (km)
Figure 4.2 Diagram showing the pre‐ and post‐melting of an ice sheet with the isostatic rebound that results
from this change. (Source: Adapted from A. Bloom, 1978).
Sea-Level Change and Coastal Environments 71
Figure 4.3 Shorelines on Hudson Bay, Canada preserved as sea level dropped due to isostatic rebound of the
this area after the glaciers melted. (Source: Courtesy of Philippe Hequette).
10
0
–10
–20
–30
–40
Sea level (m)

–50
–60
–70
–80
–90
–100
–110
–120
–130
25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0
Cal Yr BP
Figure 4.4 Sea‐level curve during the post‐glacial era as ice sheets began to melt. (Source: Courtesy of the
Florida Department of Environmental Protection’s Florida Geological Survey).
basins and thus cause sea level to change 4.1 Changing the Size

everywhere. The melting of the ice masses and Shape of the Container
takes place over centuries to millennia but
the size of the ocean basins takes many mil- 4.1.1 Tectonic Causes
lions of years to change significantly.
Details of these and many other causes of Movement of the earth’s crust may take place
sea‐level change will be considered in the fol- over a wide range of rates and scales; from
lowing sections. The regular and predictable meters per hour to millimeters per year and
change in sea level caused by astronomical from local events such as volcanic eruptions
conditions that we call tides is not treated to plate movements that extend through
here because they do not result in any net entire ocean basins. Some of these changes
change. They will be discussed in a separate take place at or near the coast and cause the
chapter. crust to shift, and thereby causing sea level to
72 Chapter 4
change. Others are so large that they change of the sea floor on the adjacent continental
the size of an entire ocean basin or even mul- shelf was lowered 15 m. It is important to
tiple ocean basins. remember that these sea‐level changes took
place in mere minutes and they were quite
4.1.1.1 Local and Regional Changes local in their extent.
Seismic events that result in crustal move- Other local sea‐level changes can be
ment have taken place at or near a coast associated with volcanic eruptions. These

many times, especially when a coast is at or are common along plate boundaries and will
near the leading edge of a plate boundary. result in significant uplift of coastal areas
A severe earthquake took place on the affected by volcanic eruptions that move
coast of the northeastern Pacific Ocean in the shoreline seaward (Figure 4.5) on many
Alaska on March 27, 1964. Here, the Pacific islands. Some subsidence may also take place.
and North American crustal plates are Any of these conditions will cause local sea
colliding, and the movement along this crus- level to change; in some cases by several
tal boundary produced some spectacular meters.
changes in local, relative sea level positions These extreme, event‐related changes in
(see Figure 4.1). The earthquake had its epi- sea level are not rare along collision coasts at
center along the north shore of Prince plate boundaries. Such conditions are pre-
William Sound in Alaska, between Anchorage sent along the west coasts of both North and
and Valdez, the area made famous by the South America, on many of the volcanic
Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster. The event reg- island arcs of the Pacific Ocean and in parts
istered about 8.3 on the Richter scale, making of the eastern Mediterranean such as Italy,
it one of the most powerful ever recorded in Turkey and Cyprus.
North America. Numerous locations along
the shoreline displayed shifts of several 4.1.1.2 Eustatic Tectonic Changes
meters upward and downward relative to sea Sea floor spreading and the evolution of
level. Extreme examples showed movements crustal material at spreading centers on the
of 6 m upwards, which caused harbors and ocean floor can also have an influence on sea
docks to rise well above sea level and their level. As new crust moves up from the asthe-
docks to become useless. Even more extreme nosphere the older crust above moves away
examples took place offshore, where islands from the oceanic ridge, causing the plates to
were uplifted more than 10 m and a portion diverge (Figure 4.6a). Subduction takes place
Figure 4.5 Volcanic eruption of Kiluea on Hawaii depositing new rock and moving sea level seaward locally.
(a)
Deep-sea Mid-ocean Oceanic
trench ridge basaltic crust Continental
Island arc granitic crust
system
Back-arc Sea level
basin
Rigid m
antle
ma
ter
Ascending ial
magma
Asthenosphere
(b)
Subduction
Figure 4.6 (a) Spreading of the sea floor caused by convection in the mantle forms the oceanic ridge system,
and (b) subduction of crust producing volcanic eruptions. (Sources: (a) Courtesy of VCU (Virginia Commonwealth
University), (b) Steven Dutch, https://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/CostaRica2008/CRAccretion.HTM).
at collision zones, causing the descent of one belt called the crust, produces changes in
plate under the other (Figure 4.6b). This ocean basins that affect their volume, result-
combination of slow uplift and slow down- ing in sea‐level change on a global scale. The
warping on the plate margins, along with rate of change, however, is small, on the order
movement of land masses on the conveyor of millimeters per decade.
74 Chapter 4
We therefore have both local and eustatic level. Atlantic sea level is typically lowest in
sea‐level changes that can be produced by the spring and highest in the fall, the rise and
tectonic activity. Some are very rapid such as fall alternating between the northern and
those resulting from volcanic activity or southern hemispheres as seasonal wind pat-
earthquakes, and others are very slow, caused terns change. In low latitudes the seasons are
by sea‐floor spreading. We can generalize by less marked and as a consequence, mean sea
saying that local changes in sea level are gen- level shows less seasonal change than in the
erally more rapid and greater in magnitude mid‐latitudes.
than eustatic changes. The most basic and most easily predictable
seasonal sea‐level fluctuation is a conse-
quence of weather patterns as the sun and
4.2 Climate and Sea‐Level the earth shift in their positions relative to
Change each other. As the sun moves through the
latitudes with the seasons there are changes
Sea level is affected by changes in climate. in water temperatures leading to changes in
These changes may be due to seasonal or wind patterns and velocities. A sea‐level
other short‐term fluctuations in climate or to change of 10–30 cm is produced as a response
long‐term changes; some changes are cyclic to these wind differences; water is pushed in
but many are not. different directions as the result of differ-
ences in atmospheric pressure and wind
direction (see Figure 4.7).
4.2.1 Seasonal Changes
Seasonal temperature differences change
Mean sea level typically shows a seasonal dif- the volume of water in the sea, thereby pro-
ference ranging from 10 to 30 cm depending ducing changes in sea level because water
upon location (Figure 4.7). Such differences expands as it warms. However, the change
are due to changes in wind patterns and resulting from this phenomenon is so small
velocities, and persistent, large‐scale high‐ or that it is difficult to measure. In some situa-
low‐pressure systems. For example, the tions, however, this change coincides with
Bermuda High, a large high‐pressure system seasonal change produced by wind to show
in the central Atlantic Ocean depresses sea typical annual patterns of sea‐level change.
20 Sitka, Alaska
0
–20
20 Neah Bay, Washington
0
Sea level (cm)
–20
20 San Francisco, California
0
–20
20 San Diego, California
0
–20
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975
Figure 4.7 Graph showing the seasonal changes in sea level at various places around the continental
United States. (Source: Komar and Enfield (1987)).
Sea level is highest in the summertime on the which influences most of the world, is caused
east coast of the United States because the by the warm current produced by changes in
warm, expanding Gulf Stream flows very wind conditions off the west coast of Peru and
near the coast at that time of year. On the occurs over most of the South Pacific Ocean
Pacific side of the continent, sea level is at its every four to seven years. Fishermen named
lowest on the Washington coast during the the current El Niño—the child—referring to
summertime because of the cold coastal cur- the birth of Christ, because it tends to begin
rents that flow from the north at that time of in late December. Normally, during this mid-
year. Highest mean sea level on this coast is dle part of the Southern Hemisphere sum-
in winter, when Arctic wind generates coastal mer, the Peru Current, is cold and flows to the
storms that blow onshore and pile up water. north along the west coast of South America.
On the southeast coast of Florida climate As the current flows to the north, the Coriolis
change is causing abnormally high sea levels effect produced by the earth’s rotation
compared to other areas in the southeast. The (explained in the next chapter) causes a
warmer water in the Gulf Stream in this area, deflection of the current to the left or west,
combined with the movement of water in the resulting in upwelling of even colder, nutri-
current toward the coast causes some flood- ent‐rich deep water. This upwelling provides
ing in the South Beach area of Miami. The the nutrients that support a huge population
phenomenon was particularly marked in 2016 of plankton, which is the food for one of the
due in part to the strong El Niño condition. world’s most important fishing grounds.
At four‐ to seven‐year intervals, the west‐to‐
east blowing trade winds diminish in their
4.2.2 Non‐seasonal Cyclic
intensity, allowing a warm current to move
Changes
south and force the Peru Current into the
Probably the most famous of the weather‐ Pacific at a higher than normal latitude. This
related causes of sea‐level change is the El relatively warm current is the result of the
Niño phenomenon. This climatic change, El Niño conditions (Figure 4.8). When the
Jan 2016
Figure 4.8 Map showing the high temperatures in the Pacific Ocean during January 2016 as caused by El Niño.
The numbers are the amount of temperature increase in degrees Celsius above normal. (Source: Courtesy of
youtube.com).
76 Chapter 4
current enters South American coastal waters, in the growth of glaciers, which incorporate
its thick, surface layer of warm water inhibits huge volumes of water, while at the same time
upwelling of the cold, nutrient‐laden water lowering the temperature of the ocean. Both
below. This keeps the plankton population of these conditions cause the volume of the
from reaching its typical high density and so world ocean to be reduced. A warmer climate
the fish populations are smaller than normal. melts the glaciers and frees the water to
The current may stay to the south for a year or return to the ocean; simultaneously it raises
more, causing fish populations to either the ocean’s temperature causing an increase
migrate to other feeding grounds or die, in ocean volume and a rise in sea level.
thereby disrupting the economics of the adja- Drastic temperature changes are not
cent coastal areas. The warmer water of the sea required to produce major changes in sea level.
warms the air above it so that the rate of evapo- A rise or fall in the mean annual global tem-
ration increases. This moist air mass moves perature of only 2–3 C has a profound effect
landward, bringing torrential storms that pro- on both the mass of ice retained on the surface
duce flooding and coastal erosion in some of the earth and the volume of the water in the
areas and a large influx of sediments in others. world ocean. During the last ice age, thick ice
Changes in other wind and current patterns sheets covered much of the land masses of the
are also associated with these air masses. Northern Hemisphere. The volume of water in
There is a rise in sea level associated with the world ocean was greatly reduced; water
El Niño along the entire western South was sequestered in ice and that remaining in
American coast and extending up to the ocean chilled and contracted in volume.
California, due to both the wind effects and This combination resulted in the exposure of
the fact that the warm water takes up more nearly all of the continental shelf and was pro-
space than the colder Peru Current. The El duced with a reduction in global mean annual
Niño condition also causes anomalous temperature of only about 2–3 °C as compared
weather conditions, including storms on the to the present. If the current trend toward a
South American side of the basin and some warmer global climate continues and the mean
drought conditions in places like Indonesia temperature increases by only a few degrees,
on the western side. the entire process will reverse—the ice sheets
will melt and the ocean will encroach upon the
continents until many of the port cities are at
4.2.3 Long‐term Climatic Effects
least partly under water.
Various explanations have been offered for Insufficient data have made it difficult to
long‐term changes in climate, including sun assess the pace and direction of global cli-
spots, changes in the relative positions of mate and sea‐level changes over the past few
celestial bodies, and orientations of those decades. Accurate records of sea level have
celestial bodies. been kept for little more than a century and
Climate‐induced global or eustatic sea‐ weather records in most parts of the world
level change can occur in two ways: by do not extend back any further. Currently,
increasing or reducing the amount of water the International Panel on Climate Change
in the entire world ocean, or more subtly, (IPCC) has met many times and has pro-
by changing the temperature of the world duced several lengthy reports. Predictions
ocean which causes its volume to increase are difficult at best and theirs extend to the
or decrease as water expands or contracts. In end of the twenty‐first century. The recent
either case, when the volume of water changes version of their predictions on sea level
it causes an absolute, or eustatic, change in ranges from a 27 cm increase to more than
sea level. A worldwide and long‐term change 90 cm over this period (Figure 4.9).
in climate can bring about both of these con- The great sea‐level changes of the past, as
ditions simultaneously. A cold climate results recorded in the layers of sediment and ice
100
96
High
90
Constant 1990 Aerosols 86
80 Decrease from 1990 Aerosols
70
Sea-level Rise (cm)
60
55
Middle
50 49
40
30
23
Low
20 20
10
0
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
Year
Figure 4.9 Plot of predicted sea‐level rise during the twenty‐first century according to the report of IPCC 2007.
accumulation, occurred in cycles of 10–30 short‐term data base on very long periods
thousand years or so. During the 2.6 million of cyclicity. The current increase in carbon
years of the Quaternary Period there have dioxide might only be part of a longer cycle
been 100 cycles (Figure 4.10). The most that pre‐dates civilization and will decline
recent period of higher sea level than the pre- by itself as the cycle proceeds. It is difficult,
sent condition took place about 120,000 years however, to discount the obvious contribu-
before present – (BP) during oxygen isotope tion to global warming being made by our
Stage 5e (Figure 4.11). Our hundred‐year‐old current high levels of combustion and our
records, therefore, cannot be superimposed destruction of photosynthesizing plants
on past changes to make any sort of valid that take up huge amounts of carbon diox-
prediction. Nevertheless, the recent rise in ide and release large quantities of oxygen. It
global temperature has forced us to take note is important for us to examine the details of
of a possible human‐generated cause for the the warming and cooling patterns of the
worldwide increase in the rate of sea‐level past and their effects on global sea level to
rise taking place today. The still‐accelerating help understand the global warming pattern
release into the atmosphere of carbon diox- and sea‐level changes that we are presently
ide and other greenhouse gasses has some experiencing.
climatologists projecting a global warming
of 3 °C by the year 2030. This increase in
mean annual temperature could melt a large
portion of the ice cover in Greenland and 4.3 Sea‐level Rise due to
Antarctica; enough to raise global sea level Sediment Compaction
by as much as 5 m in only a few centuries. and Fluid Withdrawal
Too long for a person to worry about but
still a short time in terms of human occupa- In some of the coastal areas associated with
tion of the coast as we know it. Even here, river deltas sea level is rising locally because
however, we may be trying to superimpose a the land itself is sinking, or subsiding. This is
78 Chapter 4
3
9
δ18O (‰)
5 63
21 35
78 82 96 100
5 12
6 16
6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
Age (Ma)
Figure 4.10 Graph showing the changes in sea level over the 2.6 million years of the Quaternary Period.
(Source: Shackleton et al. (1990); reproduced courtesy of The Royal Society of Edinburgh and W. R. Peltier).
5e 0
–2.0 9 11
7
5a 5c
–1.0
Glacioeustasy (m)
5b 5d
∂18O
0
3
1.0 8
4 10
12
6 –120
2.0 2
0 100 200 300 400

Years BP (×1000)
Figure 4.11 Graph of the past few hundred thousand years showing the position of the most recent sea‐level
high stand during Stage 5e, 120,000 years before present. (Source: Shackleton et al. (1990); reproduced
courtesy of The Royal Society of Edinburgh and W. R. Peltier).
particularly apparent along east Texas and the Mississippi River Delta area where it is
in the Mississippi Delta in Louisiana. Here, rising by 9–10 mm year−1, about four times
local sea level is rising much faster than the the global average (Figure 4.12). As much as
average global rate. The highest rates of local 6–7 mm of that rise is due to land subsidence
sea level change in the United States are in caused by a combination of compaction of
Seattle 2.1
Astoria –1.3 Eastport 3.2
2.3 Portland
0.9 Boston
Crescent 2.3 Woods Hole
City –1.6 2.0 Newport
2.5 New York City
San New London 2.2 4.0 Sandy Hook
Francisco 1.5 Baltimore 2.5 3.9 Atlantic City
Annapolis 3.0 2.0 Lewes
1.9 Wilmington
Alameda –0.1 Hampton Roads 3.6
2.4 Charleston
San Diego 1.6
2.5 Savannah
1.6 Fernandina Beach
9.5 1.2 1.9 Miami

3.6 Grand Cedar 1.6 Key West
Port Isle 1.6 Key
Isabel Pensacola
6.2
Galveston
Figure 4.12 Map of the United States showing the annual rates of sea level rise at many locations.
(Source: Adapted from National Academy of Sciences, 1987).
muddy delta sediments and the withdrawal large quantities of oil and natural gas from the
of fluids from the coastal zone, primarily by Mississippi Delta and also from the nearby
the petroleum industry. coast and shelf of the Gulf of Mexico. Large
Huge quantities of fine sediment are trans- volumes of ground water have also been taken
ported by the river and deposited at its for domestic and industrial use. This results
mouth, an average of up to 1.6 metric tons in a dewatering effect similar to that of
per day at the active lobe. This sediment is squeezing of the water from the delta muds,
deposited so rapidly that it traps much water resulting in land subsiding and sea level ris-
as it settles. The resulting mud, at places up ing. An example of this phenomenon is near
to 90 % water by volume, accumulates as Galveston, Texas where land has sunk nearly
thick sequences through the active delta 2 m in this century (Figure 4.13). To reduce, or
region. As the weight of the new mud layers possibly eliminate, further subsidence, the
compresses the underlying ones, the water is major domestic and industrial uses are being
squeezed out thereby compacting the sedi- shifted to surface water, and water is now
ment to a lesser volume, which causes the being pumped back into the ground to replace
land surface to subside resulting in a relative that which had previously been withdrawn.
rise in sea level. An example of the effects of the petroleum
While compaction of sediments has industry is in southeast Texas near the
occurred for several thousand years, subsid- Neches River where an extensive wetland
ence along a significant part of the northern was present in 1956. After the development
coast of the Gulf of Mexico caused by the of an oil field and the drilling of several wells
withdrawal of large volumes of fluid is a this wetland experienced significant subsid-
recent phenomenon caused by recent human ence and it became a lake, as shown in 1978
activities. Nearly 100,000 wells have produced (Figure 4.14).
80 Chapter 4
Figure 4.13 Photo of paved road that now descends into the sea that has risen near Houston, Texas.
(Source: Courtesy of John Anderson).
1956
Marsh TX LA MS
Lower
Neches
River
o f M ex i c o
Gulf
Neches River
N 1978
0 3 km
1978
Water
D U
D
U
Neches River
Figure 4.14 Maps of an area in southeast Texas based on data from 1956 and 1978 showing how an oil field
changed a wetland into a lake. (Source: Adapted from White and Morton (1997). Reproduced with permission
from the Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc.).
Another human impact on the coastal zone by flooding parts of the inland port cities of
is not as easily remedied. Building large cities Houston and New Orleans. In fact, the city of
on thick accumulations of unstable sedi- New Orleans is a few meters below sea level
ments has been an environmental disaster. and even more than that below the level of
The water of the nearby Gulf has responded the Mississippi River.
If sea level in the lower Mississippi Delta low in density. As it cools over several mil-
continues to rise at a rate of 9–10 mm year−1, lions of years, it reduces in volume, becom-
and if this rate is sustained for 50 years, it ing denser. This causes subsidence over the
would amount to 0.5 m of sea‐level rise; asthenosphere. Because most of this activity
enough to submerge large areas of coastal takes place in the ocean basin, the resulting
wetlands; destroying the ecosystem that is so rise in sea level over the subsiding sea floor is
important to the area. so small as to be imperceptible. However,
Compaction is not only an important con- there are a few places on the globe where
tributor to land subsidence in delta regions coastlines are close to sites of plate divergence.
throughout the world, it also affects peat At these places the local rise of the young
bogs, marshes, and other organic‐rich sedi- lithosphere can produce an increase in sea
ment accumulations that hold large volumes level and slow inundation of land. The coasts
of water. The influence of compaction on of both the Red Sea and the narrow Gulf of
these environments is quite small, however, California are on such diverging oceanic
because the overall thickness of sediments in plates and are places where this type of local
them is usually less than a few meters. sea‐level rise can be expected.
Another reason for isostatic adjustment of
the earth’s crust is related to the thick accu-
4.4 Isostasy mulation of sediments and volcanic material
in the lithosphere. This currently takes place
The Mississippi River delta is one example of along thick, prograding coastal plains such as
regional subsidence, but broad regions of the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of the United
continental plates can also sink under a heavy States (“prograding” means building in a sea-
load. Over a period of thousands of years, the ward direction). In both cases, thousands of
mass of a huge ice sheet can cause the conti- meters of sediment accumulates over tens of
nental lithosphere to become depressed by millions of years causing crustal subsidence
about 100 m, the amount dependent on the that produces a relative rise in sea level. The
thickness and density of both the ice mass same phenomenon, but in a more rapid sce-
and the underlying lithosphere. The vertical nario, is associated with the thick accumula-
movements of the lithosphere are accom- tions of volcanic crust such as the islands in
modated by the semi‐plastic portion of the Pacific Ocean. One of the best examples
the upper asthenosphere. As the ice melts, of this phenomenon is the Hawaiian Islands
removing the overlying pressure of the ice where about 5000 m of volcanic material is
from the land mass, the lithosphere rises, or piled up on the thin oceanic crust. This enor-
rebounds. Such vertical adjustments of the mous mass causes subsidence and a relative
lithospheric crust are called isostatic adjust- rise in sea level.
ments; isostasy is the condition of equilib-
rium of the earth’s crust that takes place as
the forces that tend to elevate the lithosphere 4.5 Changes in the Volume
are balanced by those that tend to depress it.
The depression and subsequent rebound-
of the World Ocean
ing of the lithosphere as mass is added and
4.5.1 Advance and Retreat
removed is only one kind of isostasy. A
of Ice Sheets
change in density of the lithosphere will
cause a similar isostatic crustal response and During the Quaternary Period, the most
produce changes in sea level as a conse- recent period in the geologic timescale,
quence. When the lithosphere is young and from 2.6 million years ago to the present,
still hot, as it is when produced at a rift zone eustatic sea level has changed very rapidly
of the oceanic ridge system, it is relatively as compared to most times in the earth’s
82 Chapter 4
istory. It is likely that we have this opinion

h Quaternary Period, also called the “Ice Age,”
about rates of sea‐level change simply came to a close 18,000 years ago. At this time
because we do not have the detailed informa- the last of the major ice sheets had begun
tion about sea‐level change throughout geo- to melt rapidly, except for Greenland and
logic time that we do about the last couple of Antarctica. For the previous million or two
million years. These geologically recent and years, there had been thick ice sheets in the
rapid changes have been due to the advance northern hemisphere that repeatedly cov-
and retreat of continental ice sheets and ered and withdrew from most of Europe,
the polar ice caps that formed the extensive northern Asia and North America down
glaciers of the northern hemisphere and to the Missouri and Ohio River valleys
the Antarctic. The Pleistocene Epoch of the (Figure 4.15). Development of similar ice
ts.
la ya M
Hima
INDIA
A
N
I
U. S. S. R.
H
A
C
F
R
J
I
A
C
A
N
A
c
i
t
c North Pole The Alps
r n
A a
e
P
c
a n
O GR
EE
a
NL
A
c
c e
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D
i
AL
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U N I T E D S TAT E S
Figure 4.15 Map of the northern hemisphere showing the distribution of glacial ice sheets during the peak
condition of the Pleistocene. (Source: Flint and Skinner (1974)).
sheets in the Southern Hemisphere was typically has an atomic number of 16, but
limited because of the general absence of
there is also a heavier isotope, oxygen‐18,
land in the high southern latitudes, except which has two extra neutrons. Both isotopes
for Antarctica and the southern tip of South have very similar chemical properties and
America. both are incorporated in the skeletons of
The record of the Pleistocene Epoch that is organisms like corals and mollusks as part of
preserved on the continents is generally con- the compound, calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
sidered to display four cycles, in each of It was discovered at the University of Chicago
which there was glaciation alternating with in 1947 that the relative concentration of the
interglacial melting. Each of these four cycles two oxygen isotopes in the skeletons of ani-
has a name for both the glacial advance and mals was a function of the temperature of the
the following melting portion of the cycle. ocean water in which they were living. This
For example the last portion of the cycle led researchers to realize that the tempera-
characterized by glacial advance is called the ture of the water at the time when an organ-
Wisconsinan in North America. It was pre- ism was living in it could be determined by
ceded by the Sangamonian interglacial analyzing the 16O/18O ratio of the calcium
period when sea level was high and glaciers carbonate in the skeleton. This relationship
were smaller and covered a smaller area than was not applied to global climate interpreta-
they do at the present time. In Europe and tions in any significant fashion until 1955
other areas where similar glacial cycles took when the skeletons of floating single‐celled
place there is a different terminology for each animals (foraminifers) from several deep‐sea
of the cycles. cores were analyzed using these techniques.
For the first half of the twentieth century These floating, single‐celled animals are very
this interpretation of four glacial cycles was common in the upper few hundred meters of
accepted and taught throughout not only the water column throughout the ocean.
North America, but the rest of the world. As Their calcium carbonate skeletons settle to
we developed more capability for studying the bottom when the individuals expire,
the ocean basins through sediment cores, and the sediments in cores taken from the
the climatic history depicted showed that ocean floor contain many of these skeletons.
there were many more Pleistocene glacial Oxygen isotope ratios of samples taken
cycles than the four shown in the land‐based from these cores demonstrated that there
stratigraphic records (see Figure 4.10). The were numerous periods of significant tem-
evidence for these numerous glacial cycles perature fluctuation in ocean waters in only
has been masked on land by deposits of the 400,000 years (see Figure 4.11). These changes
four larger and longer‐lasting glacial cycles. in ocean temperature were interpreted as
The discovery from the oceanic record of being a consequence of climatic changes
these numerous glacial cycles is primarily associated with glacial activity. These data
due to techniques for investigating ancient demonstrated that the record preserved in
climatic conditions on the earth that did not the sediment of the ocean floor was much
become available until the late 1940s, just more complete and complex than that pre-
after World War II. Probably the most impor- served on land.
tant of these is the use of oxygen isotopes to Perhaps more importantly, the tempera-
help interpret past climatic conditions. ture cycles shown by the oxygen isotopic
Isotopes are atoms of a given element with data in these sediment cores turned out to
the same number of protons but different be in agreement with cycles that had been
numbers of neutrons. The number of pro- predicted many years earlier by Milutin
tons in an atomic nucleus determines the Milankovitch, a Serbian astronomer. He
number of electrons, which determines an developed a theory of climatic changes that
element’s chemistry. Oxygen, for example, was based on cycles of radiation received by
84 Chapter 4
the earth as it tilts relative to the sun. Three during the Wisconsinan advance was almost
different astronomical conditions produced 14 million square kilometers; today it is
cycles (Milankovitch cycles) associated with about 12.5 million square kilometers, which
variation in tilting and its effect on climate: is not a big difference. By way of contrast,
variation in eccentricity of the earth’s orbit the North American ice sheet once extended
around the sun, with a periodicity of 90,000 over more than 13 million square kilometers
to 100,000 years; changes in the obliquity of of land and now covers only 147,000 km2, a
the earth’s plane of orbit and the angle it loss of about 99 %. There were also ice sheets
makes with the plane of the ecliptic, having covering Greenland, much of Europe and the
a period of 41,000 years; and the precession, northern part of Asia. about 12–15,000 years
or wobbling, of the earth’s axis, with a period ago, these and other, smaller, ice sheets cov-
of 21,000 years. ered in total more than 44 million square
The coast as we see it now is the product kilometers, of which just under 15 million
of the most recent temperature cycle. now remain, one‐third of the former extent.
The last of the great advances of glaciers, Whereas we have geologic and geographic
the Wisconsinan Ice Age, began about information that enables us to determine the
120,000 years ago and lasted for more than areal extent of these enormous ice sheets, it is
100,000 years. The formation of these gla- much more difficult to determine the volume
ciers took most of this time; they melted of the Wisconsinan ice sheets. A reasonable
to their present size in only 18,000 years. approach is to use the Greenland ice sheet
Since the end of the Wisconsinan period we as a model. This ice sheet is well known
have been in what is called an interglacial because of extensive petroleum exploration
period, characterized by global warming, surveys as well as scientific and military
glacial melting, and rapid rise in sea level. studies. Glaciologists have estimated that the
The Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets of Greenland ice sheet holds about 2.5 million
today are remnants of the last Wisconsinan cubic kilometers of ice. By extrapolation of
advance. The period of overall melting and surface areas and by estimating average thick-
related warming has been interrupted by a nesses, we interpret that 75 million cubic kil-
few “little ice ages,” which are extended peri- ometers of ice were contained in the vast
ods of abnormally cold weather, some of glaciers of the Wisconsinan ice age. Given the
which have occurred during recorded his- ratios mentioned above, then about 50 million
tory. The most prominent was chronicled in cubic kilometers of ice have melted since the
Europe between about 1450 and 1850. Sea Wisconsinan Ice Age – roughly equivalent to
level actually dropped during these short 20 times the volume of the present Greenland
cold periods that occurred during the overall ice cap. Bearing in mind that that there is a
warming trend. 10 % decrease in volume when ice turns to
By calculating the difference in volume water, then 45 million cubic kilometers of
between the Wisconsinan ice sheets and water were returned to the ocean. This obvi-
the ones that remain today, it is possible to ously caused a major change in volume and
determine the volume of ice that has melted therefore a dramatic rise in sea level. The mass
and the ways that this volume has changed of this volume of water was enormous and
global sea level. The next step is to extrapo- caused isostatic adjustment of the crust, both
late what would happen to sea level if the on the continents where mass was removed
present rate of global warming continued and on the oceanic areas where mass was
until the remaining ice sheets melted. In added. This tremendous shift of mass from
order to make these determinations, it is the continent to the ocean had, and is still
necessary to estimate the area and thickness having, a pronounced influence on sea level.
of the previously existing ice sheets. The sur- As the ice sheets were removed from the
face area covered by the Antarctic ice sheet continents, the continental lithosphere began
to rebound in an isostatic adjustment. If we rate of uplift is up to 9 mm a year. If we

assume that some areas were covered with assume that this has been going on for about
3000 m of ice at peak glacial conditions, the 5000 years, the rebound has been a net uplift
isostatic rebound after melting would have of about 30–35 m. It is even more pro-
reached about 1000 m. This is determined by nounced in the Hudson Bay area of north‐
assuming that the 3000 m of ice had a density central Canada. Aerial photographs of these
of 0.9 g cm−3 which is close to one‐third of areas show parallel ridges marking the old
the density of the continental lithosphere. shorelines and abandoned beaches as the
This would be equivalent to about 1000 m of land has risen, causing the ocean to recede
lithospheric crust. The rate of the rebound from the land (see Figure 4.3).
has been slow, and in some places, such as The amount of isostatic adjustment dimin-
Norway and Sweden, it is still ongoing ishes toward the low latitudes because the ice
(Figure 4.8); at the present time this area is formed later, it was thinner, and it melted
rising a few millimeters each year. more rapidly toward the warmer climate. This
While this was taking place on the conti- can be shown along the New England coast
nents, the ocean was experiencing the oppo- where the old shorelines slope downward
site condition. The added mass coming from from Maine to New York. Sea‐level change
the continents in the form of glacial meltwa- over recorded history shows that there has
ter caused a sinking of the ocean floor, which been a drop of several millimeters a year in
has a much younger and thinner crust than Maine and essentially no change in New York.
the continents. This combination of conti- The Great Lakes originated from glacial
nental rebound and oceanic crustal depres- activity, and display clear signs of a north‐to‐
sion with added volume of the ocean still south tilt, as shown by the ancient shorelines.
produced an increase in sea level in most These shorelines are several meters higher
places despite the sinking floor of the ocean. on the northern part of the lakes as com-
There were, however, regional decreases in pared to the south sides. Lake Michigan is
sea level due to rapid rates of continental gradually getting shallower at the north end
rebound. Considering the combination of all and deeper in the south. If the present rate of
of these phenomena, the overall eustatic rebound continues, after about 3000 years
increase in sea level over the past 18,000 years the lake will drain into the Mississippi River
has been about 100 m, with local variations system rather than through the other lakes
due to differences in continental rebound. into the St. Lawrence Seaway as it does now.
Wherever the high‐latitude land mass is
4.5.1.1 Continental Rebound still responding to the melting of an ice sheet,
Because the Wisconsinan glacial ice melted coastal uplift leaves the shorelines well above
slowly, the isostatic adjustment in the form of present sea level (see Figure 4.4), abandoned
continental rebound was also slow. Most of by the receding water level. Eventually the
the crustal rebound took place before the rebound will slow and water level will rise
melting ice sheets shrank to near their pre- again relative to the land mass.
sent size—the mass of the remaining ice was Glaciation is discussed further in Chapter 17.
no longer sufficient to cause significant sub-
sidence. The rebound is still ongoing in the
Hudson Bay area of Canada, and in Argentina 4.6 Post‐Glacial Rise
and lower Chile as well as Scandinavia. in Sea Level
Along the coast of Sweden and Norway,
the mean annual sea level is still dropping a The post‐glacial rise in sea level began
few millimeters a year as a result of the 18,000 years ago. It is characterized by a rapid
rebound of continental crust. If the annual and large rise in global sea level as a response
global sea level rise of 2–3 mm is added, the to the melting of the Wisconsinan glaciers.
86 Chapter 4
Geologists, oceanographers and climatolo- when all of our coasts began to form barriers.
gists who study sea‐level fluctuations cannot There are three scenarios that have been pro-
agree among themselves on the details of the posed during this period: it has been stable at
rise in sea level over this period, especially the present position; it has changed about a
during the last few thousand years. meter or so above and below its present posi-
It is generally agreed that sea level was at tion; or it has been gradually rising during
its lowest position about 18,000 years ago, the period—over only about 2–3 m. It is pos-
when the ice sheets of the Wisconsinan had sible that each of these situations has pre-
reached their maximum extent. The lowest vailed at various places. Because of the
position of sea level, called the lowstand, is resolution necessary to determine which of
deduced by uncovering evidence of the old- these three scenarios might apply at any
est drowned shoreline now located beneath given coastal location, we are still working on
the waters of the continental shelf. This evi- this question.
dence might take the form of beach sand,
marsh deposits, drowned wave‐cut plat-
forms, drowned river deltas or almost any 4.7 Current and Future
sort of indication of an old shoreline. Other Sea‐Level Changes
factors such as tectonic uplift and subsidence
must also be taken into account before decid- The impact of the rapid increase in the popu-
ing the vertical position of the lowstand. lation of the Earth has produced elevated
Scientists know that sea level was more than levels of carbon dioxide. According to many
100 m below its present position; perhaps as authorities, this has led to global warming
much as 130 m. There is general agreement (see Box 4.1). The warming of the atmos-
that sea level rose very rapidly for the first phere over a long period of time causes an
several thousand years and that it slowed increase in the rate of melting of the ice
about 6000–7000 years before present (BP) sheets and also causes the ocean to warm up.
(see Figure 4.4). The annual rise during this Both of these phenomena result in an
period was near 10 mm year−1, a rate fast increase in the volume of water in the world
enough for the sea to cover parts of many of ocean, thus an increase in sea level. Recent
the present coastal cities in a century. data from tide gauges around the world show
During this period of rapid rise in sea level that the rate of rise in eustatic sea level is
the shoreline moved so fast that the sand bars increasing (Figure 4.16). Because tide gauges
and barrier islands that protect so many of are available from all over the world this is
our coasts today had no time to build verti- one of the most prevalent types of sea‐level
cally. For these barriers to develop, the shore- data and must be studied very closely. The
line has to be either stable or very slowly records from many of these stations have to
moving to give waves and currents enough be discarded because of instability of the
time to construct these long sand bodies. location due to subsidence or compaction,
The lack of a stable shoreline for any length or because of tectonic activity. For most
of time, coupled with moderate to high tidal locations, we have an average of about one
ranges along the irregular coasts, produced hundred years of reliable data for the posi-
tide‐dominated coasts with widespread estu- tion of sea level.
aries and tidal flats. Only when the rate of Most of the data for the United States are
sea‐level rise slowed did waves begin to mold collected through the efforts of the National
the coast into a linear shape and barrier Ocean Survey (NOS) which is part of the
islands begin to form. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
There is no general agreement about the Administration (NOAA). Their personnel
position of sea level along the coast of North have studied and analyzed data from hun-
America during the past 3000 years or so, dreds of tide stations. Similar efforts are
Box 4.1 Global Warming and the Future of Sea Level Rise

During the past decade or so, there has been The addition of sediment to compensate for
much speculation about the future trends in these processes is generally insufficient to pre-
sea level rise. Conservative estimates have a vent the sea from encroaching on the land. In a
rise of about 50 cm over the twenty‐first cen- lifetime of this rate of rise, sea level will rise
tury whereas the most liberal predictions are more than 2 ft (60 cm), enough to cause prob-
in excess of a meter for that time period. Let us lems for many low‐lying coastal communities.
take a close look at the situation then make Recall that this rate of change occurred for
your own decision about “global warming.” thousands of years.
It is well known that sea level rose tremen- We can observe climate changes that have
dously at various rates during the past 18 000 years taken place over the past few decades. This
as extensive glaciers melted throughout many comes from temperature records at various
parts of the earth. This melting took place because places around the world. The U.S. Geological
of an increase in global temperatures: about Survey has been making observations on the
2–3 °C per year. That does not seem like much ice cover in the Arctic where barrier islands are
but it is enough to cause melting of snow and present on the north coast of Alaska. In 1980
ice that had accumulated over many thou- the beaches on these islands were free of ice
sands of years. Obviously this melting added for only 80 days year−1. At the present time
huge amounts to the volume of the oceans there are 140 days in a year where there is no
and sea level rose greatly; nearly 130 m in all. ice at the shore. These conditions scream
The important aspect of this sea level rise is “global warming.” In addition, the adjacent
the rate at which it occurred. During the early Canadian Arctic is experiencing extensive
part of the melting, sea level rose about a cen- melting of permafrost, another indication of
timeter per year which is a catastrophic rate. climate change.
Such a rate lasted for several thousand years During most of the time that significant
and accounted for the vast majority of the rise. numbers of people have inhabited the coast,
Although a centimeter a year (an inch each sea level has been rising very slowly; only a
2.5 years) seems like a pretty slow change, couple of millimeters or so per year. This goes
it causes great erosion of the coast and unnoticed by almost everyone except those
drowning of the wetlands (see Box Figure 4.1.1). studying the position of sea level. Why did sea
Box Figure 4.1.1 Drowned wetlands.

88 Chapter 4
level increase rapidly for an extended period atmosphere. This carbon dioxide absorbs
and then slow down greatly for another heat radiated from the Earth (long‐wavelength
extended period? The simple answer is that infra‐red light) that would otherwise harm-
melting of the ice caps throughout the world lessly radiate away into space; this absorption
slowed as a response to global temperature; it causes the temperature of the CO2 to rise, thus
stopped warming up so fast. atmospheric CO2 is warming the atmosphere,
Why this happened provides the more com- and thus the term “greenhouse effect.” Since
plicated and complete answer to the question. the advent of the automobile this effect
Part of it can be found in the various perturba- has been exacerbated. Much of the problem
tions of the earth–sun system as recognized by originates in North America and Europe, the
Milankovich in the early twentieth century. He so‐called developed countries, but in recent
showed that there are various cycles to the years the industrializing countries of Asia have
way the earth moves in its orbit; the shape of become major contributors.
the orbit, and the wobble and tilt of the earth During the past 100 years, about as long as
on its axis. These cycles range from about we have had good records, it is evident that
28,000 years to nearly 100,000 years. As a con- the rate of sea‐level rise has increased. It is now
sequence of these fairly long cycles and their about 3.0 mm year−1. Is it coincidence that
shorter‐term variations the amount of insola- this increase in sea level parallels the great
tion that is received on the earth as a whole, increase in CO2 production, or is human activ-
and in various parts of the earth, changes with ity (“anthropogenic”) the cause of increased
time, resulting in fluctuations in the mean global temperatures and therefore the rise in
annual temperature (see Box Figure 4.1.2). sea level? Actually there is still some disagree-
These are the well‐documented natural ment among scientists as to the answer. Most
changes in the earth’s climate. What about the scientists favor anthropogenic factors as being
possible influence of humans on the global cli- very important, but many believe that the
mate? Since the industrial revolution in the changes in sea level are a result of natural
nineteenth century, we have been emitting changes in the earth’s climate. The case is not
large amounts of carbon dioxide into the yet closed on global warming.
Interglacial Interglacial
Warmer
A
Colder
B
C
Inter
Stadial Stadial
stadial
Glacial Glacial
Time interval 200,000 years
Box Figure 4.1.2 Diagram showing the Milankovich Cycles. Stadial stages are cold and interstadial are warm.
Global sea level trend

4
3.5
2.5
mm yr–1
1.5
0.5
0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
Figure 4.16 Plot of sea level rise over the past several decades showing the increase in the rate over the past
several years. (Source: Merrifield et al., 2009. © American Meteorological Society. Used with permission).
being extended throughout many other Figure 4.17). The Gulf Coast of the U.S.
countries to provide a decent global coverage shows great range in sea‐level rise due
of these data. Examples from studies of vari- to differences in the geologic setting. The
ous parts of North America serve to illustrate Florida peninsula is a carbonate platform,
the nature of these data and the trends that one of the most stable and least compacting
are present (Figure 4.17). The east coast of geologic provinces. Its rate of rise is only
the United States shows a general increase in about 1.5 mm year−1 which is probably a
sea level with considerable short‐term varia- good reflection of the actual sea‐level rise
tion. In New England the same pattern is pre- due to the increase in the volume of the
sent but with a bit higher general rate of rise. ocean. By contrast, the Mississippi Delta
The west coast of the United States shows region is experiencing an annual sea‐level
more variation from one location to another rise of 10 mm (see Figure 4.12). This is due
but there is little overall increase in sea level mostly to compaction of the thick sequences
for the period of record. This is due to the of mud there, and to the withdrawal of huge
tectonic activity on this leading edge coast. volumes of fluids by the petroleum industry.
The more stable east coast shows a rise that On a global scale, the tide gauge records
ranges from relatively slow in the north show a distinct but variable increase in sea
where isostatic rebound is still going on to level everywhere except for the Pacific Ocean
more rapid rates of rise to the south where (Figure 4.17). The coasts of the Pacific Ocean
rebound is absent and some compaction is are mostly collision coasts where tectonic
taking place. conditions override eustatic changes in sea
The west coast, a crustal plate collision level. We must remember that 100 years
area, experiences great variety in sea‐level of data for sea‐level changes represents an
conditions. In Alaska many locations show insignificant period of time in the cyclic
a decrease in sea level due to tectonic con- systems of the Earth. It is inadequate to

ditions of uplift; up to 14 mm year−1 (see accurately predict long‐term sea‐level trends.
90 Chapter 4
these climatic changes include variations in

sun spots, shifting of oceanic currents and
New York, NY slight changes in earth–sun positions.
4.7.1 Impact of Increasing Rise

in Sea Level on Modern Coastal
Galveston, Texas Environments
The present coastal morphology is very young,
even in the context of the Holocene sea‐level
rise. Virtually all of the coastal features we see
have developed in less than 6500–7000 years.
The interactions of coastal processes with
Astoria, Oregon sediments and rock cause rapid changes in
erosion and deposition. When these condi-
tions, including sea level, remain constant for
a period of time an equilibrium situation
develops. Changes in sea level can upset this
20 equilibrium and affect virtually all of the
environments in the coastal zone. A rising
Scale (cm)
15
10 Juneau, Alaska
sea level causes the shoreline to move, which
5
brings about changes in the coast.
Since the time of widespread human occu-
0
pation of Earth, eustatic sea level has risen
by only about a meter. Nevertheless, there
1900 1930 1970 have been important changes to various
Figure 4.17 Sea level data from tide gauges over
coastal environments over this period. Some
the past century for each of the coasts of the United examples include the development of the
States. (Source: Hicks, 1972. Reproduced with present lobe of the Mississippi Delta, forma-
permission of ASBPA). tion of most of the barrier islands on the
Florida Gulf Coast, and considerable erosion
of bluffs on the west coast of the United
During the past several thousand years, large States. The possibility of nearly doubling the
changes in sea level have occurred as cli- eustatic rate of sea‐level rise from about 1.5
mates displayed smaller cycles within the to 3 mm year−1 means that there will be
long‐term warming and melting trends of about 30 cm of increase in a century. Such a
several millenia. These short reversals on the rate over only a thousand years would pro-
long‐term trend were sometimes a century duce an increase in sea level of about 3 m,
or more long. One of the best examples of enough to cause major changes in the nature
this took place a few hundred years ago in the of the shoreline and flood portions of many
aforementioned “Little Ice Age.” During that of the world’s foremost cities like New York,
time the existing ice sheets increased in size, London, Amsterdam and Los Angeles. This
and there was a slight reversal of the rise in is a reasonable forecast. See Box 4.2.
sea level. This reversal of a long‐term trend Coastal management must be more closely
was best recorded in Europe and in China, regulated. Anthropogenic activity in some of
and was documented in various historical the most fragile areas for sea‐level rise has
records. We expect that similar short‐term taken place. For example, there has been
reversals are typical of most long‐term trends major industrial construction on the wet-
in climate. Factors that can contribute to lands of the Mississippi Delta (Figure 4.18).
Box 4.2 Venice, Italy; A City that Is Drowning

A city located on the Adriatic Sea coast of but with the protection of the barrier islands a
northern Italy, Venice is a major historic treas- few kilometers seaward of them.
ure, and a very popular tourist stop for people As time passed, several things occurred to
from throughout the world. The city is com- jeopardize the future of the city: the underly-
monly known for its canals, gondolas, and the ing mud began to compact, and the rate of
absence of automobiles as well as for its excel- global sea level rise increased. The combina-
lent cuisine and music. It is located on a combi- tion of these phenomena resulted in a sig-
nation of more than 100 small islands within a nificant relative rise in sea level, essentially
large, shallow, backbarrier lagoon, and is off- flooding the city (Box Figures 4.2.2 and 4.2.3).
shore from the mainland. Venice began in the This has been exacerbated by the unfortunate
tenth century as a city‐state with trading and decision to relocate the mouths of two rivers,
fishing as its major industries. It became very the Sile River and the Brenta River, that natu-
famous and its merchants became very wealthy rally emptied into the Venice lagoon. It was
as the city developed into a major economic feared that the discharge of sediment would
center of the eastern Mediterranean area. fill up the lagoon. In order to prevent this
The general setting is a few kilometers off- from happening, the rivers’ lower courses
shore where there are several low islands that were changed so that both rivers now empty
have become developed as residential and directly into the Adriatic Sea; one north of the
commercial centers. These islands have essen- Venice lagoon and one to the south. This has
tially no natural relief and they rest on thick resulted in a lack of sediment to nourish the
muddy sediments deposited by rivers that marshes which are vital to both the ecology of
used to flow into the lagoon. The city is cov- the lagoon and the protection of the devel-
ered with buildings (Box Figure 4.2.1), most of oped islands from wave attack and erosion.
which are several hundred years old and have At the present time the city remains vital but
great historic significance to Italy. Included are the population, which peaked at more than
numerous churches, governmental buildings, 250,000 a couple of centuries ago, is now down
plazas, old military installations, etc. The entire to about 50,000. Much of this decrease is the
city was built within a meter or two of sea level result of the tremendous cost of renovating
Box Figure 4.2.1 Venice.

92 Chapter 4
Box Figure 4.2.2 Common situation in the city of Venice, when high spring tide floods much of the city.
Box Figure 4.2.3 View of structure on the shoreline of the Venice Lagoon that is now uninhabitable due
to sea level rise.
properties for residential or commercial use. most popular location in Venice is San Marco
Virtually all buildings fall within the historic Plaza, which is also one of the lowest parts in
preservation regulations and therefore must the city. A hundred years ago this area was
be restored in order to be occupied. Such flooded only a few times per year but with an
expense is more than most people, or even increase in relative sea level of about 30 cm over
corporations, can bear. Another deterrent to that time, it is now flooded about 50 times each
Venice residence is the lack of jobs. year, a couple of days during each spring tide
The current rate of sea level rise is about plus times when winds blow for a sustained
3 mm year−1. For a city that is nearly at the level period. As sea‐level rise increases and contin-
of spring high tide, the future is limited. The ues, the city will literally drown.
At the present time, construction is underwater is evacuated from them causing one end
way to build large floating gates that will pre- to float up above the surface acting as a dam
vent wind from blowing large amounts of against water being blown into the lagoon.
water into the lagoon and raising its level In the long term, there seems to be little that
beyond that which the city of Venice can with- can be done to save this beautiful and historically
stand. These gates rest on the inlet channel significant city other than encasing it in a large
floor during normal times; when strong winds dike. It would be a very expensive and time‐
begin to raise the water level in the lagoon, consuming project, but it might be the only way.
Figure 4.18 Large industrial installation for the petroleum industry on the Mississippi Delta.
Such construction is destined to be destroyed parts of the world. Rates of rise have increased
by sea‐level rise in the near future, as are the over the past century but the long‐term
native wetlands. future is still a matter of speculation.
Ranging from changes on the order of
meters in less than a day associated with
4.8 Summary earthquakes to only a millimeter or so in
a year, these changes can impact coastal
Maybe more than any other coastal process, management in many ways. Location of
sea‐level change influences the entire world. development, types of construction, den-
Global and slow changes are always taking sity of occupation and other factors
place, and regional or local changes may be must all be done while considering the
rapid and catastrophic. Sea‐level change is, local sea level situation. We are still wres-
in reality, everywhere! The current concern tling with the causes for these increases
about global warming and its influence on in global sea‐level rise; are they natural or
sea‐level change is a front page story in many anthropogenic?
94 Chapter 4
References
Bloom, A. (1978). Geomorphology: Merrifield, M.S., Merrifield, S.T., and
A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic Mitchum, S.T. (2009). An anomalous recent
Landforms. Englewood Cliffs, NY: acceleration of sea‐level rise. J. Clim. 22:
Prentice‐Hall. 5772–2781.
Flint, R.F. and Skinner, B.J. (1974). Physical Shackleton, N.J., Berger, A., and Peltier, W.R.
Geology. New York: Wiley. (1990). An alternative astronomical
Hicks, S.D. (1972). On the classification and calibration of the lower Pleistocene
trends of long term sea‐level series. Shore timescale base on ODP site 677. Trans. R.
Beach 40: 20–23. Soc. Edinburgh Earth Sci. 81: 251–261.
Komar, P.D. and Enfield, D.B. (1987). White, W.A. and Morton, R.A. (1997).
Short‐term sea‐level changes and Wetland losses related to fault movement
shoreline erosion. SEPM Spec. Publ. 43: and hydrocarbon production, southeastern
17–27. Texas. J. Coastal Res. 13: 1305–1320.
Suggested Reading
Carlile, B. (2009). After Ike. College Station, Jamin, H. and Mandia, S.A. (2012). Rising Sea
TX: Texas A & M Press. Level: An Introduction to Cause and Impact.
Church, J.A., Woodworth, P.L., Aarup, T., Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company.
and Wilson, W.S. (2010). Understanding Murray‐Wallace, C. and Woodrofe, C.D.
Sea Level Rise and Variability. New York: (2014). Quaternary Sea Level Change:
John Wiley and Sons. A Global Perspective. Cambridge:
Davis, R.A. (2011). Sea‐level Change in Cambridge University Press.
the Gulf of Mexico. College Station: Titus, J.G. and Narayanan, V.K. (1995). The
TX, A & M Press. Probability of Sea‐level Rise. U. S.
Englander, J. (2012). The Rising Tide on Main Environmental Protection Agency:
Street: Rising Sea Level and the Coming Washington, DC.
Coastal Crisis. Boca Raton, FL: The Science Williams, M., Dunkerley, D., DeDeckker, P. et al.
Bookshelf. (1998). Quaternary Environments (chapters 5
and 6), 2e. London: Arnold Publishers.
95
Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes
5.1 Introduction price tag of damage much higher. Hurricane

Katrina impacting the central Gulf of Mexico
Storms are a frightening but fascinating coast in 2005, and Hurricane Sandy wreaking
manifestation of Earth’s surface energy destruction along New Jersey, New York and
(Figure 5.1). They have a dramatic influence New England in 2012, resulted in $108 bil-
on coastlines, both in terms of sediment lion and $75 billion of damage respectively.
movement along the coast, and damage to As recorded in history and well chronicled
homes and other structures. Storm waves during the last decade, the passage of major
and storm‐induced currents are the primary hurricanes not only results in substantial
agents responsible for removing sand from property loss, they have also proved to be
beaches and causing long‐term shoreline “killers” to the unprepared coastal popula-
recession. In a matter of hours storms can tion. The greatest loss of life in the United
produce dramatic changes in coastal mor- States due to natural causes is attributed to
phology, as evidenced by the breaching of the 1900 Hurricane that killed at least 8000
barriers, relocation of tidal channels, forma- people on Galveston Island along the Texas
tion of dune scarps and the deposition of Coast. Most of these deaths were due to
extensive aprons of sand along the landward drowning resulting from a 6‐m high storm
side of barriers. surge that covered the island, most of which
Property damage resulting from major was less than 2.5 m in height. A storm surge
hurricanes can be enormous. In 1988 is the super‐elevation of the water surface
Hurricane Gilbert cut a wide swath through produced by a hurricane’s strong onshore winds
the Caribbean Islands resulting in 6.5 billion and low atmospheric pressure (Figure 5.2). In
dollars to damage in Jamaica alone. In the response to the Galveston disaster a substan-
wake of Hurricane Hugo that hit Charleston, tial seawall was constructed along the ocean
South Carolina in 1989, 3 billion dollars were shoreline and, at the same time, much of the
spent in reparations just to the city. Three island was raised some 1.5 m using sediment
years later Hurricane Iniki (1992) swept dredged from a nearby site. The storm‐
through the Hawaiian Islands causing a bil- related deaths that occurred in Galveston
lion dollars in damage. During the same year pale in comparison to the loss of life that has
Hurricane Andrew produced a staggering taken place in Bangladesh, located in the
25 billion dollars in property damage as it apex of the Bay of Bengal. Like the State of
crossed over southern Florida into the Gulf Louisiana the southern part this country has
of Mexico. Eventually it made a second land- been built through deltaic sedimentation.
fall in western Louisiana where it wreaked Much of the lower portion of the Ganges–
devastation totaling another 1.6 billion dol- Brahmaputra Delta (Bangladesh) is highly
lars. Two more recent storms have sent the populated. Most of these people live on land
96 Chapter 5
(a) (b)
Figure 5.1 (a) Photograph of Hurricane Elena taken in 1985 from Space Shuttle Discovery. (Source: NASA‐
Johnson Space Center, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Hurricane_Elena.jpg). (b)
Hurricane season begins in late spring and extends through mid fall. In late August of 1995 five major storms
were present simultaneously in the North Atlantic Ocean while another storm, tropical storm Gil, was present
in the northeast Pacific Ocean. Most Atlantic storms are born off the coast of northwest Africa and are steered
westward by the Easterlies or Trade Winds. (Source: NASA, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/3/3b/2010_Hurricane_Season_Composite.jpg).
Ocean water levels on February 7, 1978,

Boston Harbor, Massachusetts
4.62 m storm surge level
3.28 m predicted high tide

Seawall
2.90 m mean high tide
1.45 m mean sea level
Figure 5.2 A storm surge is a super‐elevation of the water surface caused by the combined effects of wind
stresses pushing water onshore and atmospheric low pressure. During the Blizzard of 1978, the storm of record
for much of northern New England, large astronomic tidal conditions combined with record storm surges
caused significant lowland flooding and extensive coastal damage. The high tide levels allowed large storm
waves to break over seawalls, against fore dune ridges, and across barrier systems. The amount of beach
erosion and damage to coastal structures and dwelling is closely related to storm surge levels.
that is less than 4 m above sea level. An subsided, revealed a land almost completely
intense cyclone in 1970 moved through the stripped of human occupation. A second
northern Bay of Bengal and pushed a dome tropical cyclone in 1991 (Cyclone Gorky)
of water onshore that reached 10 m above took another 200,000 lives. What makes
normal water levels. An estimated half‐mil- barriers and other depositional coasts so

lion people lost their lives as a result of this vulnerable to intense storms is the combina-
storm. A view of the area after floodwaters tion of storm‐induced elevated water levels
Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes 97
and the inherent low elevation of many the pressure gradient, the steeper a pres-
coastal regions. sure gradient the more closely spaced are
This chapter describes the fundamentals of the isobars. The pressure gradient can be
atmospheric circulation, because global wind thought of as the slope of a hill; a ball rolling
patterns largely control the pathways of down the hill will go faster the steeper the
storms and major weather fronts. A basic slope. Likewise, the greater the contrast in
discussion of air flow associated with high‐ pressure (pressure gradient) the higher the
and low‐pressure systems provides a founda- wind speed.
tion for understanding the two primary types
of coastal storms; those that form above the
5.2.2 Atmospheric Circulation
tropics, called extra‐tropical cyclones, and
those that are generated in the tropics, called The movement of air masses over the surface
tropical cyclones. Typically, these storms of Earth is one of the processes whereby
have different strengths and modes of forma- temperature differences between the equator
tion. Similar factors such as storm path, and poles are accommodated. The Sun’s
speed and magnitude, as well as the configu- preferential heating of the equatorial region
ration of a coast, govern the extent and type compared to polar areas causes a strong
of damage resulting from these storms; these temperature gradient between the low and
points can be illustrated with case histories high latitudes. A simple heat budget of Earth
of various storms. The chapter presents clas- reveals that between approximately 35°
sifications of hurricanes and extratropical North and 40° South, more energy is absorbed
storms are presented so that the effects of from incoming solar radiation than is radi-
various magnitude storms can be compared. ated back into space (Figure 5.4). Above these
The discussion will emphasize hurricanes latitudes the curvature of Earth produces a
that impact the Gulf of Mexico and eastern deficit of heat caused by a combination of
Atlantic Ocean, although similar storms else- less incoming radiation per unit area and
where in the world will be considered. greater reflectance of solar radiation by the
Likewise, primary attention is given to the ice‐covered poles. While the uneven heating
northeast storms that affect the northeast of Earth has always existed, the equator does
coast of the United States. not grow warmer with time, nor do the poles
grow colder. Offsetting the heat imbalance
are mechanisms of heat transfer involving
5.2 Basic Atmospheric both the atmosphere and oceans which move
Circulation and Weather heat poleward and cold toward the equator.
The California Current, which transports
Patterns cold water southward along the Pacific Coast,
and the Gulf Stream, which moves warm
5.2.1 Wind
water northward along the Atlantic Coast,
Wind is defined as the horizontal movement are examples of this heat transfer. The north–
of air. It is caused by differences in atmos- south movement of air masses accomplishes
pheric pressure, which in turn are pro- the same task of equilibrating energy over
duced by differential heating or cooling of Earth’s surface, as seen when polar air invades
air masses. On weather maps the distribu- southern Canada and the continental United
tion of atmospheric pressure is represented States during winter or when hurricanes
by isobars, lines connecting points of equal move into the north Atlantic during late
pressure (Figure 5.3). As seen on weather summer and early fall.
maps, wind flows at a slight angle to the The global wind patterns are also a product
isobars towards the central low pressure area. of differential heating. The Sun’s concen-
Wind speed increases with the steepness of trated incoming radiation in the equatorial
98 Chapter 5
976
DONNA
980 984
988
992
996
1000
1004
1008
1016
12
10
Figure 5.3 Atmospheric pressure is measured in millibars (1 millibar is equal to 100 N m–2). Standard sea‐level
pressure is 1013.25 millibars. Isobars are lines on a weather map connecting points of equal pressure. Commonly,
weather maps show concentric isobars around low and high‐pressure systems. In the northern hemisphere, wind
flows at a slight angle to the left of isobars, causing a counterclockwise windflow in low‐pressure systems and a
clockwise flow outward from high‐pressure systems. Wind velocity increases as the pressure gradient steepens,
or, as seen in weather maps, as isobars become more closely spaced. (Source: NOAA.)
latitudes heats the surrounding air and evap- ideal model two convection cells would oper-
orates water from the oceans. As this warm ate, one in each hemisphere (Figure 5.5).
moist air rises, it expands and cools, resulting However, due to the Coriolis effect, the
in water condensation and rainfall in equato- actual global air circulation is much more
rial regions. In the highly simplified case of a complex. The Coriolis effect is produced by
non‐rotating Earth one would expect that the the Earth’s rotation and causes all moving
dry air would flow outward from the equator objects to be deflected to the right in the
toward the poles, resulting in further cooling Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
of the air. At the poles the now cold, dry, Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis effect
dense air would sink and then flow back along applies to ocean currents, moving air masses,
the Earth’s surface toward the equator. In this and even jet planes flying across the globe.
360
Absorbed solar
320 radiation Emitted
infrared
280 Surplus radiation
240
200 Deficit
Wm–2
Deficit
160
120
80
40
0
90 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 90
North South
Latitude (degrees)
Figure 5.4 Over the Earth’s surface there is an uneven distribution of incoming solar radiation and outgoing
infrared radiation. As the graph illustrates, this condition leads to a surplus of heat in lower latitudes and a
deficit of heat in higher latitudes. Ocean currents and weather systems are responsible for equalizing the
geographic heat imbalance. The radiation budget of Earth balances because total heat losses equal total
heat gains.
Equator
Figure 5.5 Hypothetical model of air convection due to uneven solar heating on a non‐rotating Earth. Heated
air in equatorial regions rises and moves poleward ultimately being replaced by cooled air descending from
the poles and flowing toward the equator.
100 Chapter 5
Polar cell, atmospheric

Polar easterlies
Polar high pressure is high, climate is dry
Polar front
60° Air rises, atmospheric

pressure is low, climate is wet
Ferrel cell
Westerlies
Horse latitudes 30° Air falls, atmospheric
pressure is high,
climate is dry
Hadley cell NE trade
winds
Doldrums (ITCZ) 0°
Air rises,
atmospheric
pressure is low,
Hadley cell SE trade climate is wet
winds
30° Air falls, atmospheric

Horse latitudes
pressure is high,
Westerlies climate is dry
Ferrel cell
60°
Air rises, atmospheric
pressure is low, climate is wet
Polar cell
Polar easterlies
Figure 5.6 Simplified air circulation model for a rotating Earth containing the Hadley, Ferrel and Polar
convection cells north and south of the equator.
Differential heating of the atmosphere regions around latitude 30° are known as
coupled with the Coriolis effect produces the horse latitudes. Folklore tells us they
a global air circulation model with six con- are so‐named because ships sailing into
vection cells; three each in the Northern these latitudes became becalmed. As the ship
and Southern Hemisphere (Figure 5.6). As expended its animal feed and began running
described in the simplified model, preferen- out of water, the crew was forced to throw
tial heating causes warm moist air to rise horses and other farm stock overboard.
in the equatorial region. The rising air is A second convection cell exists between 30
replaced by surface air flowing toward the and 60° latitude, which is called the Ferrel
equator from the northern and southern Cell. This cell is formed because some of the
latitudes. The rising air expands and cools, air that sinks at 30° latitude flows toward
producing precipitation. Thus, the equato- the pole upon reaching Earth’s surface. At the
rial region is noted for hot temperatures, same time a secondary low pressure system
low pressure, water‐laden clouds, and rain. stationed at about 60° latitude coincides
High above the equator the air mass flows with a rising air mass and precipitation.
towards the pole, all the while continuing to Aloft, this air mass cools and moves toward
cool and lose moisture. At about 30° latitude lower latitudes.
the cooler, dryer, denser air mass descends, The Polar Cell is the third circulation cell
thus completing an atmospheric circulation and occurs between 60 and 90°. It results
cell known as the Hadley Cell. As the air from upper air masses moving toward the
sinks at 30° it compresses, producing high pole and descending at the poles while at
pressure, dry air, and variable winds. The the same time surface air flows south.
5.2.3 Prevailing Winds the East Coast. The westerlies are also
responsible for steering the mid‐latitude
Now that the atmospheric circulation has
weather systems, including hurricanes.
been established, we can use air flow along
In the Northern Hemisphere, air flowing
Earth’s surface to understand the global
southward from the pole forms the Polar
prevailing wind patterns (Figure 5.6). In

Easterlies. At about 50–60° latitude the polar
the Northern Hemisphere circulation in the
easterlies meet the westerlies establishing the
Hadley convection cell would seem to indi-
Polar Front. This convergent zone produces a
cate that air should flow from north to south
near‐permanent boundary separating the
between 30 and 0° latitude. Remembering,
polar cold dense air from the warm tropical
however, that the Coriolis effect causes all
air mass. The variable weather that charac-
moving masses to be deflected to the right
terizes much of the United States reflects a
(in the Northern Hemisphere), the flow of
latitudinal wandering of the Polar Front.
air from high pressure at 30° N to low pres-
sure at the equator is actually from the
5.2.4 Cyclonic and Anticyclonic
northeasterly quadrant toward the south-
Systems
west. These winds are called the Easterlies
because the winds blow from the east. They Although exceptions do exist, low atmos-
are also referred to as the “Trade Winds.” pheric pressure is most often associated
The early merchants who sailed from with rainy or stormy weather whereas high
Europe bound for the New World gave them pressure is a sign of fair weather. A well‐
this name because the word “trade” was developed low pressure system is character-
used by the British of that day to mean con- ized by a gyre of air that rotates in a
stant and steady, and this is how they counterclockwise direction (in the Northern
described the winds that helped them sail Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern
across the Atlantic. In the southern hemi- Hemisphere) around a central low pressure
sphere the pattern is mirrored, the Coriolis cell (Figure 5.7). These are called cyclonic
effect causing moving air masses to be systems and may be hundreds of kilometers
deflected to the left, resulting in the conver- is diameter. The counterclockwise move-
gence of the northeast and southeast Trade ment of air is produced by the convergence
Winds at the equator. This region is called of surface currents. Low pressure systems
the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), contain ascending air masses, which many
and scientists have shown that it profoundly people have observed in film footage of tor-
affects ocean currents and weather patterns nadoes. As air streams in to replace the rising
in the equatorial area. air, the currents are deflected to the right
In the northern mid‐latitudes, surface by the Coriolis effect, producing a counter-
winds associated with the Ferral circulation clockwise circulation. Hurricanes, extrat-
cell are deflected to the east by the Coriolis ropical storms, and tornadoes are all types
effect. These winds are known as the of cyclonic systems, although tornadoes are
Westerlies and affect most of the continental considerably smaller systems.
United States. The West Coast is known as a High‐pressure systems occur where air
windward coast because the westerlies blow masses are sinking. As the air mass descends
onshore, augmenting the wave energy in this toward the ground, it flows outward from a
region. Conversely, the East Coast is a lee- central high pressure cell. In the Northern
ward coast because the westerlies blow off- Hemisphere the outward‐flowing currents
shore. The prevailing winds diminish wave are deflected to the right due to the Coriolis
energy, partially explaining why average shal- effect, resulting in a rotating air mass which
low water wave heights are more than twice circulates in a clockwise direction. These are
as large on the West Coast as they are along called anticyclones. The Bermuda High is an
102 Chapter 5
Falling air Coriolis Rising air

force effect
Northern
hemisphere
Figure 5.7 Gyres of moving air are created around low and high‐pressure systems due to the Coriolis effect.
Air masses flow in a counter‐clockwise direction in low‐pressure systems (cyclonic circulation) and in clockwise
direction in high‐pressure systems (anticyclonic circulation).
example of an anticyclonic system. This high‐ during mid to late afternoon before dimin-
pressure system stabilizes over Bermuda ishing by late evening. During the night, the
during mid‐summer and is responsible for land surface radiates heat back to the atmos-
transporting the uncomfortable hot, hazy, phere at a much higher rate than the ocean.
humid air from the Gulf of Mexico to the This reverses the temperature and pressure
northeastern Atlantic seaboard. gradient along the shore, resulting in a flow
of air from the land toward the ocean, called
a land‐breeze. The extent and magnitude of
5.2.5 Land‐breezes
the land and sea‐breezes are a function of
and Sea‐breezes
ocean and daytime temperatures, coastal
Anyone who has spent the summer along the morphology, vegetation, and other factors.
seashore or has sailed along the coast is
familiar with the systematic breezes that
characterize the coastal zone. Onshore and 5.3 Mid‐latitude Storms
offshore winds are a result of differential
heating of the land surface versus that of the Whereas tropical storms and hurricanes
ocean. Under fair‐weather conditions when dominate coasts of low latitudes, extratropi-
the sun has just risen the air is usually calm cal storms and weather fronts are the major
because the air over the ocean and land have weather systems impacting mid‐latitude
similar temperatures. However, as the sun coasts. A transition zone exists between
ascends in the sky, the land surface preferen- these two regions where both weather sys-
tially warms compared to that of the ocean. tems are common. As the name implies,
In turn, the hot land surface warms the over- extratropical cyclones form north of the
lying air, causing it rise. Over the ocean the Tropic of Cancer or in the case of the
air remains cool and dense. Thus, a pressure Southern Hemisphere, south of the Tropic of
gradient develops between the relatively Capricorn. These storms are associated with
low pressure over the land and the higher low‐pressure systems and affect the Pacific,
pressure over the ocean. This results in an Gulf, and Atlantic Coasts of the United States
onshore flow of air that is referred to as a sea‐ and other mid‐latitude coastlines of the
breeze (Figure 5.8). The sea breeze strength- world. Like all cyclonic weather systems,
ens during mid‐day and reaches a maximum extratropical storms are air masses that
Figure 5.8 Land and sea breezes are a common Day

diurnal pattern of winds along many coasts. They
are formed due to temperature differences Warm air
ascends
between the land and adjacent seawater. During
the day ascending air over the land produces Cool air
onshore sea breezes, whereas at night rising air descends
over the sea causes offshore land breezes. Onshore flow
Cooler sea Warmer land
Night
Warm air Cool air

ascends descends
Offshore flow
Warmer sea Cooler land
rotate around a central low pressure having a (35 km h−1) as compared to warm fronts
counterclockwise circulation (Figure 5.7). (25 km h−1). In addition, cold fronts tend to
Another important type of mid‐latitude be accompanied by more energetic weather
weather system is the front. The passage of and often contain concentrated precipitation
frontal systems along the Gulf Coast strongly and severe wind.
influences the coastal processes of this In North America, cold fronts commonly
region. Frontal systems are discussed first, as are initiated by cold air (a polar air mass)
they are the precursors to extratropical sweeping down from Canada meeting warm
cyclone development. air from the south (Figure 5.10). Fronts travel
west to east across the country and may
extend all the way to the Gulf of Mexico,
5.3.1 Frontal Weather
where they can produce strong winds and
A front is defined as a narrow transition zone surf. The northern Gulf region experiences
(25–250 km wide) between two air masses more than 20 cold fronts each year lasting
having different densities (Figure 5.9). Fronts from 12 to 24 hours depending on the speed
may extend for more than 1000 km. One air of the storm and whether it becomes stalled
mass is usually warmer and more humid than or not. Due to the overall low tidal range of
the adjacent air mass. The boundary between most of the Gulf Coast (<1 m) cold fronts
the two is usually inclined, with the warmer can be effective agents in substantially
lighter air rising over the colder, denser air. A augmenting or diminishing tidal elevations.
cold front is one in which the cold air mass Along the Louisiana coast cold fronts create
advances thereby displacing the position of westerly to southwesterly winds, which
the warm air. The opposite occurs during the cause higher tide levels than would be
passage of a warm front. Generally, the two expected due to astronomic forcing alone.
air masses travel with nearly the same speed This condition enables storm waves to break
and in about the same direction. Cold fronts higher along the beach, leading to the over-
usually advance at a slightly more rapid rate washing of low barriers. At the same time
104 Chapter 5
Warm air
(stable)
Cool air
Surface front
Warm air
(unstable)
Cool air
Figure 5.9 Weather fronts are formed at the boundary between two air masses of contrasting densities, which
is usually due to differences in temperature. Fronts mark a change in the weather and are generally associated
with moderate to intense precipitation.
Cold
air
Warm
air
Figure 5.10 Cold fronts in the central United States are caused by polar air moving south from Canada
displacing a warm air mass. The front moves eastward across the country and may stretch from the Gulf of
Mexico to the Great Lakes.
elevated tides increase the flow of ocean 5.3.2 Cyclogenesis

water into the bays and marsh systems that
The process of extra‐tropical cyclone for-
back the barrier islands. This generates
mation, cyclogenesis, was first described by
strong landward currents through tidal
Norwegian scientists during World War I, and
inlets during the passage of the front, and
eventually the theory was published by J.
strong seaward currents when the floodwa-
Bjerknes in 1918. Even though it was devised
ters exit the inlets. As the front passes, there
using limited ground observations, the basic
is a dramatic shift from southerly to north-
tenets of the model are still deemed accepta-
erly winds that occurs within a few hours or
ble today despite major advances in the collec-
less. Strong northerly winds suppress the
tion and analysis of weather data. Cyclones
waves in the nearshore of the Gulf‐facing
develop along advancing frontal systems in
beaches, while at the same time generating
which the two air masses have a slight compo-
substantial waves in the larger bays behind
nent of differential movement. At the surface
the barriers. In fact, scientists have shown
of the front this condition is manifested by the
that these bay waves, which can approach
two air masses moving in opposite directions
3 m in height, are responsible for chronic
to one another (Stage 1, Figure 5.11). The next
shoreline erosion on the backside of barriers
stage of cyclogenesis coincides with a distur-
along long stretches of the northern Gulf of
bance along the front that is produced by
Mexico. Thus, cold fronts are important
topographic irregularities, such as mountain
agents in modifying beaches and tidal inlets
ranges, temperature differences, or other fac-
in the Gulf Coast region.
tors. The end result of the disturbance is a
Stage 1 Stage 2
Cold
Co
Cold
ld
Low
Warm
Warm
Stage 3 Stage 4
Cold Cold
Low
Co
Co
ld
ld
Warm
Figure 5.11 Model of cyclogenesis as proposed by Norwegian scientists and published by J. Bjerknes.
106 Chapter 5
wave‐like form, similar to a breaking ocean storms are most common from late fall
wave, in which the warm low‐density air pen- through early spring. The weather conditions
etrates into the cold air mass (Stage 2, that lead to extratropical cyclone formation
Figure 5.11). Extra‐tropical cyclone formation often originate in the Pacific Ocean. Full
also appears to be strongly linked with upper development of the storm is associated with
air circulation where currents flow west to several locations throughout North America
east in long meanders. This pattern serves to due to the complexity of the factors gov-
initiate or reinforce the counter‐clockwise erning the continent’s weather. These sites
rotation of air around a central low pressure include the continental southwest, the
(Stage 3, Figure 5.11). The demise of a cyclone Midwest, and the southeast United States,
occurs when the cold air supplants the rising southern Alberta, Canada, and in the Gulf of
warm air, the sloping gradient between the Mexico and the Florida–Bahamas regions
two air masses ceases, and the storm runs out (Figure 5.12). The continental storms travel
of energy (Stage 4, Figure 5.11). on an eastward path across the country even-
tually moving northeast into the northern
Atlantic where they dissipate. Those that
5.3.3 Extratropical Storms
pass through the Gulf states and the Bahamas
5.3.3.1 Occurrence and Storm Tracts region move northward along the eastern
Although extratropical cyclones can occur in seaboard. Other storms track through the
the mid‐latitudes at any time of the year, they Great Lakes and into the Gulf of Saint
happen most frequently in the hemisphere Lawrence. Because most extratropical storms
that is going through winter because this is track along the east coast, they are major
when the temperature contrasts between the storm producers of this region, particularly
polar air masses of high latitudes and the north of North Carolina. Hurricanes have a
warmer air of the lower latitudes reach their greater frequency and influence along the
maximum. In the United States, extratropical coastal states south of Virginia.
Alberta
East Coast
Nevada
Colorado
Atlantic Ocean
Florida/Bahamas
Gulf of Mexico
Figure 5.12 Extratropical cyclones develop in many regions across the United States. Regardless of their
origin, the pathway of these storms is toward northeast Canada and the northern Atlantic Ocean.
5.3.3.2 Northeasters of Cape Cod and Nova Scotia. Under these

“Northeaster” or “Nor’easter” is the name conditions the counter‐clockwise air circula-
given to the extratropical cyclones that tion associated with the cyclone generates
pound the northeast coast of the United onshore winds that blow out of the easterly
States and Canada with driving rains, strong quadrant. The eastern seaboard of the United
winds, elevated tide levels, and storm waves. States is particularly susceptible to these
During the winter, northeasters can produce storms because most of this coast faces east-
blizzard conditions blanketing the northeast ward and is directly exposed to northeast
with more than 2 ft of snow. They are called winds and waves.
northeasters because the winds associated The Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962 was
with these storms come from the northeast one of the most powerful and damaging
(Figure 5.13). (Remember that winds are northeasters ever to strike the east coast of
named for the direction from which they the United States during historic times. The
blow.) In fact, it is the path of the extratropi- storm lasted for more than five tidal cycles
cal cyclone that determines the wind direc- and impacted a 1000 km of mid‐Atlantic
tion as well as the type and severity of the coastline, stretching from North Carolina to
storm. Northeast storms occur when the eye Long Island, New York. Wind gusts exceeded
of the storm tracks in a northeasterly path hurricane force, producing deepwater wave
offshore of the coast, eventually moving east heights greater than 10 m. The storm hit
992
1006
1004
L 1022 1004
1008
1012
1016 H L 1022 1008
1024
1020 1033 1032
1038
1010
H
1038 L 1012
H
1038 1036 1032
1032
L
1012
1009
1016
1028 1024
1020
1021 1028
DOC/NOAA/NWS/NCEP/WPC
30-HR FORECAST OF FRONTS/
PRESSURE AND WEATHER
H
ISSUED: 0718Z MON JAN 20 2014
VALID: 0600Z TUE JAN 21 2014
FORECASTER: HAMEICK –90
Figure 5.13 Along the eastern seaboard of the United States, particularly in New England, extratropical
cyclones travel offshore of the coast and generate strong winds and storm waves from the northeast. Hence,
these storms are called “northeasters.” The weather map illustrates the conditions that existed during a
northeast storm on January 25, 1979. In the Boston, Massachusetts area, winds reached 60 km h−1 (40 mph)
and the region was blanketed with over 2 ft of snow. (Source: NOAA.)
108 Chapter 5
during perigean spring tides, which contrib- 5.3.3.3 Shoreline Vulnerability

uted to the elevated water levels. The large Many of the same factors that control the
storm surge and erosive waves removed severity of hurricanes also apply to the
beaches and carved deeply into adjacent impact of northeasters. The storm’s size and
dunes. Along many shorelines storm waves intensity are of paramount importance as
carried beach sands across barriers forming these elements control wave height, magni-
extensive overwash deposits. The storm tude of storm surge, and, to some extent, the
breached numerous barriers creating more storm’s duration. Astronomic tidal condi-
than a dozen ephemeral tidal inlets. Along tions can significantly augment or reduce the
populated sections of shoreline, rows of effects of the storm surge thereby affecting
houses and other buildings were destroyed. the elevation where waves break along a
Ultimately the “storm of the century” caused shoreline. For example, the Blizzard of 1978,
more than $300 million in damage and which is the storm of record along much
accounted for numerous deaths. of the New England coast, occurred during
A classification of northeasters has been extraordinarily high tidal elevations in which
devised by scientists Robert Dolan and the predicted mean high tide was 60 cm
Robert Davis, who have studied 1347 storms higher than mean high‐water levels. The
affecting the North Carolina coast over a coincidence of high astronomic tides with
42‐year period. Their scheme is based on the the blizzard was a major factor contributing
power of the northeaster, which is calculated to coastal flooding, beach erosion, overwash-
by multiplying the storm’s duration times the ing of barriers, inlet formation, and wave‐
square of the maximum significant wave induced damage (Figure 5.14).
height (Table 5.1). They have divided storms Although the majority of extratropical
into five classes, with the weakest storms, cyclones travel in a northeasterly path off-
Class #1 and #2, comprising about 75 % of all shore of the coast, producing northeasterly
northeasters impacting the Outer Banks of winds and waves, some low‐pressure systems
North Carolina. As seen in Table 5.1, Class take an inland track, for example through the
#4 northeasters have a frequency of 2.4 % Hudson or Connecticut Valleys. In some
with a significant deep‐water wave height of instances, storms move through the Gulf of
5 m and an average duration of 63 hours. The Saint Lawrence. In these circumstances the
extreme northeaster, Class #5, has a recur- cyclonic wind regime produces wind from
rence interval of 67 years. These storms have the southerly quadrant. In New England the
a significant wave height of 7 m, an average shorelines have a variety of orientations and
duration of 96 hours, and are agents of per- exposures to wave energy. In this region
manent change along the coast, as was the the storm tract is particularly important in
case with the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962. determining the impact of storm processes.
Table 5.1 Dolan and Davis classification.
Frequency of storms Power (m2 h)

Significant wave
Storm class Number Percentage height (m) Duration (h) Mean Range
1 Weak 670 49.7 2.0 8 32 ≤71.63

2 Moderate 340 25.2 2.5 18 107 >71.63 to 163.51
3 Significant 298 22.1 3.3 34 353 >163.51 to 929.03
4 Severe 32 2.4 5.0 63 1455 >929.03 to 2322.58
5 Extreme 7 0.1 7.0 96 4548 >2322.58
Figure 5.14 View of houses destroyed in Scituate, Massachusetts during the Blizzard of 1978. Storm waves and
the onshore movement of gravel toppled foundations, leading to the collapse of numerous houses along this
section of coast. Many of these same houses received extensive damage resulting from the Halloween Eve
northeast storm of 1991.
The passage of the common northeaster pri- which passed through the region a month and
marily affects the eastward‐facing shorelines half earlier, had left many of the shorelines
of outer Cape Cod and the north and south with little sand on the beaches.
shores of Massachusetts Bay as well as the
New Hampshire and southern Maine coasts.
Storms that travel west of New England gen- 5.4 Hurricanes
erate southerly wind and waves that impact
the southward shores of Rhode Island, Cape
and Tropical Storms
Cod, and the central peninsula coast of Maine.
5.4.1 Low Latitude Storms
Another factor that influences the vulnera-
bility of beaches to storm erosion and damage Hurricanes and their forerunner, tropical
to adjacent structures is the interval between storms, are the major storms of the tropics.
storms. The width and elevation of the berm Like other weather systems they may move
strongly affects erosion of the abutting dune beyond their typical latitudinal range given
during storms. Beaches with wide accretion- the right set of circumstances. Most of us are
ary berms can withstand the onslaught of an familiar with tropical storms and hurricanes
intense northeaster because the berm consti- due to the wide media coverage they receive,
tutes a large quantity of sacrificial sand that particularly when a major coastal region in
can be eroded before the dune or adjacent the United States is impacted.
dwelling is destroyed. If a previous storm has Tropical storms and hurricanes are known
removed the sand buffer, then the impact of by different names in other parts of the
the next storm will be much greater than the world. In the western Pacific they are called
first. One of the reasons that the Halloween typhoons, in the Indian Ocean they are
Eve Storm of 1991 caused significant damage known as cyclones, and in Australia they are
to New England was that Hurricane Bob, given the name “willi‐willis.” A tropical storm
110 Chapter 5
is a low‐latitude cyclonic system that may it into a trough. In a typical year, about 60 of
intensify to be reclassified as a hurricane if these develop during the hurricane season –
wind velocities surpass 119 km h−1. During about one every three to four days. They
an average year, approximately 20 tropical have a wave length of about 2500 km and
storms form in the equatorial Atlantic and of travel westward with speeds of 10–40 km h−1.
these 8–10 reach hurricane strength. Most Some of these troughs intensify and develop
hurricanes that make landfall in the United into tropical disturbances, which is the
States do so in the Gulf of Mexico or along infancy stage of a tropical cyclone. Tropical
the Florida and North Carolina coasts. In a disturbances are characterized by a line of
study of hurricane frequency for the south- thunderstorms that maintain their identity
east United States coast, Robert Muller and for a day or so. These weather systems have
Gregory Stone of Louisiana State University a rotary circulation, counterclockwise in
showed that Morgan City, Louisiana and the the northern hemisphere and clockwise in
Florida Keys have the shortest recurrence of the southern hemisphere. Further strength-
major hurricanes (wind speed > 179 km h−1, ening of these storms produces a tropical
111 mph) (Table 5.2). The Florida Keys depression, which is a weather system having
(including Key West and Key Largo) have sur- maximum cyclonic wind velocities up to
vived over 32 hurricanes during the past cen- 61 km h−1 (38 mph). Storms with wind veloc-
tury, of which seven were major hurricanes. ities greater than 61 km h−1 but less than
119 km h−1 are classified as tropical storms.
5.4.2 Origin and Movement In about 10 % of cases, the developing
of Hurricanes tropical storm receives sufficient energy

from the warm ocean waters to reach hurri-
5.4.2.1 Formation
cane strength. Hurricanes are one of Earth’s
Tropical weather is generally considered to be
largest weather systems with wind velocities
that occurring between the Tropic of Cancer
of at least 119 km h−1 (74 mph) but some
and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 N–23.5 S
exceeding 250 km h−1 (155 mph). The stages
lat.). Here there is little change in day‐length,
in the genesis of a hurricane are listed in
seasons are subtle to non‐existent, year‐
(Table 5.3). The conditions necessary to
round temperature is warm to hot, and major
produce a hurricane include:
changes in weather patterns are linked to the
dry and wet seasons. In these latitudes the ●● Warm ocean temperatures (>26 °C), which
winds typically blow from the southeast, occur from the beginning of June until
east, or northeast depending on the latitude. the end of November in the Northern
Weather systems of the Tropics, such as hur- Hemisphere and during the opposite time
ricanes, are steered by the trade winds, in of year in the Southern Hemisphere. The
contrast to those of the mid‐latitudes that conditions extend late in the season because
move west to east (the Westerlies). ocean waters cool slowly in the fall. Most
The first indication of the potential devel- hurricanes form in August and September
opment of a storm in low latitudes is the when ocean waters are at their warmest.
presence of a tropical wave. This feature is ●● Vertical movement of warm moist air ris-
identified on weather charts as a bending of ing within the storm from the ocean sur-
the streamlines, which show pathways of air- face upward to a height of 10–20 km. As
flow within the wind system. Tropical waves the air rises it cools. Eventually the water
form over western Africa and move west- vapor contained in the air condenses
ward into the Atlantic Ocean where they gain releasing huge quantities of energy in the
strength over the warm water of the tropical form of heat.
latitudes (Figure 5.15). The warm water ●● The Coriolis effect produces the spinning
reduces pressure along the wave, transforming of the hurricane. Air that flows toward the
Table 5.2 Hurricane frequency in southeast United States.
Hurricane Major hurricane Hurricane return Major hurricane return

strikes strikes period (years) period (years)
South Padre Island, TX 8 3 12 33

Port Aransas, TX 9 2 11 50
Port O’Connor, TX 13 2 8 50
Galveston, TX 13 3 8 33
Cameron, LA 5 2 20 50
Morgan City, LA 10 7 10 14
Boothville, LA 16 5 6 20
Gulfport, MS 10 2 10 50
Dauphin Island AL 15 4 14 25
Pensacola Beach, FL 14 2 7 50
Destin, FL 10 3 10 33
Panama City Beach, FL 10 2 10 50
Apalachicola, FL 11 0 9 100
Cedar Key, FL 3 1 33 100
St Petersburg, FL 5 1 20 100
Sanibel Island, FL 8 1 12 100
Marco Island, FL 12 3 8 33
Key West, FL 17 2 6 50
Key Largo, FL 15 5 7 20
Miami Beach, FL 15 2 7 50
Palm Beach, FL 13 4 8 25
Vero Beach, FL 10 1 10 100
Cocoa Beach, FL 4 0 25 100
Daytona Beach, FL 3 0 33 100
Jacksonville Beach, FL 2 0 50 100
St Simons Island, GA 1 0 100 100
Tybee Island, GA 5 0 20 100
Folly Beach, SC 3 1 33 100
Myrtle Beach, SC 7 2 14 50
Wrightsville Beach, NC 11 2 9 50
Atlantic Beach, NC 10 3 10 33
Cape Hatteras, NC 15 3 7 33
Source: Study of hurricane frequency of the southeastern USA by Robert Muller and Gregory Stone of Louisiana
State University.
TX, Texas; LA, Louisiana; MS, Mississippi; AL, Alabama; FL, Florida; GA, Georgia; SC, South Carolina; NC, North
Carolina.
112 Chapter 5
Figure 5.15 Pathway of hurricanes in the central Atlantic during the past approximately 100 years. Note that
tropical storms and hurricanes are born off the west coast of northern Africa and travel westward toward the
Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. These storms eventually turn north and eastward before expiring in the
northeast Atlantic. (Source: NASA, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Atlantic_hurricane_
tracks.jpg).
Table 5.3 Storm genesis. 5.4.2.2 Hurricane Pathways

Once formed, hurricanes and developing
Tropical Prevalence of thunderstorms, tropical storms move in a variety of path-
disturbance infancy stage of tropical cyclone
ways, all having a general westerly direction
Tropical Cyclonic wind pattern, wind (Figure 5.16). South Atlantic hurricanes
depression speeds up to 61 km h–1 (38 mph)
usually travel across the Caribbean Sea and
Tropical Highly organized ocean storm then either enter the Gulf of Mexico or move
storm visible in satellite imagery, wind
speeds from 61–119 km h–1
northward up the western margin of the
(38–73 mph) Atlantic. Storms that move into the Gulf
Hurricane Spiraling cloud pattern around a
of Mexico continue west or northwest, mak-
central eye, wind speeds exceed ing a landfall encompassing the shoreline
119 km h–1 (73 mph) between the Yucatan Peninsula and the west-
ern Florida panhandle. It is rare that these
storms swing northeast and cross the west-
center of the low‐pressure system to ern Gulf Coast of Florida. The last hurricane
replace the air that is rising in the hurri- to do so was Donna in 1960.
cane is deflected (to the right in the Atlantic tropical storms that do not enter
Northern Hemisphere, to the left in the the Gulf generally move northward with a
Southern Hemisphere). This causes the air slight westerly component. Although they do
mass to rotate. Hurricanes generally do not not ordinarily cross the Florida peninsula,
form within 5° of the equator because the they may travel close enough to impact
Coriolis effect is very weak in this region. coastal communities with high surf, strong
North
North Pacific Atlantic
30°N Ocean Ocean
Equator
South Pacific South Atlantic Indian

30°S Ocean Ocean Ocean
Areas in which tropical storms form
Figure 5.16 Hurricanes and tropical storms form in the tropics above 5° north and south of the equator.
Trade winds steer these storms westward, where they eventually degrade over continental areas. In other
cases, after traveling westward the storms move east and poleward into the colder waters of the mid‐
latitudes, where they die.
winds, and possible lowland flooding. These the storm. High humidity, lack of vertical
storms commonly make a landfall in the wind shear, and wind surge are also condu-
Carolinas or in rare instances, as far north as cive to hurricane formation. Wind surge adds
New England. Recent examples are Hurricane bursts of high‐speed flow to the center of the
Hugo, which hit South Carolina in 1989, and disturbance, causing upward circulation and
Hurricane Fran that came across the Outer intensification of the storm.
Banks of North Carolina in 1996. Although hurricanes vary greatly in size,
Hurricanes and tropical storms in other intensity, speed and path, they have many
ocean basins of the Northern Hemisphere common characteristics. A satellite view
have pathways that are similar to the Atlantic of a hurricane reveals spiraling bands of
systems (Figure 5.16). In the western Pacific thunderstorm‐like clouds (Figure 5.17).

storms travel westward toward the Philippines Some of these cloud systems contain abun-
and Southeast Asia as well as swinging dant moisture and some do not, which
northward where they impact the coasts of explains why the intensity of rainfall is so
China, Japan and Korea. In the northern variable during the passage of a hurricane.
Indian Ocean cyclones move northwestward, Hurricanes may have a single cloud band or
making landfalls along Bangladesh, India and more than seven, each extending from the
Pakistan, and along the Arabian Gulf. The center of the storm outward to a distance of
mirror image of this pattern takes place in the about 80 km. The storm itself can range in
southern hemisphere, where tropical cyclones diameter from about 125 km to more than
move westward curving to the south. 800 km; the average is 150–200 km.
Most people know that the center of the
hurricane is called the eye and that within
5.4.3 Anatomy of a Hurricane
this zone winds are weak to perfectly calm.
Conditions that lead to the formation of a The eye is 5–60 km in diameter, averaging
full‐blown hurricane start with what is called about 20 km. This part of the hurricane is
a seedling. In addition to warm water, there cloudless – many people comment about
must be weather conditions that enhance the seeing the sun or stars as the eye passes over
upward spiraling of winds, the “vorticity” of them. It is also common for birds to be
114 Chapter 5
Figure 5.17 Satellite view of Hurricane Andrew on the 23rd, 24th, and 25th of August 1992 as it moved
westward across Florida toward Louisiana. (Source: NASA. https://www.google.com/search?biw=1300&bih=74
3&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=nY4CXaTuPLL45gKxvIbQCw&q=NASA+hurricane+Andrew+photos+in+Atlantic&oq=N
ASA+hurricane+Andrew+photos+in+Atlantic&gs_l=img.3...69831.72211..74044...0.0..0.70.411.7......0....1..
gws-wiz-img.......35i39.GcQZp545poY#imgrc=7CZErm9B-6k9YM:)
High-altitude winds
Spiral Eye
Easterly
rainbands trade winds
Descending air
Figure 5.18 Internal structure of a hurricane illustrating the overall counter‐clockwise flow of air at the base of
the storm. Toward the center of the hurricane the air mass spirals upward and eventually flows outward at the
top of storm. The vertical dimensions of the hurricane in this diagram are greatly exaggerated.
trapped within the eye; the strong winds of Momentum states that the product of an
beyond the storm’s center make escape object’s velocity around its center and its dis-
impossible (Figure 5.18). tance from the center squared is constant. The
The fact that the strongest wind occurs near law can be stated mathematically as:
the center of the storm is due to conservation of
angular momentum. The Law of Conservation MVD 2 constant
where M is the mass of the object, V is its storms lasted for 25 years, then, in 1978, the
velocity around the center, and D is its dis- policy was changed to include both male and
tance from the center. This principle can be female names. A set of names is chosen years
illustrated by thinking of a figure skater, in advance with names alternating between
who is doing a spin on the ice. As a skater male and female continuing through the
pulls her arms in toward her body, she alphabet. Names of hurricanes that have
decreases the diameter of her rotation. To severely impacted the United States are per-
maintain the same angular momentum the manently retired from the list. Hurricanes
skater’s rotational velocity increases drasti- that have achieved this status include
cally. By doing the opposite and extending Camille (1969), Hugo (1989), and Andrew
her arms straight outward, the skater slows. (1992). Different names are used for north
Likewise, the winds in a hurricane gradually Atlantic and eastern Pacific storms. The
diminish in velocity toward the periphery of name is applied from the time a storm
the storm. achieves tropical storm level until it has
Adjacent to the eye of the hurricane is a completely dissipated.
wall of clouds, which may reach nearly Hurricanes lose their power when they
20,000 m in height. The eye wall, as it is called, move over cool ocean waters or onto land.
contains abundant water vapor. This vapor Generally by 40° latitude the waters are too
moves upward and eventually condenses, cold to supply the large amounts of moisture
releasing vast amounts of energy in the form needed to fuel the storm.
of heat, which strengthens the storm. During Likewise, when a hurricane moves over
a single day, a hurricane releases enough land sources of water vapor are greatly
energy to supply the United States’ electrical reduced. The ability of the storm to take up
power needs for an entire year. moisture is further lessened by the cooling
Because of the numerous conditions effect of the land. Finally, the friction
affecting the development of a hurricane, imparted by the land surface rapidly dimin-
their ultimate size and intensity vary consid- ishes the low‐level storm winds. These fac-
erably from one storm to another. The pri- tors contribute to an increase in barometric
mary factors in determining the intensity of pressure and a spreading out of the storm,
a given storm are wind velocity and baro- leading to its general unraveling and loss of
metric pressures. Storm surge, which is identity. Hurricanes typically last about a
largely responsible for the damage resulting week to ten days, though some have been
from a hurricane, is difficult to predict known to last as long as a month.
because of the variations in speed of the
storm, the diversity in bathymetry of the
5.4.4 Hurricanes at the Coast
inner continental shelf and the configuration
of a coast. Many coastal regions around the world,
Most people are aware that hurricanes are including numerous sites along the Gulf
named. This practice was initiated because coast and the eastern seaboard of the
of the confusion caused when several hurri- United States, are low‐lying and moderately
canes are active at one time. Prior to naming to densely populated, with numerous dwell-
the storms they were identified by their ings, buildings, and other infrastructure.
location; latitude and longitude. Names were This combination is highly vulnerable to
first given during World War II and were a major storm. Devastation to natural envi-
allocated in alphabetical order, such as ronments, destruction of property, and
Able, Baker, Charlie; the commonly used injury or even death to people, are all typical
designations for the alphabet by the military. hurricane impacts to the coastal zone. This
This practice continued until 1953 when section will consider what happens when
female names began to be used; also in a hurricane approaches and passes over a
alphabetical order. This style of designating coastal area.
116 Chapter 5
5.4.4.1 Factors Affecting The circulation of wind within a hurricane

their Severity and the storm’s speed and pathway toward
The strength, speed, and size of the storm are land dictate the relative intensity of the storm
major elements in determining how the hurri- and the amount of damage the hurricane will
cane will affect the coast. In addition, the gra- inflict along a given stretch of coast. In the
dient and width of the inner continental shelf northern hemisphere the wind orbiting the
are important considerations. In some regions, central low pressure of the hurricane travels
such as the New York Bight, the configuration in a counter‐clockwise direction. At the same
of the coast is also a critical factor. All of these time that this wind is blowing in circular
variables contribute to the size of waves, mag- fashion, the hurricane is also moving over the
nitude of the storm surge and overall impact of ocean surface with a speed that ranges from
the hurricane. Remember that storm surge, or 5 to 40 km h−1. This forward movement of
storm tide as meteorologists frequently call it, the hurricane has an additive effect on wind
is the super‐elevation of the ocean water sur- blowing in the same direction as path of the
face above the predicted tide level. It is the storm and a subtractive effect where the
storm surge that allows the high‐energy storm storm wind is blowing in the direction oppo-
waves to break high against a dune ridge, site to the storm’s forward motion. To illus-
across a barrier, or over a seawall. We can bet- trate this point, consider a moderate‐sized
ter assess the impact and behavior of different hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico having aver-
hurricanes and compare those of increasingly age wind speed of 180 km h−1 (Figure 5.19).
higher category, if first we understand the fac- The storm is moving northward with a speed
tors that define and influence them: of 30 km h−1. East of the storm’s eye hurri-
●● Magnitude – encompasses both hurricane cane wind blows in a northerly direction with
size and intensity. Hurricane size governs a velocity of 210 km h−1 (180 + 30 km h−1). At
the length of coast that is affected by the same time, wind west of the eye blows
the storm as well as the duration of high‐ southward with an effective velocity of only
velocity winds and high‐energy waves. The 150 km h−1 (210–30 km h−1). Not only is the
greater the intensity of the hurricane, the effective wind velocity different on either
higher the wind velocity and the larger side of the storm, but also as the storm passes
the wave heights and storm surge. the coast the shoreline east and west of the
●● Speed of Storm – determines amount of eye experiences very different wind and wave
time that storm winds can transfer their conditions. East of the eye there is a wind
energy to the water surface waves and pile “set‐up” where wind continues to blow
water onshore. Generally, slower‐moving onshore building the storm surge. Conversely,
storms produce higher waves and larger west of the eye there is a “set down” produc-
storm surges than faster moving storms of ing lower water level and waves due to the
equal magnitude. wind blowing offshore. Damage from a hur-
●● Path of Storm – determines the landfall of ricane is always greater to the right of its
a hurricane and areas along the coast of landfall than to the left.
greatest storm impact. In the northern Hurricane Frederick was a moderate‐sized
hemisphere when a hurricane moves storm that struck the Mississippi coast in
onshore, areas to the right of its landfall 1979. Meteorological and oceanographic
will experience the strongest winds and data collected during the storm illustrate the
greatest storm damage. relationship among the storm’s low pressure,
●● Coastline Configuration – is an important its wind velocity, and storm surge pattern
factor in large deeply embayed coastlines. In (Figure 5.20). The hurricane moved onshore
this setting certain hurricane tracks can sig- from the Gulf of Mexico having an average
nificantly amplify storm surge levels as water forward speed of 15 km h−1. The eye of the
is forced into a funnel‐shaped embayment. storm made landfall at Dauphin Island,
Figure 5.19 The forward speed of a hurricane increases wind velocities on the advancing right side of the
storm while diminishing wind velocities on the advancing left side of the storm.
0634 N
Mobile
Pensacola
Slidell 0431
Dauphin
Island
l ands
0232
r Is
l eu
de
an
Ch
2301
Radar stations
Pensacola
Mobile
50 km
1930
Slidell
Figure 5.20 Storm track of Hurricane Frederick, which struck the Dauphin Island along the Mississippi coast on
13 September 1979. (Source: Courtesy of Shea Penland, University of New Orleans.)
118 Chapter 5
which is located along the western flank of greater east of Dauphin Island than in the
Mobile Bay. As seen in Figure 5.21, the high- coastal regions to the west. Note that the
est wind velocity of 126 km h−1 that was greatest storm surge took place approxi-
recorded at the coast coincided with the mately 30 km east of the eye. This pattern of
period of lowest pressure. Generally the low- higher water‐level, flooding, and damage
est pressure is found near the eye of the hur- that occurs east of the storm center is due to
ricane, and it gradually increases toward the the hurricane’s counter‐clockwise wind cir-
perimeter of the storm. The strongest wind culation. When the hurricane was centered
corresponds with the steepest pressure gra- over Dauphin Island wind was still blowing
dient, which occurs just beyond the eye of onshore east of the island. At the same time,
the storm. During the passage of Hurricane wind was already blowing offshore along the
Frederick maximum tidal elevations recorded coasts of eastern Louisiana and western
along the coast ranged from 1.0 to 3.8 m Mississippi. The longer time hurricane winds
above mean sea level. As illustrated in blow onshore, the greater the storm surge
Figure 5.22, water elevations were much and resulting damage.
1020 Figure 5.21 Graph of atmospheric

Maximum wind: conditions at Dauphin Island, Mississippi
126 knots 120 during the passage of Hurricane Frederick.
Maximum wind velocities coincided with
1000 lowest atmospheric pressures. (Source:
Courtesy of Shea Penland, University of
Winds speed (knots)
Pressure
Pressure (mbar)
80 New Orleans.)
Dauphin Island
980
40
Wind
960
Minimum pressure 0
946 mbar
940
9/8 9/10 9/12 9/14 9/16
Date
Bay St Louis Pascagoula Pensacola Figure 5.22 Storm surge values along
400 the Gulf Coast from Mississippi to the
Panhandle of Florida resulting from
Maximum storm surge (cm)
Hurricane Frederick. The greatest storm

surges occurred east of the landfall due
to the counterclockwise wind
circulation associated with hurricanes
200 and cyclonic storms. (Source: Courtesy
of Shea Penland, University of New
Open coast
Orleans.)
Back-barrier lagoon
MSL 0
120 80 40 0 40 80 120
Kilometers west Kilometers east
Eye of hurricane
Box 5.1 The Fury of Hurricane Camille

Hurricane Camille slammed into the Mississippi 322 km h−1 (200 mph). This was the second‐
coast late on August 17, 1969. Despite hurri- lowest pressure ever recorded in the United
cane warnings and evacuations, 143 people States and was only surpassed by the great
lost their lives along the Gulf Coast. Another Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 (892 millibars;
113 people drowned in Virginia floods caused 26.35 in.) that swept through the Florida Keys
by intense rainfalls spawned by Camille. killing 408 people.
This destructive storm was born in early Early on August 17, police and civil defense
August when a tropical wave traveled west- officials used television and radio messages to
ward off the coast of Africa. By August 14, it had call for an immediate evacuation of coastal
reached tropical storm status and later that regions along the Mississippi shore, knowing
day intensified to a hurricane 100 km south- that a category 5 hurricane was located just
east of Cuba. When it passed over the western 400 km south of Mobile Bay and its landfall
tip of Cuba on August 15, atmospheric pres- was imminent. That night at 10:30 p.m. one of
sure had dropped to 964 millibars and wind the strongest storms ever witnessed by man-
velocity reached 185 km h−1 (115 mph). Once kind came onshore. Maximum wind velocities
in the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane traveled are unknown because all instruments stopped
northwestward at 23 km h−1 and intensified working before the storm reached its greatest
dramatically (Box Figure 5.1.1). By the after- intensity. However, estimates of winds velocity
noon of August 16 an Air Force plane meas- based on surface pressures and previous
ured a low pressure of 905 millibars and wind flights into the hurricane were calculated at
velocities of 260 km h−1 (160 mph). The last 324 km h−1 (202 mph). While wind of that mag-
flight into the storm was made on the after- nitude can rip a structure apart, it is the accom-
noon of August 17; by that time minimum panying wall of water known as the “storm
pressure had dropped to 901 millibars surge” that accounts for most of the destruc-
(26.61 inches of mercury, 30 inches is normal), tion and loss of human life during a storm. The
and surface winds had increased to more than extreme low pressure and highvelocity winds
Box Figure 5.1.1 Storm track of Hurricane Camille which slammed into the Mississippi coast late on
August 17, 1969, killing 143 in the Gulf Coast region. (Source: NOAA.)
120 Chapter 5
of Camille produced a wall of water that Hurricane Camille ranks as one of the deadli-
measured 24.6 ft above mean sea level at Pass est and costliest storms in United States his-
Christian, located 20 km east of the landfall. tory. Certainly the amount of damage caused
Not only does a storm surge of this magnitude by the storm is attributable to its category 5
flood areas far inland from the coast, but it also status, but the loss of life was also due to the
allows monstrous waves to break against and fact that some of the coastal residents failed to
over anything along the coast, including dune respect the danger of an intense hurricane and
ridges, sea walls, buildings and other struc- did not respond to repeated warnings.
tures (Box Figure 5.1.2). On the offshore barri- Stories chronicled by the National Hurricane
ers of Ship and Cat Island, debris marks Center help to demonstrate the magnitude
indicated that hurricane waves broke across and destructive force of Hurricane Camille.
the tops of trees covering the island. Perhaps the fate of the Richelieu Apartments
After
Before
Box Figure 5.1.2 Before and after photographs of Richelieu Motel, destroyed by Hurricane Camille.
(Source: From U.S. National Weather Service.)
and its occupants best illustrate the storm’s and thought that this one would be no more
immense power. The Richelieu was a three‐ challenging. When the storm surge and waves
story, brick‐front building located about 100 m began dismantling the Richelieu, Mary Ann
from the ocean. Standing between the build- managed to jump out a second story window.
ing and the beach was a 2.4 m‐high seawall and Miraculously, she washed ashore 7.2 km
a four‐lane highway. Civil Defense personnel (4.5 miles) from the apartment after being in
pleaded with the occupants of the Richelieu to the water for almost 12 hours. A small boy from
evacuate, but 25 people planned a “hurricane the Richelieu also survived the hurricane. He
party” instead. The entire structure was was saved by the father of the family, who lived
destroyed by the storm, and only two people next to the apartment building. After the man’s
survived (Box Figure 5.1.3). One of the survivors house was broken apart by gigantic waves he
was Mary Ann Gerlach who remained in the swam onshore and found temporary safety by
Richelieu with her husband because they had clinging to the top of a tree. He succeeded in
lived through previous hurricanes in Florida saving his son by grabbing the 10‐year old boy
After
Before
Box Figure 5.1.3 Before and after photographs of the Trinity Church, destroyed by Hurricane Camille.
(Source: From U.S. National Weather Service.)
122 Chapter 5
as he floated from the Richelieu. His wife and stories, and experiences with other major
two daughters perished. Another group of storms, have contributed to a growing public
people went to the Trinity Episcopal Church awareness that intense hurricanes can strike
seeking shelter; of the 21 at the church only 13 with tremendous force, inflicting death and
survived the storm (Box Figure 5.1.3). These injury ono those who don’t heed their fury.
The importance of coastline configuration in recent times because meteorological

has been clearly demonstrated in a study of forecasts and evacuation procedures have
New York Bight by Nicolas Coch of Queens improved (see Box 5.2).
College (New York). Eastern Long Island Most hurricanes fall within categories 1–3.
and northern New Jersey meet at near right One of the difficulties of accurately deter-
angles to one another, forming a funnel‐shaped mining the maximum wind in severe storms
embayment. Coastlines with this type of con- such as a category 4 or 5 hurricane is the
figuration are susceptible to amplification of inability of instruments to withstand the
the storm surge as waters are constricted by storm. As an example, there has been consid-
the adjoining landmasses. Dr. Coch showed erable disagreement about the maximum
that if a moderate‐sized hurricane tracked in wind velocity of Hurricane Andrew as it
a northwesterly direction across northern struck south of Miami in August of 1992.
New Jersey, the storm surge would signifi- Instrumentation at the National Hurricane
cantly heighten from the inner shelf to the Center in Coral Gables sustained measured
mouth of the Hudson River. Hurricane Sandy sustained wind of 210 km h−1 (125 mph) with
proved him to be correct, as illustrated in gusts of about 275 km hr−1 (165 mph) at the
Figure 5.23. Note the significant increase in time that it became disabled. Calculations
storm tide level toward New York Harbor and indicate that peak wind velocities were prob-
into the embayment. The same trend occurred ably greater than 235 km h−1 (140 mph).
at the west end of Long Island Sound. The Inland from the shoreline high‐velocity wind
large storm surges associated with extensive exerts the greatest influence on vegetation
loss of life in Bangladesh have been caused in and manmade structures. The path of a
part by the same funneling effect that is pro- hurricane is often evidenced by broken and
duced in upper Bay of Bengal. uprooted trees, destroyed homes, and disar-
ray of public infrastructure.
5.4.4.2 Hurricane Categories Damage to structures due to hurricanes is
The strength of a hurricane is formally associated with lowland flooding, wave attack,
classified using the Saffir–Simpson Scale
and strong wind. Because of the current strin-
and is based on the maximum wind velocity, gent rules and regulations regarding construc-
barometric pressure, storm surge level, and tion in the coastal zone, there are usually few
expected damage (Table 5.4). The scale has problems with wind damage. In hurricane‐
five categories and each higher level repre- prone areas, most damage is now confined to
sents a substantial increase in hurricane roofs, where shingles are commonly torn from
intensity (Table 5.5). A list of the most roofs. Under extreme conditions such as dur-
intense hurricanes in the United States in ing a category 4 or 5 hurricane, damage can
terms of loss of life and property damage be much greater and the building itself can
is provided in Table 5.6. It is evident from be destroyed. A good example of how recent
this table that death tolls have decreased construction codes have protected dwellings
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.23 (a) Westward track of Hurricane Sandy across the New Jersey coast. (Source: NASA, https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy). (b) Computer‐simulated maximum storm tide conditions due to
Hurricane Sandy. (Source: Courtesy of Joe Holmes, RPI.)
during passage of moderate hurricanes is the approximately half were constructed prior to
impact of Hurricane Opal in 1995. This severe the new regulations and the other half were
storm made landfall in the Panhandle of built in compliance with new building codes.
Florida just east of Pensacola. Of the nearly There were hundreds of homes severely dam-
1500 homes subjected to the storm’s fury aged or destroyed during the storm, but all of
Table 5.5 Damage comparison of different category storms have accounted for permanent
hurricanes. changes to the coastal landscape, billions
of dollars of damage, and the unfortunate
Category Relative hurricane destruction potential loss of many lives. Hurricanes are tropical
storms having wind velocities exceeding
1 1 (reference level)
119 km h−1; the largest have storm surges
2 4 times the damage of a category 1 greater than 7 m and winds attaining
hurricane
220 km h−1. They form in the tropics and
3 40 times the damage are steered by the prevailing global wind
4 120 times the damage patterns. Hurricanes affecting the United
5 240 times the damage States are initiated off the west coast of
Africa. They intensify over the warm
Source: Based on e.mpirical analysis over the past 42
years by Dr. William M. Gray, Colorado State University
Atlantic Ocean waters and travel in a
meteorologist. westerly direction, making landfall along

the Gulf of Mexico or along the east coast,
most commonly from Florida north to the
Outer Banks of North Carolina. Rarely do
those built under present guidelines suffered hurricanes strike the West Coast of the
only minor damage. United States. Hurricanes degenerate after
Storm surges and the accompanying large moving over land or cold water.
waves can, however, cause major damage, Extratropical cyclones form above the
including the destruction of structures. For tropics and are commonly associated with
this reason, current zoning in Florida cold fronts. These storms are usually weaker
requires that the first level of occupancy than hurricanes, but occur more frequently.
must be above the 100‐year storm surge They develop over the continental United
level. This level is based on existing data States, southwestern Canada, in the Gulf of
and predicted frequency of storm surge. For Mexico, and off the east coast of Florida.
example the Gulf Coast of central and These storms generally move eastward and
southern Florida is predicted to experience northward, eventually traveling offshore of
a 4 m (13‐ft) storm surge on a 100‐year New England and passing east of Nova
return interval. This is based in part on Scotia. They generate northeasterly winds
historical data of previous storms and by and waves and therefore are called
computer modeling of storm conditions “Northeasters.” Northeasters last for one to
using variables such as shelf gradient, wind two days and are accompanied by wind
velocity, wave size and others. Qualification velocities of 40–65 km h−1 and storm surges
for federally supported insurance in the ranging from 0.2 to 1.2 m.
coastal zone requires compliance with these Both hurricanes and extratropical storms
regulations. are low‐pressure systems with counterclock-
wise wind patterns. The strength, speed and
size of these cyclonic systems control the
severity of the storm, including the amount
5.5 Summary of erosion and structural damage. Storm
track, gradient of the shelf, configuration of
Hurricanes and extratropical cyclones are the shoreline, and astronomic tidal condi-
a dramatic expression of Earth’s weather tions are other important factors governing
system. Through recorded history severe storm processes. See Box 5.1.
128 Chapter 5
Box 5.2 Deadly and Costly Hurricanes of the Twenty‐first Century

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Sandy gradually intensified, reaching its maximum
in 2012 impacted metropolitan areas, causing category 3 status offshore of Cuba. After
catastrophic damage and loss of human life. diminishing in size, Sandy re‐intensified to a
These hurricanes were also the costliest storms category 2 hurricane 300 miles east of
in US history (105.8 and 68 billion dollars in Delaware Bay (Box Figure 5.2.1). During this
damage, respectively; Table 5.6). Despite these period, Sandy had grown to a huge hurricane
similarities, they were very different hurricanes producing waves >3 m high along the entire
in terms of their origin, track, size and intensity, coast from the Outer Banks of North Carolina
and type of impact. The notoriety of Katrina is to Cape Cod in Massachusetts. At landfall,
due to its flooding of downtown New Orleans, Sandy’s tropical storm‐force winds spanned
extensive loss of life, and widespread damage 943 miles or almost three times the size of
ranging across three states. Sandy was the Hurricane Katrina (Box Figure 5.2.2). Its size
largest Atlantic hurricane on record, simulta- was a product of several factors, including an
neously causing damage to structures along extra‐tropical system to the west that pumped
the Lake Michigan shoreline and collapsing upper cold air into the hurricane, transforming
power lines in Nova Scotia, 1200 miles away. A the nature of the storm into more of a “north-
significant storm surge accompanying Sandy easter” having lower wind velocity but a much
flooded large areas of New York City, including greater breadth than most hurricanes.
its subway system and most of the tunnels Hurricane Katrina formed as tropical
entering Manhattan. depression over the southeastern Bahamas
Hurricane Sandy developed from a tropical and moved northwest, reaching hurricane
wave in the western Caribbean Sea, which force winds two day later just off the southeast
quickly strengthened to Tropical Storm Sandy coast of Florida. After passing across Florida it
within hours. The storm moved northward and looped northward toward the Mississippi River
Box Figure 5.2.1 Hurricane tracks for Katrina and Sandy. (Source: From U.S. National Weather Service.)
Wind Speed (miles per hour)
0 20 40 60
Wind Speed (miles per hour)
0 20 40 60
Box Figure 5.2.2 Radar images of Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy. Source: From Indian Space Research
Organization. OceanSat‐2 missions and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s QuikSCAT.
delta, greatly intensifying due the unusually Both hurricanes had similar impacts along
warm waters in the Gulf of Mexico (Box Figure barrier shorelines. Elevated water levels facili-
5.2.1). It strengthened to a category 5 hurri- tated wave‐overtopping of dune ridges pro-
cane 200 miles south‐southeast of the delta ducing overwash fans and, in some cases, the
with maximum sustained wind velocity of formation of new tidal inlets (Box Figure 5.2.3).
175 mph. Before Katrina made landfall at the In residential areas on the Gulf Coast and
delta, it had diminished to a category 3 hurri- in coastal areas along New Jersey, New York,
cane. Katrina continued moving northward and Connecticut, houses were flooded and
making a second landfall along the Mississippi damaged, coastal defense structures were
coast, where it gradually moved inland and dismantled, and infrastructure was destroyed.
decreased to a tropical storm. Compared to Flooding of the New York City metropolitan
Sandy, Katrina was only one‐third the size, but region was due to several factors, but most
had much stronger winds that produced a importantly related to the westward track of
much higher storm surge (Box Figure 5.2.2). the storm across central New Jersey and the
130 Chapter 5
Box Figure 5.2.3 Photographs illustrating barrier breaching and inlet formation along Fire Island.
(Source: USGS.)
funnel‐shaped shorelines formed: (i) by north- the birdfoot section of the Mississippi delta to
ern New Jersey (particularly Sandy Hook) and 27.8 ft along the Mississippi coast at Pass
Long Island, and (ii) at the western end of Long Christian, a record level for the United States.
Island Sound (Box Figure 5.2.1). The westerly The huge storm surge was caused by a number
track of the hurricane meant that surge waters of factors, including the magnitude and track
were forced into narrowing embayments caus- of the hurricane and configuration of the con-
ing an amplification of the storm surge. In tinental shelf. Even though Katrina was much
addition, Sandy’s impact coincided with high smaller in size than Sandy, it was still a large,
tide, a worst‐case scenario. Many areas within intense hurricane reach category 5 status
the embayment are low‐lying or defended by 200 miles south of the delta, with gusting
low seawalls that are particularly susceptible winds greater than 120 mph. While the storm
to wave overtopping. traveled due north, its southerly wind regime
The devastating impact of Katrina was a continuously added to the height of the storm
result of insufficient levee protection and the surge. In addition, the shallow sloping conti-
extreme storm surge that varied from 9 ft at nental shelf rimming the Gulf of Mexico
Box Figure 5.2.4 Photographs of the Ninth Ward in New Orleans when it was still flooded and after the
area drained. Large red barge is present in both photos. Note the empty lots where houses once existed.
Source: Top photo from https://media.npr.org/assets/img/2015/08/14/gettyimages‐97657258_wide‐
f00d13e5a774570c4d92838cfcd36320fc638e5d.jpg?s=1400. Bottom photo by FitzGerald (author).
constricted and amplified the height of a Catastrophically, flood waters moving through
surge. As the hurricane swept across the delta these channels coupled with large waves over-
plain, surge waters traveling northward toward topped and compromised levees that pro-
New Orleans were heightened due to the tected residential areas within Saint Bernard
presence of large, dredged access channels. Parish and the Ninth Ward section of New
132 Chapter 5
Orleans, resulting in more than 1000 lives the future, and due to global warming, these
being lost, mostly due to drowning (Box Figure storms are expected to occur more fre-
5.2.4). Levees also failed in other regions of quently and with greater ferocity. The ulti-
New Orleans producing extensive flooding in mate defense of our vulnerable coastal cities
large portions of the city. will depend on massive and highly expensive
We are certain that impacts of major hurri- engineering projects.
canes to coastal regions will continue into
Suggested Reading
Coch, N.L. (1995). Geohazards; Natural and interactive/2015/08/26/us/ten‐years‐after‐
Human. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‐Hall. katrina.html Accessed August 23, 2018.
Elsner, J. and Kara, A.B. (1999). Hurricanes of Pielke, R.A. Jr. and Pielke, J.A. Sr. (1997).
the North Atlantic: Climate and Society. Hurricanes, their Nature and Impacts on
New York: Oxford University Press. Society. New York: Wiley.
Forbes, C., Rhome, J., Mattocks, C., and Taylor, Sallenger, Abby (2009). Island in a Storm:
A. (2014). Predicting the storm surge threat A Rising Sea, a Vanishing Coast, and
of hurricane sandy with the National a Nineteenth‐Century Disaster that
Weather Service SLOSH model. J. Mar. Sci. Warns of a Warmer World. New York,
Eng. 2: 437–476. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Public Affairs.
jmse2020437. Simpson, R.H. and Riehl, H. (1981). The
Henry, J.A., Portier, K.M., and Coyne, J. (1994). Hurricane and its Impact. Baton Rouge:
The Climate and Weather of Florida. Louisiana State University Press.
Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press. Williams, J.M. and Duedall, I.W. (1997).
Robertson, C., and Fausset, R. (2015). Ten Florida Hurricanes and Tropical Storms,
years after Katrina, New York Times, August Revised Edition. Gainesville, FL: University
26, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/ Press of Florida.
133
Waves and the Coast
Waves are a surface disturbance of a fluid forces that maintain waves as they propagate.
(gas or liquid) in which energy is transferred Surface tension is important in very small
from one place to another. In the case of the waves called capillary waves—waves that are
coast, we are concerned with the interface less than 1.7 cm long. Larger waves are called
between the ocean and the atmosphere, but gravity waves because the primary restoring
waves also occur between different liquid force is gravity. These are the typical wave
masses and between different gaseous we see at the coast or on any water surface.
masses. For example, waves occur between A wave has several components that are
water masses of different densities caused by important in describing it and its motion
temperature and/or salinity contrasts; these (Figure 6.2). The wave length (L or λ) is the
are termed internal waves. Waves also occur horizontal distance between two like loca-
within the atmosphere such as between a tions on the wave form; crest to crest, trough
warm, light air mass and one that is cold to trough, etc. The wave height (H) is the ver-
and heavy. tical distance between the base of the trough
When the surface of the fluid is disturbed, and the crest; it is twice the amplitude. The
the perturbation is transferred from one steepness of the wave is the ratio of the height
location to another although the medium to the length (H/L). Another important char-
itself, water in case of the coast, does not acteristic of a gravity wave is its period (T),
move with the propagating disturbance. the time, measured in seconds, required for a
Water waves occur in a wide range of sizes complete wavelength to pass a reference
(Figure 6.1) and may be caused by various point. Because the wave length is so difficult
phenomena. The primary type of wave that to measure due to the constant movement
influences the coast is what is called a pro- of the wave, the period is typically used as
gressive surface wave, produced by wind. In a proxy for the length. The relationship
this type of wave, energy travels across and between the two is generally given as
through the water in the direction of the
propagation of the wave form. These water L
C (6.1)
surface waves are called gravity waves T
because gravity is the restoring force. The
movement is due to restoring forces that Where C is the celerity or velocity of wave
cause an oscillatory or circular motion that is propagation. Another way of measuring
basically sinusoidal in its form (Figure 6.2), wave propagation is by the frequency (f ), that
That is, it is shaped like a sine curve; per- is the number of wave lengths passing per
fectly symmetrical and uniform. Both gravity second. Therefore, a 10‐second wave would
and surface tension are important restoring have a frequency of 10–1.
134 Chapter 6
QUALITATIVE WAVE POWER SPECTRUM
Trans- Long Infra- Ultra-

WAVE Gravity Capillary
tidal Period gravity gravity
BAND Waves Waves
Waves Waves Waves Waves
PRIMARY
DISTURBING
FORCE Wind
Sun, Moon
Storm systems,
Earthquakes
24 12 5 30 1 0.1
hr hr min sec sec sec
Wave Period
Figure 6.1 Graph of showing the frequencies various types of water waves from tidal waves to capillary waves.
(Source: Courtesy of NOAA, https://sos.noaa.gov/copyright‐information).
Transverse Wave
Crest
Direction of travel
One wavelength
Amplitude
Trough
Figure 6.2 Typical waveform showing the various elements of a gravity wave.
The actual transfer of energy from the wave size. In many situations the theoretical
wind to the water surface is complicated and limitation of wave size is caused by the fetch;
not completely understood. It is well‐known, these are typically termed fetch‐limited
however, that the size of waves depends upon basins. Any location can have any wind
three primary factors: how fast the wind is velocity and the wind can blow for any length
blowing in a particular direction (velocity); of time. What cannot change, however, is the
the length of time that the wind blows (dura- size of the water body that is being subjected
tion); and the distance over the water that the to the wind and therefore the fetch. Good
wind blows (“fetch”). Any one or a combina- examples are Lake Michigan and Gulf of
tion of these factors can be limiting on the Mexico, both large bodies of water to be sure,
Waves and the Coast 135
Figure 6.3 Photograph of

complicated sea conditions.
Figure 6.4 Plot of a wave spectrum 0.40

showing the range of frequencies Hurricane period
recorded at one location in a brief time West Palm Beach
series. t = 10 s
0.32 Hmo = 3.99 m
0.24
Energy (J)
0.16
0.08
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Frequency (Hz)
but ones that are not nearly as big as an are in the form of a wave spectrum which can
ocean. Huge waves cannot form in these be separated into its component wave forms,
water bodies even during hurricanes or other each with its own period or frequency and
severe storms. height (Figure 6.4). One of the most impor-
Wave form and its components are distant aspects of the spectral analysis of a wave
cussed here in relatively simplified terms; field is the determination of the significant
however, the actual wave conditions in nature wave height, the most commonly used wave‐
are extremely complicated. Typically there measuring category (Figure 6.5). This value
are several families of waves of different sizes (Hs) is the average height of the highest one‐
(Figure 6.3) moving in different directions all third of the waves occurring during the time
superimposed at any location in the sea. period being analyzed. It is the significant
These waves combine to produce a wave field wave height that is commonly used as an
that can be recorded and analyzed. The data index of wave energy.
136 Chapter 6
Most frequent wave height

Average wave height
Significant wave height
Average height of highest 10%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Wave Height (feet)
Figure 6.5 Graph showing significant wave height and other important wave statistics. (Source: Courtesy
of NOAA, https://sos.noaa.gov/copyright‐information).
6.1 Water Motion and Anyone who has done SCUBA diving knows
Wave Propagation that even if it is quite rough on the surface,
there is a depth below which you do not feel
Recall from the previous section that only wave motion. Because this orbital motion is
the wave form is propagated in gravity waves, forward on the crest, backward on the trough
not the water itself. That being the case, we with vertical motion half way between, a fish-
need to consider how the water actually ing float or a ball appears to actually move up
moves within gravity waves: the water moves and down as the waves pass but without pro-
in an orbital path with the circulation in each gressing significantly itself. Where wind is
orbit being in the direction of wave propaga- present, close inspection of the actual path of
tion. As the wave moves toward the coast, water particles shows that there is slight net
the surface water is moving landward on the movement of water in the direction of propa-
crest of the wave and seaward in the wave gation due to friction between the wind and
trough. In doing so, the wave form moves the water surface. At the coast, this wind may
toward the shore but the water itself moves push the water landward and produce what is
only in circles. This orbital motion in the called setup, a temporary elevation of water
wave extends well below the water surface. level. Setup is a phenomenon that is the major
The diameter of the orbital motion at the factor in undertow, a process that is discussed
water surface is equal to the wave height and in the chapter on beaches (Chapter 13).
this diameter decreases with depth. At a When the depth of water is more than
depth of approximately one‐half the wave half of the wave length of the surface wave,
length of a surface wave, the orbital motion is the orbital motion of water within the wave
very slow, and the orbits are very small; sedi- is not influenced by the ocean floor as
ment on the bottom is not moved (Figure 6.6). the wave propagates. As the wave moves
DEEP-WATER WAVE
WAVE DIRECTION
CREST CREST
WAVE LENGTH
TROUGH
WATER DEPTH ≥ 1/2 WAVE LENGTH
Figure 6.6 Diagram of water motion in waves showing the decrease in the diameter of the orbital paths with
depth. (Source: Courtesy of Joe Holmes, RPI).
SURF ZONE
DUNES
BE
(L)
AC
WAVE
H
LENGTH
BREAKING
WAVE
< 1/2 L
1/2 L
“FEELS
BOTTOM”
BOTTOM
Figure 6.7 Changes in the orbital paths under wave surfaces as they move toward the shore.
(Source: Courtesy of Joe Holmes, RPI).
into increasingly shallow water during its squashed into a football shape and eventually
approach to the coast, these orbital motions becomes simply back and forth motion. This
begin to interact with, or “feel” the bottom at condition progresses as the wave moves into
a depth about equal to half the wave length increasingly shallow water. The slowing of
(Figure 6.7). This is called wave base and the wave causes it to steepen—it is being
this interference causes the orbits of water compressed somewhat like an accordion. At
particles to become deformed and to slow the same time that this is happening, bottom
down. At first the circular motion becomes friction causes the wave to slow down at the
138 Chapter 6
Figure 6.8 Photograph showing how waves can break over each of multiple sand bars as well as at the shoreline.
bottom, but not at the surface. These condi- first break is commonly over the crest of a
tions cause the wave to eventually become so sand bar that may rise a meter or so above
steep that it is no longer stable and its shape the gently sloping nearshore gradient.
collapses. This is the breaking of waves that Landward of this bar is a trough of deeper
we see in the surf along the coast. This insta- water and it is over this trough that the wave
bility due to excessive steepness takes place reforms after initial breaking. The water
when the inclusive angle of the wave form shallows again and breaking takes place
seeks to be less than 12° or the steepness again, over a second sand bar. It will reform
exceeds 1 : 7. After breaking, restoring forces again and finally break at the shore. This situ-
cause the wave to reform and continue its ation, with two sand bars and waves breaking
progression, perhaps to break again before over them (see Figure 6.8) is typical of many
reaching the shoreline. of the gently sloping nearshore areas of the
Multiple breaking of waves in shallow world. It is also possible for a coast to have
water at the coast is produced by a bar and just one bar or three bars. Under conditions
trough topography of the seabed (Figure 6.8). of small waves, breaking will take place only
As the wave moves into shallow water and over the shallow bar and not the deeper one.
begins to feel bottom, slow its forward speed The fairly narrow coastal area where wave
and steepen, it will eventually break. This breaking occurs is called the surf zone.
Box 6.1 The Duck Pier

In 1977, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers that extends to a depth of 7 m (see Box Figure
established their Field Research Facility (FRF) 6.1.1). This pier was constructed to enable
at Duck, North Carolina near the northern end monitoring and the conducting of research on
of the Outer Banks. The central element of this a variety of coastal processes across the inner
facility is a research pier 590 ft (180 m) long shoreface and surf zone. Other elements of
Box Figure 6.1.1 Oblique aerial photo of the Duck Pier. (Source: Courtesy of Andrew Morang).
the facility include research laboratories, Wave height, period and direction are
sophisticated computer capabilities, and a monitored by pressure transducer arrays

conference room. An observation tower rises beyond the pier and wave height and period
13 m above the adjacent dunes, and various are measured at three locations along the
specialized vehicles for taking measurements pier.There are s wave‐rider buoys at various
in the r igorous conditions of storms are availa- locations offshore. The water current profile
ble. The staff of 16 includes coastal scientists is measured, as are various meteorological
and engineers, computer specialists and parameters, and water parameters such as
technicians. temperature, salinity and light penetration are
The specialized vehicles and other equip- also included in this data base. The changes in
ment permit the FRF to make observations bathymetry and shoreline position are meas-
and take measurements that are otherwise ured and related to the processes. All of these
not possible. A specially constructed motor- data are compiled into monthly and annual
ized vehicle called a CRAB (Coastal Research reports and are available to the public. Some
Amphibious Buggy) can move across the surf of the process data are available online in near‐
zone to survey with centimeter accuracy to a real time.
depth of 9 m. It can also deploy instruments In addition to the regular collection of data
and provide a stable platform for other activi- by the FRF staff, the facility also hosts visiting
ties such as vibracoring, side‐scan sonar sur- researchers from other Corps of Engineers
veying and sediment sampling. A Sensor locations and from universities. There have
Insertion System (SIS) is a large crane that can been huge experiments at the FRF that
extend out up to 24 m from the pier and can have involved more than 100 researchers each.
carry wave gauges, current meters, suspended Such events as “Super Duck” and “Sandy Duck”
sediment sampling devices and other instru- were held several years ago and lasted at least
ments. The SIS can be moved on a track along two weeks each. Investigators brought their
the entire length of the pier. own instruments and personnel to interact
One of the main tasks of the FRF is to with the total group. In order to be invited to
continuously monitor coastal processes and participate in these large and complex experi-
change in order to provide a large data base. ments, a principal investigator had to submit a
140 Chapter 6
proposal of research and relate it to the overall data are collected. Funding is always a limiting
objectives. These events have provided a tre- factor so such shortcomings are tolerable
mendous amount of comprehensive data for a given the budget of the supporting agencies.
selected time period. At the present time FRF personnel are con-
One criticism of the FRF is that there has ducting projects at several locations away
been too much time, effort, and money from Duck, most at other sites in North Carolina
expended at this single location instead of but also at Bethany Beach, Delaware and
having multiple locations where a wealth of Ocean City, Maryland.
6.2 Wind Wave Types A common wave type is the swell wave,

which actually has a waveform that
Although the theoretical and simple wave approaches a sinusoidal shape (Figure 6.9).
form is a sinusoidal curve, that form is not Swell develops after the wind stops or when
common in nature. Wave shape depends on the wave travels beyond the area where the
the conditions of wind, water depth and the wind is blowing. Swell waves commonly have
progression of the wave itself. Although wind a long wave length and small wave height,
is responsible for the production of most thus having a very low steepness value, much
gravity waves, it is common for the waves to lower than sea waves.
travel well beyond the area where the wind The breaking of waves as they enter shal-
blows or for waves to continue long after the low water takes on different characteristics
wind stops blowing. Waves that are directly depending upon the type of wave that is pre-
under the influence of wind are called sea sent in deep water, and the conditions of
waves (Figure 6.3). They typically have rela- breaking as the waves move into the surf
tively peaked crests and broad troughs. In zone. For example, swell waves are long and
nature, sea waves tend to be complicated by low, therefore they begin to feel the bottom
multiple sets of various sized waves superim- in relatively deep water. They gradually slow
posed. Whitecaps occur when the wind and steepen until they break as plunging
blows off the tops of sea waves. breakers (Figure 6.10). This type of breaking
Figure 6.9 Photo of swell waves showing low amplitude and long period as they approach the shore.
(Source: R. A. Davis).
Figure 6.10 Waves that steepen in the nearshore and break almost instantaneously are called plunging waves.
Figure 6.11 Waves that steepen in the nearshore and break over time and distance are called spilling breakers.
(Source: R. A. Davis).
wave is typified by a large curling motion is most common as sea waves with their
with an instantaneous crashing of the wave shorter wave length and higher steepness
characterized by a sudden loss of energy. It is enter shallow water. As these waves break
typical of gently sloping nearshore zones. they do so slowly over several seconds and
The other common type of breaking wave some distance. The wave looks like water
is the spilling breaker (Figure 6.11). This type spilling out of a container. Surging breakers
142 Chapter 6
Figure 6.12 Waves break as surging breakers in very shallow water.
(Figure 6.12) and collapsing breakers are r efraction of the wave as it passes through
other types of breaking waves; they look very shallow water on its way to the shoreline
much like each other, having an appearance (Figure 6.13). As the waves bend or refract,
that is similar to spilling breakers. Surging they cause a vector of energy to move along
breakers typically develop on or near the the shoreline in the form of a longshore
beach as the wave runs up to the shoreline. current (discussed in Chapter 7), and they
The wave steepens, and just as it begins to cause energy to be d istributed according to
break, it surges up the beach. the relationship between the bending wave
and the shoreline. The distribution of wave
energy can be represented by orthogonals,
6.3 Distribution and lines constructed perpendicular to wave
Transfer of Wave Energy crests. This construction enables us to see
where wave energy is concentrated and
As waves move into shallow water and are where it is dispersed, as shown by converging
influenced by the bottom and by various nat- or diverging orthogonals respectively.
ural features or structures made by humans, If we have a uniformly sloping nearshore
they may experience changes in their energy with waves approaching a straight shoreline at
distribution and/or direction. This occurs in an acute angle, we would expect the wave
three primary ways: refraction, diffraction energy to be uniformly distributed along the
and reflection—waves act much like light. shoreline. If the shoreline and/or the nearshore
Waves typically approach the shoreline at topography is irregular, then the refraction of
some angle; the crest may have an orienta- the waves will be affected by these irregularities
tion ranging from nearly perpendicular to and the distribution of wave energy will be
parallel to the shoreline. As the wave enters complicated. As a result of refraction, wave
shallow water and begins to be slowed by energy is concentrated at headland areas along
interference with the bottom, this slowing of the coast and is dissipated in embayments
the rate of movement of the wave takes place (Figure 6.14). This combination of conditions
at different times and places along the crest causes headlands to erode and embayments to
of the wave. The result is a bending or accumulate sediment.
(a)
BEACH
DRIFT
EST
CR
CH
W AVE C R
A
BE
CK
BA
ES
T
T E
EN R
R O
R H
B
U S
FACEACH
C NG
E
LO
(b)
Figure 6.13 (a) Schematic diagram of waves refracting across the surf zone (Source: Courtesy of Joe Holmes,
RPI), and (b) photograph of the same phenomenon.
As waves pass an impermeable obstacle As the wave passes the structure, energy is
such as a jetty, breakwater or other type of transferred laterally along the wave crest to
structure, the wave energy is spread along the the sheltered areas behind the obstacle.
crest behind the obstacle, it is diffracted. Part In this way waves gradually progress behind
of the wave crest is stopped by the structure the obstruction although they will have
and the rest of it passes by (Figure 6.15). smaller heights than the wave that is
144 Chapter 6
LAND
Bay
Headland Headland
Wave
Wave
SEA
Wave
Figure 6.14 Diagram showing how refraction concentrates wave energy on the headland and disperses it in
the embayments.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.15 Diagrams showing spreading of wave energy as (a) waves pass through an opening and (b) as
they pass by an obstacle. (Source: Courtesy of http://physics.taskermilward.org.uk).
naffected by the structure. This is the rea-

u itself. The same phenomenon occurs when
son that boats anchored behind breakwaters waves pass through a constricted passageway
or other shelters still feel waves. It should to open water (Figure 6.16).
also be noted that the obstacle also influ- Waves can also have some or all of their
ences wave energy beyond the structure energy reflected as the wave meets the beach
able structure without any interference

by the bottom, 100% of its energy will be
reflected. This would be the situation if a sea-
wall or breakwater presented a solid vertical
surface, such as one of poured concrete.
A vertical rock outcrop would present the
same situation. A structure that is sloping
and/or has an irregular surface will absorb
Wave direction some of the wave energy and will reflect only
part of it. The same is true of a steep beach:
some of the wave energy is reflected and
some of it dissipated or absorbed. Typically,
only a small percentage of incident wave
energy will be reflected at a beach.
Structures like seawalls are problematic
because the impact of wave energy causes
scour at the base of the wall that may cause it
to fail, and the scour also causes considerable
Figure 6.16 Vertical aerial photo showing wave
diffraction as the waves pass through a narrow beach erosion. In many situations riprap rock
bedrock opening into a bay on the Spanish coast. is placed in front of the seawall to dissipate
(Source: Courtesy of Barcelona Field Studies Center). and absorb wave energy and thereby dimin-
ish erosion (Figure 6.18).
(Figure 6.17), a structure or rock exposures. The direction along which this reflected
The amount of reflected energy and the energy proceeds is in accordance with the law
direction in which the reflected energy is of reflection; the angle of reflection is equal to
directed is dependent upon the amount of the angle of incidence. In other words waves
energy absorbed by the coast or structure, approaching a vertical sea wall act just like
and the angle of approach. If a wave light rays on a mirror. A wave that approaches
approaches and hits a vertical and imperme- a sea wall at an angle of 45° will be reflected
Figure 6.17 A wave reflected from the steep beach face on the island of Curacao.
146 Chapter 6
Figure 6.18 Vertical concrete seawall on the Florida Gulf Coast with boulder riprap in front to dissipate
wave energy.
The name is typically applied to waves pro-

Angle of
equals
Angle of duced by seismic or other events that
Incidence Reflection cause major movements on, or of, the crust
of the ocean floor. Such events cause a dis-
turbance of the sea surface, a tsunami;
commonly referred to as a seismic sea wave.
Incident Ray Reflected Ray Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides
and possibly even strong, deep‐water cur-
rents may trigger tsunamis. A good way to
envision the generation of a tsunami is that
Figure 6.19 Diagram showing how incoming waves
the water container (the ocean floor) is dis-
are reflected from a seawall at the same angle as the
incoming wave. (Source: Courtesy of DOSITS, turbed, which in turn causes a disturbance
Discovery of Sound in the Sea). of the water surface.
The wave length of a tsunami is generally
at the same angle (Figure 6.19). Incident up to hundreds of kilometers, wave height
waves on a rocky coast may experience just may be about a meter in deep water and the
this sort of condition. wave travels at hundreds of kilometers per
hour. Because of its great wave length, a tsu-
nami will begin to be affected by the sea
6.4 Other Types of Waves floor at great depth. This causes a very
marked slowing of the velocity accompanied
Tsunamis by steepening of the wave, resulting in a
A tsunami is a large, rapidly moving wave wave height of several meters at the coast.
that can be very destructive when it reaches Many catastrophic tsunamis have seriously
the coast. The word tsunami is Japanese affected coastal areas of the world, for exam-
for “very long harbor wave.” This name has ple in Japan and many of the small islands of
been applied to these waves because it is in the Pacific, especially Hawaii. The west coast
harbors that much of the damage occurs. of North America has also experienced large
Figure 6.20 Huge wave generated by the 2011 tsunami as it came ashore. (Source: U.S. Marine Corps photo by
Lance Cpl. Ethan Johnson).
tsunami waves. Not only do these huge coastal areas. Most public beach access sites
waves destroy property (Figure 6.20) and on the west coast of the United States now
erode the beaches, several have caused a have a sign warning of tsunamis.
high loss of life. Among the recorded disas-
ters of this type were the tsunamis of 1692 in Standing Waves
Jamaica, 1755 in Portugal, 1896 in Japan, and All of the previously discussed wave types are
1946 in Hawaii. The eruption of Krakatoa in progressive gravity waves. The waveform
the southwest Pacific in 1883 produced a moves forward and gravity is the restoring
tsunami that carried a large ship 3 km inland force. There are special conditions under
to an elevation of 9 m above sea level. The which waves do not propagate but can influ-
1964 earthquake in Alaska produced a tsu- ence the coast. Such waves are called stand-
nami that caused severe damage to Crescent ing waves—waves trapped in a container or a
City, California. Loss of life has been greatly restricted body of water such as an embay-
reduced since the establishment of a net- ment, a harbor or a lake. The wave length of
work of seismic monitoring stations that a standing wave is equal to the diameter or
covers the entire Pacific Ocean. This net- length of the water body in which the wave
work was constructed in the 1950s and develops. There is a node in the middle about
1960s, and now makes it possible to predict which there is no motion and an alternating
the development, movement, landfall and up and down motion at each end of the water
size of tsunamis. This does not make them body (Figure 6.21). The best example of a
less dangerous, nor does it do anything to small‐scale standing wave is the liquid
prevent damage or loss of property. It only motion that takes place when you walk with a
provides warnings of several minutes or a cup of coffee or a pan of water; the surface
few hours to permit rapid evacuation of sloshes back and forth.
148 Chapter 6
Antinode Antinode Figure 6.21 Standing wave in a vessel

Crest Crest shows a node in the middle above which
Node the water surface moves.
Trough Trough
Resultant reflective
wave
Seawall
Progressive
wave
Figure 6.22 Reflected waves. (Source: Courtesy of Joe Holmes, RPI).
Most common and most noticeable among As waves approach a sea wall, steep beach
the standing waves in the natural environ- or other obstacle with the wave crests paral-
ment is the seiche [pronounced “saysh”]. lel to the obstruction, the crest is reflected
Seiches are usually a result of weather condi- back and causes an instantaneous increase
tions that cause rapid changes in barometric in the height of the next incoming wave
pressure and/or wind conditions. Water is (Figure 6.22).
piled up on one side of the basin and then
is released as the wind stops quickly or
when the barometric pressure rises quickly. 6.5 Wave‐Generated
As a consequence, there is an alternating Currents
extremely high and extremely low water level
at the shore as the standing wave sloshes There are three types of coastal currents that
back and forth across the water body. The are produced by waves: longshore currents,
Great Lakes tend to experience the most dra- rip currents and undertow. All three of types
matic seiches, with changes in lake level of of current develop as the result of shoreward
over a meter with the passage of a strong progression of waves, and all three can play a
frontal system. Seiche waves have swept peo- role transporting sediment within the surf
ple from the beach and drowned them in zone.
Lake Michigan. Lake Erie is the most suscep-
tible due to its shallow depth and its orienta- Longshore Currents
tion along the dominant wind direction as There is a slow, landward transport of water
storms pass through this area. It has experi- as gravity waves move landward and break in
enced seiches of over two meters. the surf zone. The rate at which this occurs is
Wave reflection can also create a type of related to the refraction pattern of the waves
standing wave that is instantaneous in nature. as they move through the nearshore and surf
zone. This refraction produces a current that many times that in each direction. Longshore
flows essentially parallel to the shoreline; the currents and littoral sediment transport
longshore current or sometimes called the lit- occurs in any coastal environment where
toral current (see Figure 6.13). waves are refracted as they move into shal-
As the wave refracts during steepening and low water and approach the shoreline.
breaking, there is both a shoreward and a Whereas large volumes of littoral drift take
shore‐parallel vector to its direction. This place on open ocean beaches, longshore cur-
condition produces the longshore current rents and resulting sediment transport are
with a velocity that is related to the size of the also common on bays, estuaries and lakes.
breaking wave and to its angle of approach to
the shoreline. The longshore current is essen- Rip Currents
tially confined to the surf zone and has an The previously mentioned landward trans-
effective seaward boundary at the outermost port of water as waves move to the shoreline
breaker line and a landward boundary at the produces “setup,” an increase in water level at
shoreline. It acts much like a river channel the shore. This is largely the result of friction
with the greatest velocity near the middle between the wind and the water surface as
and has been called the “river of sand.” Under the progressive waves move through the surf
some conditions, wind blowing along shore zone. Setup is basically similar to storm surge
will enhance the speed of the longshore cur- but it is smaller in scale and is limited to a
rent. These currents typically move at a few narrow zone along the shore. This elevation
tens of centimeters per second but even of the water is typically a few centimeters.
moderate storm conditions generate speeds The setup water is essentially piled up against
of more than a meter per second. the shoreline in an unstable condition
Longshore currents work together with the because of the inclination of the water level.
waves to transport large volumes of sediment That situation cannot persist.
along the shoreline. As the waves interfere If this unstable condition exists along a
with the bottom when the waves steepen and barred coast or along some of the steeper
break, large amounts of sediment are tempo- coasts, the setup produces seaward flowing
rarily put into suspension. The sediment is currents that are rather narrow and that cre-
most concentrated at the bottom of the water ate circulation cells (Figure 6.23) within the
column but is present throughout. This sus- surf zone. These narrow currents are called
pended sediment and bed‐load sediment is rip currents. They commonly flow at speeds
then transported along the shoreline by long- of a few tens of centimeters per second and
shore currents. they can transport sediment. Some are strong
Because waves may approach the coast in enough that they excavate shallow channels
wide range of directions, the longshore cur- that are essentially normal to the orientation
rent may flow in either direction along the of the coast (Figure 6.24). Rip currents are
shoreline, depending on the angle of wave connected with feeder currents that are part
approach. As a result of this back and forth of the longshore current system. Rip current
transport of sediment there might be a large is the phenomenon that is commonly and
amount of sediment flux over a designated mistakenly called a “rip tide,” even though it
period of time, but the net littoral transport is not related to tides. Rip currents can be a
will be in one direction and may be only a danger to swimmers and they cause several
small portion of the total. We typically speak drownings each year at locations where they
of littoral transport in terms of the annual are common. In actuality they should not be
amount in a particular length of coast. For a problem to swimmers because they are
example it may be 100,000 m3 year−1 from narrow and the swimmer simply needs to
north to south. Remember, this is the net move a short distance along shore to escape
transport, the total or gross amount may be their seaward path.
150 Chapter 6
Figure 6.23 Diagram showing water circulation in a rip current system. (Source: Courtesy of Joe Holmes, RPI).
The size, orientation and spacing of rip between wind and water is returned sea-
currents are related to wave conditions and ward in a strong and essentially continuous
nearshore bathymetry. In the absence of current. Flow is commonly up to 50 cm s−1
longshore sand bars and along a smooth, during strong onshore waves, the only time
embayed shoreline, the rip current spacing is when undertow is noticeable.
typically regular and fairly persistent. If Undertow is not confined to rather high‐
incoming waves are essentially parallel to the energy wave conditions in the surf zone; it is
shoreline they will produce a nearly symmet- also common in places where longshore
rical circulation cell with feeder currents that bars are absent or far offshore and relatively
are symmetrical in each direction. Rip cur- deep. In some areas rip currents will per-
rents that form when waves approach at an sist during low‐ to moderate‐energy wave
angle generally develop asymmetrical cells conditions and then lose their definition

and related feeder currents. during high‐energy wave conditions; under-
Rip currents are not major transporters tow will then become the primary mode of
of sediment although they may carry small seaward return of water from unstable
amounts of fine sediment (Figure 6.25). conditions of setup.
Undertow
Another nearshore circulation phenome- 6.6 Summary
non that is caused by shoreward movement
of water and setup is called undertow. Here, Waves are probably the most important
the water that piles up at the shoreline factor in coastal development. They move
is returned along the bottom to alleviate the sediment directly or through the genera-
unstable condition produced by the setup. tion of wave‐driven currents. Wave activity
This is a type of circulation that is com- can cause erosion and can also transport
monly confused with rip currents and sediment to the coast. Although there are
that may also cause problems for swim- still many aspects of wave–sediment inter-
mers. Water that is transported toward the action that we do not understand, the basic
shoreline by forward motion of water as characteristics of wave mechanics are
waves progress landward and from friction well known. Part of the difficulty is that
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.24 Rip current channels on the coasts of (a) Florida and (b) Australia.
we are dealing with the relationships between difficult, although great progress is being
fluid motion and a solid substrate. Another made.
difficulty is that much of the interaction Waves are primarily at work on the open
between waves and the coast takes place dur- coast and have only minor influence on the
ing severe conditions of storms. Making obser- more protected environments such as estu-
vations under such conditions is extremely aries, tidal flats and wetlands.
152 Chapter 6
Figure 6.25 Rip current carrying sediment offshore. (Source: R. A. Davis).
Suggested Reading
Bascom, W. (1980). Waves and Beaches. Scientists, 2e. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Garden City, NY: Anchor Books. Prentice‐Hall.
CERC (1984). Shore Protection Manual, Holthuijsen, L.H. (2010). Waves in Oceanic
2 volumes. Vicksburg, MS: Coastal and Coastal Waters. Cambridge: University
Engineering Research Center, Waterway of Cambridge Press.
Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers. Hudspeth, R.T. (2005). Waves and Wave Forces
Davidson‐Arnott, R. (2009). Introduction to on Coastal and Ocean Structures. Singapore:
Coastal Processes and Geomorphology. World Scientific Publishing Company.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. U.S. Army, COE (2002). Shore Protection
Dean, R.G. and Dalrymple, R.A. (1998). Water Manual, vol. 1. Washington, DC: U.S. Army,
Wave Mechanics for Engineers and Corps of Engineers.
153
Tides of the Ocean
7.1 Introduction expression of tides is most dramatic in

funnel‐shaped embayments where vertical

Anyone who has spent time along the excursions of the water surface can reach
s eashore knows that the ocean level changes more than 10 m in such areas as the Gulf of
on an hourly basis. Fishermen plan their Saint‐Malo, France (Figure 7.1) or the Gulf
activities around high and low tide, for of San Matias, Argentina and even as high as
instance those who dig clams when tidal flats 15 m in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Pytheas, a
are uncovered or gather mussels at low tide. Greek navigator, recorded the Moon’s con-
Boaters are aware that some channels are trol of the tides in the fourth century bce.
only navigable at high tide when waters are However, it was not until Sir Isaac Newton
deep enough for their boats to pass. Large (1642–1727) published his Pliloshophiae
vessels sailing to port normally enter at slack naturalis principia mathematica (Philosophy
water or during an ebbing tide. Moving of natural mathematical principles) in 1686,
against the tidal flow provides greater steer- that we finally had a scientific basis for
age for ships than traveling with the currents. understanding the tides.
The rise and fall of the tides is one of the In this chapter we discuss the origin of the
major rhythms of Planet Earth. It has a dra- tides and how their magnitude is governed
matic effect on shoreline processes and by the relative position of Earth, the Moon
coastal landforms. Were it not for the tides and the Sun. It will be shown that the com-
there would be no tidal inlets and few natural plexity of the tides is a function of many
harbors along East and Gulf Coast of the factors including the elliptical orbits of Earth
United States as well as along many other and the Moon, the angles of inclination of the
barrier coasts of the world. Those familiar orbits of Earth and Moon, and the presence
with the coast recognize that times of high of continents that partition the oceans
and low tide occur approximately an hour into numerous large and small basins. The
later each day. More astute observers know phenomena of tidal currents and tidal bores
that daily tides gradually change in magni- are also discussed.
tude over the course of a month and that
these variations are closely related to phases
of the Moon.
Tides are a manifestation of the Moon and
7.2 Tide‐Generating Forces
Sun’s gravitational force acting on the Earth’s
7.2.1 Gravitational Force
hydrosphere. With wave lengths measuring
in thousands of kilometers, tides are actually As a basis for understanding the Earth’s tides,
shallow‐water waves affecting the world’s we begin with Newton’s universal Law of
oceans from top to bottom. The surface Gravitation, which states that every particle
154 Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Mont Saint Michel in the Gulf of St.‐Malo is surrounded by water at high tide due to a 12‐m tide
that inundates the tidal flats and even floods some of the parking lots.
of mass in the universe is attracted to every small mass as compared to the Sun and their
other particle of mass. This force of attrac- great distance from Earth as compared to the
tion is directly related to the masses of the Moon. Although the attractive forces of the
two bodies and inversely proportional to the Moon and Sun produce slight tides within
square of the distance between them. The law the solid Earth and large oscillations in the
can be stated mathematically as: atmosphere, it is the easily deformed liquid
component of the Earth (the hydrosphere)
M1 M2 where tides are most clearly visible.
F G
R2 As illustrated in Figure 7.2, the Sun is
27 million times more massive than the Moon
where F is the force of gravity, G is the gravi- but 390 times further away. After substituting
tational constant, M1 and M2 are the masses the respective mass and distance values for
of the two objects and R is the distance the Moon and Sun into Newton’s Gravitation
between the two masses. From the equation equation, it is seen that the attractive force of
it is seen that the force of gravity increases as the Sun is approximately 180 times greater
the mass of the objects increases and as the than that of the Moon. However, we still know
objects are closer together. Distance is par- that the Moon has a greater influence on
ticularly critical because this factor is squared Earth’s tides than does the Sun.
(R2) in the equation. Thus, the two celestial
bodies producing the Earth’s tides are the
7.2.2 Centrifugal Force
Moon, owing to its proximity, and the Sun,
because of its tremendous mass. The other To understand how gravitational force actually
planets in the Solar System have essentially produces the tides it is necessary to learn more
no effect on the tides due to their relatively about orbiting celestial bodies including the
Tides of the Ocean 155
Moon
Distance of Moon and Sun from Earth

shown approximately to scale
Earth Sun
Average distance Mass

from Earth
Moon 385,000 km 7.3 × 1019 t
Sun 149,800,000 km 2 × 1027 t
Sun compared 390 times 27 million times

to Moon further away more massive
Newton’s Law of Gravitational Attraction (Fg)
mass Sun 27 million times more massive

Fg ~ = = 180
distance2 (Sun 390 times further away)2
Tide-producing force (Ft)
mass Sun 27 million times more massive

Ft ~ = = 0.46
distance2 (Sun 390 times further away)3
Therefore, the Sun has 46% of the control on tides compared to the Moon
Figure 7.2 Earth’s tides are primarily controlled by the Moon because tidal force is inversely proportional to
distance between the masses cubed. Thus, even though the Sun is much more massive than the Moon,
because it is also much further away from Earth than the Moon its influence is a little less than one‐half that
if the Moon.
Moon–Earth system and the Earth–Sun Thus far, we have been careful not to say
system. First, it is important to recognize that the Moon orbits Earth. In fact, Earth and
that a centrifugal force is counteracting the Moon form a single system in which the
gravitational attraction between the Moon two bodies revolve around a single center of
and Earth (Figure 7.3). Centrifugal force is a mass. Because Earth is approximately 81.5
force that is exerted on all objects moving in times more massive than the Moon, the
curved paths, such as a car moving through a center of mass of the system, called the bar-
sharp right bend in the road. The centrifugal ycenter, must be 81.5 times closer to Earth’s
force is directed outward and can be felt by a center than the Moon. The barycenter can be
car’s driver as he or she is pressed against the determined by knowing that the average dis-
car’s left door through the turn. If the Moon tance between the center of Earth and the
were stopped in its orbit, centrifugal force center of the Moon is 385,000 km; by divid-
would disappear and gravitational force ing 385,000 by 81.5 we calculate that the
would cause Earth and the Moon to collide. center of mass is 4724 km from Earth’s center.
Conversely, if the gravitational force ceased Earth’s radius is 6380 km, and therefore the
between the two bodies, the Moon would center of mass of the Earth–Moon system is
career into space. located 1656 km (6380 − 4724) beneath the
156 Chapter 7
Centrifugal
force
Center of mass of Earth–Moon system,

the barycenter (BC)
Gravitational attraction
Moon
Center of Earth
Figure 7.3 The Earth–Moon system rotates around a common center of mass called the barycenter, which is
within Earth. The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon is balanced by the centrifugal force due
to the Moon’s motion around the barycenter.
surface of Earth. The Earth–Moon system and Earth only equals the centrifugal force
can be visualized by considering a dumbbell on Earth at their common center of mass
with a much larger ball at one end (81.5 times (the barycenter), which is 1656 km inside the
greater) than the other. If this dumbbell were Earth’s surface. Thus, if we consider a unit
thrown end over end, it would appear as mass at the surface of Earth at a site facing
though the large ball (Earth) wobbled and the the Moon, this mass experiences a force of
small ball (Moon) orbited the large ball. attraction by the Moon that is greater than
It should be understood that because the the centrifugal force due to its rotation about
entire Earth is revolving around the center of the barycenter. The larger gravitational force
mass of the Earth–Moon system, every unit is explained by the fact that at this location
mass on the surface of Earth is moving the distance to the Moon is less than the
through an orbit with the same dimensions. distance between the Earth’s center of mass
The average radius of each orbit is 4724 km and the Moon’s center of mass at which the
(NOAA n.d.). (The movement of Earth two forces are equal. (Remember in Newton’s
around the Earth–Moon center of mass gravitation equation that as distance
should not be confused with Earth spinning decreases, the force of gravity increases.)
on its axis, which is a separate phenomenon Conversely, for a unit mass on the opposite
and plays no part in establishing the differ- side of Earth the centrifugal force due to its
ential tide‐producing forces.) Thus, if every rotation about the barycenter exceeds the
unit mass on the surface of Earth has gravitational attraction exerted by the Moon
the same size orbit, then it follows that the because this site is farther away from the
centrifugal force on the unit masses must Moon than the point at which the forces
also be equal. balance. Thus, the unequal forces on either
side of Earth cause the hydrosphere to be
drawn toward the Moon on the near side of
7.2.3 Tide‐Producing Force
Earth and to be directed away from the Moon
Ocean tides exist because gravitational and on the opposite side. This produces two tidal
centrifugal forces are unequal on Earth’s bulges of equal size that are oriented toward
surface (hydrosphere) (Figure 7.4). In fact, the and away from the Moon. These forces also
gravitational attraction between the Moon result in depressions in the hydrosphere that
Figure 7.4 Tides are generated in Earth’s

hydrosphere due to differences between the
centrifugal force and the Moon’s attractive
force. The centrifugal forces that result from
the rotation of the center of the Earth
around the barycenter, are essentially equal
over Earth’s surface and directed away from Barycenter
the Moon. This somewhat simple treatment Earth’s center
accounts for two tidal bulges being
produced on opposite sides of Earth. To Moon
Centrifugal force Gravitational force due to Moon
Tide-producing force
are located halfway between the two bulges mass and distance values into the above equa-
on either side of Earth. If we disregard the tion, it is calculated that the tide‐generating
curvature of Earth, the tides can be thought force of the Sun is only 46 % of the Moon’s.
as a long wave with the crest being the bulge
and the depression being the trough. This
waveform is called the tidal wave and should
not be confused with a tsunami, which some-
7.3 Equilibrium Tide
times is inappropriately referred to as a tidal
The equilibrium tide is a simplified model
wave.
of how tides behave over the surface of Earth
The above description reveals that forces
given the following assumptions:
generating Earth’s tides are very sensitive to
distance. The tide‐generating force is derived 1) Earth’s surface is completely enveloped
by calculating the difference between the with water with no intervening continents
gravitational force and the centrifugal force. of other landmasses.
A simplified form of the relationship is 2) The oceans are extremely deep and uni-
given by: form in depth such that the seafloor offers
no frictional resistance to movement of
M1 M2
F the overlying ocean water.
R3 3) There are two tidal bulges that remain
The tide‐generating force F is proportional fixed toward and away from the Moon.
to the masses M1 and M2 and inversely
related to the cube of the distance between
7.3.1 Tidal Cycle
the bodies R3. When these computations are
performed for unit masses over the surface of In our initial discussion of the equilibrium
Earth, it is seen that the resulting vectors are tide model, we will neglect the effects of the
oriented toward and away from the Moon Sun. If we consider a stationary Moon, then
(Figure 7.4). Note also that distance is cubed Earth passes under the two tidal bulges each
in the equation, which explains why the time it completes a rotation around its axis
Moon exerts a greater control on Earth’s (Figure 7.5). In this idealized case the wave
tides than does the Sun. As illustrated in length of the tidal wave, which is the distance
Figure 7.2, after substituting the respective between the tidal bulges, would be half the
158 Chapter 7
N equator directly facing the Moon and record

Mean sea
how the water level fluctuates at this site
level
through time as Earth spins on its axis. At
Water 12:00 midnight, the Moon is overhead and the
surface
ocean is at high tide because Earth is directly
under the maximum extent of the tidal bulge.
After high tide the water level gradually drops
To Moon reaching low tide six hours later at 6:00 a.m.
During the next six hours the tide rises, attain-
ing a second high tide at 12:00 noon. The cycle
repeats itself over the next 12 hours.
Figure 7.5 Under idealized equilibrium tide

7.3.2 Orbiting Moon
conditions Earth passes beneath two equal and In the real world the Moon is not stationary,
opposite tidal bulges every 24 hours. This situation
assumes an absence of continents, a uniform depth of
rather it completes an orbit around the center
the ocean, and the Moon aligned with Earth’s equator. of the Earth–Moon system in a period of
27.3 days. The Moon moves in the same direc-
tion as Earth spins on its axis and therefore
circumference of Earth. High tide coincides after Earth completes a full 24‐hour rotation
with Earth’s position under the bulges and low the Moon has traveled 13.2° of its orbit. For
tide corresponds to the troughs located mid- Earth to “catch up” to the Moon, it must con-
way between the bulges. The tidal period tinue to rotate for an additional 50 minutes.
would be 12 hours (interval between succes- Thus the Moon makes successive transits
sive tidal bulges). The rhythm of tidal changes above a given location on Earth in a period of
referred to as the tidal cycle can be better con- 24 hours and 50 minutes, which is called the
ceptualized if we choose a position on the lunar day (Figure 7.6). Because the Moon is
Moon
revolving
around
Earth
Moon
Earth
Rotat i on
North Tidal
Pole bulges
0 hour 8 hours 16 hours 24 hours 24 hours

+ 50 mins
8 hours 8 hours 8 hours 50 mins
Start 1 solar 1 lunar

day day
Figure 7.6 Cartoon illustrating why times of high and low tide occur 50 minutes later each successive day. The
arrow represents a stationary position on Earth. Tidal bulges are oriented directly toward and away from the
Moon and time zero coincides with a high tide. In 24 hours the arrow is back to the origin, however the moon
is no longer directly overhead. As Earth completes one rotation on its axis, the Moon travels 1 day in its 27.3‐
day orbit around Earth. Thus, Earth must spin on its axis an extra 50 minutes before the arrow is aligned with
the moon and the ocean reaches high tide.
Figure 7.7 In its orbit around Earth, the Moon Moon

moves above and below the equator. When Island partly
Island submerged
the Moon is not aligned with the equator, submerged North (higher high tide)
successive tidal bulges, and the corresponding (lower high Pole
tidal ranges, are unequal. This phenomenon is tide)
called a semi‐diurnal inequality.
Island
exposed
(low tide)
Earth turns eastward
Equator
South
Pole
moving, high and low tides do not take place in elevation between low and high tide). For
every 12 hours as discussed in the simple example, if you are along the east coast of
model above, rather they occur every 12 hour Florida at tropic tide conditions, during one
and 25 minutes. The time interval between tidal cycle the tide will come up very high
high and low tide is about 6 hours and and then go out very far generating a rela-
13 minutes. When there are two cycles in a tively large tidal range. During the next
day (actually 24 hours and 50 minutes) they tidal cycle, a low high tide is followed by
are called semi‐diurnal tides. high low tide, producing a small tidal range.
As viewed in Figure 7.7, the diurnal inequal-
7.3.3 Inclination of Moon’s Orbit ity is explained by the fact that when the tidal
bulges are asymmetrically distributed about
So far in our discussion of the tides, we have the equator, Earth will rotate under very
simplified matters by envisioning a Moon different sized tidal bulges. This translates
that is always directly overhead of the equa- to unequal successive high and low tides.
tor. However, the Moon’s orbit is actually It should be noted that during equatorial tide
inclined to the plane containing the equator. conditions there is little to no inequality of
Over a period of a month the Moon migrates the semidiurnal tides, whereas they reach a
from a maximum position 28.5° north of the maximum during tropic tides.
equator to a position 28.5° south of the equa-
tor and back again. When the Moon is
directly overhead of the tropics the tides are
called tropic tides and when it is over the 7.4 Interaction of Sun and Moon
equator they are called equatorial tides.
Because the Moon is the dominant control of In an earlier section it was shown that the
the tides it follows that when the Moon is Sun’s tide‐generating force is a little less than
positioned far north or south of the equator half that of the Moon (46 %). It is important
the tidal bulges will also be centered in the to note that, just like the Moon, the Sun also
tropics. This arrangement of the tidal bulges produces bulges and depressions in Earth’s
leads to a semi‐diurnal inequality meaning hydrosphere. These are called solar tides and
that successive tides have very different tidal they have a period of 12 hours unlike the 12‐hrs
ranges (tidal range is the vertical difference and 25 minutes period of the lunar tides.
160 Chapter 7
The period is 12 hours because Earth passes The Moon cycles through these different
through two solar bulges every day (24 hours). phases over a period of 29.5 days.
One way of explaining the interaction of During new and full Moons, when Earth,
the Moon and Sun is to show how the Sun the Moon, and Sun are all aligned, the tide‐
enhances or retards the Moon’s tide generat- generating forces of the Moon and Sun act
ing force. In order to do this we must first in the same direction and the forces are
understand how the phases of the Moon additive (Figure 7.8). Conceptually, one can
correlate with the position of Earth, the envision the Sun’s bulge sitting on top of the
Moon, and Sun. Moon’s bulge. Between the bulges the Sun’s
New Moons and full Moons result when trough further depresses the Moon’s trough.
Earth, the Moon, and Sun are aligned, a The double bulges and double troughs lead
condition referred to as syzygy (a great to very high high‐tides and very low low‐
Scrabble word worth many points). A new tides. This condition is called a spring tide
Moon occurs when the Moon is positioned and is characterized by maximum tidal
between Earth and the Sun, whereas a full range (Figure 7.9).
Moon results when the Moon and Sun are on During quadratic conditions the Sun’s effects
the opposite sides of Earth. When the Moon are subtractive from the Moon’s tide‐generating
forms a right angle with Earth and the Sun force. Because the Moon is positioned 90° to
(quadratic position), only half of the Moon’s Earth and the Sun, its bulge coincides with
hemisphere is illuminated. This phase occurs the Sun’s trough and its trough is positioned at
during the Moon’s first and third quarter. the Sun’s bulge. The superposition of bulges
(a)
Earth Lunar tide
New moon
Sun
Full
moon Solar tide
Spring Tide
(b)
First quarter moon
Solar tide
Earth Sun
Lunar tide
Third quarter moon

Neap Tide
Figure 7.8 The alignment of the Earth, Moon, and Sun determines the size of the tidal bulges and the
magnitude of the tidal range. (a) During periods of full and new moons when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are
aligned the lunar and solar tidal forces are additive and their tidal bulges are additive (“spring tides”). These
conditions produce relatively large tidal ranges. (b) When the Moon, Earth, and Sun are at right angles during
half‐moon conditions the tidal forces are subtractive and tidal ranges are relatively small (“neap tides”).
Dune
MHWS
Berm MHW
MHWN Mean
Mean neap Mean HTL
spring
Beachface range range (MSL)
MLWN range
MLW
MLWS
Low-tide terrace
Figure 7.9 Tidal ranges and the ensuing elevation of high and low tides are a function of the position of the
Earth, Moon, and Sun. During syzygy spring tides produce very high high‐tides and very low low‐tides.
Conversely, during quadratic conditions neap tides create low high‐tides and high low‐tides. Mean tidal ranges
occur during the periods in between syzygy and quadratic alignments.
and troughs causes destructive interference to as perigee and when it is most distant it is
and produces low high tides and high low called apogee. There is a 13 % difference
tides. This condition is called a neap tide between perigee and apogee.
and is characterized by minimum tidal ranges If we consider all the various factors that
(Figure 7.9). When Earth, Moon, and Sun are influence the magnitude of the tides, we
arranged in positions between syzygy and begin to understand why tidal ranges and
quadratic we experience mean tides with high and low tidal elevations change on a
average tidal ranges. Spring and neap tides daily basis. Tide levels are especially impor-
occur approximately every 14 days, whereas tant during storms. In early February 1978 a
mean tides occur every 7 days. major northeast storm, the Blizzard of 1978,
wreaked havoc in New England dropping
over two feet of snow and completely immo-
7.5 Effects of Orbital Geometry bilizing the residents for several days. The
Blizzard of 1978 was a particularly menacing
Remembering that the tide‐producing force storm causing widespread beach erosion,
is particularly sensitive to distance, it is destruction of hundreds of coastal dwellings,
understandable that the geometry of both and hundreds of millions of dollars worth of
Earth and the Moon’s orbits affects the tides. damage to roadways and other infrastruc-
Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical ture. One of the reasons why this storm was
orbit and the Sun is situated at one of the so severe was due to the astronomic condi-
foci of the ellipse. In early January Earth is tions at the time of the storm. Earth, the
nearest to the Sun at a position called peri- Moon and the Sun were in syzygy, so the
helion (Figure 7.10). Six months later (July) storm hit during spring tide conditions. At
Earth is at aphelion furthest from the Sun. the same time the Moon was at perigee and
The difference in distances is approximately Earth and Sun were close to a perihelion
4 %. The Moon’s orbit around the center of position. Syzygy, perigee, and perihelion
the Earth–Moon system is also elliptical. combined to raise high tide levels 0.55 m
When the Moon is close to Earth it is referred above normal. The extreme astronomic tides
162 Chapter 7
Aphelion
(July) Earth
Sun
Perihelion
(January)
Apogee Perigee
Earth
Moon
Figure 7.10 The elliptical orbit of Earth affects its distance from the Sun and therefore the magnitude of the
tide‐producing force during the year. Earth is closest to the Sun during perihelion (January) and furthest away
during aphelion. Likewise the elliptical path of the Moon around Earth produces periods when the Moon is
relatively close to Earth (perigee) and periods when it is relatively far away (apogee).
coupled with the 1.4‐m storm surge caused wave. Thus, the oceans do not have time to
extensive flooding. Storm waves elevated by establish a true equilibrium tide. Finally, the
high water levels broke directly against fore- ocean tides are affected by the Coriolis
dune ridges, across barriers and over seawalls. effect, which is generated by the Earth’s rota-
Had the storm hit during quadratic, apogean, tion. This causes moving objects, including
and aphelion conditions, high tide waters water masses, to be deflected to the right in
would have been 1.1 m below the February the northern hemisphere and to left in the
Blizzard levels and damage would have been southern hemisphere. For example, the Gulf
an order of magnitude less (Figure 7.11). Stream that flows northward along the margin
of North America is deflected northeastward
toward Europe due to Coriolis.
7.6 Effects of Partitioning In the dynamic model of ocean tides we
Oceans no longer envision static ocean bulges that
remain fixed toward the Moon and under
We have been treating tides as if Earth were which Earth spins; rather, the tidal bulges
completely enveloped by a uniformly deep rotate around numerous centers throughout
ocean. However, we know that continents the world’s oceans (Figure 7.12). An individual
and island archipelagoes have partitioned the cell is called an amphidromic system and the
hydrosphere into several interconnected center of the cell around which the tidal wave
large and small ocean basins whose margins rotates is known as the amphidromic point
are generally irregular and quite shallow. or nodal point. The rotation of the tidal wave
Because oceans do not cover the surface of is due to the Coriolis effect and is counter-
Earth, the tidal bulges do not behave as clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
simply as they have been presented thus far. clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
In addition to the complexities imparted by To understand the behavior of an amphidro-
the presence of landmasses, the equilibrium mic system let us first begin with a hypotheti-
tide concept is further complicated by the cal square‐shaped ocean basin that responds
fact that Earth spins faster in lower latitudes to the Moon’s tide‐generating forces
and slower in higher latitudes than the tidal (Figure 7.13). The tidal wave that develops
Ocean water levels on 7 February 1978,

Boston Harbor, Massachusetts
Road
4.62 m storm surge
3.28 m predicted high tide

2.90 m mean high tide
Seawall 1.45 m mean sea level
Figure 7.11 Cartoon of seawall along Winthrop Beach, Massachusetts that was overtopped by storm waves
during the Blizzard of 1978. Note that if the storm had occurred during low astronomic tidal range conditions,
fewer waves would have broken over the seawall and the overall damage to the New England shoreline would
have been far less severe.
under these conditions exhibits elements of point. These contours having equal tidal range
both a standing wave and a progressive wave. are referred to as co‐range lines. Ideally, tidal
As Earth spins and the Moon travels from east range is zero at the amphidromic point and
to west over the hypothetical basin, the tidal gradually reaches a maximum toward the
bulge sloshes against the western side of the edge of the basin. Due to the land barriers
basin in an attempt to keep abreast of the and other factors the world’s oceans are
passing Moon. As Earth continues to rotate, divided into approximately 15 amphidromic
the bulge of water begins to flow eastward systems. This does not include smaller seas
back toward the low center of the basin. that have their own amphidromic cells such
However, the Coriolis effect deflects this water as the Gulf of Mexico (1 system), Gulf of
mass to the southern margin of the basin and St. Lawrence (1 system), and the North Sea
water piles up there. This in turn creates a (3 systems).
water surface that slopes northward and the
process is repeated. The end result is a tidal
wave that rotates in a counter‐clockwise direc- 7.7 Tidal Signatures
tion around the basin with a period of 12 hours
and 25 minutes. High tide is coincident with In the ideal case, we expect two tidal cycles
the tidal bulge and low tide occurs when the daily (actually 24 hours and 50 minutes.).
bulge is along the opposite side of the basin. However, highly variable basinal geometries
When a line is drawn along the crest of the of the world’s ocean and modifications of the
tidal wave every hour for a complete rota- tidal wave as it shoals across the continental
tion, the resulting diagram looks like a wheel shelf as well as other factors have combined to
with spokes. It depicts how the tidal wave produce a variety of tidal signatures through-
rotates within the hypothetical basin and its out the world’s coastlines. There are three
center is the amphidromic point. The spokes major types of tides (Figure 7.14):
are called co‐tidal lines and they define
points within the basin where high tide (and Diurnal Tides
low tide) occurs at the same time (Figure 7.12). Coasts with diurnal tides experience one
If points of equal tidal range are contoured tidal cycle daily with a single high and low
within the basin a series of semi‐concentric tide. They have a period of 24 hours and
circles are formed around the amphidromic 50 minutes. This type of tide is rare and
120° E
Capricorn
30° S
60° S
Antarctic
Circle
0° Equator
30° N
60° N
Tropic of
Cancer
Arctic Circle
Tropic of
4
2
0
6
3
90° E
6
3
8
8
6
Cotidal lines
60° E
10
0
4
6
4
2
30° E
0
8
10
0°
0
2
0
6
4
10
30° W
8
0
8
10
60° W
0
2
6
0
8
8
90° W
10
4
Amphidromic
120° W
Points
2
0
6
10
10
8
150° W
10
8
2
0
0
6
6
4
180°
2
8
4
10
0
10
150° E
6
10
2
120° E
4
4
Figure 7.12 Amphidromic systems throughout the world’s oceans. The tidal wave rotates in a
counterclockwise direction around amphidromic points in the northern hemisphere and in a clockwise
direction in the southern hemisphere. The lines radiating from the amphidromic points are co‐tidal lines. They
indicate hypothetical times in which the crest of the tidal wave passes through the ocean basins.
High
Rising
Falling
Low
Amphidromic Low
point
Low
Rising
High
High
Falling
Figure 7.13 Hypothetical tidal wave rotating around in a square‐shaped basin. Note that water elevation
changes (tidal range) increase outward from the amphidromic point. The Coriolis Effect causes rotation of
the tidal wave.
commonly associated with restricted ocean Semidiurnal Tides

basins including certain areas within the Gulf This is the most common type of tide along
of Mexico, the Gulf of Tonkin along Southeast the world’s coast. It is characterized by two
Asia, and the Bering Sea. It is in these areas tidal cycles daily with a period of 12 hours
where distortions of the tidal wave produce and 25 minutes. Seldom, however, are the
a natural tidal oscillation coinciding with two tides of the same magnitude except when
24 hours and 50 minutes. The open south- the Moon is over the equator or at locations
west coast of Australia is an exception to this near the equator. As discussed earlier, when
general trend. the Moon is over the tropics successive tidal
166 Chapter 7
(a)
(i) Diurnal
12 Pakhoi, China
Height (m)
9 Spring Spring Spring

6 Neap Neap
3
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Days
(ii) Equal semi-diurnal
Balboa, Canal Zone, Panama

6 Spring Spring
Neap Neap
Height (m)
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Days
(iii) Unequal semi-diurnal

San Francisco, California
2 Spring Spring Spring
Height (m)
Neap Neap
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Days
(iv) Mixed
Manila, Philippines
2
Height (m)
Spring Spring
1 Neap Neap
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Days
Figure 7.14 Coastlines throughout the world experience a variety of tidal signatures. (a) The major types
include: 1. Diurnal tides, one tide daily; 2. Semidiurnal tides, two tides daily; 3. Semidiurnal tides with strong
inequality, 4. Mixed tides, combination of diurnal and semi‐diurnal tides. (b) Geographic distribution of tidal
types. (Source: R. A. Davis, 1977).
bulges (the tidal wave) have unequal magni- tides have elements of both diurnal and
tudes, producing different tidal ranges and semidiurnal tides. Its signature varies during
high and low tides reaching different eleva- a lunar cycle from a dominant semidiurnal
tions. This condition of unequal tides is called tide with a small inequality to one that exhibits
a semidiurnal inequality. a very pronounced inequality. At some sites,
including San Francisco, California, Seattle,
Mixed Tides Washington, and Port Adelaide, Australia
This type of tide occurs extensively through- during part of the lunar month one of the
out the world. As the name implies, mixed two daily tides manifests itself as a very
(b)
Semi-diurnal tides
Diurnal tides
Mixed tides
Figure 7.14 (Continued)
small vertical excursion measuring no more slow down. The tidal wave that traverses the
than 0.1–0.3 m. These tides have a distinct entire continental margin is reduced in speed
diurnal signature. Along other coasts, such to about 10–20 km h−1. Like wind waves, the
as Los Angeles, Honolulu, and Manila in the tidal wave also steepens, which is reflected in
Philippines, the second daily tide essentially an increase in tidal range. For example, the
disappears and the tide becomes totally tidal wave in the north Atlantic is estimated to
diurnal. be 0.8 m in height (tidal range) at the edge of
Thus, the complexities that produce and the continental shelf. The wave steepens as it
modify the Earth’s tides are revealed by the propagates through the Gulf of Maine, pro-
variability in their tidal signature throughout ducing a tidal range of 2.7 m along the coast of
the world and even temporally as viewed Maine. On a worldwide basis using an average
during a lunar cycle. shelf width of 75 km, it is estimated that the
tidal wave will increase in height from 0.5 m
in the deep ocean to about 2.4 m along the
7.8 Tides in Shallow Water coast after it traverses the continental shelf.
Variations from this value are due to differences
Continental Shelf Effects in shelf width and slope, and variability in the
In the middle of the ocean the tidal wave travels configuration of the coast. It is of interest to
with a speed of 700 km h−1. In these regions note that along the east coast of the United
the tidal range is only about 0.5 m. The tidal States, the continental shelf is relatively wide
wave that reaches the coast travels from the off Georgia, where tidal ranges reach 2.6 m,
deep open ocean across the continental whereas north and south of this region the
margin to the shallow inner continental shelf. shelf narrows and tidal ranges correspond-
Similar to wind‐generated waves, shoaling of ingly reduce to 1.1 m at Cape Hatteras and less
the tidal wave along this pathway causes it to than a meter along central Florida (Figure 7.15).
168 Chapter 7
by the North Atlantic amphidromic system

(Figure 7.12). The tidal wave approaches
through the northern open boundary of
the North Sea and propagates southward.
Ultimately, the wave partially reflects off the
southern margin of the basin and interacts
with next incoming wave. The resulting
oscillations combined with the Coriolis effect
produce three amphidromic systems, two of
which are displaced toward the coasts of
Norway and Denmark. As illustrated by the
co‐range lines in Figure 7.16, tidal ranges are
much higher along the east coasts of England
and Scotland (~4 m) as compared to the
Norwegian and Danish coasts (<1 m). This
disparity is caused by the tidal wave being
deflected to the right as it moves into the
North Sea. Water is piled up on the western
side of the basin and diminishes the tidal
ranges along the eastern side.
Tidal Range A similar situation occurs in the English
0 1 2m Channel. Here the tidal wave approaches
from the southwest and propagates eastward
Figure 7.15 Tidal range along the East Coast of
through the channel. Coriolis deflects water
United States is controlled in part by the width of the
continental shelf. As the tidal wave travels from the away from the English side of the channel and
deep ocean across the shallow continental shelf, its toward the coast of France. Tidal ranges along
speed slows and its crest steepens. The amount of the coasts of Brittany and Normandy are
wave steepening, which increases the tidal range, is greater than 4–5 m, whereas along the south-
proportional to the length and gradient of the shelf.
west English coast they are less than 3 m.
Thus, the wide, gentle shelf off the Georgia coast
produces a tidal range greater than 2 m whereas the
narrow, steep shelves bordering south Florida and Funnel‐Shaped Embayments
Cape Hatteras in North Carolina generate tidal ranges The configuration of the coast can also have a
less than 1 m. (Source: From Nummedal et al. 1977). pronounced influence on tidal ranges. Rotary
tidal waves do not exist in funnel‐shaped
Coriolis Effect embayments due to their narrowness. Instead,
Just as Coriolis produces a counterclockwise the tidal wave propagates into and out of
rotation of the tidal wave in large amphidro- funnel‐shaped bays. The wave is constricted
mic systems in the northern hemisphere it by the seabed, which shallows in a landward
also influences the propagation of the tidal direction, and by the ever‐narrowing confines
wave into gulfs and seas from the open ocean. of the embayment. Although frictional ele-
This phenomenon is demonstrated well in ments serve to decrease the energy of the
the North Sea, where the Coriolis effect propagating wave, the overall steepening of
dramatically modifies tidal ranges. The North the tidal wave causes an amplification of the
Sea is a shallow (<200 m), rectangular‐shaped tidal range (Figure 7.17). For example, the
basin approximately 850 km long from the 2.0‐m tidal range at the entrance to the Saint
Shetland Islands southeastward to the Lawrence estuary increases to over 5 m during
German Friesian Islands and 600 km wide spring tidal conditions at Quebec City some
from Great Britain eastward to Jutland, 600 km upstream. Funnel‐shaped embayments
Denmark. Tides in the North Sea are forced are found all over the world including the Bay
60°N
240
0
NORWA Y
27
0
30
330 270
0
90
SCOTLAND 30
1
60 1.5
60
2
2.5
3
30
90 0
55°N
33
0
120
300
270
240
1.5
0
15
2
2.5
210
0
18
ENGLAND
180
150
WALES 120
90
2 NETHERLANDS
60
3
30
4
0
BELGIUM
4
3
300
5
6
210
240
27
0
4
150
50°N
5
6
18
Co-tidal lines
FRANCE
0
Co-range lines (m)
5°W 0° 5°E
Figure 7.16 The distribution of tidal ranges in the North Sea illustrates how Coriolis affects tidal wave
propagation into a shallow sea. Tides in the North Sea are forced by the North Atlantic amphidromic system.
As the tidal wave travels southward into the shallow basin, Coriolis deflects the tidal wave toward the coasts
of Great Britain and Scotland, creating large tidal ranges. Conversely, the tidal wave is deflected away from
Norway and Denmark producing small tidal ranges. (Source: from Huntley 1980).
of Fundy in Canada (see Box 7.1), the Gironde Tidal Bores

and Seine Estuaries in France, the Wash and In some estuaries large tidal ranges lead to
Severn Estuary in England, Cambridge Gulf the formation of tidal bores (Figure 7.18).
in Australia, Cook Inlet and Bristol Bay in A tidal bore is a steep‐crested wave or break-
Alaska, the Gulf of Cambay in India, the head ing wave that moves upstream with the rising
of the Gulf of California, and the Rio de Plata in tide. It is a product of a large funnel‐shaped
South America. estuary having a tidal range exceeding 5 m
170 Chapter 7
50°N
Gulf of St Lawrence 3.0
3.5 2.5
2.0
4.0
Father Point
4.5
1.0
1.5
0.5
Quebec City
PEI PEI
Co-tidal lines 60°
Co-range lines (m)
45°N
70°W 65°W
Figure 7.17 The Gulf of St. Lawrence narrows from a width of 150 km at the entrance to the St. Lawrence River to
less than 15 km wide just downstream of Quebec City. Gradual constriction of the tidal wave in this funnel‐shaped
embayment increases spring tidal ranges from 1.0 m at the entrance to over 5.0 m at Grosse Île near Quebec City.
Box 7.1 Bay of Fundy: The Largest Tides in the World

The Bay of Fundy in eastern Canada is perhaps the Bay of Fundy shoreline. Sandstone cliffs,
the most famous funnel‐shaped embayment intertidal marine platforms, and vast sand
in the world. It has record tides, equal to the shoals are a product of this erosion.
height of a five‐story building. The bay connects The Bay of Fundy is 260 km long and 50 km
to the northern end of the Gulf of Maine and wide at its opening gradually narrowing into
separates the provinces of New Brunswick and two separate bays; Chignecto Bay to the north-
Nova Scotia (Box Figure 7.1.1). Formation of the east and the Minas Basin to the east. It is deep-
bay is related to the opening of the Atlantic est at its mouth and progressively shoals toward
Ocean, which occurred about 180 million years its eastern end having an average depth of
ago when North America began separating about 32 m along its length. The immense tidal
from Europe and northern Africa. The bay is part range in the Minas Basin (Box Figure 7.1.2) leads
of a rift valley that developed within a broad to more than 14 km3 of water flushing the bay
sandy arid plain. Remnants of basaltic eruptions twice daily (actually every 12 hours and 25 min-
associated with early rifting can still be found at utes). Tidal currents at the entrance to the Minas
several locations along the bay’s margin. During Basin exceed 4 m s−1 (~9 mph). These strong
repeated episodes of Pleistocene glaciation, ice currents mold the sandy bottom into giant sand
sheets scoured and deepened the basin and ripples called sandwaves that have heights of
then deposited a thick carpet of glacial sedi- more than 10 m. Flow in the 5‐km‐wide tidal
ment. Following deglaciation, isostatic rebound channel leading into the Minas Basin is equal to
(see Chapter 17, Glaciated Coasts) caused the the combined discharge of all the streams and
sea to retreat from the Bay of Fundy exposing rivers on Earth. The weight of the huge volume
the basin to riverine reworking. Approximately of water entering the Minas Basin actually
6000 years ago, rising eustatic sea level inun- causes a slight tilting of western Nova Scotia.
dated the bay and allowed waves to erode the Although the funnel shape of this coast con-
soft sedimentary rocks that surround most of tributes to very large tides, it is tidal resonance
Petticodiac
N
River
50 km
NEW BRUNSWICK
Minas Basin
Chignecto
Bay
St John
Halifax
Bay of Fundy
NOVA SCOTIA
Box Figure 7.1.1 Location map of Bay of Fundy.
NEW BRUNSWICK
10 m
St John
3.5 h
3h
4h
Fundy 7.5 m
Bay of
5m 10 m 15 m
4.5 h
NOVA SCOTIA
50 km
(b)
Box Figure 7.1.2 Co‐range and co‐tidal lines for Bay of Fundy.
that generates the world’s largest tidal ranges. in a bathtub or a coffee cup) that is construc-
The length and depth of the Bay of Fundy tively perturbed by the tide‐generating forces
promote the development of a standing wave in the Atlantic Ocean. Resonance occurs in
(similar to the sloshing back and forth of water elongated embayments when the advancing
172 Chapter 7
tidal wave reflects off the head of the bay back until the energy that is added balances the
toward the bay’s entrance. A standing wave is energy lost due to friction. Tidal ranges at
produced when the geometry of the bay is of the mouth to the Bay of Fundy are a modest
the correct dimensions such that the reflected 3 m but resonance and funneling effects
wave arrives at the bay entrance at the same gradually increase the range to an amazing
time as the next incoming tidal wave. Each 16 m near Wolfville at the eastern end of the
incoming wave amplifies the standing wave Minas Basin (Box Figure 7.1.3).
Box Figure 7.1.3 Picture illustrating large tidal ranges showing high and low tide. (Source: Courtesy of
Vik Pahwa).
(a)
Tidal crest
River flow
Incoming tide
(b)
(c)
Figure 7.18 Tidal bores occur in funnel‐shaped estuaries having tidal ranges greater than 5 m. (a) They are
produced when shoaling and constriction of the landward moving tidal wave oversteepens and may begin to
break. (b) View of tidal bore in the Salmon River in the Minas Basin in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. (c) Close‐
up view of tidal bore approximately 30 cm in height.
174 Chapter 7
and a channel that progressively shallows ocean than it does inside the harbor or bay.
upstream. The height of most bores is less This produces a slope of the water surface
than 0.4 m; however there are some spectac- and, just like a river system, the water
ular bores that adventurers surf on as the flows downhill, producing a tidal current
wave advances upriver. A tidal bore is formed (Figure 7.19). The water moving through a
when the propagating tidal wave oversteep- tidal inlet and flooding a bay is called a flood‐
ens and breaks due to a constriction of the tidal current. The water emptying out of a
channel and retarding effects of the river’s bay and moving seaward is referred to as an
discharge. Tidal bores are best developed ebb‐tidal current. In a slight over‐simplifica-
during spring tide conditions when tidal tion, when the tidal waters in the ocean and
ranges are near maximum. Bores are found bay are at the same elevation, there is slack
in the Severn and Trent in England, the Seine water at the tidal inlet. This condition usually
in France, the Truro and Petitcodiac Rivers occurs at high tide and low tide. Likewise, the
that discharge into the Bay of Fundy, the strongest current velocities are produced
Ganges in Bangladesh and several rivers when the water surface through the inlet
along the coast of China. Some of the largest achieves the steepest slope, which commonly
tidal bores in the world occur in the Qiantang is near mid‐tide but may also occur closer to
River in northern China and in the Pororoca high or low tide. During spring tide condi-
River, a branch of the Amazon. Their heights tions when the maximum volume of water is
have been reported to approach 5 m and exchanged between the ocean and bay, tidal
travel at speeds close to 20 km h−1. Fisherman currents can reach velocities of 3 m s−1.
and shippers will often travel upstream by Along non‐sandy shorelines, tidal currents
riding the ensuing strong currents that fol- can achieve strong current velocities, par-
low the passage of a tidal bore. ticularly in regions with large tidal ranges,
large bay areas, and narrow constrictions. One
Tidal Currents such location is along the Norwegian coast
Tidal currents are most readily observed in north of Bodø where Vestfjord connects to
coastal regions where the tidal wave becomes the Norwegian Sea. The fierce tidal currents
constricted. As the tidal wave approaches the that flow through the straits reach speeds
entrance to harbors, tidal inlets, and rocky greater than 4.0 m s−1. This creates strong
straits, the tide rises at a faster rate in the whirlpools that make travel through the strait
Bay Ocean
A High Slack Water B
Time 3
Bay Ocean
Time 2
A B
Flooding Tide Ebbing Tide Time 4

(flow into Bay) (flow out of Bay)
Land
Time 1
Low Slack Water
Figure 7.19 Tidal currents occur at the entrance to bays, harbors, and tidal inlets and are due to a constriction
of the tidal wave. As the ocean tide rises and falls, this condition creates a water surface slope between the
ocean and bay. In simplest terms tidal currents are a manifestation of water flowing downhill under the
influence of gravity.
extremely dangerous during peak current Moon, Earth, and Sun are aligned (position
flow. The Norwegians call these whirlpools called syzygy) the Sun’s effects are additive
the Maelstrom and fisherman time their and we experience spring tides and large tidal
passage to avoid these perilous eddies. ranges. When the Moon, Earth, and Sun are
The strong tidal currents that are generated at right angles (quadratic position), the Sun’s
in funnel‐shaped estuaries and elsewhere effects diminish the Moon’s tide‐generating
along the world’s coastlines can be harnessed forces and we have neap tides and relatively
to provide a source of energy. For example, in small tidal ranges. Mean tides and average
the Gulf of Saint‐Malo along the Brittany tidal ranges occur between syzygy and quad-
coast of France the tidal range in the Rance ratic positions. Due to the elliptical orbits of
Estuary can exceed 12 m. This exceptionally the Moon and Earth, the height and range of
large tidal fluctuation produces very strong the tides increases when the Moon is proxi-
tidal currents. A 750 m‐wide barricade has mate to Earth (perigean tides) and Earth is
been constructed across the river to house close to the Sun (perihelion tides).
24 hydroelectric power generators. The The continents and island archipelagos
reversing tidal currents of the Rance have partition Earth’s hydrosphere into several
been providing electricity since 1966. interconnected large and small ocean basins.
Based on their dimensions, Coriolis and
tide‐generating forces cause the tidal wave to
7.9 Summary rotate around one or more amphidromic
points within these basins, counter‐clockwise
The Moon and Sun’s force of attraction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise
exerted on Earth’s hydrosphere causes ocean in the Southern Hemisphere. Tidal range
tides. The Moon’s tide‐generating force is increases with distance from the amphidro-
about twice that of the Sun because it is much mic point, but ranges in the open ocean are
closer to Earth. The Moon and Earth revolve generally quite low (<0.6 m). When the tidal
around a common center of mass inside wave propagates across the continental margin
Earth, which produces a centrifugal force the wave slows down and the crest steepens,
that balances the forces of attraction. In the resulting in an increase in the tidal range
equilibrium tide model, two tidal bulges are (1.0–2.0 m at the coast). The tidal signature
developed because masses on Earth’s surface along the coast reflects the geometry of the
are acted on unequally by gravitational and basin and shoaling behavior of the tidal wave.
centrifugal forces. One bulge faces the Moon Most open‐ocean coasts experience semidi-
and the other is directed away from the urnal tides (two tides daily) or mixed tides,
Moon. The tidal period is 12 hours and which is a tidal signature that exhibits peri-
25 minutes rather than 12 hours (half of ods of semidiurnal tides and distinctly
Earth’s rotation) because it takes Earth an diurnal (one tide daily) tides during other
additional 50 minutes each day to catch up periods of the lunar month. Diurnal tides are
with the Moon in its orbit. As the Moon most common in restricted basins where the
revolves around its common center of mass tidal wave resonates with a period close to
with Earth its orbit makes excursions north 24 hours and 50 minutes.
and south of the equator. When the Moon is The tidal wave can undergo dramatic dis-
over the tropics, Earth passes through unequal tortions as it moves into restricted ocean
successive tidal bulges, producing different basins and through straits due to Coriolis
elevations in successive high and low tides effects and shoaling effects. Deformation of
and unequal tidal ranges. This tidal condi- the tidal wave can result in dramatic differ-
tion is called a semidiurnal inequality. ences in tidal range over distances less than
The effects of the Sun can enhance or retard 50 km. This is particularly apparent in funnel‐
the Moon’s tide‐generating force. When the shaped embayments where steepening of
176 Chapter 7
the advancing tidal wave can increase the world. In some estuaries with very large tidal
tidal range by 2–4 m at the head of the bay. ranges, the advancing tidal wave steepens
Even greater tidal ranges can result if a standing forming a steep‐crested wave or breaking
wave is produced in the bay that is construc- wave called a tidal bore that moves upstream
tively interfered by the incoming tidal wave. with the rising tide. Tidal currents are pro-
This phenomenon is best developed in the duced in coastal settings when the tidal wave
Bay of Fundy where tidal ranges (up to 16 m becomes constricted such as at the entrance
in the Minas Basin) are the largest in the to a bay or tidal inlet.
References
Huntley, D.A. (1980). Tides on the north‐west Hatteras to Cape Canaveral, Proc. of
European continental shelf. In: The North‐ Coastal Sediments ’77. ASCE, Charleston,
West European Shelf Seas: The Sea Bed and SC, pp. 543–562.
the Sea in Motion. II Physical and Chemical NOAA, n.d. Tides & Currents; Chapter 3,
Oceanography and Physical Resources Detailed Explanation of the Differential Tide
(ed. F.T. Banner, M.B. Collins and K.S. Producing Forces. https://tidesandcurrents.
Massie). Amsterdam: Elsevier. noaa.gov/restles3.html
Nummedal, D., Oertel, G., Hubbard, D.K., and
Hine, A., 1977. Tidal inlet variability – Cape
Suggested Reading
Defant, A. (1958). Ebb and Flow: The Tides of Open University (1989). Waves, Tides, and
Earth, Air, and Water. Ann Arbor, MI: Shallow‐Water Processes. Oxford, UK:
University of Michigan Press. Pergamon Press.
Fischer, A. (1989). The model makers. Redfield, A.C. (1980). Introduction to Tides. Woods
Oceanus 32: 16–21. Hole, MA: Marine Science International.
Greenberg, D.A. (1987). Modeling tidal Sobey, J.C. (1982). What is sea level?
power. Scientific American 247: Sea Frontiers 28: 136–142.
128–131. von Arx, W.S. (1962). An Introduction to
Lynch, D.K. (1982). Tidal bores. Scientific Physical Ocenaography. Reading, MA:
American 247: 146–157. Addison‐Wesley.
177
River Deltas
The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments
The rock cycle shows us that most of the characteristics, and what causes them to
sediment that is eroded from land is carried change. Deltas are one of the coastal environ-
by streams and rivers to a water body that ments that is greatly influenced by human
receives their discharge, both the water and activity, and this will also be considered in
the sediment that it carries. This is usually this discussion.
one of the oceans or a mediterranean associ- Although we do not know how he recog-
ated with an ocean, such as the Gulf of nized its shape, Herodotus is commonly
Mexico or the Mediterranean Sea. In some given credit for coining the term delta in the
situations, large lakes may be the final desti- fifth century bc in his description of the
nation of streams and rivers. The distance famous Nile Delta on the Mediterranean
over which this sediment is carried by the coast of Egypt. Given the date of his account
river may be only a few tens of kilometers it is a real puzzle as to how he determined
such as on much of the west coast of the that the sediment accumulation at the mouth
United States, or it might extend thousands of the Nile was in the shape of the Greek
of kilometers such as in the Amazon capital letter delta. River deltas have histori-
and Mississippi river systems. These major cally been the site of human settlement
differences in river length are related to the because of their proximity to the sea and
concept of global tectonics. The drainage their abundant food supply in the form of
system may be developed on a leading waterfowl, finfish and shellfish. In the past
edge of a plate such as the west coast of both century ancient portions of deltas have
North and South America, or on a trailing become a major source of petroleum. The
edge such as the coastal plains of the United latter is a major economic aspect of many
States and the stable crustal shield of Brazil. deltas and has led to extensive research on a
Once the sediment is discharged at the wide range of environmental topics in addi-
mouth of the river along the coast, it might tion to their geology.
be carried out into deep water if it is fine‐ Virtually all our scientific knowledge of
grained and suspended, as is the case with deltas as a geologic sedimentary environ-
silt and clay, or it might be sand that is trans- ment has been acquired during the past cen-
ported along the coast to be included in tury. G.K. Gilbert (1890), a famous geologist
various coastal features such as nearshore with the U. S. Geological Survey, investigated
bars, beaches or dunes, or it might come to much of northern Utah including what is
rest at or near the mouth of the river in the known as ancient Lake Bonneville, a large
form of a large and complex sediment accu- lake of the Pleistocene Epoch from which the
mulation called a river or fluvial delta Great Salt Lake was evolved. He recognized
(Figure 8.1). In this chapter we will discuss thick deltaic accumulations from rivers that
these river deltas, how they develop, their emptied into it.
178 Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Satellite photo of the Nile Delta showing its generally triangular shape. (Source: Jeff Schmaltz,
NASA Visible Earth).
Modern river deltas did not attract the 8.1 How Deltas Develop
attention of geologists until after the begin-
ning of the twentieth century. Joseph Barrel The presence of a river delta along any coast
of Yale University is generally given credit for is an indication that the river is providing
writing the first research paper on the more sediment than can be removed and
Mississippi Delta in 1914. Little was done on redistributed by coastal processes. This accu-
the research of river deltas until the extensive mulation of sediments in riverine deltas may
work of H.N. Fisk on the Mississippi Delta be quite temporary or it may be permanent.
that began in the 1940s. His research, com- Some small deltas may be seasonal, appear-
bined with the interest in deltas generated by ing only in the spring when water and sedi-
the production of oil and gas, initiated an ment discharge is at its highest. As the year
explosion of activity beginning in the 1950s. proceeds, coastal processes remove that sed-
This began on the Mississippi and then iment and the delta is gone by the next spring
expanded to the Niger Delta in Africa and when it is re‐formed. There is considerable
the Orinoco Delta in Venezuela as well as interaction of the riverine processes of sedi-
others. All are important oil‐producing del- mentation with open coastal marine pro-
tas. Because of the extensive research and cesses; especially waves, longshore currents
interest in the Mississippi Delta, it became and tidal currents. The interaction of these
the primary model for interpretations of del- processes, along with the sediment load of
tas throughout the world. In fact, however, the river and the physical setting at and near
Delta is an extreme case, essentially one of a the river mouth, determine the presence
kind, and is a poor example with which to and the nature of the delta. The most important
compare other river deltas. This is largely requirement for the formation of a delta is
because the Mississippi is an extreme river‐ the discharge of sufficient sediment to pro-
dominated delta. duce a net accumulation above that amount
River Deltas: The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments 179
removed and redistributed by waves and cur- between the Rocky Mountains and the
rents. The amount required is quite different Appalachian Mountains. It includes the
from one coastal location to another. River Missouri and Ohio River systems as well as
mouths where the wave climate is character- other rivers that empty directly into the
ized by large waves and/or where strong tidal Mississippi. Most of the terrain in this system
currents persist, require considerably more is the stable mid‐continent area known geo-
sediment to produce a delta than those loca- logically as a craton and the coastal plain that
tions where waves and tidal flux are small. begins near St. Louis. The Amazon River sys-
An equally important factor is the geologic tem drains most of the northern part of South
and bathymetric setting on the continental America from the continental divide in the
margin adjacent to the coast. The sediments Andes as the western boundary of the system
discharged at the coast must have a place to where many small tributaries flow toward the
accumulate and form a delta. east. Both of these river systems drain huge,
Plate tectonic history, regional geologic set- relatively stable continental regions and
ting, and sea level change are quite important deliver their sediment load onto a stable,
in the development of large river deltas, as trailing‐edge continental margin with a broad,
shown by their global distribution. Trailing‐ gently sloping shelf; ideal geologic settings for
edge or passive margins foster the develop- the development of river deltas (Figure 8.2).
ment of deltas but leading edges or active Marginal sea coasts are also good places for
margins are difficult places for deltas to form. deltas to form. The marginal sea that receives
Extensive drainage basins typically form in the greatest volume of river‐borne sediment is
areas where there is little relief with no moun- the South China Sea. Here the Yangtze and
tain ranges or other high‐relief landforms Wang Ho rivers of China form large muddy
blocking the path of rivers to the coast. Two deltas. In this geologic setting the combination
of the best examples are the Mississippi River of huge volumes of sediment delivered to a
drainage system in the United States and fetch‐limited basin provides good conditions
the Amazon River in South America. The for delta development. Other examples of mar-
Mississippi system drains most of the country ginal sea coasts where deltas have developed
Ob Yenisey
Lena Mackenzie
Huanghe
Danube Volga (Yellow)
Po
60°N
Copper
Amur
Nile
Colorado
30°N Changjiang (Yangtze) Mississippi
Song Hong (Red) Orinoco
Grijalva
Indus Mekong
0° Mahakam
Niger Magdalena
Godavari
Zaire Fly
(Congo) Ganges-
Amazon
30°S Brahmaputra
Shatt-al-Arab Ayeyarwady
Parana
(Tigris-Euphrates) Zambezi (Irrawaddy)
Chao Phraya
60°S 0° 90°E 180° 90°W
Figure 8.2 World map of river deltas. Black circles indicate tide‐dominated deltas. (Source: Hori and
Saito (2007)).
180 Chapter 8
(a) (b)
140000
60 50 40 30 20 10
135000
130000
125000
120000
115000
110000
105000
100000
95000
90000
0 10 20 km
85000
210000 220000 230000 240000
Figure 8.3 Image of the mouth of the Columbia River (a) before structures were added in the late nineteenth
century and (b) currently with structures that were added in the 1950s. (Sources: (a) Kaminsky et al. (2010),
(b) Image © 2018 Google Earth).
include the north coast of Alaska (McKenzie), that would produce sediment for transport by
and the north coast of the Mediterranean Sea the rivers. A second major problem with delta
(Rhone and Ebro), although these rivers and development on leading‐edge coasts is the
their sediment load pale in comparison with absence of a proper site for sediment accumu-
those of China. lation. Typically the continental margin is nar-
On the other hand, leading‐edge coastal set- row and steep; in some cases, it has multiple
tings do not permit the development of even faults that create small basins. Further, this
modest‐sized river deltas, e.g. the Columbia steep and narrow margin allows large oceanic
River mouth (Figure 8.3). The first reason for waves to move very close to the coast without
this is the absence of large drainage systems significant loss of energy because they do not
in this type of geologic setting. These lead- feel bottom until almost at the shoreline. As a
ing edge, active margins tend to be next to result, sediment can readily be removed from
high relief, mountainous areas with drainage the mouth of a river thus inhibiting delta for-
divides that are typically only tens of kilome- mation. A pretty good example of a river that
ters from the coast. While the gradients are empties into a leading‐edge margin where no
steep and therefore there is significant erosion significant delta is formed is the mouth of the
through down‐cutting of the flowing water, Columbia River on the west coast of the
there is typically not much soil development United States (Figure 8.3). In summary, with
rare exceptions, large deltas can only develop energy of the Pacific Ocean has allowed a
on trailing‐edge coasts because they provide modest size delta to develop in spite of the
abundant sediment, proper site for accumula- geologic setting.
tion, and appropriate physical conditions for The Copper River Delta (Figure 8.4) is
their maintenance. Global distribution of the located between Anchorage and Juneau on
major deltas shows this relationship with plate the south coast of Alaska. Special circum-
tectonics quite well (see Figure 8.2). stances have permitted the development of
There are some exceptions to this generali- a river delta along this coast even though it
zation about delta formation and leading‐ is one of very high wave energy and very
edge coasts. On the west coast of North severe winter storms. Most of the water and
America we have two pretty good examples; sediment-discharge from the Copper River is
the deltas of the Fraser River near Vancouver, derived from melting glaciers. This condition
Canada, and the delta of the Copper River on has produced a huge sediment discharge that
the south coast of Alaska. The Fraser River has permitted the development of a signifi-
has its tributaries near the continental divide cant tide‐dominated delta. In addition to the
in the Canadian Rockies in the province of unusual presence of a river delta on this
Alberta. It flows for a few hundred kilome- coast, there are also several barrier islands.
ters and empties into somewhat protected Both of these features are typical of trailing
waters on the coast of British Columbia, near edge tectonic settings but the huge volume of
Vancouver. Tides here are in the macrotidal sediment has compensated for the high‐

range but the combination of sediment dis- energy, tide‐dominated conditions and other
charge and protection from the high wave leading‐edge characteristics.
Figure 8.4 Satellite image of the Copper River Delta on the coast of Alaska.
182 Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Some large modern deltas.
Annual Sediment
River Land Mass Receiving Basin Size (km2) Discharge (tons × 106)
Amazon S. America Atlantic 467,000 1200

Chao Phraya Asia Gulf of Siam 25,000 5
Danube Europe Black Sea 2700 67
Ebro Europe Mediterranean 600 ?
Ganges–Brahmaputra Asia Bay of Bengal 106,000 1670
Huang Asia Yellow Sea 36,000 1080
Irrawaddy Asia Bay of Bengal 21,000 285
Mahakam Borneo Makassar Strait 5000 8
Mekong Asia S. China Sea 94,000 160
Mississippi N. America Gulf of Mexico 29,000 210 (469)
Niger Africa Gulf of Guinea 19,000 40
Nile Africa Mediterranean 12,500 0 (54)
Orinoco S. America. Atlantic 21,000 210
Po Europe Adriatic Sea 13,400 61
Rio Grande N. America Gulf of Mexico 8000 17
Sao Francis. S. America Atlantic 700 ?
Senegal Africa Atlantic 4300 ?
Yangtze Asia E. China Sea 66,700 478
8.2 Deltas and Sea Level most of the sediment-discharge of the rivers

directly to the continental rise where it accu-
Sea level is an important factor in the develop- mulated in thick wedge‐shaped deposits.
ment and maintenance of river deltas. Deltas Under these sea‐level conditions deltas
that we see around the world today are geo- were not being formed and those deltas that
logically quite young. Virtually all are post‐ existed from previous sea level highstands
glacial in age. Although these deltaic systems were being bypassed as rivers flowed across
range from a few thousand to about ten thou- the continental shelf. The great ice sheets
sand years in age, the currently active delta began to melt about 18,000 years ago causing
lobe is typically at the young end of this spec- a rapid rise of sea level across what is now the
trum. Deltas cannot exist without sediment continental shelf. The river mouth was essen-
supply from rivers. The sediment-discharge of tially retreating across the shelf so rapidly
the river is partly a consequence of sea level that there was not enough time for deltas to
position and the rate of change of sea level. accumulate. As the rate of sea‐level rise
At the time of widespread glaciers during slowed about 6000–7000 years ago the shore-
the Pleistocene Epoch, sea level was much line migration slowed, permitting deltas to
lower than it is at the present time. The large actively accumulate large quantities of sedi-
rivers flowed across what is now the conti- ment as it was no longer being vigorously
nental shelf and discharged their sediment dispersed by waves or tidal currents.
load near the edge of the continental shelf. This is not to imply that all deltas are geo-
The consequence of this was widespread and logically very young, some have existed for
large density currents of suspended sediment millions of years. They have not, however,
called turbidity currents along with other been continuously receiving sediment from
sediment gravity processes that transported their associated rivers because they were
91° 90° 89°
30°
3
1 4
29° 5
0 50
1. MARINGOUIN/SALE CYPREMORT KM
7500–5000 YRS BP
2. TECHE 5. BALIZE
5500–3800 YRS BP 1000–PRESENT YRS BP
3. ST. BERNARD 6. ATCHAFALAYA
4000–2000 YRS BP 50–PRESENT YRS BP
4. LAFOURCHE
2500–800 YRS BP
Figure 8.5 Lobes of the young Mississippi Delta. (Source: Kolb and van Lopik (1966)).
abandoned by the shoreline as it moved Mississippi Delta began to form only about
in association with sea‐level change. The 600 years ago, not much before Columbus’
Mississippi Delta and the Niger Delta in first voyage to the New World. Most of the
Africa are good examples among many old active portion has developed since the settle-
deltas. Both deltas have been reactivated and ment of New Orleans by Europeans. The rate
are currently active. They are underlain by of sediment accumulation at the mouth of
deposits that are at least ten million years old. the Mississippi has been so great that nearly
The young portion of the Mississippi Delta one‐half of the State of Louisiana has been
is 6–7000 years old, coincident with the formed by the river since sea level rise slowed
slowing of sea level rise. This part of the about 6000 years ago.
Mississippi Delta consists of numerous rec- We can also see older deltaic deposits at the
ognizable lobes. Each of these lobes repre- mouth of the Niger River (Figure 8.6). Like
sents sediment accumulation at the mouth of the Mississippi Delta, exploration for petro-
a different geographic location of the river. leum on the Niger has provided a wealth of
These different lobes are abandoned when information on the age and development of
the location of river‐mouth deposition shifts the delta. From these data it is possible to rec-
due to channel switching, avulsion, or other ognize sediment strata at least Miocene in
natural causes. Although many lobes of age, which is up to 15 million years ago.
sediment accumulation have been recog- Differences of climate in western Africa over
nized, they can be combined into only a this extent of time have provided great quan-
few (Figure 8.5) based upon radiometric tities of sediment as the result of more humid
dating and location. The present lobe of the conditions and associated rainfall.
184 Chapter 8
Figure 8.6 Satellite image of the Niger Delta on the coast of Africa. (Source: Image © 2018 Google Earth).
8.3 Delta Environments sedimentary environments and their pro-

cesses, we can best subdivide the delta into
Deltas are a transitional coastal environment three major parts, each of which has its own
located between terrestrial and marine specific environments. From landward to
conditions. Distinct landward or seaward
seaward these are the delta plain, the delta
boundaries do not exist on deltas; they grade front and the prodelta. This discussion will
continuously in both directions. This gradual emphasize the first two; the prodelta is
transition is primarily due to the change from strictly subtidal and extends into the fairly
fresh water to seawater, and to the differ- deep water of the outer continental shelf.
ences in sediment accumulation from the The delta plain is primarily influenced by
river through the open marine environment. the river and its processes with tides and
The discharge of the river is carried from the waves playing a minor role overall. There is,
main channel through a series of smaller however, an increase in the influence of
channels that split off from the river channel marine processes toward the seaward portion
into multiple distributaries that actually dis- of the delta plain. The delta front is dominated
tribute the discharge of the river, both water by marine processes and tends to be subtidal
and sediment, across the delta and into the with a small intertidal portion in some deltas.
marine basin. The result is a condition of
overall progradation of sediment accumula-
tion into the basin of deposition that could 8.4 Delta Plain
be a lake, estuary, or other standing body of
water as well as the ocean itself. We can think of the delta plain (Figure 8.7) as
As a consequence of this type of setting, the coastal extension of a river system. The
the delta includes subaerial, intertidal, and delta plain is dominated by channels and
subaqueous sedimentary environments as their deposits, and the associated overbank
well as freshwater, brackish, and marine environments that receive sediment during
conditions. For purposes of discussing
flooding. This scenario is parallel to that of a
Figure 8.7 Diagram showing the

nature and distribution of the delta
plain environment.
e
in
yl
Ba
Shoreline
Uplands, Alluvial Lower Delta Plain

Upper Delta Plain Delta Front
Lower Delta Plain Wetlands Prodelta
typical meandering river system. In fact, all the river to carry considerable sediment.
of the specific elements of a meandering Sudden loss of this confining characteristic
river complex are typically present on many as overflow occurs results in a sudden loss of
deltas. There are some deltas, however, speed and carrying capacity, causing much
that have only a portion of this spectrum of sediment to be deposited at the edge of the
environments. bank as natural levees. Breaches in these lev-
The distributary channels on a delta plain ees produce sediment accumulation in the
contain point bars formed as the channel form of crevasse splay deposits (Figure 8.9).
migrates. In doing so, they form broad mean- These are fan‐shaped deposits that can cover
der loops that may be cut off, leading to up to many square kilometers with a sedi-
formation of oxbow lakes. As the channels ment thickness that is typically less than that
migrate across the delta plain they produce of the adjacent natural levee. These splays
scars of their former location that leave may be reactivated multiple times during
subtle but recognizable geomorphic and veg- successive flooding conditions and thereby
etation patterns, another parallel with the they can grow significantly in elevation and
fluvial system. Adjacent to the channels are extent. This condition takes place each time a
three major types of overbank or flooding channel floods and the levees build vertically.
deposits; natural levees, crevasse splays, and Although the natural levees may be only a
floodplains, in order away from the channel. meter or so high, they are important features
of the distributary channel system.
Natural levees The most widespread but the thinnest of
(Figure 8.8) are produced during flooding the overbank accumulations are the flood-
when the river overtops its banks and imme- plain sediments. Even after losing sediment
diately deposits much of its sediment load. to natural levees and splay deposits, there
The confinement of the channel coupled is substantial fine sediment in suspension
with a high discharge volume and rate, causes during flooding conditions. The spreading
186 Chapter 8
Figure 8.8 Natural levees produced during flooding from rapidly deposited sediment load.
of the floodwaters beyond the channel being filled, producing a continuous delta
causes important loss of water speed and plain system.
thereby capacity, resulting in the deposition
of fine and extensive floodplain deposits.
8.4.1 Delta Front
Commonly, such floodplain sediments are
draped over vegetation or other materials The seaward edge of the delta plain merges
that occupy this environment. We have all with the generally continuous subtidal portion
seen many examples in the media of mud of the delta called the delta front. It is this part
deposited by flooding, covering cars, car- of the delta that is most affected by marine
pets, and furniture in houses. The floodplain processes, especially the waves. Sediment
in the delta plain may take on a variety of empties out of the mouth of the distributary
characteristics. These include subtidal
channels as both suspended load and as bed
environments such as interdistributary bays, load. The finer suspended s ediments tend to
intertidal marshes, swamps and tidal flats or, be carried away from the mouth of the chan-
in the most landward areas, even subaerial nel by currents, whereas much of the coarser
environments of various types. bed load tends to accumulate near the chan-
The upward and lateral growth of the delta nel mouth. The vast majority of the coarse
plain portion of the delta is dependent upon sediment is sand that comprises the delta
flooding periods for sediment distribution front system.
to the overbank environments. The typical The nature of the sand accumulations in
situation is that the channel and its associ- the delta front depends upon the volume of
ated levee extend seaward at the outer limit sand transported to the distributary mouth
of the delta. The levees may even be sub- and the relative roles of the interacting river
aqueous at the most distal end of the chan- currents with the waves and tidal currents. A
nel. The initial subaerial portion of this common sand body is the distributary mouth
distributary channel is the natural levee, fol- bar (Figure 8.10) that accumulates just sea-
lowed by small splay deposits. Continued ward of the channel mouth and typically
flooding will enlarge the splays until at least causes the channel to bifurcate. The isolated
a portion is subaerial. Continued accumula- distributary bar with little or no sand on
tion of these splays along with the slower but either side is not generally common because
more extensive floodplain deposits will of the influence of waves that spread the sand
eventually lead to the interdistributary area along the delta front on most deltas. As the
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.9 (a) Oblique aerial photo of a flooded delta plain showing numerous natural levees. (b) Map of
crevasse splay deposits and dates of deposition. (Source: After Coleman and Gagliano (1964). Reproduced with
permission of GCAGS).
waves approach the shallow part of the delta it along the outer delta plain, forming a nearly
they refract and generate longshore currents, continuous delta front system. The degree to
in the same fashion as they would along a which this takes place is dependent upon the
beach. These currents carry the sand away wave climate and the abundance of sand‐
from the mouth of the channel and distribute sized sediment.
188 Chapter 8
(a)
Marsh
Natural levee
Subaqueous levee
Channel
Crevasse
Distributary splay
mouth bar
Distal bar
300 m
(b)
Figure 8.10 (a) Diagram of individual elements of the outer distributary showing a mouth bar and (b) an aerial
oblique photo of a distributary mouth bar that is dominated by sand. (Source: After Coleman and Gagliano
(1964). Reproduced with permission of GCAGS).
There is a wide range in the nature of the redistribution of the sand from the channel
delta front sand bodies that comprise the mouths across the outer delta plain margin.
outer part of the upper delta. In some deltas In these situations there may be beaches and
where there are several distinct distributar- dunes on this part of the delta due to an
ies, as on the Mississippi Delta, the delta abundance of sand and the appropriate wave
front tends to be rather subtle, with distinct climate to redistribute it. The Sao Francisco
sand bars near the channels. By contrast, River in southern Brazil is a good example of
on some river deltas there is considerable this type (Figure 8.11).
Figure 8.11 Image of the Sao Francisco Delta on the coast of Brazil where the outer portion of the delta is
dominated by sand. (Source: Courtesy of Landsat).
8.5 Delta Processes c limate of the drainage basin. More recently,

humans have played an important role in
The interaction of riverine processes with many river systems and have caused many
the wave‐ and tide‐generated marine pro- problems on the delta; human influences
cesses is quite complicated and results in a include agriculture, navigational structures
wide variety of deltaic forms and features. and dams (see Section 8.9).
River‐generated processes include both con- The combination of rock type and climate
fined flow in open channels and unconfined are major controls on the sediment provided
flow during flood conditions. Wave‐gener- to the river. Rainfall and its distribution over
ated processes include the waves themselves time are the fundamental factors of river dis-
in a variety of scales along with the currents charge and therefore on sediment provided
developed by wave refraction. Intense storms to the delta. Prolonged periods of drought
also produce very high‐energy wave condi- place serious constraints on delta formation
tions that impact deltas. Tides produce or maintenance. The typical climatic influ-
important currents that not only distribute ence is in the seasonal distribution of tem-
sediment but also influence the discharge perature and precipitation. There are at least
from the distributary channels of the delta. two important aspects to these cycles,
including the annual distribution of rainfall.
In areas where monsoon conditions exist
8.6 River Processes during the summer, such as Southeast Asia,
there is tremendous discharge and typically
The fundamental role of the river in the delta devastating flooding during this two‐ to
system is that of providing the sediment. In three‐month period. The flooding in
doing so the river is at the mercy of climatic Bangladesh of the Ganges–Brahmaputra
conditions and seasonal changes in dis- Delta area is probably the most consistently
charge. The variables that influence the dramatic case of flooding in the world. Most
nature, amount and rate of sediment delivery rivers, however, experience flooding during
include the geology, geomorphology and the rainy season and in some places this is
190 Chapter 8
Figure 8.12 Infra‐red satellite image of a huge amount of sediment being discharged from the present active
lobe of the Mississippi Delta. (Source: Courtesy of Landsat).
especially problematic because the spring, is essentially a flood condition. Rivers like
wet season coincides with the spring melting the Ganges–Brahmaputra that experience
of snow. The Mississippi River is such an monsoon conditions discharge many times
example (Figure 8.12). Most of the midwest- the normal rate during this season. Even the
ern part of the United States has high rainfall Amazon and Mississippi show a marked dif-
in the spring during the same time that the ference in discharge during the wet season
snow in the Rocky Mountains and northern compared to the rest of the year.
latitudes of the basin is melting. Flooding can
be very severe for the people living along the
river, especially in agricultural regions. 8.7 Delta Classification
Similar phenomena may take place in the
delta area. On the other hand, these floods Both wave and tidal processes on the delta
are highly beneficial to the delta in that these are essentially competing with the riverine
conditions provide the highest rate of sedi- processes to leave their imprint on the delta
ment delivery to the delta, a crucial source of morphology. These competing processes
mineral nutrients. Flooding also washes out and the resulting configuration of the delta
soluble salts which have built up in delta provide a framework for classifying deltas.
sediments. The three major processes that influence
The annual distribution of sediment to a deltas provide convenient end‐members for
river delta varies greatly at each river because a comprehensive organization of deltas by
of the dependency on climatic conditions. shape. This classification was first presented
Desert rivers tend to have little discharge of in 1975 in published form by William
water and therefore transport little sedi- Galloway of the University of Texas–Austin,
ment. However, when there is rainfall, it is and has become a standard.
typically heavy and intense, a condition that The classification consists of a triangle‐
delivers considerable sediment to the river; it shaped diagram with riverine processes,
Figure 8.13 Diagram showing Mississippi

the classification of river deltas as
originally proposed in 1975 by
William Galloway. (Source:
Galloway (1975)).
Rivers
te
Elo
ga
ng
n
Elo
ate
RIVER
te
DOMINATED
ba
Lo
Danube
Es
Mahakam
ate
tua
WAVE TIDE
ps
rin
DOMINATED DOMINATED
Cu
e
Waves Tides
São Francisco Fly

Copper
Figure 8.14 Satellite image of the

tide‐dominated Fly River Delta on
the coast of Papua New Guinea.
(Source: Image © 2018
Google Earth).
waves, and tides at the three apices in Papua New Guinea (Figure 8.14) and the
(Figure 8.13). A delta that is clearly domi- Ord Delta in the Cambridge Gulf of north-
nated by any one of the three processes is western Australia are fine examples of domi-
placed at the appropriate apex. The nation by tidal flux. At each of the sites
Mississippi Delta is quite distinctly domi- sediment bodies of the delta are oriented
nated by river processes in the form of essentially perpendicular to the trend of the
sediment input due to the large volume
coast. Lastly, the Sao Francisco Delta in
of sediment-discharge and little marine Brazil (see Figure 8.11) and the Senegal Delta
reworking. This gives it a so‐called “bird’s in Africa (Figure 8.15) show distinct domina-
foot” configuration. By contrast, the Fly Delta tion by wave processes. Both contain smooth
192 Chapter 8
0 50
Km
BEACH-DUNE
DIST. MOUTH BAR
Figure 8.15 Diagram of the asymmetrical wave‐dominated Senegal River Delta on the west coast of Africa.
The dominant sediment transport direction is to the south. (Source: Wright (1985)).
outer margins caused by distribution of sedi- 8.7.1 River‐Dominated Deltas

ment along the coast as the result of wave‐
generated longshore currents. Conditions that foster river‐dominated deltas
Most deltas fall somewhere nearer the include a high water and sediment-discharge
middle of the classification than these exam- with small waves and low tidal ranges in the
ples because all deltas experience some influ- receiving basin. A broad, gently sloping conti-
ence from all three types of processes. The nental shelf provides the typical resting place
morphology of each tends to reflect these for this large volume of sediments. These
influences. In general, river influence pro- conditions are best fulfilled by trailing‐edge
duces a finger‐like morphology with a well‐ and marginal sea, tectonically stable coasts
developed delta plain having several that are sheltered from large waves and have
distributaries. Tide‐dominated deltas display small tidal ranges. The Gulf of Mexico is a
a strong shore‐perpendicular trend and have perfect setting, and it hosts the Mississippi
extensive tidal flats with little mud. Wave‐ Delta. Other similar settings and their exam-
dominated deltas typically have well‐devel- ple deltas are the Black Sea with the Danube,
oped beach and dune systems at their outer the Adriatic Sea with the Po and the Yellow
limits with few distributaries. Neither the Sea with the Huang Ho. All have good sedi-
absolute values of the processes nor the size ment supplies and low tidal ranges, and all are
of the delta are important in determining the sheltered from large waves. The Mississippi
position of a given delta in the overall classi- Delta does experience exceptional wave
fication scheme. It is the relative influence of energy when hurricanes pass through the
the interactive processes that gives the delta area. Some of the most devastating of these
its character. storms have eroded large areas of the delta.
Figure 8.16 Satellite image of the Ganges–Brahmaputra River Delta on the coast of the Bay of Bengal.
(Source: Courtesy of Google Earth).
8.7.2 Tide‐Dominated Deltas Strong tidal currents redistribute the sedi-

ment in elongate bands that are separated by
Strong tidal currents in the absence of a sub-
numerous large tidal channels.
stantial wave climate and strong river influ-
Tidal currents usually have at least a shore‐
ence will produce a delta that is tide‐dominated.
perpendicular component and move in and
Large tidal channels with intervening tidal
out of the delta complex as flooding and ebb-
sediment bodies dominate the delta and are
ing occurs. The stronger the current the
generally more numerous than the river dis-
more sediment is redistributed in this shore‐
tributaries. Intertidal environments are
perpendicular fashion. Notable deltas that
widespread and are commonly partly cov-
have developed on coasts with high tidal
ered with vegetation such as salt marsh or
ranges, include the Colorado (Figure 8.17)
mangroves.
in the United States. (3.5 m), the Ganges–
The Ganges–Brahmaputra (Figure 8.16) is
Brahmaputra in Pakistan (4.0 m) and the Ord
the largest of the tide‐dominated deltas and
River in Australia (7.0 m). These and similar
is an area of great interest because of the
deltas experience sediment being carried
common and devastating floods it experi-
inland and deposited by flooding currents as
ences. This is a large river system that sup-
well as large volumes of sediment being car-
plies huge quantities of sediment to a coast
ried offshore even beyond the delta, such as
where the tidal range exceeds three meters
on the Amazon Delta.
and waves are modest. One of the major fac-
tors in the development of this delta is the
8.7.3 Wave‐Dominated Deltas
annual variation in discharge. During the
monsoon season the amount of sediment Some deltas do not really look like deltas
delivered to the delta is orders of magnitude because of the strong influence of waves.
greater than during the rest of the year. They may mimic the appearance of barrier
194 Chapter 8
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.17 (a) Oblique aerial photo of the Colorado River Delta that has no vegetation and is essentially without
discharge at the present time. (Source: R. A. Davis). (b) Main channel of delta for Colorado River. (Source: R. A. Davis).
island systems with beaches, dunes and wet- of the longshore current patterns. The Sao
lands landward of them. These wave‐domi- Francisco Delta in Brazil and the Brazos River
nated coasts are deltaic in nature because the delta on the coast of Texas are fairly symmet-
sediment is supplied directly by the river and rical about a single large distributary with a
then reworked by the waves and wave‐gener- smooth overall cuspate shape. This is due to
ated currents. The distributary channels do the absence of a strong littoral drift in either
not protrude into the basin, thus providing a direction caused by the wind patterns and
smooth outer shoreline. Typically, wave‐ related direction of wave approach. By con-
dominated deltas are small. In fact, they trast, the Senegal River in western Africa (see
grade into conditions of no delta when wave Figure 8.15) displays a very strong change in
processes are strong enough to carry away all direction of its course due to longshore cur-
of the sediment supplied by the river. rents and resulting littoral drift. The river
There are different styles taken by wave‐ course is shifted over 50 km by the longshore
dominated deltas depending upon the nature currents. The mouth of the river is marked by
a distinct spit that mimics a coastal barrier, influence of the river, waves and tides. It has
and extensive wetlands cover the delta plain. a well‐developed delta plain with a complex
network of distributaries and a spring tidal
range of up to 2.8 m, and it is exposed to
8.8 Intermediate Deltas the waves of the southern Atlantic Ocean.
The result is a delta that incorporates some
Intermediate types of deltas display features
features of each of the major processes that
of both river influence and marine processes.
influence deltaic coasts.
The Mahakam Delta on the coast of Borneo
is small but has a shape that shows important
influence of both river and tidal currents. It 8.9 Human Influence
has numerous distributaries and a well‐
developed delta plain with distinct lobes that As people began to populate drainage basins
protrude into the receiving basin. Spring of major rivers and the banks along the
tides range up to 3 m and have currents of courses of these rivers, they profoundly influ-
1 m s−1 that form distinct tidal channels enced the delta in several ways. Most, but not
between the distributary mouths. all, of these influences have had detrimental
The Nile Delta (see Figure 8.1) is a good effects. In most territories, the earliest
example of a delta intermediate between important human activity was agriculture
river‐ and wave‐dominated form. Tides in and forestry. Both tended to benefit the
the Mediterranean Sea are nominal and growth of the delta although they produced
waves are modest because of the fetch‐lim- some important negative effects in the drain-
ited basin. River input has historically been age basin. Cultivation and deforestation
fairly high until the construction of the increase erosion of the soil and provide the
Aswan Dam in the 1960s that captured much river, and therefore the delta, with a high rate
of the river’s sediment load. The delta plain is of sediment-discharge. This has resulted in
traversed by a modest number of well‐ the accelerated growth of many deltas, with
defined distributaries each protruding into the prime examples being the Mississippi
the sea. Between the distributary mouths the Delta in the nineteenth century and, at the
delta displays a relatively smooth outline present time, the Amazon Delta. As the rapid
with beaches and other wave‐dominated diminution of the rainforest in Brazil takes
features. place, vast quantities of sediment are pro-
Probably the best example of an interme- vided to the delta. In the case of the
diate delta is the Niger Delta on the coast Mississippi Delta the increase in sediment
of Nigeria (see Figure 8.6). It falls in the was the consequence of the expansion of
middle of the classification showing equal agriculture throughout its drainage basin.
Box 8.1 Sea Level Rise in the Mississippi Delta Area of Louisiana

The combination of decreased discharge of fine sediment, much of it clay‐sized. These clay
sediment from the Mississippi River, eustatic particles have shapes like small sheets of paper
sea level rise, compaction of sediment on the or small sticks; about 2–4 μm in maximum
delta, and withdrawal of fluids associated with dimension. When these particles come to rest
the petroleum industry has caused sea level to they trap a tremendous amount of water in the
rise at catastrophic rates on the delta; about sediment; it is very soft mud! As hundreds, or
four times the global average. This condition is in some cases thousands, of meters of this sed-
resulting in the loss of tens of square kilome- iment pile up along the continental margin
ters of land each year; Louisiana is literally there is significant compaction because of the
drowning in the Gulf of Mexico. mass of the sediment involved. This compac-
Most river deltas are the sites of very rapid tion causes water to be driven from the sedi-
rates of sediment accumulation. This is typically ment and the particles to be better organized
196 Chapter 8
or layered. The result is that there is a signifi- to the delta from coastal lands out to many
cant decrease in the volume of the sediment hundreds of meters of water. Billions of barrels
which causes the surface of the delta to sink. of oil and trillions of cubic feet of gas have
When the surface sinks that means that the been removed from under the delta surface.
water is getting deeper; relative sea level Removal of such volumes caused tremendous
is rising. compaction of the delta sediments which has
This sinking did not occur in the early days added to the rate of relative sea‐level rise.
of human habitation of the Mississippi Delta When combined, the compaction of sedi-
area, in New Orleans and other nearby com- ments (about 4 mm year−1), the withdrawal of
munities, because the river was continually oil and gas (about 4 mm year−1), and the eus-
providing new sediment to fill the areas where tatic sea level rise (about 3 mm year−1) causes a
compaction was taking place. This became centimeter of sea level rise each year. This
even more true during the mid‐nineteenth occurs on a coast that is dominated by wet-
century when agriculture first became exten- lands that are intertidal to less than a meter
sive throughout the midwest and Great Plains, above mean sea level.
the primary drainage area of the Mississippi. Small and low barrier islands along this
Removal of grasses and trees for agriculture coast have been destroyed or greatly reduced
caused increased rates of erosion and sent during historical times. Predictions are that
increased volumes of sediment down the river. some will be completely gone by the end of
As commerce developed in this area, boat the twenty‐first century. Marshes, which are
traffic on the river increased greatly. Flood among the most productive environments, are
control and navigation gave rise to numerous being drowned because of lack of sediment to
dams along the entire Mississippi system, nourish them. In order to sustain the marsh
especially during the first half of the twentieth environment, it is necessary for the rate of sed-
century. These dams are helpful for shipping iment being delivered to the marsh to be the
but they stop sediment from moving down same as the rate of sea level rise. That is not
the river. Hence, the amount of sediment even close to happening on the Mississippi
being delivered to the mouth of the Mississippi Delta at the present time.
has been cut by about half over the past One positive note that gives some hope is
century. The result has been the “starvation” of that the Corps of Engineers is planning to
the delta. return significant portions of the river to its
In the middle of the twentieth century the natural state, especially in the delta area. This
petroleum industry discovered the great oil will permit floods to take place and thereby
and gas resources of the Mississippi Delta and provide the wetlands with the sediment
exploration and exploitation took off. Now needed to maintain them during this time of
there are thousands of wells on and adjacent rapid sea level rise.
The more widespread human influence is There are several major cities that take
the reverse situation, i.e. a reduction in the large percentages of the discharge of rivers
sediment supply thereby causing the delta to to use in the municipal water supply. The
shrink in size. There are three important southern California area is dependent on
ways by which this occurs: diverting water water from various rivers in the southwest
from the river; navigation controls on the for its water, both for irrigation and for
river; and damming the river. All reduce domestic use, notably the Colorado River
the discharge of the river and the latter two that flows through the Grand Canyon.
physically trap sediment and keep it from Both activities greatly decrease water and
moving down the river. thereby diminish the sediment provided to
EL 799 ft
700
Elevation in feet above sea level
600
500
EL 395 ft
400
300
200 St.Paul Rock Island St. Louis
100
900 700 500 300 150
Miles
Figure 8.18 Diagram showing all of the dams on the Mississippi River between Minneapolis and St. Louis.
(Source: Courtesy of U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers).
maintain the river delta. They also decrease course of over 1000 km there are numerous
the frequency of flooding across the delta, dams and reservoirs as well as places of diver-
causing delta sediments to become increas- sion. The result is that virtually no water nor
ingly salty, which may affect the type of sediment is being provided to the Colorado
vegetation that grows there. The present
River Delta and it is rapidly being eroded by
Colorado River Delta (Figure 8.17) is not strong tidal currents.
experiencing significant discharge of either The case of the Nile River has become sim-
water or sediment. ilar since the Aswan Dam has been in place,
Locks for navigation on major rivers invar- constructed to make the desert fertile. The
iably have dams associated with them. On dam has been quite successful in trapping
the navigable portion of the Mississippi River virtually all of the sediment being carried by
that begins near Minneapolis, Minnesota the Nile that was destined for the delta. As a
there are many such structures (Figure 8.18). consequence, the outer margin of the delta is
The small amount of water impounded is being eroded rapidly by waves in the eastern
typically not a big problem but the sediment Mediterranean.
that is trapped behind the dam is literally sto- We cannot continue to rob our rivers of
len from the system and eventually, from the their water and sediment load without expe-
Mississippi Delta. More important, related riencing the consequences for the deltas that
impoundments are the huge dams built for they feed (Figure 8.19). At present the most
reservoirs and/or hydroelectric power. They viable alternative appears to be stopping
are extremely good sediment traps and some development of any kind on deltas. Waves,
also serve as sources for water diversion. The tides and their resulting currents interact
bottom line is that the amount of water and with the riverine processes to prevent, mold
sediment that the river has available and can or destroy the deltas depending upon the
transport is not being delivered to the delta. specific local circumstances. At those river
Two good examples of this problem are mouths where waves and tides carry all the
the Colorado River that empties into the sediment away there is no delta. At many
Gulf of California (see Figure 8.17) and places the delta is allowed to accumulate and
the Nile River in Egypt. The headwaters of prograde but at some, such as the previously
the Colorado are in the Rocky Mountains mentioned examples, the processes are now
in the state for which it is named. Along the resulting in overall erosion. The relative role
198 Chapter 8
Figure 8.19 Diagram of the United States showing the discharge of sediments by the Mississippi River
decreasing considerably from 1800 to 1980. (Source: Courtesy of USGS).
of the waves and the tides is also an impor- Another very important anthropogenic
tant factor in the formation, maintenance, influence on deltas is the petroleum indus-
and the overall morphology of deltas. try. This is true for many deltas, including
The primary direct marine processes are the Niger and Orinoco, but the Mississippi
the waves, wave‐generated currents and tidal is tremendously affected. There are literally
currents; the rise and fall of the tide has little hundreds of wells that have been drilled on
direct effect on redistributing deltaic sedi- it, and they have had two major impacts.
ment. Waves impart energy along the delta Firstly the delta plain is covered with chan-
and cause sediment to go into temporary nels that have been dredged to enable access
suspension, whereas longshore and/or tidal the location where drilling takes place.
currents transport it. During storms this dis- These channels destroy wetlands and the
tribution or removal of sediment reaches its dredge spoil is dumped along the channel,
maximum. The overall influence of the waves producing a levee that prevents flooding
ranges from mostly longshore transport and sediment delivery to the wetlands
along the delta front providing sediment to (Figure 8.20). Construction of infrastruc-
various parts of the delta, to actual offshore ture to support the petroleum industry also
or alongshore removal of sediment from the inflicts a negative impact on the delta plain
delta proper. Waves and wave‐generated pro- (Figure 8.21).
cesses work toward a smoothing of the outer The other aspect of this industry is the
delta shape. removal of huge volumes of fluids from
Figure 8.20 Aerial photo of numerous canals with dredge spoil levees produced for the petroleum industry.
Figure 8.21 Photo of large infrastructure complex built on the delta plain of the Mississippi.
beneath the delta surface. The removal of all the numerous natural and human‐con-
of this fluid causes the surface to subside and, structed levees is a major problem for the
along with eustatic sea‐level rise, contribute environment. The levees prevent sediment
to the high rate of relative sea‐level rise. The from reaching the wetlands and subsidence
combination of the subsidence produced by causes the wetlands on the delta plain to
the production of oil and gas coupled with drown (Figure 8.22).
200 Chapter 8
Figure 8.22 Photo of a portion of the Mississippi Delta plain showing dredge canals and drowning wetlands
due to subsidence produced by fluid withdrawal.
Most deltas are in great jeopardy due to a contain fruitful ecological niches where a
combination of sea‐level rise and human wide variety of both plants and animals
impact. thrive. Their marshes are among the most
extensive and productive environments any-
where. They are very important nursery
8.10 Summary grounds for juvenile fish and marine inverte-
brates. Their marshes also are important fil-
In some ways river deltas may be considered ters that trap contaminants and pollutants
as the most important of all coastal environ- during flooding of distributaries.
ments because they are the site of sediment The size and shape of the delta is a conse-
introduction for most of the other parts of quence of the interplay between the river and
the coast. On the other hand, people rarely the sediment it provides with the wave and
spend any time visiting a delta on vacation or tidal processes of the marine coast. Deltas
while going to and from places of work or have developed quite rapidly in the context of
play. Deltas tend to be remote, without traffic geologic time and they can be destroyed just
arteries, and are generally inhospitable due as rapidly. As we influence our environment
to the plethora of insects they support. more and more, we need to do a better job of
Because of their critical role in the overall considering the long‐term consequences of
scheme of the coastal zone it is important our actions. The role of human intervention
that we have an understanding of river deltas is critical to the maintenance of this coastal
and their characteristics. environment, as evidenced by what has hap-
Deltas are among the most productive and pened to the deltas of the Nile and Colorado
valuable environments in the world. They as well as others.
References
Coleman, J.M. and Gagliano, S.M. (1964). deltaic plain. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol.
Cyclic sedimentation in the Mississippi Soc. 14: 67–80.
Galloway, W.E. (1975). Process framework for Kaminsky, G.M., Ruggiero, P., Buijsman, M.C.
describing the morphological and et al. (2010). Historical evolution of the
stratigraphic evolution of deltaic Columbia River littoral cell. Mar. Geol.
depositional systems. In: Deltas, 2e (ed. M.L. 273: 96–126.
Broussard), 87–98. Houston, TX,: Kolb, C.R. and van Lopik, J.R. (1966).
Houston Geological Society. Depositional environments of the
Gilbert, G.K. (1890). Lake Bonneville: U.S. Mississippi Delta plain, southeastern
Geological Survey Monograph I, 438. Louisiana. In: Deltas in Their Geologic
Washington, D.C. Framework (ed. M.L. Shirley), 17–61.
Hori, K. and Saito, Y. (2007). Classification, Houston, TX: Houston Geological
architecture and evolution of large‐river Society.
deltas. In: Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Wright, L.D. (1985). River Deltas. In: Coastal
Management (ed. A. Gupta), 75–96. Sedimentary Environments (ed. R.A. Davis),
New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1–76. New York: Springer‐Verlag.
Suggested Reading
Broussard, M.L. (ed.) (1975). Deltas: Models Schmidt, P.E. (ed.) (2011). River Deltas: Types,
for Exploration. Houston, TX: Houston Structures and Ecology,. Hauppauge, NY:
Geological Society. Nova Science Publishers.
Giosan, L. and Bhattacharya, J.P. (eds.) (2005). Wright, L.D. (1985). River Deltas. In: Coastal
River Deltas – Concepts, Models and Examples, Sedimentary Environments (ed. R.A. Davis),
SEPM Special Publication 83. Tulsa, OK: SEPM. 1–76. New York: Springer‐Verlag.
Oti, M.N. and Postma, G. (eds.) (1995).
Geology of Deltas. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
203
Estuaries
Most coasts have embayments of various well‐developed river systems. These are
sizes, shapes, and origins. The differences in generally drowned fluvial systems (Figure 9.2).
the morphologies of these embayments is the Other varieties include: fjords, which are
result of a wide range of origins. The different elongate embayments excavated by glaciers
types of embayment depend primarily on (Figure 9.3); bays formed by barriers such
the nature of their interactions with various as coral reefs and barrier islands (Figure 9.4);
sources of water and their circulation. The and embayments constructed by human
two primary types are estuaries and lagoons. activity, more commonly called harbors
An estuary experiences freshwater inflow (Figure 9.5). This brief list provides some
from the mainland and tidal influx from the idea about the origins of coastal bays and the
marine environment; a lagoon has no sig- shapes that are related to those origins.
nificant freshwater inflow and no tidal circu- The definition for estuaries given above
lation (lagoons will be discussed in the next makes one wonder about the difference
chapter). There are some bays that have tidal between these and river deltas, which also
influx but no freshwater. They are called tidal have important freshwater input and which
estuaries. All of these bays come in a wide experience tidal influence. The simple differ-
range of sizes, shapes and origins. There are ence is that an estuary is a coastal embayment
two basic origins for coastal bays; rising sea but a delta protrudes into the ocean or other
level and tectonic activity. Bays of tectonic adjacent water body. There are several factors
origin tend to be only in crustal plate collision common to these two coastal environments:
zones, whereas those of a sea‐level change both typically have tidal flats and wetlands,
origin are associated with climate change. e.g. marshes or mangrove swamps; both are
Some may have a combination of both, as influenced by rivers, waves and tides; both are
along the Alaskan coast. important sites of sediment accumulation;
The bays that have been formed as a direct and both are geologically young features.
consequence of tectonic activity are generally Estuaries are sediment sinks, that is, places
located on leading‐edge margins like the west where sediment tends to accumulate and stay
coast of both North and South America. for long periods of time. It is this characteristic
Here, faults and movement along these faults that limits the geologic lifetime of an estuary.
may produce bays that are typically long and The runoff from rivers as well as tidal flux
narrow, such as Tomales Bay in California transports sediment from both landward and
(Figure 9.1), where the San Andreas Fault seaward directions into an estuary. The embay-
system provides the geologic setting for a ment provides a local basin for sediments to
coastal bay. The most common type of coastal come to rest. Estuaries tend, therefore, to be
bay is typical of trailing‐edge and mediterra- filled in from the margins toward the middle
nean coasts with broad coastal plains and in a manner that is commonly referred to as
Figure 9.1 Tomales Bay,
California, an example of a
fault‐generated estuary in the
San Andreas complex north of
the San Francisco area.
(Source: Courtesy of NASA).
Figure 9.2 Baffin Bay on the

south Texas coast is a bay that still
reflects its origin from a fluvial
drainage system. (Source: Image
© 2018 Google Earth).
Figure 9.3 A fjord on the

Alaskan coast. (Source: Courtesy
of G. Ashley).
Estuaries 205
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.4 (a) A bay on the Texas coast behind the city of South Padre Island. (b) is a satellite photo of Mobile
Bay, Alabama showing a bay formed by a barrier island.
206 Chapter 9
Figure 9.5 Photograph of Aberdeen Harbour, Hong Kong. (Source: Tokyo Metro at Chinese Wikipedia,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aberdeen_Harbour_view.jpg. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0).
progradation. If sea level rises during this generally continuous but the discharge may
infilling process then the space available for vary greatly depending upon the season, the
sediment continues to increase. On the other overall climate, and other factors, just like
hand, if sea level falls, the estuary is drained the situation for deltas. In contrast, the tidal
and the river(s) flow across its prior location influence from the open marine environ-
leaving the “basin” essentially “high and dry.” ment to the estuary is typically regular and
predictable. The range in tidal fluctuation
changes with spring and neap conditions but
9.1 Estuarine Hydrology the periodicity remains fairly constant.
The salinity of seawater is about 35 parts
In addition to the size, shape and origin of per thousand, or 3.5 %, whereas fresh water is
these bays, their character also includes their essentially zero. This contrast in salinity pro-
hydrology. This is comprised of the charac- duces a significant difference in the density
teristics of the water coming from both the of the two water types. Remember how much
land runoff and the marine environment, easier it is to float in salt water as compared
coupled with its circulation within the estuary. to a freshwater pool? In absolute numbers
The hydrology controls the water chemistry, the densities are 1.000 g cc−1 for fresh water
the biota and the sediment that forms the and 1.026 g cc−1 for normal marine salt water;
substrate. It is the hydrologic characteristics a relatively small difference but a very impor-
that provide the best criteria for classifying tant one. In the absence of waves or strong
coastal bays into broad categories. currents, these different water types are
The fact that both rivers and tides flow layered, with the lighter fresh water “floating”
into the estuary means that fresh water and on the heavier salt water. This phenomenon
seawater are being mixed. This interaction demonstrates the potential complications
of different water types gives the estuary one that the merging of these water types present
of its most important characteristics along the to the estuary in terms of circulation into and
coast; brackish salinity. Runoff from a river is out of the embayment.
Estuaries 207
32% SALINITY
FACIES BOUNDARY BETWEEN
ESTUARINE SAND BODY AND LIMIT OF
NORMAL MARINE SEDIMENTS TIDAL INFLUENCE
0.1%
WAVE SALINITY
PROCESSES
MARINE TIDAL RIVER

SEDIMENT PROCESSES
SOURCE PROCESSES
FLUVIAL
FACIES BOUNDARY BETWEEN SEDIMENT
MARINE-(TIDALLY) INFLUENCED SOURCE
AND FLUVIAL SEDIMENTS
MARINE ESTUARY (Dalrymple et al., 2010) RIVER
MARINE ESTUARY (Pritchard, 1967) RIVER
Figure 9.6 Diagram showing the boundaries of an estuary according to Pritchard (1967) and Dalrymple (2010).
The boundaries of estuaries depend on rivers may display stratified water masses,
salinity and sediment facies. There have for instance the Hudson River estuary in
been two different definitions proposed and New York, where the saltwater wedge extends
utilized by different estuarine scientists. tens of kilometers up the river. In some estu-
Pritchard defined the boundaries of an estuaries some of the salt water mixes with the
ary based on salinity, ranging from 32 ‰ on fresh water to produce a transition zone of
the seaward limit to 0.1 ‰ on the landward intermediate salinity between the fresh water
side (Figure 9.6). By contrast Dalrymple used and salt water. Places where tidal currents
sediment facies as the limits of an estuary. influence part, but not all, of the estuary,
The seaward limit was the presence of marine such as Chesapeake Bay, display this charac-
sediments and the landward limit is the teristic. Totally mixed estuaries produce a
presence of fluvial facies. The Pritchard vertically homogenized water column with a
definition is the easier of the two to resolve gradient of increasing salinity toward the
simply by taking salinity measurements but ocean. This could be the result of waves in
the Dalrymple definition is geologically sig- a shallow estuary such as Pamlico Sound,
nificant and can be resolved in the ancient North Carolina or Mobile Bay, Alabama, or it
stratigraphic record. could be due to strong tidal currents such as
in the Bay of Fundy, Canada or Delaware Bay
on the Atlantic coast of the United States.
9.1.1 Classification of Estuaries Large and complicated estuaries such as
A common classification of estuaries is based Chesapeake Bay or San Francisco Bay can
on the way that fresh water and salt water experience different conditions in different
interact. In the 1950s, Donald Pritchard, a locations and at different times in the lunar
scientist at the Chesapeake Bay Institute, tidal cycle.
recognized three types of circulation condi- Many estuaries move from one hydrologic
tions in estuaries: stratified; partially mixed; type to another depending upon seasonal
and mixed (Figure 9.7). In a stratified estuary variations in runoff, changes in wave climate,
there is essentially complete separation topographic variations of the estuary floor,
between the freshwater and saltwater masses or other phenomena that lead to variations in
due to lack of mixing caused by waves or the amount of mixing. For example, a large
strong currents. Estuaries dominated by but shallow estuary such as Mobile Bay or
208 Chapter 9
TYPES OF ESTUARIES Figure 9.7 Diagram showing the

three basic types of estuarine
SEA RIVER circulation between seawater and
RIVER FLOW fresh water.
HIGHLY
STRATIFIED
E
SALT WEDG
PARTIALLY
MIXED
FULLY
MIXED
Pamlico Sound is susceptible to waves mix- River forms such a delta (Figure 9.9). These
ing the water column thereby destroying any estuaries tend to be river‐dominated because
layering of water mass types. Waves tend to of the strong influence of the stream pro-
be absent or small during the summer, condi- cesses and the absence of strong tidal cur-
tions that foster stratification. Near the other rents and/or big waves. The tidal influence
end of the spectrum, tidal currents in the Bay in these Gulf Coast estuaries is diminished
of Fundy are always strong enough to mix the by the presence of the barrier islands across
water in this estuary completely. the mouth of the bays. It is also limited by
the small tidal range around the Gulf; less
than 1 m spring tide for all of the barrier
9.1.2 Estuarine Processes
islands.
Estuaries tend to be influenced primarily by Some estuaries have multiple rivers empty-
river or tidal processes, with wave influence ing into them with little or no development
being dependent upon the size and depth of a bayhead delta. Probably the best exam-
of the estuarine basin. Fresh water and sedi- ple is Chesapeake Bay (Figure 9.10) which
ment are provided to the estuary by river receives input from numerous large rivers
discharge. The amount of both of these but which has no significant bay‐head deltas.
and the rate at which they are delivered are Here the digitate nature of the many river
important to the character and longevity of valleys leading to the estuary traps most
the estuary. Some estuaries are supplied by of the relatively coarse sediment before it
a single river and therefore the sediment reaches the open portion of the estuary.
supply is essentially at one point. This situa- Many of the small west‐coast estuaries have
tion tends to form a bayhead delta, where similar conditions, though they generally
much of the sediment delivered by the river have only a single stream feeding them.
accumulates (Figure 9.8). Some of the large Although this type of estuary can develop
estuaries on the Texas coast have this char- any of the three hydrologic styles mentioned
acteristic; San Antonio Bay is fed by the above, nearly all are stratified or partially
Guadalupe River, Corpus Christi Bay by mixed. In addition to the presence of the
the Nueces River, and Galveston Bay by the bayhead deltas, terrigenous sediment accu-
Trinity River. Another good example is mulation in these river‐dominated estuaries
Mobile Bay in Alabama, where the Tensaw tends to be dominated by mud. (See Box 9.1.)
Estuaries 209
Figure 9.8 Aerial photograph of the Guadalupe River Delta as it is positioned at the head of San Antonio Bay
on the central Texas coast. (Source: Courtesy of Google Earth).
At the other end of the spectrum are tide‐ Sand can be moved by currents of as low as
dominated estuaries. This type is typically 20–30 cm s−1 depending on the size of the
funnel‐shaped and has no barrier or other sand particles. These conditions are typically
constriction at its mouth (Figure 9.11). Such achieved or exceeded for several hours dur-
a configuration not only eliminates the ing each flood and ebb tidal cycle. As a result,
dampening effect that barriers have on tidal the tidal currents produce numerous bed-
flux but commonly amplifies the progressing forms on the floor of the estuary; basically
tidal wave during flooding, producing high the same ones that we see exposed on tidal
tidal ranges. Both conditions result in maxi- flats (Figure 9.13). These bedforms are devel-
mizing the influence of tidal flux, and they oped because of the shear between the bed
create fully mixed hydrologic conditions in (sediment) and the water column, thereby
the estuary. The combination of high tidal causing turbulence and producing these
range with strong tidal currents generally regular irregularities on the substrate. These
results in a sand‐dominated estuary floor bedforms range in size from ripples to sand
because the mud tends to be carried out to waves. The size and shape of these features is
sea in suspension or is trapped at the low‐ controlled by grain size and by the speed of
energy, landward limits of the estuary. Good the tidal currents.
examples of tide‐dominated estuaries are the
Bay of Fundy and also the Bay of St.‐Malo on
9.1.3 Time–Velocity Relationships
the north coast of France (Figure 9.12).
The strong tidal currents in these tide‐ The graphic record of the rise and fall of the
dominated estuaries move much sediment tides shows the change in water level over
into the estuary, and they also move sedi- each tidal cycle. This curve is essentially
ment that is already in the estuary back and symmetrical. If we plot the velocity of tidal
forth during each flood and ebb of the tide. currents that are produced by this rise and
210 Chapter 9
7,000 YEARS BEFORE PRESENT 0 5 10 Miles 6,000 YEARS BEFORE PRESENT

0 5 10 Kilometers
4,000 YEARS BEFORE PRESENT PRESENT

PRESENT SHORELINE
LAND MARSH WATER
OF MOBILE BAY
Figure 9.9 Sequence of diagrams showing stages in the formation of Mobile Bay and the Kensaw River Delta
as sea level rose during the Holocene period. (Source: Courtesy of Geological Survey of Alabama).
Estuaries 211
Figure 9.10 Map of Chesapeake Bay showing the numerous rivers that empty into this estuary.
(Source: Landsat/NASA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chesapeakelandsat.jpeg).
Box 9.1 Chesapeake Bay

Chesapeake Bay is one of the largest estuaries
in the world. It is supplied by a fluvial system
that covers part of six states in the U.S. and
includes more than 100 streams, 11 of which
are major rivers (Box Figure 9.1.1). This bay is
320 km long and 48 km wide at its widest,
with 18,800 km of shoreline, and has an area
of 11,600 km2. The average depth is 6 m and
the average discharge is 2200 m3 s−1.
This estuary is surrounded by a population
of several million. As a result, the anthropo-
genic impact has been substantial, especially
in terms of water quality. The basin in which
the bay resides is the result of a bolide impact
about 35.5 million years before present. As
sea level rose in the post‐glacial sea‐level rise
it flooded the Susquehanna River valley to
form the present fluvial system.
Like most estuaries this one has been
extremely productive, although it has had
some periods of low levels. It is best known for Box Figure 9.1.1 Map of the drainage basin that
feeds into Chesapeake Bay. (Source: Pennfuture).
oyster production (Box Figure 9.1.2) although
212 Chapter 9
Box Figure 9.1.2 Close‐up photo of a large oyster reef at low tide. (Source: Nature Conservancy).
Box Figure 9.1.3 Aerial photo of a large concentration of suspended sediment. (Source: Jane Thomas, courtesy
of the Integration and Application Network, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science.)
this has also seen a range of productivity. Blue combination of sand and mud (Box Figure
crabs and clams have also been significant. 9.1.3). Like most estuaries this bay is surrounded
Sport and commercial fishing are widespread by a combination of wetlands (Box Figure 9.1.4)
on Chesapeake Bay. Sediments in the bay are a and fine beaches (Box Figure 9.1.5).
Estuaries 213
Box Figure 9.1.4 Aerial photo of marsh with numerous tidal channels. (Source: EPA. https://www.epa.gov/
sites/production/files/styles/large/public/2015‐03/what_is_the_bay_tmdl.jpg).
Box Figure 9.1.5 Photo of a beach with several groins at low tide. (Source: Chesapeake Bay Program, https://
www.chesapeakebay.net/news/blog/eight_reasons_the_chesapeake_bay_is_an_exceptional_estuary).
fall of the tides we find that the curve has a very is called a time–velocity curve (Figure 9.14)
different shape. There is considerable asym- because it is a record of the velocity of the tidal
metry to the velocity data and the duration current over time. The lack of symmetry is
of flood and ebb may be different. This graph called time–velocity asymmetry.
214 Chapter 9
LEGEND
Deep Subtidal Muddy Intertidal
Shallow Subtidal Supratidal
Sandy Intertidal Non-depositional
5 km
Figure 9.11 Diagrammatic map of a tide‐dominated estuary showing the various sedimentary environments.
(Source: Dalrymple et al. (2012)).
Each location in an estuary displays its own the location of this time–velocity plot is
characteristic time–velocity curve showing its flood‐ or ebb‐dominated (Figure 9.15).
own asymmetry. Changes in the asymmetry
will occur within the lunar cycle from neap to
9.1.4 Model Estuary
spring conditions. If the estuary floor or tidal
channels are changed, all of which strongly A good way to conceptualize an estuary is
influence the flow of tidal current, then time– through the use of a simple model. The estu-
velocity curves may show steep or more grad- ary can be subdivided into three main parts:
ual slopes or they may show distinct differences the landward area of river influence; the
in the duration of the flood and ebb portion of middle, truly estuarine area; and the seaward
the tidal cycle. This time difference exceeds an area of marine influence (Figure 9.16). The
hour in many cases. These conditions may relative proportions of each vary with indi-
produce either flood‐dominated locations or vidual estuaries and with the influences of
ebb‐dominated locations and these different the major processes. Tides commonly dimin-
locations may be adjacent to one another. It is ish in their influence landward, although
common for example, for a channel to be ebb‐ there are exceptions where the shape of the
dominated but the adjacent tidal flats to be estuary enhances tidal range, the Bay of
flood‐dominated. Fundy being an example. Wave influence
We can show how sediment is transported tends to be directly proportional to the size
by looking at the time–velocity relationships. of the estuary or to the fetch of a particular
There is a threshold velocity above which portion of it. Riverine influence is likewise
sediment is transported. By looking at the proportional to the amount and rate of river
length of time that the velocity is above that input relative to tidal flux.
value it is possible to show the amount of There is nearly always significant overlap
sediment that is moved and to determine if in the sediment supply from the river and
Estuaries 215
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.12 Examples of major tide‐dominated estuaries include (a) the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada,
and (b) the Bay of St.‐Malo on the north coast of France. (Source: Tessier (2012)).
from marine sources, and the nature of the estuarine transport of sediments includes
contribution is commonly different between both bed load and suspended load. The latter
these sources. River sediments are generally is particularly important in low‐energy estu-
sand and mud, whereas marine sediments aries where it forms the bulk of the sediment
tend to be dominated by sand with some that accumulates; less is carried out by ebb-
shell gravel; mud is rare (see Figure 9.16). The ing tides into the open marine environment.
216 Chapter 9
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.13 Bedforms are widespread on the surface of tide‐dominated estuaries such as (a) an aerial photo of
multiple sets at Cobequid Bay in the Bay of Fundy, and (b) on a sandy tidal flat on the coast of Queensland,
Australia. (Source: R. A. Davis).
The zone of fresh water and salt water mix- up to 30 μm. This is also the zone of the tur-
ing has a strong influence on suspended sedi- bidity maximum in both partially and fully
ments because it is a place where water mixed estuaries. Here, suspended sediment
density changes significantly. Flocculation of concentrations are highest. This phenome-
fine clay mineral particles (<2 μm in diame- non is controlled by the mixing of fresh water
ter) takes place here, and floc size may reach with the leading edge of the salt water. Some
Estuaries 217
100
50
cm sec–1
–50
–100
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Time
Surface Bottom
Figure 9.14 Time–velocity curve showing how flood‐tidal and ebb‐tidal current velocity is distributed through
a tidal cycle.
Net transport
Bedload transport rate

Bedload transport rate
velocity
Time
Threshold velocity
Current velocity
Figure 9.15 Model showing sediment transport over a tidal cycle as based on the time‐velocity curve for
currents. (Source: Wang (2012)).
218 Chapter 9
Major marine influence

Major river influence Estuary
r
ve
Ri
Sea
Tides
River inflow Waves
Sediment supply
Marine
River
Figure 9.16 Diagram showing the three parts of a typical estuary. (Source: Adapted from Nichols and Biggs (1985)).
of the particles suspended in the overlying and currents that can cause it to become sus-
fresh water mass settle as currents diminish pended. Skeletal carbonate material from
and are then entrained by the lower, denser many of these animals makes an important
salt water and carried landward to the tur- contribution to the sediment of the estuary.
bidity maximum. This process produces the Oyster reefs are particularly abundant and
high sediment accumulation rate associated widespread in the middle section of many of
with the turbidity maximum. the low‐energy, muddy estuaries (Figure 9.17).
There is a third source of sediment in estu- In some areas mussels are also common.
aries; the biogenic material that is produced The other aspect of the contribution made
or modified in the estuary itself. This sedi- by bottom‐dwelling organisms is by their
ment tends to be most abundant and accu- pelletization of suspended sediments by fil-
mulates most rapidly in the middle zone (see ter feeders and to a lesser extent by grazers.
Figure 9.16). There are numerous organisms The biggest contributors to pelleted muds
that thrive on the brackish salinities that are oysters, mussels and worms, all of which
characterize the central portion of most estu- filter their nourishment from fine suspended
aries. The typical salinity range here is from particles provided by currents. The organ-
about 5–20 ‰. Ostracods, foraminifera, vari- isms pass these particles through their diges-
ous mollusks, and worms are the most com- tive tracts and excrete pelleted mud in large
mon animals. In addition various types of quantities. Much of the accumulated estua-
algae are present and some subtidal grasses rine sediment is actually in the form of these
on the fringe where water clarity is sufficient. pellets – sand‐sized, cohesive aggregates of
Poor water clarity strongly inhibits photosyn- mud‐sized particles. Because they are soft
thesis in most estuaries, a consequence of the they appear to be simply an accumulation of
abundance of fine sediment, and the waves fine mud. Filter feeders greatly increase the
Estuaries 219
Figure 9.17 Oyster reefs on the Gulf Coast of Florida.
‘STRAIGHT’ MEANDERING ‘STRAIGHT’
TIDAL
MUDFLAT LIMIT
L-FLUVI
DA AL L
TI C H AN N E
TIDAL SAND BARS
ALLUVIAL
SALT MARSH VALLEY
Figure 9.18 General model of a tide‐dominated estuary. (Source: Courtesy of DalrymplChapte 2012).
rate of benthic sediment accumulation by general estuarine model shown in Figure 9.16

taking suspended sediment that might other- as a general morphologic model, it is possible
wise be carried to sea out of the water col- to place it into either of these two types. The
umn and converting it to larger particles that following discussion will consider the differ-
settle to the floor of the estuary. ences and similarities along with various
examples of each type.
9.1.5 Estuary Types
9.1.5.1 Tide‐Dominated Estuaries
We can place most estuaries into one of two The general configuration of the tide‐domi-
general morphodynamic types; wave‐dominated estuary is a funnel shape (Figure 9.18)
nated and tide‐dominated. If we consider the with tidal processes having a strong influence
220 Chapter 9
over most of the estuary. This type of estuary incident wave energy along the coast, the
develops along coasts that have some combi- result is some type of barrier across the mouth
nation of high tidal range and large tidal of the estuary (Figure 9.21). This is the
prism (the volume of water in an estuary general morphology of the wave‐dominated
between mean high tide and mean low tide) estuary. The three parts can be seen as the
with an absence of an energetic wave climate. marine portion that includes the flood tidal
As a consequence, we have an estuary that delta, the central basin that is the true estu-
tends to be fully mixed throughout due to the ary and the fluvial‐dominated portion that is
influence of tidal currents. In addition, the the bayhead delta. In some of these estuaries
sediments that accumulate in a tide‐dominated the barrier is detached from the mainland, as
estuary tend to be sand; most of the mud along the Texas coast (Figure 9.22a), and in
being swept away by the strong currents. This others, it is attached to the mainland, generally
sandy estuary floor is characterized by linear some type of headland (Figure 9.22b). This is
sediment bodies aligned along the estuary by typical of the estuaries along the west coast
the flow of tidal currents (Figure 9.19). The of the United States, especially in the states
mobility of the substrate caused by these of Oregon and Washington. Compare these
currents tends to inhibit colonization by photographs with a tidal estuary type of
benthic organisms. coastal bay (Figure 9.23).
The Gironde estuary along the west coast Such estuaries develop along coasts where
of northern France is a classic example of a waves and wave‐generated currents dominate
funnel‐shaped tide‐dominated estuary. Other over tidal processes. The barriers between
examples include the Minas and Chignecto the estuary and the open marine environ-
basins of the Bay of Fundy, the Wash on the ment inhibit tidal flux but still permit enough
east coast of England, and to a lesser extent, marine influx to produce brackish conditions
Delaware Bay on the east coast of the United when combined with fresh water runoff via
States (Figure 9.20). rivers. Sediments in wave‐dominated estuar-
ies tend to be dominated by mud or muddy
9.1.5.2 Wave‐Dominated Estuaries sand. The absence of strong currents permits
If we take the same funnel‐shaped estuary as the fine sediment to settle to the bottom and
discussed above and greatly reduce the tidal remain there. In addition, filter feeders
flux while at the same time increasing the are common on a relatively stable substrate
Figure 9.19 Linear bedforms on the coast of Maine, USA.

Estuaries 221
Figure 9.20 Map of Delaware Bay a tide‐dominated estuary showing sand bodies in its bathymetry on the
Atlantic coast of the United States. (Source: Courtesy of NOAA).
further contributing to the muddy sediments above (see Figure 9.7), but are likely to be in
through the production of pellets. This envi- the layered or partially mixed types more
ronment tends to be a very productive oyster that in the fully mixed category. They will,
habitat. however, become fully mixed in the event
These estuaries can have any of the three that waves are generated over extensive shal-
main hydrologic characteristics discussed low estuarine water bodies. Such an example
222 Chapter 9
SHALLOW B
A WASH- TIDAL
MARINE R OVERS LIMIT
R
I
E CENTRAL BASIN BAY-HEAD
R FLOOD- DELTA
ALLUVIAL
TIDAL VALLEY
INLET DELTA
Figure 9.21 Simplified model of a wave‐dominated estuary with the vertical lines dividing the three main parts.
(Source: Courtesy of Dalrymple 2012).
of this condition would be Pamlico Sound it produces canals with little to no circulation,
behind the Outer Banks of North Carolina leading to poor water quality and oxygen
and most of the estuaries of the Gulf Coast. deficiency; it destroys important wetland
environments; finally, it reduces the area of
the bay, which reduces the tidal prism and
9.2 Human Impact on Estuaries causes circulation problems (Figure 9.26).
The other type of construction that causes
The growth of population on the coast has problems is fill‐type causeways connecting
had considerable effect on estuaries. Most of the mainland to barrier islands (Figure 9.27).
the impact is negative and almost all is related These structures are essentially a dam across
to various types of construction. Among the bay; no circulation can pass through
the most significant of these impacts are them except at an intracoastal waterway
those associated with commercial harbors channel.
(Figure 9.24). Here dredging of channels is Pollution can be a major factor in an estu-
common, large industrial docks have been ary. One of the most serious events situation
constructed as have seawalls. In addition to took place on the southern coast of Spain,
the construction work, populated regions associated with the Rio Tinto mining district
contribute considerable quantities of pollut- in the upland area of the province of Andalusia
ants to bays. As a consequence of this, water (Figure 9.28). This was the site of some of the
quality can become quite poor limiting the original precious‐metal mines that were used
ability of many species to live or reproduce. for coinage by the Roman Empire. The tailings
Two other types of construction are prev- from the mine were included in the runoff
alent in many of the bays associated with into the Rio Tinto which polluted the estuary
coastal plains. First, the dredging of shallow to the point that all life in it was destroyed.
water and wetlands to produce upland Indeed, its pH is still only 3; very acidic. The
environments for residential construction mining has ceased but the estuary is now
(Figure 9.25). This approach to the modifi- subjected to pollution from a phosphate
cation of bays generates multiple problems: beneficiation plant (Figure 9.29).
Estuaries 223
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.22 Aerial photo of a wave dominated estuary on the (a) Texas coast and (b) the Oregon coast in the
United States. (Source: Images ©2018 Google Earth).
Figure 9.23 Example of a tidal estuary type of coastal bay on the coast of England. (Source: Courtesy of
Southwest Coastal Group).
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.24 Aerial photos showing (a) development of a harbor and (b) dredge spoil islands in the estuarine
environment. (Source: Images © 2018 Google Earth).
Figure 9.25 Aerial photo of finger canals and upland development that originated on coastal wetlands in the
Gulf Coast of Florida.
1883 1997
John’s Pass John’s Pass

ay
iega B
Blind Pass
Boca C
Blind Pass
Int
rac
oa
N
s
tal
1km
Wa
terw
ay
Pass-a- Pass-a-
Grille Grille
Figure 9.26 Map of Boca Ciega Bay on the Florida Gulf coast showing the changes in the area of the estuary
that resulted from dredge and fill construction. (Source: Davis and Barnard (2003)).
Figure 9.27 Aerial photo
of a fill causeway on the
Florida Gulf coast. Such a
dam‐like structure causes
significant changes in the
tidal circulation of an
estuary.
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.28 Photos of the (a) mining area where serious pollution is generated and (b) stream carrying
pollution in the Rio Tinto in the Andalusia area of southern Spain. (Source: R. A. Davis).
Estuaries 227
Figure 9.29 Aerial photo of the Rio Tinto (right) estuary near its mouth. The white area is a phosphate
beneficiation area, another source of pollution for this estuary. The estuary on the left is the Odiel.
(Source: Courtesy of J.A. Morales, Director, The Research Group).
9.3 Summary into estuaries contribute both fresh water

and sediments. The tidal flux from the
Estuaries are among the most complex of all marine environment contributes sediments
coastal environments because of their wide and salt water. The estuary is the site of the
range of hydrologic, biotic, and sedimento- mixing of these elements into a transition
logic conditions. They can be formed by a between marine and freshwater conditions.
variety of different factors, although most Organisms tend to be controlled by the
are the result of sea‐level rise over the past nature of the water and by the substrate
few thousand years. The rivers emptying conditions.
References
Dalrymple, R.W., Mackay, D.A., Ichaso, A.A., Pritchard, D.W. (1967). What is an
and Choi, K.S. (2012). Processes, estuary? A physical viewpoint. Science 83:
morphodynamics and facies of tide‐ 3–5.
dominated estuaries. In: Principles of Tidal Tessier, B. (2012). Stratigraphy of tide‐
Sedimentology (ed. R.A. Davis and R.W. dominated estuaries. In: Principles of
Dalrymple), 79–108. New York: Springer. Tidal Sedimentology (ed. R.A. Davis and
Davis, R.A. and Barnard, P. (2003). R.W. Dalrymple), 109–128. New York:
Morphodynamics of the barrier‐inlet Springer.
system, west‐Central Florida. Mar. Geol. Wang, P. (2012). Principles of sediment
200: 77–101. transport applicable in tidal environments.
Nichols, R. and Biggs, R.L. (1985). Estuaries. In: In: Principles of Tidal Sedimentology
Coastal Sedimentary Environments, 2e (ed. (ed. R.A. Davis and R.W. Dalrymple), 19–34.
R.A. Davis), 77–186. New York: Springer. New York: Springer.
228 Chapter 9
Suggested Reading
Dyer, K.R. (1979). Estuaine Hydrography and Hardisty, J. (2008). Estuaries: Monitoring and
Sedimentation. Cambridge: Cambridge Modeling the Physical System. New York:
University Press. John Wiley and Sons.
Dyer, K.R. (1998). Estuaries: A Physical Kennish, M.J. (ed.) (2016). Encyclopedia of
Introduction, 2e. New York: John Wiley and Estuaries. New York: Springer.
Sons. Nelson, B.W. (ed.) (1972). Environmental
Eisma, D. (1998). Intertidal Deposits; River‐ Framework of Coastal Plain Estuaries,
Mouths, Tidal Flats and Coastal Lagoons. Geological Society of America, Memoir
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. No. 133. Boulder, CO.
Isla, F.I. (1995). Coastal Lagoons. In: Perillo, G.M.E. (ed.) (1995). Geomorphology and
Geomorphology and Sedimentology of Sedimentology of Estuaries, Developments in
Estuaries, Developments in Sedimentology Sedimentology No. 53. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
No. 53 (ed. G.M.E. Perillo). Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
229
10
Coastal Lagoons
Lagoons are very restricted coastal bays. the open marine environment, but with
They occur as the result of specific climatic, lower wave energy. The other end of the
geologic and hydrographic situations. They coastal bay spectrum is the lagoon, where
have specific hydrologic characteristics, they there is an absence of significant freshwater
host their own special fauna and flora and influx and where there is no significant tidal
they have their own sediment signature. flux because of the presence of an efficient
Lagoons are not particularly common glob- barrier blocking interaction between the
ally but they are important because they bay and the open marine environment
provide a special environment with unique (Figure 10.1b). Lagoons, therefore, will be
characteristics. In general coastal lagoons expected to have an elevated salinity due to a
represent what is considered to be a stressed general excess of evaporation over precipita-
environment because of the extreme condition which is the primary mode of introduc-
tions that prevail. ing water to the lagoon, although storms may
This chapter will consider the various wash over low barriers and introduce water
characteristics of coastal lagoons and what to the lagoon. Such coastal water bodies with
distinguishes them from other coastal water high salinities have very different character-
bodies. Some important examples will be istics than open bays and estuaries. For these
discussed and compared. reasons it is important to maintain strict def-
initions for the various types of coastal bay.
10.1 Definition
10.2 Morphology and
Most definitions of the term lagoon are non‐ Setting
specific. Many authors apply the name
lagoon to any water body that is landward of Lagoons display various shapes, but most are
a barrier. Typically, lagoons are indicated as elongate parallel to the coastline and virtually
being parallel to the coast and separated all are separated from the open marine envi-
from the open marine water by a natural bar- ronment by a barrier island, though in some
rier. The major problem with this loose use of places by a reef, such as in the Persian Gulf.
the term lagoon is that there is no restriction Because the wave‐dominated nature of the
or limitation on the nature of the circulation coast produces long barrier islands and coral
and water characteristics within the water reefs, many lagoons extend for tens of kilom-
body. eters along the coast. Atoll reefs also have a
Some coastal bays are simply open embay- lagoon in their center. Lagoons may form in a
ments of the sea (Figure 10.1a) with similar variety of geologic settings as long as there is
tides, salinities and other characteristics to some embayment from the open marine
230 Chapter 10
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.1 Various settings of different types of coastal bays including (a) an open embayment of the sea
and (b) a lagoon which lacks streams and tidal flux. (Source: Courtesy of (a) South West Coastal Group and
(b) Wikipedia).
Coastal Lagoons 231
environment and a mechanism for isolating 10.3 General Characteristics

it, such as development of a barrier or spit.
Lagoons may develop along high‐relief areas Although there are significant differences
such as the Pacific coast of Mexico where among various coastal lagoons, there are
high wave energy and pronounced longshore many similarities. We can characterize them
drift develop barrier spits that are wave‐ by their salinity, organisms, processes and
dominated and become closed to significant sediments.
tidal flux, but most lagoons are developed
along coastal plains where barriers have Salinity
effectively separated a coastal bay from the Lagoons are commonly schizohaline or
open ocean. hypersaline, at least in the broad senses of
Climate is another factor that plays a role in these terms. Schizohaline water bodies are
most coastal plain or prograding strandplain those which display great change in salinity
lagoons. In order to eliminate freshwater from brackish to hypersaline, generally in
runoff into the coastal bay it is necessary for response to seasonal rainfall or some cyclic
rainfall to be significantly limited. Typically phenomena. Some shallow coastal lagoons
this occurs along coasts where near‐desert fall into this category. An extreme example
conditions prevail. In fact, many of the world’s is Lake Reeve in Victoria, Australia, which is
lagoons have developed along such coasts: a long, shallow lagoon (Figure 10.2). During
southern Australia, northern Africa, the the wet season it is almost fresh, whereas in
Persian Gulf, south Texas, much of Mexico, the dry season it dries up locally and
southern Brazil and southeast Africa. becomes quite saline in those areas where
The nature of coastal lagoons makes them water remains.
typically quite shallow; a meter or less is This type of salinity pattern would charac-
common. Some are actually ephemeral, hav- terize lagoons of the mid‐latitudes with strong
ing dry beds during the dry season and water seasonality to precipitation, and with high
standing in the lagoonal basin only during evaporation : precipitation ratios. Hypersaline
the wet season. lagoons are those in which salinities are
Figure 10.2 Vertical aerial photo of Lake Reeve, Victoria, Australia showing some dry portions. (Source: Image
© 2018 Google Earth).
232 Chapter 10
c ontinually above normal marine concentra- where salinity may change from nearly fresh
tions. They are characteristic of semiarid and water (<5 parts per thousand (5 ppt, or 5 ‰))
arid coastal areas where little or no fresh- to as much as 200 ppt. This is almost six
water influx occurs. Salinity commonly times higher than normal marine concentra-
increases away from the connections with tions which are around 35 ppt (=35 ‰).
the open sea, if any are present. Laguna Evaporation will raise salinity to near the
Madre in Texas and Shark Bay in Western high end of this range during summer and
Australia are examples, and will be discussed one fall of rain can lower it to brackish levels
in detail later in the chapter. of 10–15 ppt. Killifish can tolerate such
extreme and rapid changes in salinity
Organisms through its ability to rapidly osmoregulate
Hypersaline or schizohaline conditions cause its body fluids to match those in its aquatic
serious problems for organisms. Typical environment.
marine or estuarine species cannot tolerate Another excellent example of an organism
either of these salinity situations so we find that can live under severe salinity conditions
special communities present in lagoons. It is can be found in both of the southeastern
usual for such extreme environments is to Australian lagoons; the Coorong and Lake
have very few species because of the special Reeve. Here a single species of cerithid gas-
adaptations that are required for such severe tropod, Rosiella, appears in huge numbers
salinity conditions. Generally, however, the along the shallow and exposed wet margins
numbers of individuals within these specially of the lagoons. These detritus feeders graze
adapted species is very high. while moving slowly over the surface. They
A good example of an organism that can also contribute large numbers of small pellets
tolerate major fluctuations in salinity is the to lagoonal sediment. Their numbers reach
killifish, Funulus, which is common in parts such high concentrations that is common for
of Laguna Madre, Texas. This small fish the small beaches along the lagoons shores to
inhabits many of the isolated or nearly iso- be made exclusively of the shells from this
lated ponds and embayments of this lagoon single species (Figure 10.3).
Figure 10.3 Cerithid snails which abound in many schizohaline lagoons.

Coastal Lagoons 233
Chemical Precipitates restricted to local ponds and embayments of

High concentrations of dissolved elements the major lagoonal water body where salinities
and ions in lagoons may result in actual pre- can reach extreme levels.
cipitation of minerals. There is a generally
predictable order of mineral precipitation
depending on concentration. The typical 10.4 Lagoonal Processes
salinity of open lagoons ranges from about
40 through 70 ppt most of the time. These Physical Processes
levels of salinity do not result in formation of Typical coastal processes, such as tides and
any of the typical evaporite minerals but waves, are not prevalent in lagoons. The defi-
carbonate minerals may precipitate. These nition of the term and the nature of lagoons
carbonate minerals (aragonite and calcite) limits any tidal influence. Tidal flux is absent
are different in that they do precipitate from or very local adjacent to typically small inlets.
solution in elevated salinities but they are Wind tides do occur but without any regular-
also influenced by photosynthesis, pH and ity. Thus, there is no tidal mechanism for
other factors. transporting sediments into or out of coastal
The true evaporite minerals that may appear lagoons. Waves are limited in their influence
in lagoons do not precipitate until a salinity of by the short fetch that is typical of the nor-
about 200 ppt is reached and g ypsum (calcium mally elongate lagoons. The width of these
sulfate) forms. The next common mineral to coastal bays is generally only a kilometer or
precipitate is halite, common salt, which so, which produces short and steep waves if
appears at levels of 300 ppt. In very extreme strong winds are present. These waves do not
situations, other evaporite minerals may form have much influence on the lagoon floor but
but they are typically restricted to saline lakes they do develop narrow beaches and small
and intermittent lakes in inland environ- beach ridges (Figure 10.4). These choppy
ments. Even gypsum and halite are uncom- waves can also cause coastal erosion along
mon in coastal lagoons, and are generally lagoonal shorelines.
Figure 10.4 Small beach and related beach ridges in Lake Reeve, Australia; both wave‐formed features of this
lagoon.
234 Chapter 10
There are other physical processes that The other storm‐related process that
have a major influence on coastal lagoons. affects lagoons is the wind tide that results
All are derived from some influence of wind. from setup in the water body itself. When
This can be the result of storm activity or wind blows over these shallow water bodies,
from ambient onshore winds that prevail water is pushed toward the downwind side of
along most coasts. Wind can produce circu- the lagoon. Because lagoonal shorelines gen-
lation in lagoons that homogenizes any strat- erally have a gentle gradient, there may be
ification of salinity (density) that might significant flooding by this elevated, wind‐
develop from very low energy conditions. blown water; causing a wind tide. When this
Storms, especially hurricanes, produce happens on Laguna Madre, it is common for
large waves and elevated water level or storm sediment to be transported onto the wind
surge. It is common for this combination to tidal flats (Figure 10.6) on the landward side
breach dunes of barrier islands and trans- of Padre Island, Texas which borders the
port both water and sediment into the lagoon, and along the mainland shoreline. It
lagoon. Storm surges of over 3 m are fairly is common for fine‐grained sediment, sus-
common in severe hurricanes and when pended by the turbulence of the storm, to
combined with large waves they can develop accumulate in a thin veneer on these nor-
large washover fans that extend well into the mally sandy wind tidal flats.
lagoon (Figure 10.5). This phenomenon Another important wind‐related phenom-
transports large volumes of sediment into enon that influences lagoonal environments
the lagoon in a very short time. The same is is the prevailing wind transporting dry and
true for water. Such high‐intensity hurri- unstabilized sediment into the lagoon. This
canes are most common in fairly low dry sediment might be from the backbeach
latitudes. None the less, many coastal
environment but is most typically from
lagoons do not receive this input of either dunes. Its transport might also be associated
water or sediment. This is especially true if with the daily sea breeze cycle. As a result,
the barriers contain dunes of several meters large amounts of sediment are transported
elevation. into lagoons. This transport can take place in
Figure 10.5 Washover fans on Padre Island extending into Laguna Madre as the result of a severe storm which
overtopped this barrier island.
Coastal Lagoons 235
Figure 10.6 Extensive wind‐tidal flats along the barrier island side of Laguna Madre, Texas.
two ways: by individual grains being picked (Figure 10.7) including some that are actually
up and transported in suspension by the migrating over forests. In several situations
wind; and by large numbers of grains being this migration of dunes has moved huge
carried along the sediment surface as the amounts of sediment into coastal lagoons.
dunes migrate into the lagoon. The best example is probably that of Laguna
Most people who have been to the beach Madre in Texas where wind‐blown sand has
have experienced the situation where wind filled the entire width of the lagoon and
blows sand in your eyes, onto your blanket dredging is necessary to maintain a navigable
and into your sandwich. This is the same channel for the Intracoastal Waterway
phenomenon that transports sand grains (Figure 10.8).
from the front part of the barrier island to the In summary, although there is no signifi-
backbarrier and into the lagoon. This condi- cant sediment introduction to the lagoon
tion results in a persistent but slow rate of from either river discharge or tidal flux, a sig-
sediment transport to the lagoon. nificant amount of sediment is delivered.
Unvegetated dunes are vulnerable to wind The rates of sediment introduction are low in
transport because of the absence of any sta- many situations and the methods of delivery
bilizing plants. The absence of vegetation are dominantly the result of wind‐generated
may be the result of arid conditions, loss processes. The result is that most lagoon sed-
due to overgrazing of the barrier islands, iment is derived from the seaward direction
deforestation by human activity, or the cata- and is carried to the lagoon throughout its
strophic loss of vegetation due to storms or length; there are no detectable point sources
disease. As a wind with an onshore compo- of sediment.
nent blows, there is essentially a mass trans-
port of sediment across the dune surface and
down the leading edge or slipface of the dune. 10.5 Lagoonal Sediments
This is how dunes migrate and without any
stabilization there can be an almost cata- The nature of lagoonal sediments is quite
strophic rate of sediment transport. In many diverse because there are diverse sources and
locations there are very high and steep slip- mechanisms for their presence. There are
faces on dunes that are migrating landward three types of sediment that accumulate in
236 Chapter 10
Figure 10.7 Active dunes on Padre Island due in part to cattle grazing on the vegetation. (Reprinted by
permission of the Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin, 2018).
Figure 10.8 Area called the “Landcut” in Laguna Madre, Texas where windblown sand closes the entire lagoon,
and a channel must be dredged to keep the Intracoastal Waterway open. (Source: Image © 2018 Google Earth).
lagoons: chemical precipitates; sediment high evaporation rates are present and where
particles carried in by various wind‐related salinities are extreme. The most common
processes; and skeletal material from organ- situation for this type of sediment accumula-
isms that live in the lagoon. tion is in small ponds and lakes that have
Chemical precipitation of evaporite miner- been separated from the main lagoon.
als is typically limited to local sites where This might occur during the dry season or in
Coastal Lagoons 237
Figure 10.9 Thick lenses of calcium carbonate mud (micrite) in Lake Reeve, Australia.
situations where a longer isolation of the layers below the present surface represent
pond or lake takes place. earlier wind‐tidal flat surfaces.
The more common chemical precipitate is The sediment that is introduced by wind
various species of calcium carbonate. This activity is typically well‐sorted, fine to
usually occurs as clay‐size particles of arago- medium sand. Although it is generally quartz
nite or calcite; both types of CaCO3. The pre- in composition, virtually any composition is
cipitation of these minerals is commonly the possible depending on the nature of the
result of photosynthesis which in turn alters overall barrier sediment. This sediment

the pH of the shallow aquatic environment of appears in a variety of forms. It may be
the lagoon. The carbonate mud, commonly isolated sand grains in a muddy lagoonal sed-
called micrite, generally occurs in thin and iment. Extreme storms that generate washo-
discontinuous layers in the open lagoons ver processes can transport thin layers of
(Figure 10.9), but also may be present as sand into the lagoon with a thickness up to
extensive layers (Figure 10.10). In many situ- tens of centimeters. In the case of migrating
ations the carbonate mud accumulates in sand dunes, the entire dune may become part
association with filamentous blue‐green of the lagoon (Figure 10.12).
algae also called cyanobacteria. These micro- Fine sediment that settles out of suspen-
organisms typically develop so‐called algal sion from the water column during and just
mats (Figure 10.11) along the periphery of after storms, is most recognizable along the
coastal lagoons. It is the photosynthesis of margins of the lagoon where it accumulates
these cyanobacteria that assists in the pre- in thin layers only a few millimeters thick.
cipitation of the carbonate mud. Algal mat After high water conditions cease, the thin
238 Chapter 10
Figure 10.10 Very extensive carbonate mud covering stromatolites accumulation in a lagoon of the Coorong,
South Australia.
Figure 10.11 Algal mats (dark layers and surface) formed by large populations of cyanobacteria (blue‐green
algae). Layers below the present surface represent earlier surfaces.
mud layer is exposed and dries quickly. not great, each species present is usually very
Shrinkage takes place causing the layer to abundant, thereby producing a significant
become a series of curled up flakes amount of gravel and sand‐sized sediment in
(Figure 10.13) that can easily be removed by the lagoon. This skeletal sediment compo-
wind or the next period of high water. nent may be scattered throughout the
Although the variety of mollusks, ostra- lagoonal sediment or it may be concentrated
cods and other skeleton‐bearing organisms is along the shoreline by wave action.
Coastal Lagoons 239
Figure 10.12 Dune migrating landward, encroaching on the lagoon at the Coorong, Australia.
Figure 10.13 Flakes of a thin mud that has been desiccated due to its position on a wind‐tidal flat; Baffin Bay,
Texas. (Source: R. A. Davis).
10.6 Example Lagoons evaporative environment, the examples

included here will represent a spectrum of
There are many good examples of lagoons increasing salinity and therefore, increasing
throughout the world. Some are large and amount of chemical precipitate. The three
others are limited in their extent. Because lagoons considered, in order of increasing
of the nature of the lagoon and its high salinity, are the Laguna Madre/Baffin Bay
240 Chapter 10
complex in south Texas, Lake Reeve in grazing and cotton fields. Oil exploration has
Victoria, Australia and the Coorong in South taken place in various locations throughout
Australia. All are more than 100 km long and the lagoon.
have only one inlet at one end of the lagoon. The salinity ranges from about the low 40s
to near 90 ppt from north to south. There are
Laguna Madre seasonal variations and local places of higher
This lagoon extends from near Corpus concentrations. Evaporite precipitation is
Christi along the entire south Texas coast to not present in surface waters of the open
near Brownsville at the Texas–Mexico bor- lagoon but does occur in the pore waters of
der (Figure 10.14). It has some circulation at the sediment along the coast and probably
its north end and is connected to the open beneath it as well. Carbonate mud occurs
Gulf via an artificial inlet called Mansfield only in small patches in the southern part of
Pass. There is no significant perennial stream the lagoon and ooids also occur.
that enters Laguna Madre or adjacent Baffin Laguna Madre has extensive wind‐tidal
Bay. Baffin Bay is a drowned fluvial system flats (see Figure 10.6), most of which are cov-
that carries very little fresh water at the pre- ered by algal mats. In some places it is possi-
sent time. The lagoon is pristine, with signifi- ble to see multiple layers of these mats
cant development only at each end. Most of interspersed between sandy layers produced
the adjacent barrier is a National Seashore by washover events (see Figure 10.11). Back
and the adjacent mainland is an area of cattle island dunes are widespread and are mobile
due to the absence of vegetation as a conse-
quence of overgrazing (see Figure 10.7).
Landward of Laguna Madre and connected
with it, is a separate lagoonal basin, Baffin
Bay. This irregularly shaped lagoon is a relict
estuary that has lost its freshwater influx due
to a change in climate. No significant streams
are present in adjacent south Texas. This
shallow, hypersaline water body has an addi-
tional element of interest –small but numer-
ous serpulid worm reefs. These reefs rise
nearly a meter above the surrounding waters
(Figure 10.15) and contribute considerable
skeletal material to the sediment of the
lagoon floor. The reefs do display some
asymmetry that indicates the direction of
high energy, in this case waves.
Lake Reeve, Australia

The southeastern coast of Victoria, Australia
is characterized by a continuous barrier
island known as 90‐Mile Beach. This barrier
has one small opening on the northeast end
at Lakes Entrance. The backbarrier aquatic
environment is Lake Reeve (Figure 10.16), a
shallow, coast‐parallel lagoon that is schizo-
haline in its character. This lagoon displays a
Figure 10.14 Satellite photo of Laguna Madre, wide range of salinities from nearly fresh at
Texas, the longest coastal lagoon in North America. its northeast end to near 100 ppt in various of
Coastal Lagoons 241
(a)
Black Mud
Coated Grain
Ooids
Terrigenous Clastic
Serpulid Reefs
0 5 10
Kilometers
(b)
Figure 10.15 (a) Map showing serpulids in Baffin Bay as shown in red and (b) close‐up of serpulid worms that
comprise the reefs. (Source: (a) and (b) Courtesy of Alex Simms).
242 Chapter 10
Figure 10.16 Map of Lake Reeve, Australia located landward of the 90‐mile Beach Barrier showing the only
opening to the open ocean at the northeast end, Lakes Entrance. (Source: © State of Victoria. Licensed under
CC BY 4.0).
Figure 10.17 Aerial photo of a portion of the 90‐mile barrier showing relic tidal inlets that are now covered
with carbonate mud. (Source: Image © 2018 Google Earth).
the small and sometimes isolated basins This can be seen by the shape of the closed
within the lagoon. Salinity also varies greatly inlets (Figure 10.17). These relict inlet sur-
with the season; the winter is wet and salinity faces are covered by carbonate mud.
is low; the summer is dry and salinity high. Because the dunes on the 90‐Mile barrier
It is apparent from the geomorphology that rise 10 m or more above sea level, there is no
the barrier here was formed by significant washover of the barrier and there has not
northeast‐to‐southwest sediment transport. been for much of its history. Additionally, the
Coastal Lagoons 243
Figure 10.18 Photo of the Coorong in South Australia with the opening at the north end where the Murray
River discharges. (Source: Image © 2018 Google Earth).
dunes are well stabilized by vegetation. This Adelaide. It has an inlet at its southern end
means that there has been virtually no intro- where the Murray River discharges into the
duction of sediment from the seaward direc- Southern Ocean (Figure 10.18). This lagoon
tion. The floor of most of the lagoon is and its associated barrier represents the latest
comprised of shelly sand with very little mud. of several similar coastal systems that devel-
Radiocarbon dating of the shells shows that oped as this part of South Australia formed
they are more than 4000 years old, testimony during the Pleistocene Epoch. The barrier is
to the absence of sediment introduction. dominated by very large, mobile dunes. The
Lake Reeve is accumulating two primary combination of the climate and the lack of
types of sediment at the present time. One is freshwater and marine influx except at the
small pellets of mud produced by small northernmost end produces a high‐salinity
cerithid snails that inhabit the lagoon in huge lagoon with increased concentrations to the
numbers. These snails graze over the typi- north. There are also several small lakes that
cally algal‐mat‐covered margin or dried por- are relict coastal lagoons. Unlike Lake Reeve,
tion of the lagoon where they feed on the the Coorong is receiving significant sediment
cyanobacteria and produce large numbers of from the barrier and it is precipitating a vari-
these pellets. The other type of sediment is ety of minerals throughout much of the lagoon
calcite which precipitates directly from the and the related small lakes.
lagoonal water as the result of high salinity Onshore wind from the Southern Ocean
and photosynthesis. The mud may be in thin can be quite strong and causes individual
lenses or it may extend over large areas of the grains to be removed from the unvegetated
lagoon floor. dunes and carried into the lagoon. There is
also extensive landward migration of the
The Coorong dunes into the Coorong.
Another very long coastal lagoon in the south- Chemical precipitates include thick car-
ern part of Australia is the Coorong, south of bonate mud (Figure 10.19), and both gypsum
244 Chapter 10
Figure 10.19 Extensive and thick carbonate mud that has precipitated in one of the many small isolated
ponds in the Coorong complex.
Figure 10.20 Halite deposits formed as the result of evaporite precipitation.
and halite (Figure 10.20). The halite or com- 10.7 Summary

mon salt was mined in the nineteenth cen-
tury by Chinese immigrants who accidently Lagoons are quite special coastal bays. Their
discovered these deposits on their way to the typical hypersaline conditions result from
gold mines further inland in Australia. lack of significant freshwater influx and lack
Coastal Lagoons 245
of tidal flux. Because climate tends to be a result in slow rates of influx except in the
factor in lagoonal development, most are case of major storms. Additional accumula-
associated with arid coastal conditions. tion of material in lagoons is produced by
These characteristics result in unusual biota chemical precipitation of carbonate and
with few species but abundant numbers. evaporite minerals.
Limited methods of sediment introduction
Suggested Reading
Eisma, D. (1998). Intertidal Deposits; River‐ No. 53 (ed. G.M.E. Perillo), 241–272.
Mouths, Tidal Flats and Coastal Lagoons. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Boca Raton: Florida, CRC Press. Kjerfve, B.J. (ed.) (1994). Coastal Lagoon
Isla, F.I. (1995). Coastal Lagoons. In: Processes. Amsterdam: Elseriver.
Geomorphology and Sedimentology of Warren, J.K. (2006). Evaporites: Sediments, Resources,
Estuaries, Developments in Sedimentology and Hydrocarbons. New York: Springer.
247
11
Tidal Flats
Unvegetated intertidal environments that rate and nature of sediment accumulation,

accumulate sediment and are occupied by and the types of bedforms that develop on the
specially adapted organisms are located sediment surface.
around the margins of most coastal embay- In this chapter the morphology, sediments,
ments and some open coasts. These environ- and processes that characterize the tidal
ments are called intertidal flats or simply flat complex are discussed. This environ-
tidal flats. The width and extent of tidal flats ment is by far most common along mesotidal
are directly related to tidal range and to the and macrotidal coasts where low gradients
morphology of the bay or other environment characterize the shore zone.
in which they are located. This term is typi-
cally reserved for those intertidal environ-
ments that are not exposed to significant
wave energy. For example, many beaches 11.1 Morphology of
have extensive intertidal components that Tidal Flats
are not vegetated but they are not considered
to be tidal flats. The standard appearance of a tidal flat is a
In some embayments, especially those that gently sloping and fairly broad surface of
experience macrotidal conditions and are unconsolidated sediments that is alternately
tide‐dominated, much of the bay may be inundated and exposed as the tide floods and
intertidal except for tidal channels that ebbs. Typically, the width is directly related
dissect the flats. The Wadden Sea along the to the tidal range but the underlying geology
Dutch and German coast of the North Sea is and regional geomorphology can cause
such a place as are the Bay of Fundy in Canada variations. Along broad coastal plains or

and the Bay of St.‐Malo on the north coast of other flat‐lying areas the tidal flats tend to be
France, the two places with the highest very gently sloping (Figure 11.1), but along
tidal ranges in the world. Each of these is some coasts the tidal flat slope tends to be
discussed in a later section of this chapter. relatively steep (Figure 11.2).
Tidal flat surfaces and their associated tidal Another factor in the size of tidal flats is
channels may be composed of mud, sand or the extent to which the estuary has been
more typically, a combination of both. Some filled with sediment. Those that have not
channels may have high concentrations of shell experienced significant infilling of sediment
debris on the floor. Most tidal flats and tidal tend to have narrower tidal flats than those
channels have various types of b edforms, regu- that have a great deal of sediment.
lar undulations, on their sediment surface. The The most pronounced interruption of the
nature and rigor of the tidal currents and waves nearly flat and featureless intertidal flat is
tend to be the controlling factors in both the the presence of tidal channels (Figure 11.3)
248 Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Photograph of a wide, gently sloping tidal flat in Westernport Bay, Victoria, Australia.
Figure 11.2 Photograph of a narrow and steep tidal flat in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada.
Tidal Flats 249
Figure 11.3 Photograph of a typical tidal channel that cuts into the tidal flat.
that dissect most tidal flats. These channels land to sea. Grain size decreases from the
range from small and ephemeral ones that source; because tidal flats receive their
may be closely spaced to those that are large sediment from the ocean side, grain size

and deep. The latter commonly have water in decreases toward land.
them throughout the tidal cycle, even during Generally tidal flat sediments are quite
spring tide conditions. These channels serve well‐sorted at any specific location because
as major conduits for sediment during both they are subjected to similar conditions on a
flood‐ and ebb‐tidal cycles. The pattern of regular basis. The only common exceptions
channel development on many tidal flat sys- to this generalization is the presence of shells
tems is quite similar to a typical river system, that may be scattered over various grain sizes
with small tributary channels merging to because they are indigenous to the tidal flat
serve a single major channel. environment, and mud that can settle from
suspension during still water conditions.
Some tidal flat environments may be adja-
11.2 Sediments cent to bedrock exposures that, when eroded,
will provide large rock fragments to adjacent
Sand and mud with some scattered shells tidal flats.
form the typical sediment package on tidal
flats. There is generally a regular and pre-
dictable pattern of sediment distribution 11.3 Organisms
related to both physical energy and position
within the intertidal flat. Highest energy Although tidal flats are a rather harsh envi-
occurs at the base of the intertidal zone, the ronment because of the regular and continual
lowest part of the tidal flat covered by water exposure and inundation, they do support a
for the longest period. Here, typically, is a community of abundant organisms. This dis-
concentration of sand with a specific grain cussion will be restricted to the benthic por-
size dependent on the spectrum of sizes tion of the community because that is the
available in the specific estuarine system. only portion that is truly restricted to the tidal
Grain size decreases landward and upward flats. There are two different living habits
across the intertidal flat (Figure 11.4) with here: vagrant benthos that move about, and
mud at the top or landward side. This is a sessile benthos that are fixed in their position.
contrast to most shoreline environments, The mobility of sediment dictates that infau-
where sediment grain size decreases from nal organisms are the most abundant.
250 Chapter 11
Mean high tide Mean low tide Figure 11.4 Diagram showing the trend
in grain size over a tidal flat. (Source:
Adapted from Klein (1972)).
Mid-
High Low- Sub-
tidal flat
tidal flat tidal flat tidal flat
Sand
Mud Sand Sand
and mud
11.3.1 Vagrant Organisms some worms and bivalves. Oysters

(Figure 11.6) and mussels are both intertidal
There are various animals that move over the
and subtidal. They tend to occur in clusters
tidal flat surface, such as snails, worms and
of many individuals. As sessile filter feeders,
amphipods. The small snails feed on detritus
they produce many pellets which become
that accumulates on the sediment surface,
part of the tidal flat sediment accumulation.
and are important fecal pellet producers.
Cyanobacteria or blue‐green algae exist as
They are especially abundant on the upper
microscopic filamentous organisms that pro-
part of the intertidal zone. Pellets can be an
duce a mat‐like coverage of the upper parts
important constituent of sediments in inter-
of intertidal flats in lower latitudes. These
tidal and shallow marine environments.
mats (Figure 11.7) are important sediment
Other vagrant types of snails are carnivo-
stabilizers in that they protect otherwise
rous and live on burrowing bivalves and
non‐cohesive sediments from deflation by
oysters. These creatures have the ability to
wind or from wave erosion under non‐storm
bore holes in the shells and then ingest the
conditions.
soft parts of the organism for food. So‐called
Filter‐feeding infaunal bivalves and worms
oyster drills may wipe out an entire oyster
(Figure 11.8) produce abundant fecal pellets
population.
on tidal flats. Worms are typically much more
Some burrowers are also quite mobile. The
abundant than bivalves and they cause the
best example is the fiddler crab (Figure 11.5)
destruction of most laminations in the sedi-
that scatters over tidal flats quickly and feeds
ment (Figure 11.9) due to their burrowing
on detritus. It gets its name from the single
activities. They may have tubes (Figure 11.10)
large claw that resembles a violin or fiddle.
or they may not.
This appears only on males; females have two
like‐sized claws.
11.3.3 Limiting Factors
11.3.2 Sessile Organisms
Exposure to the atmosphere and subsequent
The most important and most abundant desiccation is a problem, especially for soft‐
creatures on the tidal flatdo not move about. bodied organisms like worms. Most can only
They include both epifaunal organisms that tolerate exposure for a short period of time.
live on the sediment surface, such as oysters The higher the position in the tidal flats,
or cyanobacteria, and burrowers, such as the fewer sessile organisms will be present
Tidal Flats 251
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.5 Tidal flat with (a) numerous fiddler crabs, and (b) a close‐up photograph of a fiddler individual.
(Source: NOAA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fiddler_crab.jpg).
because this is where exposure can last for at Another limiting factor to benthic organ-
least several hours during each tidal cycle. isms is a large concentration of suspended
Most of the shelled invertebrates such as oys- sediment particles in the water column.
ters, clams and snails are able to seal their Most of the infaunal and some epifaunal
soft parts from the atmosphere and can with- organisms that live on the tidal flat obtain
stand fairly long periods of exposure during their nourishment through filtering organic
each tidal cycle. debris from the water column. These filter
252 Chapter 11
Figure 11.6 Intertidal oyster reefs near Cedar Key, Florida.
Figure 11.7 Surface and subsurface mats of cyanobacteria on wide tidal flats of Padre Island, Texas.
feeding organisms do not have the ability to especially sedentary ones, need a reasonably
select specific suspended particles for stable sediment base in which to burrow and
ingestion into their filtering system. As a
maintain existence. It is obvious, therefore,
consequence, when large concentrations of that numerous problems confront benthic
suspended sediment are present the organ- organisms in estuaries. Waves may cause
isms will ingest too much indigestible mate- significant sediment mobility in the large

rial, their siphons will become clogged, and estuaries, and tidal currents can mobilize
they will die. the bottom sediment in many locations.
The other important limitation is a mobile The floor of tidal channels is probably the
sediment bed caused by waves and/or strong most hostile environment for benthic organ-
tidal currents. Many burrowing organisms, isms because sediment is moving almost
Figure 11.8 (a) Burrowed surface, (a)
and (b) subsurface burrow of
Arenicola, a worm that prefers
sandy substrates.
(b)
Figure 11.9 Shallow trench in tidal

flat sand showing a total absence
of stratification due to burrowing
organisms.
254 Chapter 11
Figure 11.10 Abundant worm tubes protruding above the tidal flat surface on Martens Plate, East Frisian
Wadden Sea, Germany.
throughout the tidal cycle. In many areas, infaunal organisms can result from a variety
the lowest portion of the intertidal flats of conditions such as exposure, too much
can experience vigorous substrate mobility suspended sediment, and substrate mobility.
during most of the tidal cycle.
11.3.4 Bioturbation 11.4 Sedimentary
Many of the numerous benthic organisms Structures
that live in estuaries are infaunal; they bur-
row into the sediment both for protection As might be expected, this distinctive envi-
and for feeding. It is these same animals that ronment also contains some special types of
take in suspended particles and produce sedimentary structures, and also some that
most of the pellets that accumulate in estuar- are not so special. That is, there are some
ies, but the activity of interest here is the sedimentary structures that are present, or
actual burrowing process. As a bivalve or even common, on tidal flats which are not
worm burrows into and through sediment it unique to that environment, for instance
destroys layering by essentially homogeniz- ripples, megaripples and sand waves
ing the sediment (Figure 11.9). This churning (Figure 11.11).
of sediment by burrowers, which may num- The features that are indicative of the tidal‐
ber hundreds of individuals per square flat environment are of more importance
meter, destroys the characteristic structure because they become key factors for geolo-
of sediments deposited in a tidal environ- gists in their identification and interpretation
ment. Extensive tidal flats of the Georgia and of sedimentary depositional environments
South Carolina coasts fall into this category. from the ancient stratigraphic record.
In fact, in the German Wadden Sea the Included among these features are both
effects of waves and bioturbation combine to physical structures and biogenic structures
destroy the laminations in tidal sediments. (see Box 11.1). The many burrowing organ-
It is only in places where there are few isms leave characteristic markings on and in
burrowing organisms that stratification is
tidal flat sediments, especially such organ-
typically preserved. This lack of benthic isms as the lug worm, Arenicola, which is
Tidal Flats 255
Figure 11.11 Aerial photograph of tidal flats in the Bay of Fundy, Canada showing various scales of bedforms
at low tide.
Figure 11.12 Mud surface showing desiccation cracks resulting from extended exposure on a tidal flat in the
Wadden Sea.
widespread on sandy tidal flats (see The type of bedding on tidal flats is varied
Figure 11.8). Mudcracks or desiccation fea- and can be summarized in a diagram pro-
tures are important physical structures that posed by H. E. Reineck from his work on the
occur on the upper, muddy portions of the German coast. This classification is based on
intertidal zone. These develop as the result of the ratio of sand to mud. There are only three
significant exposure in high places on tidal categories: flaser bedding, wavy bedding
flats such as between neap and spring high and lenticular bedding (Figure 11.13). Flaser
tide (Figure 11.12). bedding is the most common; in it sand

256 Chapter 11
Box 11.1 Preservation Potential of Tide‐Dominated Sediments

One of the main reasons that geologists study look at both modern and ancient tidal flat
modern coastal environments is so that when deposits to demonstrate this situation.
they examine the stratigraphy of ancient sedi- There are several features of intertidal
mentary strata they can interpret the deposi- environments that permit their recognition
tional environments of those strata. This is an in the stratigraphic record. We are here con-
illustration of an important axiom of geology, sidering both tidal flats and tidal channels.
the Law of Uniformitarianism: the present is The most obvious feature to recognize is sed-
the key to the past. More specifically, studying iment accumulation that shows bi‐direc-
and understanding what is happening in mod- tional bedforms or a portion thereof, thus
ern environments prepares you to interpret reflecting the flood and ebb cycles of the
ancient sediment layers. tidal cycle. This feature tends not to be com-
Tidal‐dominated environments are among mon in either modern or ancient strata
the depositional environments that have a because near‐symmetrical currents are
fairly good potential for preservation in the required and we know that such conditions
stratigraphic record. Most coastal environ- are not common. Both situations do exist
ments are not in this category. If we consider however (Box Figures 11.1.1 and 11.1.2).
barrier islands as an example, only the washo- Other recognizable tidal signatures include
ver deposits in this system are reasonably likely reactivation surfaces and tidal bedding.
to be preserved. If we consider tidal environ- Reactivation surfaces show the bidirectional
ments we know from examining the strati- nature of tidal currents but lack bidirectional
graphic record that they are preserved cross‐strata. These surfaces reflect the asymmetry
throughout most of geologic time. Let’s take a of tidal currents (Box Figures 11.1.3 and 11.1.4).
Box Figure 11.1.1 Photograph of a box core from a

tidal channel in Martens Plate on the Wadden Sea Box Figure 11.1.2 Photograph of bidirectional
of Germany, showing bidirectional cross‐ cross‐stratification from 1.7 billion‐year‐old Baraboo
stratification. Quartzite in Wisconsin.
Tidal Flats 257
Box Figure 11.1.3 Example of modern reactivations surfaces that separate bedform cross‐strata.
Box Figure 11.1.4 Photograph of Precambrian

reactivation surfaces from the Baraboo Quartzite
of Wisconsin.
They are at acute angles with the cross‐strata and Other tidal signatures are found in tidal
dipping in the same direction. Tidal bedding is a bundles where lunar tidal cycles are
very important element of tide‐dominated envi- recorded. Individual cycles range from sand
ronments (Box Figures 11.1.5–11.1.8). It can com- beds that are relatively thick to thin mud
monly be seen in couplets of relatively fine and deposits that represent suspension deposits
coarse sediment grains but also occurs in what that have come to rest (Box Figures 11.1.9
appears to be uniform grain size. and 11.1.10).
258 Chapter 11
Box Figure 11.1.5 Tidal

bedding from a macrotidal
coast in China.

bedding from Pleistocene
strata on the coast of
Washington state.

bedding from the Miocene in
Florida.
Tidal Flats 259
Box Figure 11.1.8 Tidal bedding from the

Precambrian Baraboo Quartzite.
Box Figure 11.1.9 Tidal bundles from

a tidal channel in Martens Plate on
the German Wadden Sea.
Box Figure 11.1.10 Exposure of

Cretaceous strata in the San Juan
Basin of New Mexico that contain
tidal bundles.
260 Chapter 11
certain times and places. The rise and fall of

the tides as the tidal wave is forced into estu-
aries and then back creates significant tidal
FLASER currents, particularly in the tidal channels.
BEDDING
Currents may range from only a few centim-
eters per second near slack tides on the flats
to about a meter per second in the channels.
These currents distribute sediment through-
WAVY
out the tidal flats. For purposes of explana-
BEDDING tion, the tidal flat is best viewed as a smooth
and gently sloping surface. Certain key hori-
zons may be noted on this surface based on
the position of the water level at given tidal
stages. Spring high tide is the highest posi-
tion of regular and predictable inundation of
LENTICULAR
BEDDING the sediment surface by water and spring low
tide is the lowest. Wind tides may cause
water to be pushed up to the supratidal envi-
ronment or down below low tide depending
upon the direction and strength of the wind.
Figure 11.13 Diagram proposed by Reineck Neap tidal range may be only about half of
showing the three primary bedding types, flaser,
wavy and lenticular, that characterize tidal flat
the spring range thereby causing considera-
sediments. (Source: Courtesy of H.E. Reineck). ble variation in the intertidal zone depending
upon the lunar condition.
ominates over mud, which only occurs is

d
small lenses (Figure 11.14). Flaser bedding 11.5.1 Tides
is also easily preserved in the stratigraphic The scheme of sediment transport on tidal
record because it commonly is buried rapidly flats has been best described from studies of
(Figure 11.15). the tidal flats on the Wadden Sea. The model
Probably the most characteristic feature of produced shows a combination of the set-
tidal flats is a sedimentary structure called tling‐lag effect and the scour‐lag effect on
tidal bedding (Figure 11.16). This is a special the paths of sediment particles as they are
type of sediment accumulation that is a con- transported up on to the tidal flat surface
sequence of of tidal cycles. The alternating (Figure 11.19) and how, over a long time,
energy levels produced by the flooding and sediment builds up and out into the estuary.
ebbing of the tide lay down alternating thin The distance–velocity curves are asymmetri-
layers of sand and mud (Figure 11.17). These cal and show where a given particle is
rhythmites as they are called, record the entrained, transported and deposited.
rise and fall of the tide along with slack tide During flooding tides, the sediment parti-
conditions (Figure 11.18). They also preserve cle at location 1 on curve A–A′ is picked up
neap and spring cycles with neap conditions at a tidal current velocity shown at point 2
producing thinner layers than spring. and carried landward until that velocity is
again reached at point 3 on the curve. The
particle then begins to fall and reaches the
11.5 Tidal Flat Processes tidal flat surface at point 5 when the current
velocity is at location 4. The difference in the
Tide‐generated processes tend to dominate velocity of entrainment, which is greater
most sediments that accumulate on tidal than at settling, is quite important. This pro-
flats, although waves can be important at vides the settling lag effect.
Tidal Flats 261
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.14 Photographs of (a) a modern tidal flat surface with mud in ripple troughs, and (b) an ancient
example 1.7 billion years old in the Precambrian Baraboo Formation from Wisconsin.
Ebbing tidal currents follow curve B–B′, because there are many perturbations on the
which represents a more landward water tidal flat that interfere with the processes. It
mass and achieves a lower maximum velocity does, however, serve to illustrate the basic
at this position on the tidal flat. The same mechanism by which sediment particles are
particle is picked up at location 5 when the transported up on to the tidal flats.
velocity at point 6 on the curve is reached. It Size of the sediment particles is an impor-
is carried until point 7 when it begins to fall tant variable in the above scheme. Bigger
and eventually settles to the bottom at point particles will be transported a shorter dis-
9. This diagram shows that the net result is tance over a given tidal cycle than smaller
movement of a sediment particle from loca- particles. The more times an area is covered
tion 1 to location 9 during a single tidal cycle. and the deeper the water, the more tidal
This is obviously an oversimplified model energy is expended on a given location on the
262 Chapter 11
Figure 11.15 Photograph of flaser bedding from the sediments in the Bay of St. Malo, France.
MUD DEPOSITION
FLOOD-TIDE
RIPPLE
MIGRATION
MUD DEPOSITION
EBB-TIDE
RIPPLE
TIME
MIGRATION
TIDAL
MUD DEPOSITION RHYTHMITE
DEPOSIT
Current Speed
FLOOD 0 EBB
Figure 11.16 Diagram showing how tidal bedding is formed by alternating sand and mud during a tidal cycle
as originally described by G.D. Klein (1977). (Source: Adapted from Dalrymple et al. (1992)).
tidal flat. As a consequence, there is a regular and ebbing tides. These are the conditions
decrease in sediment particle size up the tidal that produce flaser bedding (see Figure 10.15)
flat toward the spring high tide level. which commonly form in the troughs of
Conditions in some areas produce discon- bedforms. Discontinuous sandy lenses within
tinuous mud or sand layers due to some com- a mud sequence are referred to as lenticular
bination of sediment availability and tidal bedding, a feature generally associated with
current strength. These can be formed limited sand availability but that may also
through tidal processes and represent what is reflect variations in tidal current velocities.
essentially discontinuous tidal bedding, or Another type of tidally produced stratifica-
they may represent alternations in current tion is tidal bundles, a type of stratification
energies that are not produced by flooding typically associated with tidal channels or
Tidal Flats 263
Figure 11.17 Photograph showing example of tidal bedding from the coast of China.
relatively strong tidal currents and large bed- tidal flats, sufficient to destroy all of the sig-
forms (Figure 11.20). These types of stratifi- natures of tidal processes. In order for this to
cation are generally found in the tidal happen the energy imparted by waves onto
channels where sand dominates and bed- the tidal flat must exceed that of tides. The
forms are at least bigger than ripples. The most common conditions under which this
alternation of flooding and ebbing tide is can occur are in places where extensive shal-
generally accompanied by significant differ- low water covers the tidal flat for long por-
ences in current velocity. This commonly tions of each tidal cycle. Waves formed in
produces pulses in the migration of large this shallow environment will move large
bedforms that are characterized by medium‐ quantities of sediment through the back and
to large‐scale cross‐stratification. The domi- forth motion they produce, thereby destroy-
nant current moves the bedform and the ing any tidal signature or preventing it from
recessive current commonly deposits a mud happening in the first place.
drape over the bedform, producing a muddy The Wadden Sea area on the German coast
seam between each sand cross‐stratum. In of the North Sea is a good example of such
many tide‐dominated areas the sequence wave‐influenced tidal flats. Here broad,
contains readily distinguishable sets of cross‐ sandy intertidal flats, several kilometers
strata that change in thickness and sand : mud wide, cover most of the area between the bar-
ratio in packages of 14 bundles. These tidal rier islands and the mainland. The muddy
bundle packages (Figure 11.20) represent a tidal flats are mostly near the mainland. The
spring and neap tidal cycle, and when pre- sandy flats are flooded for four to six hours of
served, they are found on the floors and mar- each tidal cycle, and the fetch of several kilo-
gins of tidal channels (Figure 11.21). meters permits the commonly strong wind to
generate modest‐sized waves. This combina-
tion of strong wave action coupled with rela-
11.5.2 Waves
tively weak tidal currents prevents tidal
We associate tidal processes with tidal flats, bedding from forming over much of the tidal
but there are some locations where waves flat environment. It also concentrates sand
play an important role in the dynamics of on the intertidal surface. In contrast, the tidal
264 Chapter 11
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.18 Examples of ancient tidal bedding from (a) the Miocene of Florida, and (b) the Precambrian in
Wisconsin.
Tidal Flats 265
Velocity
10 6
2
7 3
8 4
A1 B9 C 5 A′ B′
Inlet Distance Shore
Figure 11.19 Diagram of settling lag and scour lag showing how sediment grains are transported up an
intertidal flat, as proposed by H. Postma (1961).
Neap Spring Neap

A tidal bundle
~1m
Composite Composite
Tidal bundle
shale drape shale drape
thickness
TIDAL BUNDLE SEQUENCE
Figure 11.20 Schematic diagram showing the nature of tidal bundles as proposed by Visser (1980). (Source:
Adapted from Visser 1980).
Figure 11.21 Vibracore of tidal bundle sequences taken from a channel on Martens Plate, East Frisian Wadden
Sea, Germany.
channels that dissect the tidal flats display these tidal channels carry water in two direc-
tidal bundling, showing that tidal currents tions; the flood and ebb as the tide rises and
are dominant in this environment. falls. These channels are narrow and shallow
in the upper reaches of the tidal flats where
muddy sediments are more common, and
11.6 Tidal Channels extend to the lower elevations of the inter-
tidal zone where they might be large and
Much like the flat upland plain environments have floors in the subtidal zone.
of the U.S. Midwest or the high plains, tidal Slight and subtle undulations in the tidal
flats develop a drainage network that c ontains flat surface cause water to be concentrated in
a range of small to relatively large channels. the low areas after emergence of the tidal flat
Unlike the upland environments, however, surface begins during the ebb phase of the
266 Chapter 11
tidal cycle. These small channels increase in tidal flats in response to gravity. As soon as
size as each tidal cycle passes until an equi- the tidal level is so low that part of the tidal
librium condition is established between the flat surface becomes exposed, then there is
tidal flat/channels surface and the tidal flow. some channeling of the rest of the ebbing
Where these channels are cutting through waters. These waters are fed into the tidal
muddy and cohesive sediments, they tend channels in large volumes, causing the ebb-
to have relatively steep channel walls ing currents to be rapid. It is typical that flow
(Figure 11.22) but where they cut through in tidal channels, like most main channels in
sand sediments the channels are broad with tidal inlets, is ebb‐dominated.
more gently sloping walls. The tidal currents that persist in these
The floors of these tidal channels are the channels during the early parts of the flood
sites of important sediment transport. This cycle and the later parts of the ebb cycle,
sub‐environment is characterized by sand‐ transport considerable sediment, and in
sized sediment that lacks cohesion and is, doing so, they develop a spectrum of bed-
therefore, susceptible to movement by both forms along the channel floor. The size of
flood and ebb currents during each tidal these bedforms is partly related to the grain
cycle. As the tide floods over a tidal flat com- size of the sediments but is mostly due to the
plex, the forced wave of the rising tide pro- flow strength of the currents. Most channels
duces currents that may be strong enough to with sand floors display what are called meg-
move the sand on the channel floor. Once the aripples or small subaqueous dunes. These
water level has risen above the level of the are asymmetrical bedforms that have a wave
channel margin then conditions are essen- length of about 1–5 m with a wave height of
tially like those of a flooding river. Water and 20–50 cm (Figure 11.23). The asymmetry of
suspended sediment spill over the channel these bedforms is the result of the direction
walls onto the tidal flats forming natural of current flow such that we can tell the
levees and causing tidal currents to slow. direction of the current that formed a par-
During ebbing conditions of the tide there ticular group of bedforms by looking at them.
is a slow current as the water flows over the Surveys of tidal channels show the nature of
Figure 11.22 Channel on tidal flat in The Wash on the North Sea side of England.
Tidal Flats 267
Figure 11.23 Bedforms about a meter or so in wave length from the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada.
these bedforms; their wave length and wave cross‐strata. This feature forms only when
height as well as their orientation. the flood and ebb portions of the tidal cycle
Most channels display bedforms that are almost equal in tidal flux and energy.
show that they were formed by ebbing tidal Such conditions are present in some parts of
currents, further indication of the ebb‐dom- the tidal channels on the German coast
ination of the channels. In some instances (Figure 11.26). Because of their rapid burial
these bedforms are modified by incoming and their occurrence in tidal channels,
flood currents but retain their ebb orienta- bidirectional cross‐strata are commonly

tion. However, near‐equal flood and ebb preserved in the stratigraphic record

tidal currents lead to the bedforms revers- (Figure 11.27).
ing their orientation during each ebb and
flood of the tides.
The migration of bedforms produces 11.7 Some Examples
another feature that is a signature of
tidal influence: the reactivation surface There are several places in the world where
(Figure 11.24), a result of time–velocity entire estuaries or large portions of estuaries
asymmetry during the change of tides in a are intertidal. As might be expected, these
channel or on a tidal flat with medium to tend to be macrotidal or at least high in the
large bedforms. The dominant current moves mesotidal range. In this section we will take a
the bedform while the recessive current only look at some well‐known examples in order
removes some of the sediment. The current to demonstrate the profound influence tides
then reverses and the bedform is again have on estuaries and on tidal flats.
moved; it is reactivated. This set of conditions
produces a contact that dips in the direction
11.7.1 German Wadden Sea
of the bedform movement but at a lower
and Jade Bay
angle. Reactivation surfaces are among the
best indicators of tidal environments in The north coast of Germany includes some
the stratigraphic record (Figure 11.25). of the most studied tidal flat complexes in the
Another important but uncommon tidal world. This coast is a continuation of the
signature is the presence of bidirectional north coast of the Netherlands and comprises
268 Chapter 11
(a) Figure 11.24 Diagram showing how

Water surface reactivation surfaces form with
dominant tidal flux followed by
recessive tidal flux and then a return to
the dominant one as tides change.
(b)
(c)
Reactivation
surface
Figure 11.25 Photograph of

ancient reactivation surfaces from
the ancient stratigraphic record.
short barrier islands with very large tidal tidal inlets (Figure 11.29). This extensive
inlets. The barrier system is separated from intertidal complex is subjected to spring tidal
the mainland by the Wadden Sea at the ranges of about 3 m. Drainage divides are
southern end of the North Sea (Figure 11.28) located behind the middle of each of the bar-
near the apex of the German Bight where rier islands and represent locations of muddy
the coast ranges from mixed‐energy to tide‐ sediments as compared to the intermediate
dominated. areas where sand dominates. There is also a
The Wadden Sea is essentially all intertidal fining of grain size toward the mainland,
flat except for subtidal channels that feed the where a fringe of marsh borders the extensive
Tidal Flats 269
Figure 11.26 Photograph of a vibracore from a tidal channel in the German Wadden Sea showing the
presence of bidirectional cross‐strata.
Figure 11.27 Photograph of bidirectional cross‐strata from the Baraboo Quartzite in the Precambrian of
Wisconsin.
tidal flats. Wadden Sea tidal flats actually (Figure 11.30a) is just around the corner from
tend to be dominated by wave action instead the Wadden Sea and is an enclosed tidal
of tidal currents as might be expected. This is estuary that is largely intertidal. Here mud‐
because the barrier islands are several kilom- dominated tidal flats (Figure 11.30b) extend
eters from the mainland meaning there is a for several kilometers due to the combination
fairly long fetch during high tide. Jade Bay of the low relief and the spring tidal range of
270 Chapter 11
Figure 11.28 Satellite image of the German Wadden Sea barrier islands. (Source: B.W. Flemming).
Figure 11.29 Example of extensive tidal flats and intervening tidal channels on Martens Plate in the German
Wadden Sea.
nearly 4 m. The widespread tidal rhythmites articularly the interactions of organisms
p
are soft, thinly laminated accumulations with sediments. The many burrowing species
of fine sediments. This tidal
estuary was provided a wide range of these relationships.
the location of some of the first detailed This work took place at the Senckenberg
investigations of tidal flat sedimentology, Institute at Wilhelmshaven, Germany.
Tidal Flats 271
(a)
53° 31′50″ N
Fine Sand
53° 23′51″ N
Muddy Sand
Mud 0 1 2 3 4
Km
8° 03′05″ E 8° 18′50″ E
(b)
Figure 11.30 (a) General map of sediment distribution on Jade Bay (Source: Courtesy of H.E. Reineck),
and (b) extensive muddy intertidal flats on Jade Bay in the German Wadden Sea.
272 Chapter 11
11.7.2 The Wash across much of the upper muddy levels;

these are dissected by tidal channels (see
Although much of the coast of the British
Figure 11.22) that carry mud clasts eroded
Isles has fairly high tidal range, the embay-
from the adjacent marsh areas.
ment known as The Wash on the northern
As one proceeds in a seaward direction,
Norfolk and southern Lincolnshire coast
there is an increase in the size of these tidal
(Figure 11.31) has spring ranges of about 7 m.
channels as they cut through the cohesive
This primarily tidal estuary displays the
mud, and the bottom sediments become
typical transition from sand in the outer

sandy. Eventually the entire intertidal system
parts to mud in the landward fringes.
becomes sand‐dominated and channels lose
Marshes dominated by Salicornia extend
Gibraltar point
ing
ep
s te
er
Riv Hunstanton
North Sea
THE
WASH
Wolverton
Creek
r Witham
Rive
River
Ouse
Riv
er N
ene
Medieval coastline
Intertidal flats
Land reclaimed in the twentieth century N
River
Welland Land reclaimed in the nineteenth century
Land reclaimed in the eighteenth century
10 km
Land reclaimed before 1700
Figure 11.31 Map of The Wash, a large tide‐dominated embayment on the Norfolk and Lincolnshire coast of
England.
Tidal Flats 273
Figure 11.32 Aerial photograph of the abbey at Mont St.‐Michel on the Bay of St.‐Malo on the coast of France.
their definition. Here the sand is reworked under these plants and on the unvegetated
and mobilized by the strong tidal currents tidal flats are typically muddy and show cyclic
associated with the macrotidal conditions patterns of accumulation (Figure 11.34).
of this tidal estuary. These rhythmites display neap and spring
cycles depending on the combination of the
thickness of each lamination and the grain
11.7.3 Bay of St.‐Malo
size of the sediments.
The Bay of St.‐Malo is a large embayment
along the northern Brittany coast of France.
11.7.4 Bay of Fundy
This tidal estuary is one of the two areas in
the world where spring tidal range is near The Bay of Fundy is an elongate coastal bay
15 m. The inner portion of this huge estuary, whose presence is the result of faulting in
called the Bay of Mont St.‐Michel after the lithosphere producing a structural basin
the well‐known monastery and abbey that called a graben. This bay is split into two
carries that name (Figure 11.32), is a major tide‐dominated, macrotidal basins at its
tourist attraction in northern France. Here, landward end (Figure 11.35), the Minas Basin
just down the coast from the area of and Chignecto Bay. Here, huge tidal ranges
the Normandy invasion in World War II, the prevail, with spring ranges above 15 m; the
tides are so large that detailed study of the highest in the world. These basins are largely
lower part of the tidal flat system has not yet intertidal with shallow tidal channels. There
been completed. Only the upper, muddy is some fine sediment-discharge from the
areas are accessible to investigation because rivers on the landward ends of these two
the intertidal flats extend for tens of kilome- basins but most of the intertidal sediment is
ters (Figure 11.33). reworked from the basins themselves or from
Like most tidal estuaries there is a marsh erosion of the shorelines.
fringe. Here it is dominated by succulent Like in the other examples, sediments
plants of the Salicornia type. The sediments show the typical trend of fine sediment at the
274 Chapter 11
Figure 11.33 Extensive tidal flats with a mud‐dominated surface in the Bay of St.‐Malo.
Figure 11.34 Shallow trench in Bay of St.‐Malo sediments showing both tidal bedding and flaser bedding.
distal end of the basins with an increase in deposited (Figure 11.37). Here mud domi-
grain size toward the lower or open portion nates the accumulations and their cohesive-
of the basins. Some steep slopes along the ness keeps them fairly stable.
basin have marsh fringes that are only tens of
meters wide or less. Most of this tide‐domi-
nated basin is covered with various bedforms 11.8 Human Impact on
that are developed in sand. These range in Tidal Flats
scale from small ripples, through megarip-
ples, to sand waves of different wave lengths As with all coastal environments, the dense
(Figure 11.36). coastal population in much of the world has
The less energetic portions of the Bay of had negative impact on tidal flats. Fortunately
Fundy are places where tidal bedding is in many places where tidal flats are extensive
Tidal Flats 275
Petticodiac
N
River
50 km
NEW BRUNSWICK
Minas Basin
Chignecto
Bay
St John
Halifax
Bay of Fundy
NOVA SCOTIA
Figure 11.35 Generalized map of the Bay of Fundy showing the Minas Basin and Cobequid Bay.
Figure 11.36 Low tide photograph showing extensive and varied bedforms in Cobequid Bay in the Bay
of Fundy.
276 Chapter 11
Figure 11.37 Photograph showing tidal bedding in low‐energy portion of the Bay of Fundy.
due to large tidal range the population is not Some would say that such a result is a good
so great. In addition, tidal flats are not very thing but in time the inlets could be closed.
hospitable for humans. Large tidal flats also The above situation is a special case and
have some hazards. Flooding tidal cycles can the practice has been stopped in Europe. The
cause problems for curious visitors. The other human impacts include significant
coast along the Bay of St. Malo has sirens that dredging of tidal flats for a variety of pur-
go off as the tide floods to warn people to poses including ports and harbors. Many
move to high ground. Turnigan Arm near people view tidal flats as a worthless incon-
Anchorage, Alaska has a tidal range in excess venience and the result is their destruction.
of 10 m and a researcher was drowned there We are getting to the point where no signifi-
because of failure to leave the area in time; cant construction is permitted on this
the flooding tide came faster than the victim environment and it is being protected almost
could escape the situation. everywhere.
One of the most important interactions
between humans and tidal flats has been
along the North Sea coast of Europe. The 11.9 Summary
extensive tidal flats there have been
reclaimed for pasture land, providing farm- The tidal flat environment appears at first to
ers with additional land for sheep and cattle be one of little variation; just a flat surface
(Figure 11.38). Reclaiming is accomplished over which the tide rises and falls with pre-
by digging a rectangular pattern of shallow dictable regularity. In fact, there is great vari-
ditches across the flats to enable sediment to ation but it is gradual and subtle. Unlike
be deposited. Eventually, the intertidal zone many coastal environments that derive their
is reclaimed as uplands with vegetation. This sediment from land, tidal flats rely on waves
not only destroys an important environment and currents to provide the sediments that
but it also causes problems on the adjacent slowly accumulate. The cyclic nature of the
barrier–inlet system (Figure 11.39). The new processes, along with the relatively low‐
land causes a significant decrease in the tidal energy conditions, produce thin layers
prism and therefore reduces flow through arranged in a predictable and recognizable
the tidal inlets. The inlet cross‐sections fashion. Abundant burrowing organisms can
are reduced and barriers are extended. destroy this layered record in many areas.
Tidal Flats 277
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.38 Examples of (a) shallow trenches to assist in reclamation of tidal flats, and (b) grassy area already
reclaimed on the Wadden Sea intertidal flat lands.
278 Chapter 11
WANGEROOGE WANGEROOGE
Ha
Ulaumer Balje
tle
tle
Ulaumer
Ha
Balje
SPIEKEROOG SPIEKEROOG
LANGECOG LANGDOOG
1650 1750
WANGEROOGE
Ha
tle
Ulaum
WANGEROOGE
Ulaum
Ha
tle
er B
er Ba
SPIEKEROOG
SPIEKEROOG
a
lje
ije
LANGECOG
LANGECOG
N
0 5 Miles
0 5 Km 1860 Luck, 1975 1960
Figure 11.39 Sequence of maps of the Wadden Sea showing how reclaimed land has been converted to
uplands (green) over centuries. (Source: FitzGerald et al. (1984)).
References
Dalrymple, R.W., Zaitlin, B.A., and Boyd, R. Klein, G.D. (1977). Clastic Tidal Facies.
(1992). Estuarine Facies models: conceptual Champaign, IL: Continuing Education
basis and stratigraphic implications. Publishing.
J. Sedim. Petrol. 62 (6): 1130–1146. Postma, H. (1961). Transportation and
FitzGerald, D.M., Penland, S., and Nummedal, accumulation of suspended matter in
D. (1984). Control of inlet shape by the Dutch Wadden Sea. Neth. J. Sea Res.
sediment bypassing: East Frisian Islands, 1: 148–190.
West Germany. Mar. Geol. 60: 355–376. Visser, M.J. (1980). Neap–spring cycles
Klein, G.D. (1972). Determination of paleotidal reflected in Holocene subtidal large‐scale
range in clastic sedimentary rocks. Proc. bedform deposits: preliminary note. Geology
24th Intl. Geol. Congress, 6: 397–405. 8: 543–546.
Suggested Reading
Alexander, C.R., Davis, R.A., and Henry, V.J. Amos, C.L. (1995). Siliciclastic tidal flats. In:
(eds.) (1998). Tidalites: Processes and Geomorphology and Sedimentology of
Products, Spec. Publication No. 61. Estuaries, Developments in Sedimentology
Tulsa, OK: SEPM. No. 53 (ed. G.M.E. Perillo). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Tidal Flats 279
Davis, R.A. and Dalrymple, R.W. (eds.) (2012). Eisma, D. (1998). Intertidal Deposits; River
Principles of Tidal Sedimentology. New York: Mouths, Tidal Flats and Coastal Lagoons.
Springer. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, (especially
DeBoer, P.L., van Gelder, A., and Nio, S.D. chapters 6–9).
(eds.) (1988). Tide‐Influenced Smith, D. G., Reinson, G. E., Zaitlin, B. A., and
Sedimentary Environments and Facies. Rahmani, R. A., (eds.), 1991, Clastic tidal
Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing sedimentology. Can. Soc. Petrol. Geol. Mem.
Company. 16, Calgary, CSPG, 387 pp.
281
12
Coastal Wetlands
It is typical for a portion of the inner, protected and will be discussed in detail. Some compar-
margin of an estuary or a low‐energy open isons will be made to demonstrate important
coast to be covered by a vegetated intertidal differences between them.
environment. If covered with grasses or
grass‐like vegetation this environment is
called a marsh. If covered with woody shrubs 12.1 Characteristics
and trees, typically called mangroves, this of a Coastal Marsh
environment is a swamp, or more properly, a
mangal. These environments may be normal A marsh is really the portion of the higher
marine in salinity or they can range through part of the intertidal environment that is cov-
brackish toward fresh water. This discussion ered by vascular plants. Above about neap
will not include the freshwater marshes along high tide there is little energy to disturb the
the rivers that may grade into the estuary. The sediment substrate and the sediment that
proportion of the estuary that supports the accumulates there tends to be relatively fine‐
salt marsh environment ranges widely; from grained with a fairly stable sediment surface.
essentially all of the estuary except for tidal These factors provide the type of environ-
channels, to a border only a few meters wide. ment that supports vegetation; an undis-
The proportion of the estuary that is covered turbed place of fine, organic‐rich sediment.
by vegetation tends to be an indication of the Various opportunistic and tolerant grasses
maturity of the estuary or the degree to which thrive in this environment.
it has been filled in with sediment. For exam- The marsh environment is commonly
ple, some of the estuaries on the Georgia divided into the low marsh, which is approxi-
coast have little open water except near the mately from neap high tide to mean high tide
inlet between the barrier islands. A similar or slightly above, and the high marsh, which
situation exists in coastal southwest Florida, is from that level up to spring high tide.
where mangroves dominate. Only tidal creeks
dissect the extensive vegetated environment
12.1.1 Marsh Plants
in these sedimentologically mature estuaries
(Figure 12.1). By contrast, the German There are two genera that are particularly
Wadden Sea is bordered by only a narrow prone to establish dense stands on such
marsh and the Bay of Fundy supports a substrates; Spartina (Figure 12.3), which is
narrow and discontinuous marsh environ-
present in two common species in North
ment where the surface gradients are steep America, and Juncus (Figure 12.4), with one
(Figure 12.2). prominent species. Although not the only
Both salt marshes and mangrove mangals marsh taxa, these are the most widely
are special, vegetated intertidal environments distributed in North America.
Figure 12.1 Aerial overview of a marsh showing only tidal creeks interrupting the marsh vegetation.
Figure 12.2 Narrow band of marsh vegetation along the margin of the Bay of Fundy in Canada.
Figure 12.3 Marsh on the Florida coast showing Juncus, the primary high‐marsh genus in many North
American marshes.
Coastal Wetlands 283
Figure 12.4 Channel margin along a tidal creek showing high growth form of Spartina alterniflora.
Figure 12.5 Outer margin of the low marsh (Spartina) with scattered oyster accumulations, a common
situation in the southeastern United States.
The specific type of vegetation that devel- between neap and spring high tide. In most
ops marshes depends upon the elevation estuaries this zone is a narrow range in eleva-
within the intertidal zone and the latitude, tion of a few tens of centimeters, but can be
which in other words is a climatic control. In up to a meter or more in estuaries with very
the middle and southern coasts of North large tidal ranges. S. alterniflora is a coarse
America, Spartina alterniflora is the typical grass that grows in very dense populations.
low‐marsh grass (Figure 12.5), not because Individual plants are generally about knee‐
of the height of the plants but because of high but display great variability, reaching up
its substrate elevation. It is typically found to more than 2 m in height depending upon
284 Chapter 12
the specific location within the marsh and called a salt wort, is a fleshy plant that rises
the availability of nutrients. Highest plants only 10–30 cm above the substrate. It is the
tend to be on the highest elevations; the lev- only common marsh plant that does not look
ees of the channel margins and near spring like a grass, although Juncus is a rush not
high tide. The S. alterniflora plants at the a grass. Distichlis looks very much like
lowest part of the marsh may be quite small S. patens and they may occupy the same part
and discontinuous. of the marsh.
The high marsh in some areas is domi- Relief on the marsh is typically low, but
nated by Spartina patens. This species is gen- there are numerous subtle variations in ele-
erally fine and small in contrast to S. vation that cause distinct zonation of vegeta-
alterniflora. It grows best on the upper flat tion in the salt marsh environment because
surface of the marsh environment. Juncus is the plant species involved are quite suscepti-
the high‐marsh grass in low to mid latitudes ble to elevation differences. Quite subtle or
and is restricted to the elevation at about local changes in relief or general morphology
spring high tide. Juncus roemerianus is the are reflected in the zonation of plant species
species that is most common in southern and in their growth forms.
North America; Juncus gerardii is most com- The low boundary of the marsh is the
mon north of Delaware and New Jersey. non‐vegetated tidal flat or the margin of
Commonly called the needle rush or black a tidal channel. The upper boundary can
rush, it is as tall as a person, and it has a be a variety of environments but is typi-
pointed end that has been known to pene- cally characterized by some type of upland
trate shoes. This species attains its height vegetation.
throughout the extent of the spring tide posi-
tion of the estuary margin. During the grow-
12.1.2 Global Distribution
ing season it is a dark green color but attains
a silvery hue during the fall and winter. The worldwide distribution of salt marshes
Other high‐marsh plants include Distichlis can be organized into nine regions based on
and Salicornia. Salicornia (Figure 12.6), also the vegetation communities.
Figure 12.6 Very high in the intertidal zone populated by Salicornia.

In the northern high latitudes is the Arctic 12.2 Marsh Characteristics

Region that includes northern portions
of North America and Russia along with The physical environment of the marsh com-
Greenland and Iceland and northernmost munity is influenced by the degree to which
Scandinavia. Here, marshes are fragmentary it is protected from wave action, tidal regime,
due to extreme weather conditions. Europe rate of sea‐level rise, the topography of the
is divided into two regions: one along coastal area, sediment supply and the nature
the north coast including the Baltic and the of the substrate. The marsh environment is
coast of Ireland and Great Britain and very similar to a river system: it is typically
the other along the Mediterranean coast. cut by meandering channels; the channels
Another region extends along the Atlantic have point bars (Figure 12.7); there are
coast of North America from northeastern natural levees along the channel banks

Canada through the United States and (Figure 12.8); crevasse splays may form in
including the Gulf Coast. It is this region breaches of the levees (Figure 12.9); and there
that contains the most extensive marshes may be meander cutoffs and oxbow lakes.
of North America and that will be given In addition, the marsh surface tends to be
the most consideration in this chapter. The extremely flat and horizontal, just like a
north and east coast of South America floodplain.
together comprise a region. The Pacific Because the zonation of vegetation is so
American region extends along the west closely tied to the elevation within the inter-
coast of both North and South America. tidal zone, it is practical to zone the marsh in
Australia and New Zealand comprise a a similar fashion. The most commonly used
region in the south Pacific. The eastern approach is simply to subdivide the marsh
coast of Asia along with Japan completes into the low marsh and the high marsh. The
the regions of the Pacific basin. The final low marsh is that part of the marsh from the
region is really a special marsh environment beginning of vegetation up to at least mean
that is restricted to high elevations in low‐ high tide. This is generally dominated by
latitude areas that are otherwise dominated S. alterniflora. The high marsh extends from
by mangroves. This situation exists in about the mean high tide up to the limit of
Florida and also parts of Baja California. tidal activity. This portion of the marsh is
Figure 12.7 Photograph of a tidal creek meander showing a natural levee.

286 Chapter 12
Figure 12.8 Aerial photo showing a tidal creek with multiple small point bars.
Figure 12.9 Aerial photo of a wetland on the Georgia coast showing multiple crevasse splays.
dominated by Juncus roemerianus and/or England (Figure 12.10) the lower marsh
Salicornia depending on the overall setting. includes both S. alterniflora and S. patens,
There are, however, differences in marsh with the upper marsh being composed of
zonation and profiles depending upon the Salicornia, Distichlis and a fringe of Juncus.
geographic location. For example, in New An upland scrub forest typically borders the
Tidal marsh
Juncus
gerardii Spartina patens +
Spartina
Distichlis spicata
Spartina altemiflora
patens
Bay
Figure 12.10 Diagram showing zonation of high‐latitude marshes. (Source: Dawes (1998)).
marsh itself. Further to the south in Georgia 12.2.1 Marsh Classification

and Florida, the typical zonation is a relatively
A convenient way to consider marsh devel-
narrow lower marsh of S. alterniflora and an
opment is through their maturity. This can
extensive high marsh dominated by J. roe-
most easily be done by considering the rela-
merianus (Figure 12.11).
tive distribution of the low‐ and high‐marsh
Tidal marsh
Upland
forest
Mixed
shrubs and
grasses Juncus
Spartina
roemerianus
patens Spartina
alterniflora
Neap high tide
Figure 12.11 Diagram showing zonation of low‐ to medium‐latitude marshes. (Source: Dawes (1998)).
288 Chapter 12
High
marsh
Low marsh
Low marsh High marsh
Infilled
channels
High marsh
Low marsh
Infilled channels
Regular intertidal areas

restricted to tidal creeks
Figure 12.12 Diagrams showing the maturation of salt marshes from youthful to old age. (Source: Frey and
Basan (1985)).
portions of the total vegetated environment area to support a significant upper marsh
(Figure 12.12). Without using absolute ages, community.
we can consider young, mature and old The intermediate stage of marsh develop-
marshes to reflect the progressive development (Figure 12.12b) has a near‐equal distri-
ment of the marsh system assuming that sea bution of high and low marsh. The tidal
level has not changed substantially. channels are fewer in number than in the
A young marsh is one that has mostly low young marsh. As the sediment continues to
marsh vegetation, that is S. alterniflora, with be delivered to the upper part of the inter-
perhaps only a fringe of high marsh, around tidal zone, the marsh becomes more mature.
the outer edge (Figure 12.12a). Tidal chan- Much of the intertidal zone is covered by
nels are abundant, providing good drainage, marsh vegetation with only few large tidal
and sediment supply. This stage of marsh creeks interrupting an otherwise continuous
development lasts until sufficient sediment marsh environment. Continued sediment
has been delivered to the upper intertidal accumulation will cause encroachment of
land plants into the marsh as the estuary is Once marsh vegetation has been estab-
reduced in overall size. lished, the primary mode of sediment deliv-
The end product of this scheme of succes- ery is via suspended sediment. This sediment
sion of marsh development is complete infill- is typically mud and is provided both from
ing of the intertidal zone up to the level of normal high tide flooding of the marsh dur-
near spring high tide. The marsh is essen- ing near‐spring conditions and also during
tially all high marsh with only a fringe of low storm conditions. Most estuaries have some
marsh, and tidal channels are widely spaced mud in suspension during each tidal cycle.
(Figure 12.12c). Because marshes are sedi- Each of the high tide phases of the tidal cycles
ment sinks, this is their eventual fate unless provides a small to modest supply of mud to
sea level changes cause either enlargement of the marsh. The longer the slack‐water period
the estuary or abandonment at a high eleva- at high tide, the more sediment will settle out
tion. If this occurs, upland terrestrial vegeta- of suspension.
tion will likely encroach into the highest part Storms provide the highest rate of sedi-
of the marsh. ment influx into the marsh environment.
They do two primary things to help in this
activity: the waves and currents generated
12.3 Marsh Sedimentation during storms cause large amounts of fine
sediment to be carried in suspension, and
We have said that a marsh develops above the many storms create storm surge or storm
neap high tide level of the intertidal environ- tides in the estuaries where the marshes
ment, and that as the estuary fills with sedi- occur. As a consequence, there is a great deal
ment, the marsh increases its extent. In of sediment made available to the marsh
addition, there is an increase in the amount environment (Figure 12.13). This sediment is
of high marsh as the marsh matures through delivered in two primary ways: through the
sediment accumulation with time. How does simple flooding of the marsh by sediment‐
the marsh grow in this manner and what laden water, and by breaching of the natural
are the mechanisms for delivering sediment to levees and deposition of a crevasse splay‐
the marsh or potential marsh environment? type sediment deposit (see Figure 12.9). Both
There are various ways for sediment to of these mechanisms provide considerable
reach the marsh environment but two pre- sediment to the marsh surface and both may
dominate. One is the settling lag–scour–lag produce enough sediment during a given
mechanism (see Figure 11.19) for building storm to temporarily bury the marsh grass.
up the tidal flat that was discussed in the These storm layers may be several tens of
previous chapter. In this manner the aggra- centimeters thick. Because marsh grass is
dation and progradation of the tidal flat will very resilient, it will not die when buried but
result in the sediment surface increasing in will grow up through the storm layer in
elevation thereby providing appropriate weeks to months. This type of high sedimen-
conditions for marsh vegetation to colonize tation rate on the marsh surface results in the
the tidal flat. This building up of the tidal flat eventual elevation of the marsh above nor-
includes both sand being transported along mal intertidal levels. The result is that the
the substrate as bedload, and mud trans- marsh environment disappears in favor of
ported in suspension. Each tidal cycle, espe- the upland environment.
cially those between mean tide range and Marsh vegetation tends to be quite dense
spring tide range, brings sediment up to the and provides an excellent sediment trap in
level where marsh vegetation can become two ways. First, the grass slows the flow of
established. This type of accumulation tidal waters to assist settling out of fine sus-
encourages marsh expansion in response to pended sediment particles to the floor of the
sediment accumulation. marsh. Secondly, considerable amounts of
290 Chapter 12
Figure 12.13 Infra‐red aerial photograph of marsh area in South Carolina showing mud covering marshes
after Hurricane Hugo in 1989.
fine sediment adhere to the marsh grasses as developed on washover deposits or flood
the sediment‐laden water flows past. Both of tidal deltas associated with barriers; most of
these mechanisms provide for accumulation these are dominated by sand‐size sediments.
of generally muddy sediment on the marsh. It is also possible for a particular area to have
Additional sediment accumulates on the little mineral mud‐sized sediments through-
marsh surface as the result of suspension out, thereby making it impossible for mud
feeders living within the marsh grass produc- to be a major component of marshes. The
ing pellets that accumulate within the marsh Florida peninsula falls into this category
and contribute to its aggradation. In high because marshes there form on sand‐domi-
latitudes, ice can also be important in trans- nated substrates.
porting sediment onto the marsh surface. The coastal marsh accumulates a distinc-
This is very common in the New England tive combination of sediment, structures,
area of the United States and along parts of geometry and biogenic features. Although
the Wadden Sea on the North Sea coast of there is some nearly universal similarity
Europe. among marsh deposits, there may be striking
contrasts. Most marshes accumulate much
plant debris and typically develop peat.
12.3.1 Sediments
Numerous benthic invertebrates may live
The general nature of salt marsh sediment is within the marsh, particularly infaunal
quite unlike that of other coastal environ- organisms such as various worms, burrowing
ments except for the upper part of the inter- crabs and snails.
tidal flats. It is commonly an unequal mixture As a consequence of all of these burrowing
of mud and plant debris with small amounts organisms, plus the effects of the roots of
of shell material, sand‐size terrigenous parti- the marsh vegetation, many wetlands show
cles, and large plant fragments. In general, considerable bioturbation in the substrate
marshes typically contain the finest sedi- (Figure 12.14). There are, however, many that
ments of all coastal environments. This is not do accumulate well‐bedded marsh sediments
always true, especially for those marshes (Figure 12.15).
Figure 12.14 A highly bioturbated bank in a wetland tidal creek.
(a)
(b)
Figure 12.15 (a) and (b) Well‐preserved bedding in marsh sediments on the German Wadden Sea coast.
292 Chapter 12
12.3.2 Sea Level and Marsh balance exists. However, if predictions of

Development increased rates of sea level rise come true,
then we will have potential problems with
It should be apparent from the above discus-
marshes being drowned by the rise of sea
sions that the marsh environment is very
level. There is considerable concern about
delicately balanced with sea level. The entire
this scenario becoming a major problem for
marsh environment exists within much less
marsh stability. Because marshes are among
than a meter of relief near high tide except in
the most productive environments of all, this
places with extremely high tidal ranges. The
situation could cause major problems for the
high‐marsh environment lies within only
coastal ecosystem.
about 10–15 cm of relief. As sediment accu-
mulates on the marsh, the elevation can
reach above spring high tide. But this situa- 12.3.2.1 Mississippi Delta
tion is without considering sea level change; Catastrophic conditions currently exist in
especially sea level rise. the extensive marsh environment associated
In Chapter 4 we discussed the current situ- with the Mississippi River delta (Figures 12.16
ation regarding sea‐level change and noted and 12.17) on the coast of Louisiana. Recall
that globally, there is an annual rise of 3 mm. from the chapters on sea level (Chapter 4)
This is modest, but there are indications that and deltas (Chapter 8) that this area is expe-
this rate is increasing and there are many riencing a relative sea level rise of almost
local and regional areas where it is much 1 cm each year. While sea level rise is not a
higher. If we consider the current eustatic major problem along many coastal environ-
rate, it means that a coastal salt marsh must ments, it is a very big problem for a marsh.
accumulate 3 mm of sediment each year in Remember, most of the marsh exists within
order to maintain its current elevation rela- a very small range in elevation. On the
tive to sea level. The desired situation is at Mississippi Delta, an area of less than a meter
least a balance between sea‐level rise and spring tidal range, it is only about 10–15 cm.
sediment accumulation. In most coastal set- As a consequence, a sea level rise of nearly
tings this is not a significant problem; such a a centimeter may cause much of the marsh to
Figure 12.16 Drowning wetlands on the Mississippi Delta.

Figure 12.17 Wetlands on the Mississippi Delta that are in danger of destruction from both sea‐level rise and
human activities.
be drowned (see Figures 12.14 and 12.17). Delta there are a few things that can be done to
If the rate of sediment influx amounts to a help to minimize the effects of previous human
centimeter per year, then there is a balance activities. One of the major aims of human
between the rate of sea level rise and the intervention on the delta is to prevent flood-
rate of marsh accretion. In the case of ing in order to protect industry, residences,
the Mississippi Delta area, human interfer- and infrastructure. This is accomplished pri-
ence with the discharge of the river coupled marily by the construction of levees designed
with the compaction of delta sediments to eliminate flooding during high‐discharge
and withdrawal of fluids under the delta as events. If gates were constructed at intervals
a result of drilling for oi and gas has con- along the major distributaries and opened
tributed significantly to the high rate of during high‐discharge events major splays
relative sea level rise. As a consequence, the would develop which would provide much
delta is subsiding and the amount of sedi- needed sediment to the wetlands of the delta.
ment supply from flooding of the river has One practice that has helped to develop
been greatly reduced. The bottom line is that new wetlands in this area is the diversion of
much of the coast of Louisiana is drowning. significant discharge into the Atchafalaya
The state is currently losing about 65 km2 Basin just to the west of the active delta. Over
each year of coastal salt marshes to drown- the past several decades this practice has
ing; a football field an hour. developed a new delta of significant size
(Figure 12.18). The sediment complex now
supports extensive wetlands.
12.4 Human Impact
on the Marsh Environment 12.5 Marsh Summary
The fragile nature of the marsh makes it sus- Although marshes are very diverse in their
ceptible to negative impacts from human activ- characteristics and their dominant vegeta-
ities (see Box 12.1). In the case of the Mississippi tion, they have many common factors. There
294 Chapter 12
Box 12.1 Human Impact on Coastal Marshes

There are many ways in which we cause The only way that marshes can be sustained
degradation of marshes, especially through
in this sea‐level scenario is if the marsh surface
development of population centers and also can accumulate the same thickness annually
by exploration for oil and gas. The net as the amount of sea‐level increase in that year.
result is deterioration and or loss of marshes; Currently, on a global basis that means the
one of the most productive of all coastal marsh surfaces need to accumulate 3 mm of
environments. mud to sustain their environment. If we think
The portion of the tidal range in which about conditions of suspended sediment
marshes can develop and continue to flourish supply around the world, this is not likely to
is small; only from near‐neap high tide to happen in many places. Suspended sediment
spring high tide. There are some exceptions to reaches coastal marshes via discharge from
this generality but it applies to most marshes. the mouths of rivers. The big rivers tend to be
In microtidal and mesotidal coasts this range is the most important because of their huge
much less than a meter. Marshes are limited to discharge of both water and sediment.
a very narrow part of the intertidal environ- Presently, the amount of discharge, especially
ment. As sea level rises, especially if the rate sediment-discharge has been significantly
increases, as seems to be the case, marshes fall decreased, mostly by anthropogenic practices
into great jeopardy. (Box Figure 12.1.1). Commercial navigation is
Box Figure 12.1.1 Map showing the discharge of the Mississippi River basin in 1800 as compared to 1980.
(Source: USGS).
a major element in many river systems. As a source for many municipalities. As a
result dams are important and very numerous. consequence there is zero discharge at its

A dam prevents large volumes of sediment mouth in the Gulf of California.
from moving down the river to the discharge Construction activities are also a major
point. Many river drain basins where agricul- negative factor in the preservation of the

ture is a huge part of the economy. A large marsh environment. Levees are common on all
portion of these basin require irrigation for rivers that have problems with flooding (Box
crops. This decreases the discharge at the river Figure 12.1.2). This is particularly important at
mouth. A good example is the Colorado River locations where a river passes a population
that moves through much of the west and center (Box Figure 12.1.3). Levees are also built
irrigates millions of acres and is also a water where canals are dredged for benefit of the
Box Figure 12.1.2 Natural levees on the lower Mississippi Delta.
Box Figure 12.1.3 Constructed walkway by the U. S. Army, Corps of Engineers.

296 Chapter 12
Box Figure 12.1.4 Wetland surface of the Mississippi Delta with numerous canals and levees produced by
the petroleum industry. (Source: Univ. Vermont).
petroleum industry (Box Figure 12.1.4). The job takes place for it is floods that provide sus-
of a levee is to prevent flooding. Unfortunately pended sediment to nourish the marsh and
the marsh cannot be sustained unless flooding keep it on pace with sea‐level rise.
Figure 12.18 Infrared image of the Atchafalaya

Basin showing the recently formed deltas that are
prime locations for development of new wetlands.
(Source: earthobservatory.nasa.gov).
are some generalizations that can be made with one species. The water temperature is
about marshes. Most of these are related to now high enough along the shoreline for
their position along the intertidal zone. It mangroves to survive. This extension of their
cannot be stressed enough how important distribution is attributed to climate change.
the elevation is within the marsh portion of In this discussion we will consider how
the intertidal zone. mangroves are distributed, both globally and
Marshes of all types are among the most within specific coastal systems. The zonation
important and most productive of all mod- of mangroves and their influence on coastal
ern environments. They have high concen- processes, especially sediment transport and
trations of photosynthetic organisms and stability, will also be covered.
they serve as a nursery ground for many fin-
fish and shell fish. Because of their delicate
position within the intertidal zone, their 12.7 Mangrove Distribution
existence is threatened both by human activ-
ity and by sea level rise. 12.7.1 Global Distribution
More than 80 species of mangroves are rec-
12.6 Mangrove Coasts ognized globally. The vast majority of these
species flourish in Southeast Asia and
Stands of mangroves, called mangals, are Oceania. Their inability to tolerate hard
tidal forest ecosystems that exist in protected freezes means that their global distribution is
marine through brackish water to freshwater controlled by winter temperature. The Indo‐
conditions, as long as there is some tidal Pacific Zone contains tremendous variety of
influence. Although there are various mangrove taxa, whereas the Atlantic Zone
environmental conditions that influence
includes only ten species. In the United
the nature and extent of mangrove develop- States, only Florida, the Gulf Coast, and a
ment, the most critical is air temperature; small area of southern California are home to
most mangroves cannot tolerate a hard mangroves.
freeze, which limits them to lower latitudes.
Mangrove mangals are commonly consid-
12.7.2 Local
ered as the low‐latitude equivalent of coastal
marshes. This comparison is not strictly Mangroves are restricted to protected
correct in that there are two distinct differ- waters where currents are sluggish and
ences between the two environments: marshes waves are small. This is typically associ-
are populated by grasses whereas mangrove ated with rather low‐energy estuaries,
mangals are dominated by trees and shrubs, lagoons and backbarrier environments.
and mangroves occupy different positions The primary factor in this distribution is
within the intertidal zone than do marshes. the nature of mangrove propagation. Their
As mentioned in the previous section, there seeds drop from the trees and float with
are two areas in North America where the currents until they come to rest at the
mangroves and salt marsh vegetation occur shoreline, where the propagules root and
together: much of the Gulf of Mexico and develop into seedlings (Figure 12.19). The
parts of the Baja California coast. In the Gulf, long red mangrove seeds shown in the
this is primarily because of temperature. photo float in a vertical position until they
The distribution of mangroves here has run aground in about a decimeter of water.
expanded greatly since the latter part of the For germination to take place the seeds
twentieth century. In the 1960s mangroves must maintain their position for some
were essentially absent on the northern coast time; swift currents and wave action would
of the Gulf; now they cover the entire area prevent this.
298 Chapter 12
Figure 12.19 Photograph

showing red mangrove seedlings
that have germinated, with small
leaves and rootlets.
(a) (b)
Figure 12.20 (a) An example of the red mangrove in its natural environment on the coast of Mexico, and (b) a
close‐up photograph showing the nature of the prop roots of this species. (Source: (a) and (b) courtesy of J.W.
Tunnell).
The most seaward species is the red man-

12.7.3 Zonation
grove, Rhizophora mangle (Figure 12.20),
In North America there are only four species identifiable by its large prop roots that anchor
of what are termed mangroves. There is a and stabilize the plant. This species com-
zonation of the prominent mangrove species monly extends to below the low tide mark
that is related to their position within the within the low part of the intertidal zone.
intertidal zone, in a fashion similar to that of Above this elevation but intermixed to some
the grasses within the marsh environment. extent, is the black mangrove, Avicennia
(a) (b)
Figure 12.21 (a) Example of the black mangrove showing its pneumatophores in its natural environment, and
(b) a close‐up of this species when it is in flower.
Figure 12.22 White mangrove along the coast of Florida.
g erminans (Figure 12.21). This species inhab- part of the intertidal zone and may extend up
its the intertidal zone. The third typical man- to the supratidal area. The fourth mangrove
grove of North American mangals is in North Americal is Conocarpus erectus,
Laguncularia racemosa (Figure 12.22), the known as the buttonwood tree (Figure 12.23).
white mangrove, which inhabits the highest Many people would not include this tree in
300 Chapter 12
the true mangrove community because it

grows exclusively above the intertidal zone.
The zonation across the intertidal zone in
Florida is basically in this same order, with the
red mangrove being lowest and the white the
highest, just above spring tide (Figure 12.24).
Unlike marshes, it is common for mangrove
species to be somewhat intermixed; there is
not a sharp boundary between species.
There are various types of mangrove envi-
ronments, ranging from fringing to overwash
locations in the intertidal zone. The fringing
types occur along the protected open coasts
of estuaries (Figure 12.25) and other coastal
bays. Overwash mangals develop where the
low‐lying overwash deposits accumulate
(Figure 12.26). Some mangroves even grow
in bedrock (Figure 12.27).
12.8 Mangroves and
Coastal Processes
Mangroves have some influence on coastal
Figure 12.23 Photograph of a buttonwood tree on processes because of their prominent size
an upland environment in Florida.
and dense network of root structures.
Tropical
forest
Conocarpus
(buttonwood)
Avicennia
(black) Rhizophora
(red)
High tide
Laguncularia Low tide

(white)
Figure 12.24 Schematic diagram showing mangrove zonation as it occurs along the Florida coast.
(Source: Dawes (1998)).
Figure 12.25 Oblique aerial photograph of a mangrove mangal of reds on the southwest coast of Florida.
Figure 12.26 Photograph showing denuded mangroves on a washover environment on the Florida coast after
Hurricane Andrew.
Although most of their influence centers on primary reason for this influence is the pres-
physical processes, some biological processes ence of the numerous, closely spaced, and
may also be involved. Some mangrove spe- resistant root structures that characterize
cies, especially those of the genus Rhizophora, nearly all mangrove species. In sites where
have significant influence on currents. The open‐water currents may be as high as
302 Chapter 12
Figure 12.27 Photograph of red mangroves growing out of basalt bedrock in the Galapagos Islands.
100 cm s−1, the currents within the dense help to protect the sediment substrate in
mangrove root system may be as slow as 10 % the mangal.
of the open water. A good example of this situation is the pas-
As the tide floods and ebbs, the prop roots sage of Hurricane Andrew across south
and pneumatophores (aerial roots) along Florida in August, 1992. The tremendous
with substantial burrowing structures at the destruction that took place in the Miami area
sediment surface, produce major increases is well known, but few people are aware of
in roughness and friction. This generates a what happened on the other side of Florida
significant decrease in the flow velocity of where mangrove mangals dominate the
the tidal currents and thereby greatly affects coastal zone. Here, along this very low‐
sediment transport and accumulation. energy coast where mean wave height is only
Additional roughness is caused by the algae, about 15 cm mangroves extend essentially to
barnacles, oysters and other organisms that the open coast. Large waves combined with a
may be growing on the root structures. All of storm surge of 1.5–2.0 m and wind of about
these factors have an effect on waves as well. 150 km h−1 would be expected to inflict
They tend to attenuate wave energy and major erosion on this undeveloped coast.
thereby diminish the role of waves in erosion Instead, the shoreline change was minimal;
of the mangrove substrate. mangrove trees were broken off by the wind
Mangroves also have a significant influ- but their dense root systems prevented
ence on the effect of storms along coastal erosion (see Figure 12.27). This is an excel-
environments. Because of their location in lent demonstration of how mangroves are
low‐latitude regions, tropical storms and adapted to withstand intense storms and pre-
hurricanes are likely to impinge on man- vent erosion of the coastline (Figure 12.28).
grove coasts. These storms bring intense Another aspect of the sediment trap effect
wind, large waves, and storm surge. of mangroves takes place primarily in the
Mangroves are able to withstand these prop roots of the red mangroves. These
forces very well. The relatively low trees structures are commonly at least a few cen-
with very dense root systems are adapted to timeters in diameter. As such they physically
resist such intense conditions. They also block suspended sediment that adheres to
Figure 12.28 Photograph of an intertidal oyster reef in southwest Florida with red mangrove growing next to it.
their roots. This phenomenon can be impor- in height (Figure 12.30a). Another is that large
tant in muddy estuaries, especially those and densely vegetated trees can be trimmed to
where tidal range is high. as to provide windows for viewing the water
(Figure 12.30b). We do not think such prac-
tices are proper environmental management.
12.9 Human Impact
on Mangroves
12.10 Summary
Some people do not like mangroves. These are
folks who live on the coast and have mangals The presence of dense vegetation on the
between them and the water, obstructing their intertidal zone is a distinctive feature of one
ability to see the shoreline and the water of the most important of all coastal environ-
beyond. Development of these coastal areas ments. These diverse and highly productive
has resulted in the complete destruction of environments are tremendously productive
mangroves locally. This is especially in places in the form of photosynthesis and as a food
where dredge‐and‐fill construction has taken supply to many types of herbivores. They
place; mostly in Florida. These finger canals also provide a home and a place for repro-
and adjacent upland construction sites have duction for many organisms.
destroyed very many mangroves (Figure 12.29). Another key feature of these environments
Another detrimental anthropogenic activity is their role in coastal protection, both in sta-
has recently been permitted for mangroves: bilizing sediment substrates and slowing ero-
the State of Florida now allows mangroves to sion by waves and currents. This is especially
be trimmed to permit residents to see the the case for mangrove mangals, which can
shoreline and water. These trimming regula- withstand direct attack from hurricanes and
tions cover a range of situations. Permits are experience limited erosion.
required but the permission does not negate These vegetated environments are also
the problems for the trees. One of the regula- important sediment traps and substrate
tions is that mangroves can be cut down to 6 ft stabilizers.
Figure 12.29 Aerial photograph of what was the back‐island wetland and is now dredge and fill construction
for residences on the Florida coast.
(a)
(b)
Figure 12.30 Mangroves in Florida can now be trimmed a) to a 6‐ft level or b) as “windows” in tall trees, all to
let home‐owners see the water. (Source: (a) and (b) courtesy of Florida Department of Environmental
Protection).
References
Dawes, C.J. (1998). Marine Botany. New York: Environments, 2e (ed. R.A. Davis), 225–302.
John Wiley and Son. New York: Springer.
Frey, R.W. and Basan, P. (1985). Coastal salt
marshes. In: Coastal Sedimentary
Suggested Reading
Chapman, V.J. (ed.) (1977). Wet Coastal Scott, D.B., Frail‐Gauthier, J., and Mudie, P.J.
Ecosystems. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (2014). Coastal Wetlands of the World.
Perillo, G.M.E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D.B., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
and Brinson, M.M. (2009). Coastal Tiner, R.W. (2013). Tidal Wetland Primer.
Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
Approach. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
307
13
Beach and Nearshore Environment
The beach and nearshore environment as from the outer bar to the shoreline unless
defined here will extend from the bar and quiet conditions prevail, in which case
trough topography that characterizes the waves break only on the inner bar or not at
surf zone across the dry beach to the vege- all. The foreshore is essentially equivalent
tation line. It is probably the most active to the intertidal beach. The backbeach is
environment on the earth’s surface. It is con- the dry portion of the beach. It extends
tinuously in motion; sometimes under high‐ from the high tide line to the vegetation
energy conditions and sometimes not. The zone, where coppice mounds develop, and
beach is a thin strip of land that is typically is typically essentially horizontal.
only tens to a few hundreds of meters in Where there is a steep gradient offshore of
width. It is a wave‐dominated environment. the shoreline a sand bar may not develop
The discussion here will be divided into (Figure 13.3). Portions of the west coast of
three parts: bar and trough topography, the United States down through most of
intertidal beach and dry beach. Each varies South America, where there is essentially no
in space and time but within limits. Tropical continental shelf, display this feature. But in
storms and hurricanes cause extreme most coastal plain nearshore zones there are
changes over short periods but, typically, two or three longshore bars separated by
recovery of the natural system takes place to shallow troughs (see Figure 13.2).
a large extent. Longshore bars can take on multiple
configurations; not just straight and shore‐
parallel (Figure 13.4). Shore‐parallel bars
13.1 Nearshore Environment commonly have saddles with a lower bar
crest, as shown in box A. There is also a bar
This is the area just offshore of the beach configuration where a part of the bar is
where the surf zone develops. It is charac- attached to the shoreline, generally in a
terized by a bar and trough topography. rhythmic pattern (B). There are also bars that
The gradient of the bottom, the level of are oblique and attached at one end to the
wave energy and the sediment available shoreline (C). The fourth type of bar is one
control the number and position of the known as transverse, which extends essen-
longshore sand bars that parallel the beach. tially perpendicular to the shoreline. These
Under most conditions there are two or bar types were recognized by the late W.F.
three such bars (Figure 13.1). Note that Tanner at Florida State University while
the diagram also introduces additional studying the coast of the Florida panhandle.
terminology. The breaker zone is where There is another important feature of
waves break; typically over longshore bars shore‐parallel sand bars: rip currents move
(Figure 13.2). The surf zone is generally offshore over paths of least resistance. The
NEARSHORE FORESHORE BACKSHORE
BREAKER SURF SWASH

ZONE ZONE ZONE
BERM
BEACHFACE
MLT PLUNGE STEP
RIDGE
LONGSHORE RUNNEL
BAR
Figure 13.1 Diagram across the beach and nearshore environment to the first longshore bar, showing
elements of this system.
Figure 13.2 Oblique aerial photograph of the beach and surf zone along Padre Island, Texas showing waves
breaking over two longshore bars.
Figure 13.3 Aerial photograph of an area on the Pacific coast of South America where the nearshore zone has
a steep gradient and longshore bars do not develop. (Source: Courtesy of O.H. Pilkey).
Beach and Nearshore Environment 309
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 13.4 Diagrams of four different types of nearshore sand bars. After the work of W.F. Tanner.
Figure 13.5 Aerial photograph of the Oregon coast showing deeply incised rip channels in the intertidal zone.
(Source: Courtesy of W.T. Fox).
question arises as to whether the saddles in channels (Figure 13.5) that were probably
longshore bars are eroded by rip currents or mostly the result of erosion. Other rip
whether the rip currents flow there due to channels can be formed at the shoreline
the saddle being the path of least resistance. and are oriented perpendicular to the coast
A good example of currents creating saddles (Figure 13.6). These can develop on low‐
can be seen on the coast of Oregon. Here energy coasts, such as Florida, or high‐energy
there are relatively deep and well‐defined rip coasts with a steep offshore, such as Australia.
310 Chapter 13
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.6 Rip channels that are essentially perpendicular from shore on (a) the Florida Gulf coast,
and (b) the New South Wales coast of Australia.
Although rip currents excavate little or no Upper‐flow regime conditions are generally
sand there is considerable evidence that they present on the crests of the bars with plane
do transport sediment seaward. This is beds but in the troughs. wave‐generated
clearly demonstrated in aerial photographs combined‐flow ripples prevail (Figure 13.8).
(Figure 13.7). The overall contribution to the The waves and combined‐flow currents
sediment budget in the surf zone is small. cause changes in the surface features across
this shallow marine system (Figure 13.9). Few
Substrate animals live on this surface or beneath it,
The nearshore surf zone is virtually all well‐ though sand dollars are common just below
sorted sand with some scattered shell debris. the sediment interface of the sand bars in
Figure 13.7 Evidence of seaward sediment transport by a rip current on the coast of Lake Michigan.
Figure 13.8 Underwater photograph of symmetrical wave‐generated ripples in the nearshore zone.
Symmetric Asymmetric
Lunate
Inactive Active Long-crested Irregular Cross-ripples megaripples Flat beds Current
Bar
Figure 13.9 Diagrams showing the changes in bedforms as waves and currents move across the nearshore
zone without longshore bars. As interpreted by H.E. Clifton and colleagues.
312 Chapter 13
many areas, and sting rays may occur in zone, they generate shoreward‐directed cur-
the troughs when wave energy is low. Surf rents that move sediment. They cause the
fishing in the troughs between sand bars is sand ridge to become asymmetrical, looking
generally good. much like a large bedform. This large “bed-
form” eventually becomes intertidal. Under
this circumstance the rising tide flows over
the ridge causing shoreward migration
13.2 Foreshore (Figure 13.13). As the sand bar migrates
landward it develops cross‐stratification of
The intertidal beach is commonly called the the same scale as the thickness of the
foreshore. There is a very wide range of width migrating sand body. The runnel surface is
depending on tidal range and slope of the covered with ladderback ripples formed by a
beach face. It can be a little as a few meters combination of wave‐generated ripples and
(Figure 13.10a) or a wide as hundreds of meters perpendicular current‐generated ripples
(Figure 13.10b). Part of this range is due to the (Figure 13.14). Sediment is carried across
magnitude of the tide at the location in ques- the surface of the ridge and then cascades
tion, part is due to erosion versus progradation down the slipface to form cross‐strata
and part is due to the availability of sand. (Figure 13.15). As time passes, this ridge
moves on to a storm beach to repair it by
Ridge and Runnel moving the previously eroded sand back to
Beaches erode during storms. What happens the beach (Figure 13.16). This is not the
to that sediment that is lost from the beach? same sand but it is the same or nearly the
There are four places to which eroded sand is same volume. These migrating ridges are
transported: offshore beyond the surf zone, much like the longshore sand bars except
or what engineers call the depth of closure – that they are intertidal. They commonly
the depth beyond that where waves can have rip channels to allow water that has
move sediment in a shoreward direction; made its way across the bar to return to a
alongshore – longshore currents can exceed stable level (Figure 13.17).
a meter per second during storm conditions This migration of the ridge and the welding
and considerable sediment is carried by these to the shoreline will provide a sequence that
currents; the surf zone adjacent to the beach; will then be reworked by foreshore processes
and, actually, carried across the beach and as the beach progrades. There is a strati-
deposited in a washover fan. graphic sequence that we would expect to see
The shallow transport of sediment removed if it is allowed to remain without reworking
from the beach accumulates in intertidal by foreshore processes. It begins at the base
depths to form what is called a ridge and run- with a storm beach. This beach commonly
nel, sometimes referred to as a swash bar displays relatively high seaward tips and lag
(Figure 13.11). The sediment accumulation, deposits of heavy minerals (Figure 13.18).
the ridge, is relatively wide and typically rises The runnel and ridge strata overlie the storm
only a few tens of centimeters above the adja- beach in this thin transgressive sequence. In
cent sand bottom. In some places, especially reality, this complete sequence is rarely pre-
where tides are at least mesotidal, this sedi- served due to reworking as the foreshore is
ment accumulation is completely in the inter- molded by swash processes. We can, how-
tidal zone (Figure 13.12). Regardless of the ever, see cycles of erosion and accumulation
circumstances of the location of the sand in the stratigraphy of the foreshore beach
ridge and adjacent runnel its shoreward with the heavy mineral storm beach strata at
migration is similar. the base (Figure 13.19). This photograph
As the relatively small waves between shows two erosion periods with the heavy
storms move across the shallow nearshore minerals and welded sand in between.
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.10 Photos of (a) a narrow foreshore on the Alabama coast and (b) a very wide foreshore (intertidal
beach) on the Oregon coast.
314 Chapter 13
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.11 (a) An intertidal ridge and runnel on the Georgia coast, and (b) a huge supratidal ridge on the
Florida coast.
Foreshore sand. They are formed by returning swash

The foreshore is the wet beach where surging but the asymmetry of the bedform and the
waves create back and forth swash. In fact dip of the internal strata are in the upshore
such water motion creates an important sed- direction (Figure 13.22). They are an upper‐
imentary structure called swash marks flow regime structure.
(Figure 13.20). Another fairly common sur-
face structure on the foreshore beach is the Biota
antidune (Figure 13.21). Antidunes tend to There are two small animals that are com-
develop on gently sloping beaches with fine mon in the swash zone. Both are infaunal and
Figure 13.12 Photograph of a ridge and runnel complex where the ridge is actively migrating shoreward.
Figure 13.13 Close‐up photograph of a migrating ridge, showing the shoreward‐oriented cross‐strata.
Figure 13.14 Ladderback ripples that characterize the runnel environment over which the ridge migrates.
Figure 13.15 Photograph of a ridge that has migrated up to the shoreline.
RIDGE MIGRATION 7-21
sea level 7-22
7-23
7-25
7-27
7-30
2′ 50 cm
0 0
0 5m 10 m 15 m 20 m 25 m
0 20′ 40′ 60′ 80′
Figure 13.16 Diagram showing a time‐series of ridge and runnel profiles as shoreward migration took place in
only 10 days.
Figure 13.17 Oblique aerial photograph of a migrating ridge with a rip channel.
STRUCTURE DIP DIRECTION
5–15°
LANDWARD DIRECTION
WELDED DIP
BEACH FACE
OFFSHORE DIRECTION
TRANSGRESSION
20–30°
DIP
RIDGE
RUNNEL
STORM 2–5°
BEACH DIP
Figure 13.18 Stratigraphic diagram showing the theoretical sequence of stacked units of a ridge and runnel
system that has migrated to an eroded beach.
Figure 13.19 Photograph of a shallow trench in beach deposits showing heavy mineral layers that represent
the storm beach surface.
both are abundant in some locations. The surface. Another common beach organism
small, multi‐colored surf clam, Donax varia- that actually floats in from the open sea is the
bilis (Figure 13.23), is as dense as hundreds brown algae Sargassum. It can come to the
per square meter in some places. The other coast in huge quantities (Figure 13.25) and
common creature is the ghost shrimp, cause problems for tourism. This algal com-
Callianassa major (Figure 13.24). It burrows plex contains a zoo of various small animals.
fairly deep and lines its burrows with aggre- Another floater that commonly makes its
gates of mud. It expels its fecal pellets to the way to the beach is the Portuguese man o’
Figure 13.20 Photograph of a foreshore showing swash marks on the coast of Lake Michigan.
Figure 13.21 Photograph of a beach on Jekyll Island, Georgia showing a pavement of antidunes.
Figure 13.22 Close‐up of a low trench showing the low angle cross‐stratification of the antidunes.
Figure 13.23 Photograph of surf clams, Donax variabilis, that are very common on many foreshore beach
environments.
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.24 Close‐up of (a) a ghost shrimp Callianassa, and (b) pellets produced by ghost shrimp.
320 Chapter 13
Figure 13.25 Beach on the Texas coast onto which considerable Sargassum has come to rest.
Figure 13.26 Portuguese man o’ war (Physalia) that has washed on to the foreshore beach.
war (Physalia) (Figure 13.26). It has danger- high‐energy wave action, beach sediment
ous tentacles that contain poison; even dead tends to be well‐sorted and well‐rounded
on the beach it can put stingers in your feet. (Figure 13.30). The composition of beach
The sediments of the foreshore environ- sand is mostly quartz because of its physical
ment are varied in both grain size and com- and chemical durability. Most beach sedi-
position. Grain size is related to both wave ment contains a small proportion of heavy
climate and availability, and ranges from mineral grains, generally only a percent or
fine sand (Figure 13.27) to very coarse gravel so. Erosion of the foreshore during storm
(Figure 13.28). Some beaches are a combi- conditions removes quartz and leaves the
nation of shells and shell debris with sand, heavy minerals as a lag deposit. These
which produces a texture called bimodal; lag deposits of heavy minerals accumulate
essentially a combination of two popula- as a thin layer across the erosional beach
tions (Figure 13.29). Thanks to the generally (Figure 13.31).
Figure 13.27 Fine sand, quartzitic sand beach on the Florida Gulf Coast.
Figure 13.28 Boulder beach on the west end of the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada.
322 Chapter 13
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.29 Photograph of a bimodal beach on the Atlantic coast of Florida with (a) shell debris on the sand,
and (b) a close‐up of shells on a fine sand beach.
There is a general relationship between the 13.3 Backbeach

gradient of the foreshore and the grain size.
In general, coarse sediment produces a The backbeach, the generally dry part of the
steep foreshore (Figure 13.32). There are beach environment, is essentially horizontal.
exceptions to this relationship, notably shell It ranges widely in width depending on
beaches and gravel beaches. whether the beach is erosional or prograding.
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.30 Close‐up photograph of (a) well‐sorted and well‐rounded quartz beach sand, and (b) sorted and
rounded gravel from a beach.
Figure 13.31 Storm beach surface covered with heavy minerals.

324 Chapter 13
RELATIONSHIP OF GRAIN SIZE FINE

AND BEACH SLOPE
FACE
BEACH
WAVE ENERGY CONSTANT
FINE SAND
GRAIN SIZE
E
FAC
CH
BEA
COARSE SAND
ACE
C HF
BEA
GRAVEL, SHELL
COARSE
Figure 13.32 Diagram showing three different situations of foreshore slope relative to sediment grain size.
(Source: courtesy of Joe Holemes, RPI).
Figure 13.33 Photograph of a dominantly carbonate beach on the north shore of Oahu, Hawaii.
Some erosional beaches typically have no be about the beach sediment above high tide
backbeach, only a narrow and relatively steep even if it is not flat.
foreshore. Beaches may be almost totally calcium car-
bonate, such as on the north coast of the
Sediments island of Oahu in Hawaii (Figure 13.33). This
Like the foreshore, the backbeach has a wide sediment is eroded from the coral reefs just
range of sediments in terms of both compo- offshore to produce a carbonate beach in a
sition and texture. The discussion here will generally terrigenous system of volcanic
rocks. Another carbonate beach is at Acadia carried to this location by currents. Heavy
National Park in Maine (Figure 13.34). This mineral beaches are the natural beaches on
beach is in a granite region so it is very unu- the east coast of the North Island of New
sual. It completely comprises mussel and Zealand (Figure 13.35). The mineral is iron
other shell material broken up by waves and oxide derived from nearby volcanic sources;
Figure 13.34 Carbonate beach of shell debris near Acadia National Park on the coast of Maine.
Figure 13.35 Oblique aerial of an iron oxide sediment beach on the east coast of the North Island of
New Zealand.
326 Chapter 13
Figure 13.36 Shallow trench in a beach on the Lake Michigan coast where thick storm lag deposits of heavy
minerals have accumulated.
on occasion Japan has purchased this sedi- management problems. Many beaches
ment as raw material for its steel industry. experience a seasonal cycle of erosion and
Other beach compositions may be related to deposition with the former in the winter
a process of erosion or to nearby mineral and the latter in summer. This is related to
sources. Glacial sediments tend to be a virtu- storms and wave climate. A good example of
ally museum of textures and compositions. such a cycle occurs on the coast of Oregon
They can include heavy minerals that can (Figure 13.39).
cover a beach and may be in a layer several
centimeters thick (Figure 13.36). Backbeach Biota
There is a variety of beach animals. Some are
Surface Processes temporary visitors and others are full‐time
The dry beach has processes and structures residents. One of the most curious beach
that originate primarily from wind. These animals is the ghost crab (Ocypoda quad-
structures tend to be directional due to their rata) (Figure 13.40). It is rarely seen because
wind origin. Sand shadows are linear accu- it is a nocturnal creature. The beach at night
mulations of sand on the lee side of a cobble can be full of them scurrying around. The
or large shell (Figure 13.37). Their preserva- main evidence of their existence is their bur-
tion potential is about zero but they can row and excavation sediment (Figure 13.41).
provide information on the recent few day’s Marine turtles are among the most inter-
wind directions. Another indicator of direction esting of all coastal animals. They only spend
is the current crescent structure (Figure 13.38). a few hours on the beach but it is a very
Current moving past a pebble or cobble will important visit. Some species, such as log-
cause small U‐shaped scour around the object. gerheads, come onshore during the night to
Erosion is a very important and widespread build a nest and lay their eggs (Figure 13.42),
beach process. Storms may reduce the beach others, like Kemp’s ridley (Figure 13.43) do it
width and sediment thickness in only a day during the day (Figure 13.44). The National
or so. Chronic erosion can cause serious Parks Service (NPS) marks and protects
Figure 13.37 Photograph of sand shadows where wind transport of sand has result in a small accumulation of
sand in the lee of a cobble, showing wind direction.
Figure 13.38 Photograph of small U‐shaped scours around pebbles as the result of water transport in the
direction of the open end.
loggerhead nests but leaves them on the National Seashore on the Texas coast are
beach (Figure 13.45) for a completely natural harvested and incubated by the NPS. After
hatch of the dozens of 2–3 cm diameter eggs incubation the hatchlings, about 5–6 cm
(Figure 13.46). Because of possible predation, across, are released (Figure 13.47). The sur-
the Kemp’s ridley nests at the Padre Island vival rate of all turtle hatchlings is very low.
328 Chapter 13
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.39 Excellent examples of (a) a summer beach, and (b) a winter beach on the Oregon coast.
(Source: (a) and (b) courtesy of W.T. Fox).
13.4 Human Impact heavily populated areas. Most of the nega-

on Beaches tive impact is the result of construction
that is intended to protect the beach and
The beach environment is probably the prevent erosion. So called hard structures
most heavily impacted by anthropogenic such as sea walls, groins and breakwaters
activities of the entire coast. The beach is are among the most widely used in this
fragile, heavily used and very often next to effort (Figure 13.48).
Figure 13.40 Close‐up photograph of a ghost crab (Ocypoda quadrata) on a wet beach.
Figure 13.41 Photograph of a ghost crab burrow and excavation sediment.
The approach to shoreline protection has (Figure 13.49). Dredges remove sand and
pretty much been replaced by beach nour- pump it to the construction site (Figure 13.50).
ishment, a process of dredging sand from Pipes are typically used to transport the
a borrow area and depositing it on the slurry of water and sand to the desired loca-
beach to provide protection, recreational tion on the constructed beach (Figure 13.51).
activities and esthetically pleasing conditions Large machines shape the beach to the design
330 Chapter 13
Figure 13.42 A turtle track across the beach on Padre Island. (Source: Courtesy of U.S. National Park Service
(NPS), https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/images/DSC04315.JPG).
Figure 13.43 A Kemp’s ridley turtle on the foreshore of a Texas beach. (Source: Courtesy of U.S. National Park
Service (NPS), https://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery.htm?id=00B48C47‐155D‐451F‐67B48D73D43C3928).
specifications (Figure 13.52). Although not roads and the quality of the sediment used.
common, some nourishment is carried out Some of this type of nourishment is left for
by trucking sand to the construction site waves to mold the beach into a natural
(Figure 13.53). This causes problems with profile.
Figure 13.44 A Kemp’s ridley turtle working on its nest. (Source: Courtesy of National Park Service (NPS)
https://www.nps.gov/pais/learn/nature/images/IMG_1.JPG).
Figure 13.45 Markers designed to protect a turtle nest and its eggs on the Florida coast. (Source: Ianaré Sévi,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Protected_Sea_Turtle_Nest_(Boca_Raton_FL).jpg).
In some locations, especially on the 13.5 Summary

European coasts, various plantings and other
stabilizing features are installed in order to The beach is one of the most dynamic envi-
dissipate wind energy and capture sand to ronments on the Earth’s surface. It is typically
protect the beach (Figure 13.54). composed of sand and is wave‐dominated.
332 Chapter 13
Figure 13.46 Eggs laid by a Kemp’s ridley turtle on the

Texas coast. (Source: Courtesy of U.S. National Park
Service).
Figure 13.47 Hatchlings of Kemp’s ridley turtles being released on the Texas coast. (Source: Courtesy of U.S.
National Park Service (NPS), https://www.nps.gov/pais/images/csthumbnail_large/20070210123753.jpg).
(a)
(b)
Figure 13.48 Examples of coastal construction include (a) a simple seawall on the Florida coast,
(b) a combination of a riprap wall and groins, and (c) jetties that impact the beach.
Figure 13.49 Photograph of a completed beach nourishment project on the Florida coast.
334 Chapter 13
Figure 13.50 A large suction dredge that pulls borrow sediment up and pumps it through large pipes to the
shore or into large barges.
Figure 13.51 Oblique aerial photograph of a nourishment project being constructed on the coast of Alabama,
with pipes to distribute the borrow material. (Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, https://www.fhwa.
dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/07096/images/image304.jpg).
Figure 13.52 Pipes and heavy equipment used to move borrow material to mold it to the design
specifications.
Figure 13.53 Photograph of a nourishment project on the North Sea coast of Denmark. This project used
borrow material that was transported by truck, each load forming a small pile.
336 Chapter 13
Figure 13.54 Example of how various benign structures are used to stabilize the beach and attract more
sediment, shown here on the coast of the Netherlands.
Box 13.1 Daytona Beach

Daytona Beach, Florida, USA has great historic 1950s. Races with various vehicles were held,
significance for the sport of auto racing. First of initially on the straightaway on the beach.

all, it is one of the few beaches in Florida on Although the early races were popular (Box
which driving is easy. The beach is wide, gently Figure 13.1.1) they generally lost money. Crashes
sloping and generally smooth except after a bad were common, with traction being difficult.
storm. Racing on the beach began in 1902 and Daytona Beach was the location of many land‐
ended in 1958, peaking in the 1930s through the speed record attempts. In 1927 Henry Seagrave
Box Figure 13.1.1 Old fashioned race cars racing on the beach in a straightaway track. (Source: State
Archives of Florida/Coursen)
Box Figure 13.1.2 One of the early races on the oval track in the early 1950s. (Source: Florida Memory).
set the record of 207.79 mph in his 1000 hp. earlier course of 3.2 miles. This provided a
Sunbeam, and the culmination of record‐setting mechanism for having fairly long races using a
came with Malcolm Campbell’s1935 record of conventional oval‐shaped track (Box Figure
276.82 mph. 13.1.2). These beach races were the first of the
In the early 1950s an oval track was con- stock car races and gave rise to NASCAR, the
ceived by combining the beach with State most popular spectator sport in the United
Highway 1A which parallels the beach about a States. Because the beach races had become
block inland. The track included two one‐mile so popular with large crowds, it was decided to
straightaways, one on the highway and the construct a new track inland. The last race held
other on the beach. With approaches and exits on the beach was in 1958, the year before the
the course was 4.2 miles in the 1940s, after an current Daytona Speedway opened.
Storms can remove much of the beach Human impacts in this environment
sediment but much of it will return
include structures such as seawalls, groins
between storms. Waves can bring sediment and breakwaters. This approach to managing
to the beach as well as transport it along and protecting the beach has been replaced
the shoreline by longshore currents. Some by beach nourishment. This produces pro-
beaches experience a seasonal cyclicity with tection for the upland infrastructure and
erosion in the winter and accretion in the buildings and provides an excellent beach for
summer. recreation that attracts tourists.
Suggested Reading
Davis, R.A. (2014). Beaches of the Gulf of Mexico. Davis, R.A. (2015). Beaches in Space and Time.
College Station, TX: Texas A & M Press. Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press.
338 Chapter 13
Griggs, G. (2010). Introduction to California’s Pilkey, O.H., Neal, W., Cooper, J.A.G., and
Beaches and Coast. Berkeley, CA: University Kelley, J.T. (2011). The World’s Beaches.
of California Press. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hobbs, C.H. (2012). The Beach Book. New Wang, P., Rosati, J., and Chung, J. (eds.) (2015).
York: Columbia University Press. Coastal Sediments 2015. Singapore: World
Scientific Press.
339
14
Coastal Dunes
Sand dunes are an important part of many, diurnal sea breezes provide the typical trans-
but not all, coastal areas. They are large piles port mechanism for sand‐sized sediment on
of sand that accumulate as a result of similar most coasts. The prevailing wind typically
processes and in generally similar shapes and has some onshore or shore‐parallel compo-
patterns as dunes on inland deserts. The fun- nent, and the sea breeze may be a major fac-
damental prerequisites in both cases are an tor in many areas. It is, in fact, the dominant
abundant sediment supply and the wind to wind along the southwest coast of Australia
transport it. In most coastal areas, the wind near Perth. Basically any dry part of the
is typically not a limiting factor but the sedi- beach or other coastal environment that is
ment supply may be. Nevertheless, we have without or sparsely vegetated is subjected to
coasts where dunes may be more than 10 m eolian (wind) transport.
in elevation (Figure 14.1). The initial development of coastal dunes is
Coastal dunes are not restricted to barrier in the form of coppice mounds. These are
islands, although nearly all barriers have at small accumulations of sand (Figure 14.3) on
least small dunes. Some coasts without a dry backbeach where opportunistic vegeta-
barriers have tremendous dune fields.
tion has initiated growth. The sand is trapped
Particularly good examples are the southern by the vegetation to form incipient dunes.
coast of Oregon, where the dunes extend a They are somewhat fragile and are removed
few kilometers inland from the coast, and by any high water produced by storms. In
the southeastern part of Lake Michigan, the absence of storms they can eventually
where dunes nearly 100 m high have devel- become true foredunes, linear dunes land-
oped. Among the largest dunes in the world ward of the beach (Figure 14.4). Some coasts
are on the coast of Namibia (Figure 14.2) in have several lines of dunes behind the beach
southwest Africa, where barriers are absent (Figure 14.5), demonstrating their prograda-
(see Box 14.1). tion due to abundant sediment and appropri-
ate wind conditions. Each of these ridges was
a foredune ridge at the time that it formed
but was then fronted by a new one. Some
14.1 Types of Coastal barrier islands contain a complicated assort-
Dunes and Their Distribution ment of dune ridge arrangements that show
sets of ridges at acute angles to one another
Any coast where sand accumulates in signifi- (Figure 14.6). This condition indicates peri-
cant quantities has the potential for forma- ods of erosion that separated periods of dune
tion of dunes. Dunes are about the best accumulation and barrier progradation.
protection we have against severe storms and Some barriers have only a single foredune
their related large surges. Prevailing wind or ridge, though it may be a high one.
340 Chapter 14
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.1 (a) Large dune, and (b) large blowout with a soil horizon along the west coast of Lake Michigan.
Dunes that form on the interior of barriers dune complex is on Padre Island on the Texas
or on the coastal zone mainland, develop as Coast. Generally sub‐arid conditions
the result of lack of vegetation to stabilize the combined with abundant sand along the

substrate. This is generally due to an arid beaches have resulted in an extensive active
climate which gives rise to desert conditions dune complex in the Padre Island National
or to removal of vegetation by grazing or Seashore, Texas on the southern part of the
other human‐related activities. A good island (Figure 14.7). An additional assist has
example of how a combination of these fac- been provided by extensive cattle grazing on
tors has contributed to an extensive, active the island during the late nineteenth and
Coastal Dunes 341
early twentieth century. This portion of the extensive dune complex. The barrier itself
Texas coast is one of considerable sediment contains extensive active dunes that range
accumulation and persistent onshore wind. from being only a meter or so high on the
As a consequence, the island is extremely landward side near Laguna Madre, to several
wide and the mainland is dominated by an meters high in the central island. The limited
Figure 14.2 Huge dunes that have developed along the skeleton coast of Namibia. (Source: Courtesy of Know
Namibia, http://knownamibia.com/locations/skeleton‐coast).
Box 14.1 Huge Dunes from the Skeleton Coast of Namibia

Namibia is a country with a German colonial washed ashore in the fifteenth century, and
past in the southeastern portion of the African the skeletal remains of numerous species of
continent. The Skeleton Coast is mostly a animals. Fog is common and wind blows
national park and extends about 600 km along hard most of the time, producing big surf.
the northeastern portion of the country (Box Portuguese sailors referred to the coast as “the
Figure 14.1.1). Dunes rise a few hundred gates of Hell.”
meters above the shoreline (Box Figure 14.1.2). In spite of the absence of significant rainfall
The lack of rainfall results in an absence of there are many living species of animals (Box
vegetation so there is no stabilization of the Figure 14.1.4) including giraffes, lions, ele-
dunes; sand is mobile and moves almost con- phants, springboks, baboons and black rhinoc-
tinuously. This is a true desert environment eros. In fact there have been several research
with annual rainfall typically less than 10 mm, projects into how such a diverse population of
about one‐third of an inch. The name comes animals has persevered. In part, the survival of
from a combination of the numerous boats these creatures is thanks to shallow wells dug
and ships that have been wrecked on this in the low interdunes by baboons and
coast (Box Figure 14.1.3), early mariners who elephants.
342 Chapter 14
ZAMBIA
HOANIB SKELETON
COAST
BOTSWANA
SOUTH AFRICA
Box Figure 14.1.1 Map of Namibia showing the location of the “Skeleton Coast.” (Source: karellafrica).
Box Figure 14.1.2 Aerial photo of the large and mobile dunes along the Namibia coast.
(Source: the daily beast).
Coastal Dunes 343
Box Figure 14.1.3 Photograph of the coast with large dunes and a wrecked ship on the beach.
(Source: sararibookings).
Box Figure 14.1.4 Photograph of large active dunes with gemboks walking over the sand.
(Source: theafricachannel).
development of the dunes on the landward common and which can flood the dunes,
part of the island is due to their destruction destroying them by a combination of waves
by storm surges associated with hurricanes. and currents. After the surge subsides, the
These small dunes are on the wind tidal flats wind and available sand must start again to
where storm surges of a meter or so are fairly construct the dunes.
344 Chapter 14
Figure 14.3 Coppice mounds on the dry backbeach along the South Australia coast south of Adelaide.
Figure 14.4 A single foredune ridge along a barrier island.
A different situation is the coastal huge mobile dunes that extend 3–4 km
dune complex along the southern Brazilian inland. These coastal dunes have inundated
mainland in the state of Santa Caterina. Here buildings as they migrate in an offshore
the strong wind off the Atlantic Ocean along direction perpendicular to the coast
with great amounts of sand have produced (Figure 14.8).
Coastal Dunes 345
Figure 14.5 A barrier island along the southeastern coast of Victoria, Australia displaying multiple dune ridges
indicating the presence of a large sediment supply.
Figure 14.6 A barrier island along Padre Island on the Gulf Coast of Florida showing sets of low‐lying dune
ridges at angle to each other.
14.2 Dune Formation void of vegetation. Wet sand has too much

cohesion to respond to wind. The dry back-
Dry sand and appropriate wind conditions beach shows various evidences of wind trans-
are common along the backbeach environ- port including ripples (Figure 14.9), sand
ment because it is rarely wet and generally shadows (Figure 14.10), and heavy minerals
346 Chapter 14
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.7 (a) Active sand dunes on the interior of Padre Island, Texas. (Source: Courtesy of Google Earth).
(b) Active sand dunes on the interior of Padre Island, Texas. (Source: R. A. Davis).
or gravel lag concentrates of shells and shell called desert armor because of its importance
debris. The sand shadows indicate a recent in limiting wind erosion. Once the concentra-
wind direction and may show scour around a tion becomes nearly continuous across an
shell or pebble. The gravel or shell lag deposit area then wind can no longer access the
results from wind blowing the fine sand from smaller particles that it can transport.
the beach and leaving behind the larger parti- Much of the wind‐blown beach sand tends
cles that cannot be transported. After a while to accumulate just landward of the active
the large particles become concentrated and backbeach. It is stopped from further trans-
actually form almost a pavement. Such a port by any type of obstruction that may be
pavement inhibits further wind erosion and is present including bedrock cliffs, vegetation,
Coastal Dunes 347
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.8 (a) Large coastal dunes migrating toward the shore and covering a small building in Santa
Catarina, Brazil, and (b) the same situation with landward‐migrating dunes on the North Sea coast of Denmark.
existing dunes or even human construction One of the best and most widespread aids
such as buildings or sea walls. Once the in dune development is vegetation. Any
initiation of eolian sediment accumulation type of plant serves as a focus for anchoring
begins, it continues unless conditions wind‐blown sediment. Typically the rela-
change – for instance, loss of sediment tively inactive backbeach is covered with
supply, the destruction of the stabilizing
opportunistic plants (Figure 14.11) such as
factor or wave‐induced erosion. the beach morning glory, beach Spinifex and
348 Chapter 14
Figure 14.9 Wind‐generated

ripples on the sand surface of the
backbeach environment.
Figure 14.10 Small wind

shadows adjacent to cobbles on
the beach that show the direction
of wind.
Figure 14.11 Flowers on

vines – opportunistic plants
growing on the back beach.
Coastal Dunes 349
marram grass. One of the most effective tions, there are conditions when even
dune stabilizers on southern dunes up to the vegetated dunes may become mobile or may
latitude of Virginia is sea oats (Uniola) while be eroded.
the American beach grass (Ammophila) The first and most obvious factor of these
extends from Virginia up to Nova Scotia in is the attack by waves. Even though dunes are
Canada. It is quite common to see small piles out of the regular influence of waves, they are
of sand around isolated plants on the back- quite vulnerable to only modest surges pro-
beach area. After only months these piles duced by storms. In areas of generally erosive
increase in size and the plants spread, thus beach conditions, dune retreat is especially a
increasing their effectiveness. In fact, even problem because there is no backbeach to
pieces of wood or any other sizeable obstacle protect them (Figure 14.12). Elevated water
can act as a seed for dune development. As level with storm waves superimposed pro-
the sand becomes trapped by the vegetation duces swash and in some cases, direct wave
this provides an enlarged area of stability. attack at the toe of the dune. Sand is easily
More sand becomes trapped and eventually a washed away and carried both offshore and
small dune develops. These small sand accu- along shore. Even though a dense dune grass
mulations are typically a meter or two in cover is present, the sand is easily removed
diameter and about half that in height. Under (Figure 14.13), commonly leaving a dense
the proper conditions they will eventually root system hanging over the scarp in the
become larger and coalesce into a continuous dune. Post‐storm recovery may occur and
foredune ridge. return some, or even all, of the sand to the
Such small incipient dunes are quite vul- beach. Proper conditions can start the
nerable; even a modest storm can destroy rebuilding process of the dune but it can take
them, requiring the building process to begin many years to restore the loss resulting from
again. This is the reason that there is so much a single storm. It is generally rather easy to
attention paid to preserving vegetation on recognize dunes that have been eroded and
the backbeach and at the foot of dunes. then rebuilt by the change in profile and per-
Absence of intense storms along with an haps even in the type of vegetation. Rising
abundant supply of sand and a regular sea level presents another scenario for dune
mechanism for delivery of the sand eventually erosion by providing continual increase in
produces a dune. Dune size is dependent the accessibility of the dunes to wave attack.
largely on the supply of sand‐sized sediment. The other major aspect of dune dynamics
Any major geomorphic or structural fea- is concerned with the migration of part or all
ture along the coast that presents some verti- of the dune through eolian processes. The
cal component is also an effective trap for same mechanism that forms the dune, also
wind‐blown sand. The base of a rocky cliff can cause it to move, sometimes great dis-
or sea wall can accumulate sediment and tances. Generally, dune mobility is associated
become vegetated. Assuming that sufficient with an absence of vegetation. Climatic con-
sediment supply is available, this type of ditions may reduce or eliminate vegetative
accumulation can eventually become a dune. cover or over‐grazing may remove much of
the vegetation. Regardless of the reason the
result is the same; sediment begins to move.
14.3 Dune Dynamics The most common process for dune
migration is called blowover (Figure 14.14).
The existence of dunes is testimony to the The onshore wind component simply car-
mobility of sand through wind transport on ries sand across the dune surface to the
the coast, and attack by waves is an obvious crest and permits it to move down the land-
factor in dune stability. Although vegetation ward side by gravity. This creates a rela-
is an effective stabilizer of these accumula- tively steep slope whose angle with the
350 Chapter 14
Figure 14.12 A huge scarp on a dune on the Lake Michigan coast that has recently been eroded by a storm.
Figure 14.13 Scarp on heavily vegetated dune on San Jose Island on the Texas coast.
horizontal, the angle of repose, is generally steep slope, the slipface or as the result of
about 30°. In other words, the sand is able grain flow (Figure 14.15). This is a type of
to maintain a slope of this gradient as it sediment gravity process whereby over-
migrates landward. This is true for all dunes steepening of the slope causes an instability
regardless of their location or direction of that results in large numbers of grains mov-
migration. The s ediment may move as the ing down the slope in an avalanche fashion.
result of individual grains rolling down the Anyone who has walked down a dune face
Coastal Dunes 351
Figure 14.14 Dunes on the New South Wales coast of Australia that are being blown inland.
Figure 14.15 When the sand surface on a dune is oversteepened it fails and grains flow down the slope.
14.3.1 Dune Structures

has seen this phenomenon take place as the
dune is disturbed. Migration of large dunes Because dunes produce bedforms of various
pays little attention to trees, buildings or scales and those bedforms move, they
whatever is in its path. As long as the dune also produce various types of stratification.
is larger than the obstruction it will move We can only see this internal stratification
over it. Houses have been buried and then after dunes have been eroded and their
many years later exhumed as a result of internal nature exposed. There are instances
migrating dunes. when storms will decapitate a dune to expose
352 Chapter 14
the complex nature of cross‐stratification. There are multiple human activities that
This can happen on foredunes (Figure 14.16) cause problems for dunes. Probably the
or on dunes in a barrier island (Figure 14.17). most basic of these is the construction of
walkovers. Some of these are placed directly
on the sand (Figure 14.21a) and some are
14.4 Human Influence simply pathways (Figure 14.21b) through
on Dunes the dunes. In either case they lead to ero-
sion by onshore wind. The worst of such
Various human activities have a major influ- practices is to completely remove dunes in
ence on coastal dunes. Some is beneficial order to view the water from residences
and some detrimental. People everywhere (Figure 14.22).
recognize that dunes are fragile and most Another poor activity for dune manage-
realize that dunes are beneficial. There are ment is carried out by some communities
several ways by which people enhance the on the Texas coast. Firstly dunes are pre-
presence and protection of dunes. Probably vented from prograding toward the shore-
the most important of these is the collection line as they attempt to do naturally. Daily
of sediment to make dunes, most commonly scraping of the beach prevents this and
through the use of fences in the backbeach keeps the beach very wide for tourism
area to trap sediment as it is blown land- including parking vehicles. This coast
ward (Figure 14.18). As time passes, and in experiences considerable accumulation of
the absence of strong storms, considerable the floating brown algae Sargassum
sand accumulates (Figure 14.19). In some (Figure 14.23a). This accumulation is bad
locations Christmas trees are used for the for tourism so it is scraped into large piles
same purpose (Figure 14.20) although they and the resulting blend of algae and sand is
are much more vulnerable to the effects of dumped in large notches that have been
wind and sand than is a fence. excavated in the foredunes (Figure 14.23b).
Figure 14.16 Stratification on an eroded surface on foredunes on the Netherlands coast.

Coastal Dunes 353
Figure 14.17 Complex cross‐stratification in a decapitated dune on Padre Island, Texas.
Figure 14.18 Fence placed on the backbeach that is designed to trap sediment and eventually build a dune.
14.5 Summary barrier from wave attack during storms.

The addition of vegetation, especially mature
Dunes serve as the best protection for depo- trees, results in what is almost like a dam
sitional coasts. Granted, they are not as good against high water.
of a protection from waves and erosion as In order for dune development to proceed
cliffs or other bedrock, but they provide a to a level where this protection is in place, it is
354 Chapter 14
Figure 14.19 Dune that has buried the fence placed to collect sand.
Figure 14.20 Old Christmas trees placed on the backbeach at Surfside, Texas with the intent of trapping sand
and helping to build dunes.
Coastal Dunes 355
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.21 (a) Boardwalk over the dunes placed directly on the sand and (b) a pathway through the sand on
the dune itself.
356 Chapter 14
Figure 14.22 Location on Mustang Island, Texas where the entire dune has been removed so that people can
see the water from their homes.
(a)
Figure 14.23 Management of Sargassum on beaches of Mustang Island, Texas include (a) scraping the algae
into large piles and (b) placing this mixture of algae and sand into notches cut in the foredunes.
Coastal Dunes 357
(b)
necessary to have a large supply of sediment the immediate source of sediment to form the
and a well‐developed beach. The dry beach is coppice mounds and then the foredunes.
Suggested Reading
Hesp, P. (1999). The beach backshore and Nordstrom, K.F. (2004). Beaches and Dunes of
beyond. In: Handbook of Beach and Developed Coasts. Cambridge: Cambridge
Sshoreface Morphodynamics (ed. A.D. Short), University Press.
145–169. Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons. U.S. Govt (2013). Coastal Dunes: Dune
Houston, J.A. and Edmonson, S.F. (2001). Building Processes and a Primer for Dune
Coastal Dune Management. Liverpool: Development and Management.
Liverpool University Press. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Martinez, M.L. and Nordstrom, K.F. Printing Office.
(eds.) (2007). Coastal Dunes: Ecology
and Conservation. New York: Springer.
359
15
Barrier Systems
15.1 Introduction rising sea level and erosion. Their sandy

composition, general low elevation and grass
Barriers are the sites of some of the world’s and shrubbery cover allow waves and storm
most beautiful beaches. They form due to the surges to overrun barriers during the passage
combined action of wind, waves, and long- of intense hurricanes and major extratropical
shore currents whereby thin strips of land are storms (northeasters). The greatest natural
built a few to several tens of meters above sea disaster in terms of lives lost in the United
level (Figure 15.1). They are called barriers States occurred in 1900 when a hurricane
because they protect the mainland coast swept over Galveston Island off the Texas
from the forces of the sea, particularly during coast near Houston killing an estimated 8000
storms. They lessen the effects of storm people.
waves, heightened tides and salt spray. The In this chapter we explore the different
bays, lagoons, marshes and tidal creeks that types of barriers, the factors controlling
form behind barriers provide harborages for their worldwide distribution, and how they
pleasure boats and commercial craft, nursery become modified by coastal processes.
grounds for fish and shellfish, and important Depending upon their evolution, barriers
sources of detritus and nutrients exported may have a variety of architectures. We dis-
to the coastal ocean. Barriers occur through- cuss the different components of barriers,
out the world’s coasts, but are most common what they look like in cross‐section, and the
along passive margins where sediment numerous theories that have been put forth
supplies are abundant and wave and tidal to explain their formation. One of the major
energy are conducive for onshore sand forces impacting barriers today, as well as in
accumulation. the past, is rising sea level. The response of
Barriers represent some of the most expen- barriers to this inundation and the dynamic
sive real estate in many countries due to their processes, which allow some of them to
development by the resort industry and migrate onshore are also considered.
because many people wish to live next to the
sea. The lure of sandy beaches, salt air, water
sports, and beautiful seascapes has always 15.2 Physical Description
drawn vacationers and people wanting to
erect summer cottages and permanent Barriers are wave‐built accumulations of
homes on barriers. Building lots on Figure sediment that accrete vertically due to wave
Eight Island along the southern coast of action and wind processes. Most are linear
North Carolina cost millions of dollars. Some features that tend to parallel the coast, gener-
of the qualities that make barriers so attrac- ally occurring in groups or chains. Isolated
tive also make them vulnerable to storms, barriers are common along glaciated coasts
360 Chapter 15
(a) (b)
Figure 15.1 Barriers may form in a variety of coastal settings if the supply of sediment is adequate and wave
and tidal conditions are conducive to sand accumulation onshore. (a) Barrier system pinned to bedrock islands
and promontories along the Rio de Janeiro coast in Brazil, and (b) Barrier chain along the New Jersey coast.
(Source: NASA).
such as in northern New England and east- Barrier length is partly a function of sedi-
ern Canada, and along high‐relief coasts such ment supply but is also strongly influenced
as those associated with collision coasts (see by wave versus tidal energy of the region.
Chapter 2). Barriers are separated from the This relationship will be discussed in more
mainland by a region termed the backbarrier detail later in this chapter.
consisting of tidal flats, shallow bays, lagoons Barriers consist of many different types of
and/or marsh systems. An exception to this sediment depending on their geological
characterization occurs in instances where setting. Sand, which is the most common
successive beach ridges have produced an constituent of barriers, comes from a vari-
out‐building of the coast such as along the ety of sources including rivers, deltaic and
flanks of a river delta. Barriers may be less glacial deposits, eroding cliffs and biogenic
than 100 m wide or more than several kilom- material. The major components of land‐
eters in width. Likewise, they range in length derived beach sand are primarily the min-
from small pocket barriers of a few 100 m erals of quartz and feldspar. These durable
to those along open coasts that extend for grains are a product of physical and chemi-
more than 100 km. Generally, barriers are cal decomposition of the bedrock from
wide where the supply of sediment has continents. In northern latitudes, where
been abundant and relatively narrow where glaciers have shaped the landscape, gravel
erosion rates are high or where the source of is a common constituent of barriers,
sediment was scarce during their formation. whereas, in southern latitudes carbonate
Barrier Systems 361
(a) Upland
flood-tidal BARRIER
delta Tidal ISLAND
creek
Washover pond dune
saltmarsh
tidal
tidal inlet
flat ebb-tidal
lagoon delta
tidal
inlet
ocean
beach
BACKBARRIER
BARRIER SHOREFACE
(b)
Figure 15.2 (a) Idealized barrier subenvironments. (b) Castle Neck, Massachusetts can be divided into three
zones: 1. Beach, where sand bars are migrating onshore and weld to the lower shore; 2. Barrier Interior,
consisting of dune and swale topography; 3. Landward Margin, where the barrier transitions to tidal flats and
salt marsh. In tropical settings the margin may consist of mangroves.
material, including shells and coral debris, Many environments make up a barrier and
may comprise a major portion of the bar- their arrangement differs from location to
rier sands. Along the southeast coasts of location, reflecting the type of barrier and
Iceland and Hawaii and along portions of the physical setting of the region. Generally,
the west coast of New Zealand, the barriers most barriers can be divided in three zones:
are composed of black volcanic sands the beach, the barrier interior, and the land-
derived from upland volcanic rocks. ward margin (Figure 15.2).
362 Chapter 15
Beach barriers containing golf courses, these ponds

Due to continual sediment reworking by often become the sites of water holes.
wind, waves and tides, the beach is the most
dynamic part of the barrier. Beaches exhibit a Landward Margin
wide range of morphologies depending upon Along the backside of many barriers the
a number of factors including the grain size dunes diminish in stature and the low relief
of the beach, the abundance of sediment, and of the barrier gradually changes to an inter-
the influence of storms. Sediment is removed tidal sand or mud flat or a salt marsh. In other
from the beach during storms and returned instances, the margin of the barrier abuts an
during more tranquil wave conditions. open‐water area associated with a lagoon,
During the storm and post‐storm period, the bay or tidal creek. Along coasts where the
form of the beach evolves in a predictable barrier is migrating onshore, the landward
fashion. The beach environment is discussed margin may be dominated by aprons of sand
in detail in Chapter 13. that have formed by waves overwashing the
barrier during periods of storms. In time,
Barrier Interior these sandy deposits may be colonized by salt
Along sandy barriers, the beach is backed by grasses to produce arcuate‐shaped marshes.
a frontal dune ridge (also called the foredune Overwash deposits may also occur in the
ridge) which may extend almost uninterrupt- interior of the barrier. In still other regions,
edly along the length of the barrier provided the backside of a barrier may be fronted by a
the supply of sediment is adequate and sandy beach bordering a lagoon or bay. In
storms have not incised the dune ridge. The this setting, wind‐blown sand from the beach
frontal dune ridge is the first line of defense may form a rear‐dune ridge outlining the
in protecting the interior of the barrier from landward margin of the barrier.
the effects of storms. Landward of this region Barriers may terminate in an embayment
are the secondary dunes, which have a vari- or at a headland. In the case of barrier chains,
ety of forms depending on the historical individual barriers are separated by tidal
development of the barrier and subsequent inlets. These are the waterways that allow
modification by wind processes. For exam- for the exchange of water between the ocean
ple, devegetation of the Provincelands Spit at and the backbarrier environments. The end
the tip of Cape Cod in Massachusetts by early of the barrier abutting a tidal inlet is usually
settlers led to the formation of large para- the most unstable portion of the barrier due
bolic dunes that are up to a half kilometer to the effects of inlet migration and associ-
long and more than 35 m high. In other loca- ated sediment transport patterns.
tions where barriers have built seaward
through time, such as North Beach Peninsula
in Washington or Kiawah Island in South 15.3 Distribution and
Carolina, former shoreline positions are Coastal Setting
marked by a series of semi‐parallel vegetated
beach ridges (former foredune ridges), 3–7 m General
in height. The low areas between individual Barriers comprise approximately 10 % of
beach ridges, called swales, commonly extend the world’s coastlines (Figure 15.3). They
below the water table and are the sites of are found along every continent excep
fresh and brackish water ponds or salt Antarctica, in every type of geological set-
marshes. In South Carolina, Georgia, and ting, and in every kind of climate. Tectonically,
Florida alligators and water moccasins are they are most common along Amero‐trailing
known to inhabit these ponds. On developed Edge coasts where low‐gradient continental
Barrier Systems 363
GREENLAND
ASIA
EUROPE NORTH
AMERICA
AFRICA
SOUTH
AMERICA
N
AUSTRALIA Barrier and lagoon
Microtidal
Mesotidal
6000 km Macrotidal
Figure 15.3 Global distribution of barriers and their tidal range setting. (Source: From Hayes (1979) using
barrier data from Gierloff‐Emden (1961) and tidal range data from Davies (1973)).
margins provide ideal settings for barrier for- sediment contribution to the coast, the width
mation. They are also best developed in areas of the continental shelf, and the general
of low to moderate tidal range1 (microtidal to topography of the coast. The tectonic coastal
mesotidal range) and in mid to lower lati- classification can be used to illustrate these
tudes. Climatic conditions control the vege- relationships and explain the worldwide
tation on the barriers, and, in backbarrier distribution of barriers. Amero‐trailing edge
regions, the type of sediment on beaches, coastlines tend to have abundant sediment
and in some regions such as the Arctic, the supplies due to extensive continental drain-
formation and modification of barriers them- age. Their low‐relief coastal plains and conti-
selves. The disappearance of barriers where nental shelves provide a platform upon which
tidal energy dominates, such as on the north- barriers can form and migrate landward dur-
west (Big Bend) coast of Florida in the Gulf of ing periods of eustatic sea level rise. The
Mexico and the German Bight in the North longest barrier chains in the world coincide
Sea attests to the requirement of wave energy with Amero‐trailing edges and include the
in the formation of barriers. East Coast of the United States (3100 km)
and the Gulf of Mexico coast (1600). There
Tectonic Controls are also sizable barrier chains along southern
As discussed in Chapter 2, the tectonic set- coast of Brazil (960 km), East Coast of Indian
ting of the coast dictates to a large extent the (680 km), North Sea coast of Europe
(560 km), Eastern Siberia (300 km), and the
North Slope of Alaska (900 km).
1 Tidal range is the vertical difference between high The unparalleled concentration of barriers
and low tide. A classification of coasts based on tidal
range consists of microtidal coasts (TR 2.0 m),
along the East Coast of the United States is
mesotidal coasts (2.0 ≤ TR ≤ 4.0 m), and macrotidal undoubtedly a product of the erosion and
coasts (TR > 4.0 m). denudation of the Appalachian Mountains,
364 Chapter 15
which scientists have speculated may have struction. Additionally, the narrow, steep
once rivaled the Himalayas in elevation. The continental shelves of these margins result in
huge volume of sediment derived from the high wave energy and rapid sediment disper-
wearing‐down of these mountains produced sal along the coast. Along parts of the
a wide, flat coastal plain and continental shelf California coast some of the sediment that
region, much of which is veneered by layers would ordinarily accumulate along the shore
of unconsolidated sediment or easily eroded is drained from the beaches during storms
sedimentary rocks. It is the reworking and through submarine canyons into the deep
redistribution of these surface sediments by ocean basins. The proximity of canyons to
rivers, tidal currents and waves that are the beaches is attributed to the narrow conti-
responsible for extensive barrier construc- nental shelf. Barrier systems that do occur
tion along the East Coast. Likewise, the along the west coast are commonly isolated
almost continuous chain of barriers in the and related to specific sediment sources such
Gulf of Mexico is related to the wide, flat as nearby rivers or eroding cliffs. Typically,
coastal plain and continental shelf of this they take the form of barrier spits attached to
margin. It is thought by some scientists that a bedrock headland. Two of the longest bar-
sediment delivery to this coast, particularly rier chains along collision coasts are located
along Texas, was much greater in the past adjacent to major river mouths, including the
when the climate of this region was wetter southern Washington barriers near the
and rivers transported much larger sediment Columbia River and the Gulf of Alaska bar-
loads. rier chain fronting the Copper River Delta
Marginal sea coasts contain a relatively (Figure 15.4).
small percentage of world’s barriers even Only a small percentage of the world’s bar-
though these regions have some of the largest riers are found along Afro‐trailing and neo‐
sediment‐discharge rivers in the world, par- trailing edge coasts due to an overall lack of
ticularly along the Asian continent (e.g. sediment along these margins. There is little
Mekong, Yangtze, Yellow). While it would sediment delivery to the Neo‐trailing edge
appear that many of these coasts have ample margins of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and
sediment to build barriers, the irregular Gulf of California due to the immaturity in
topography of these margins leads to much the development of river drainage along their
of the sediment filling submarine valleys coasts and the very low precipitation in these
rather than forming barriers. In addition, the regions. Similarly, much of northern coast of
discharge from many Asian rivers has a very Africa has little river discharge of sediment
high suspended sediment component that due to the arid conditions of the interior
may inhibit the concentration of sand‐sized region. The extensive barrier system (300 km)
material. In fact, many of the marginal sea that exists along the Ivory, Gold, and Slave
coastlines containing barriers, such as the Coasts on the west‐central coast of Africa is
chain found along the Nicaraguan and related to the numerous moderately‐sized
Honduran Caribbean coast, have no large rivers of this area.
sediment‐discharge rivers associated with
them. The origin of these barriers is probably Climatic Controls
tied to the reworking of previously deposited By determining the amount of precipitation
shelf sediments, similar to much of the East and evaporation of a continent, climate exerts
Coast of the United States and the Netherland a strong influence on the size and number of
and German North Sea coasts. rivers as well as the overall volume of sediment
Most collision coasts contain few barrier delivered to the coast. A river’s drainage area
island chains due to an overall lack of sedi- (defined as the continental area drained by the
ment. Most of the rivers discharging along river) is another important factor governing
these shores have small drainage areas and sediment-discharge. Usually, the larger the
contribute little sediment for barrier con- drainage area (Ad) the greater is the sediment
(a)
CORDOVA
DOWN
DRIFT
OFFSET
DELTA
SIZE
INLET
WIDTH
(b) 124°
Areas of Holocene
barrier spit or coastal
plain accretion
47°
Grays
Harbor
Pacific
Ocean
Willapa Bay
North Beach
Peninsula
Cape
Disappointment Col iv
u m b ia R er
46°
30 km
Figure 15.4 Barrier chains on collision coasts are generally found where a nearby river supplies abundant
sediment. Examples include (a) Copper River Delta barrier chain (Source: From Hayes (1979)); and (b) Long
Island–Grays Harbor barrier system along the southern Washington coast north of the Columbia River.
(Source: From Dingler and Clifton (1994)).
366 Chapter 15
delivery to the coast; however, there are excep- 15.4 Summary

tions. The Eel River in northern California
releases almost twice the sediment load to the Barriers are best developed along continental
coast as does the much larger Columbia River margins where sand‐sized sediment is abun-
to the north, despite having a drainage area dant and the coastline is fronted by a moder-
two orders of magnitude smaller (Eel R. ately wide, gently sloping continental shelf
Ad = 9000 km2, Columbia R. Ad = 661,000 km2). that is backed by a coastal plain. Under these
The high sediment discharge of the Eel River conditions, barriers are able to migrate
is a product of the mountainous terrain it onshore in a regime of slow sea‐level rise.
drains and a bedrock landscape that weathers Direct contribution of sediment to the coast
easily producing abundant sediment. by rivers is not enough to ensure the pres-
Climate also dictates the kinds of plants, ence of barriers as evidenced by the Asian
shrubbery, and trees colonizing barriers and marginal sea coasts where barriers are sparse.
the type of vegetation found in the backbar- The fine‐grained sediment discharged from
rier region. For example, salt grasses vegetate the rivers of this region may overwhelm the
the backbarrier marshes of mid‐ to high lati- ability of waves to concentrate sand and form
tudes, whereas, mangroves comprise the barriers.
backbarrier region in low latitudes. Even the
sediment making up the barrier is related to
climatic controls and previous climatic con-
ditions, such as the “Ice Age.” Generally the 15.5 Barrier Types
shell and coral content of beaches is relatively
high in tropical regions whereas terrigenous‐ Although barriers have many different forms,
derived gravel forms a significant component for ease of discussion they are grouped into
of northern beaches and barriers that have three major classes based on their connec-
formed from these glacial deposits. tion to the mainland (Figure 15.5). Barrier
Welded Barrier Barrier Spit Barrier Island
Lagoon
Bay
Figure 15.5 Barriers can be separated into three general morphological classes based on their connection
with the mainland: welded barriers, barrier spits, and barrier islands.
Barrier Systems 367
spits are attached to the mainland at one end the evolution of the spit (Figure 15.6). Ridge
and the opposite end terminates in a bay or formation is part of the spit extension p rocess
the open ocean. Welded barriers are attached whereby sediment is added incrementally to
to the mainland at both ends, and barrier the end of the barrier. Before the subaerial
islands are isolated from the mainland and (above the water) portion of the spit can
surrounded by water. build into a bay or tidal inlet, a platform
fronting the spit must first be created upon
which sediment can accumulate and bars can
15.5.1 Barrier Spits
form. This subaqueous portion of the spit
Barrier spits are most common along irregu- commonly contains much more sand than
lar coasts where angular wave approach and the part of the spit above water. For example,
an abundant supply of sediment result in high Sandy Hook, which defines the northern-
rates of longshore sediment transport. These most end of the New Jersey coast, is accret-
conditions promote spit building across ing into Raritan Bay toward New York
embayments and a general straightening of Harbor. The spit end of Sandy Hook has an
the coast. Barrier spits are the dominant bar- average elevation of 5 m above mean sea
rier form along tectonically active coasts. In level, whereas bay depths immediately off-
some instances, spit construction partially shore of the spit reach 12 m and more.
closes off a bay forming a tidal inlet between Likewise, the northern spit end of Cape Cod
the spit end and the adjacent headland. In is building into water depths of more than
these instances, tidal currents flowing 50 m, contrasting to average land elevations
through the inlet prevent spit accretion from of 10 m.
sealing off the bay. The Cape Cod shoreline in The spit platform is a shallow sloping sandy
New England illustrates well this type of surface that extends from low tide to a depth
coastline evolution. Following deglaciation, of several meters below mean low water.
the shoreline of Cape Cod appeared very dif- The platform is fed with sediment through
ferent from what it looks like today, consist- the longshore movement of sand along the
ing of irregularly shaped, sandy glacial, and updrift portion of the barrier, enabling
glacio‐fluvial deposits (see Chapter 17). As the platform to build into deep water
eustatic sea level rose in response to melting (Figure 15.7). Waves breaking over the spit
glaciers and water being returned to the platform aid in the development of swash
ocean basins, this landscape gave rise to large bars, subaqueous bars having a length of
headland areas separated by broad embay- 100 m or more and a height of one to several
ments. Since 5000 years ago, waves associated meters. These bars, which migrate onshore
with the rising ocean waters have attacked due to the action of breaking and shoaling
the unconsolidated headlands causing their waves, tend to wrap around the end of the
retreat and the release of large quantities spit becoming aligned with the waves that
of sediment that have subsequently moved bend around the spit platform. As the bars
along the shore, leading to the construction of move onshore, they first gain an intertidal
spits across the inundated lowland areas. In exposure and eventually attach to the upper
this way the shoreline of Cape Cod was beach forming a ridge. Commonly, the weld-
smoothed into its present form. ing process is incomplete and a low area
(swale) is left between the newly accreted
Recurved Spits ridge and the dune line that defines the
Many spits have recurved ridges that former end of the spit. Gradually, the ridge
conform to the general outline of the spit is colonized by dune grasses and builds
end. Such spits are called recurved spits. vertically by wind processes.
Each of the ridges corresponds to a former Recurved spits exhibit many different
shoreline position and collectively they trace beach ridge patterns characterizing different
368 Chapter 15
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.6 Recurved spit development. (a) Spit building across the mouth of the Santee River in South
Carolina. Individual beach ridges represent pulses of sand that lengthen the spit in spurts. The sporadic supply
of sand may be related to storm activity. (b) Similar episodic spit building defines Arcay Spit on the Vendée
coast of France.
depositional styles. In some instances, the episodically and each ridge may represent an
ridges indicate that there has been a simple increase in the rate of sand delivery to the
extension of the spit, whereas in other cases spit platform. In turn, the change in the flux
they demonstrate that the barrier has wid- of sand along the coast may be related to
ened as well as extended along the shore. storm processes whereby sediment is exca-
In both examples, the ridge and swale mor- vated from updrift sandy cliffs, river deltas or
phology suggests that spit accretion occurs beach deposits.
Barrier Systems 369
(a)
A B
DIRECTION OF INLET MIGRATION
MHW
MLW
A DUNE FACIES
WELDED RIDGE FACIES
TIME LINES
CHANNEL-MARGIN PLATFORM FACIES
DO
CHANNEL FACIES
MI
NA
Modified from Hayes and Kana, 1976

NT
(b)
WA
VE
S
BA
R
B
TIDAL INLET
BARRIER
ISLAND
Figure 15.7 Spit accretion across a bay or into a tidal inlet is preceded by extension of the spit platform. (a)
The spit platform shown in cross‐section. (Source: Modified from Hayes and Kana (1978).) (b) Aerial view of
Chatham Inlet, Cape Cod, Massachusetts illustrating swash bars migrating onshore and building ridges, which
lengthen the supratidal portion of the spit. The platform is constructed from sand derived via the longshore
transport system.
Another common trend along recurved older portion of the spit contains vegetated
spits is the change in swale environment beach ridges and sandy or grassy swales.
along the length of the spit, reflecting a grad-
ual filling of a swale over time. At the spit 15.5.1.1 Spit Initiation
end, a newly formed swale may be deep Spit formation is due to the deflection of sed-
enough to permit tidal inundation from an iment that is moving on and along a beach in
opening along ridge on the lagoon side. the surf and breaker zones into a region of
Sedimentation in the swale resulting from deeper water commonly associated with a
washovers, wind‐blown sand and, to a lesser bay or tidal inlet. This deflection may be ini-
extent, fine‐grained material carried by tidal tiated at small protrusions of the shoreline or
currents, transforms the ponded water at major headlands. Similarly, the process
region to a marsh environment and eventu- may occur at the edge of embayments along
ally to a sandy low inter‐ridge area. Thus, the an otherwise smooth coastline. The explana-
spit end tends to exhibit low ridges with tion of why the longshore movement of sand
water‐filled swales, whereas the updrift, forms spits rather than following a pathway
370 Chapter 15
in the longshore transport rate is the great-

headland est. It is this deposition of sediment that
LOWER initiates spit growth.
WAVE
ENERGY
SEDIMENT 15.5.1.2 Other Spit Forms
TRANSPORT Spits exhibit many different forms in addi-
DECREASES
tion to recurved spits, including cuspate
WAVE spits, flying spits, tombolos and cuspate fore-
REFRACTION
SAND
LST
lands. Each of these accretionary landforms
ACCRETION
develops in specific geological settings and
by particular coastal processes.
embayment open coast Cuspate spits are triangular accumulations
of sand that extend from the shoreline into a
Figure 15.8 Spit development is due to sand semi‐protected body of water, such as the
deposition resulting from a decrease in the rate of lagoons and bays found behind barrier islands
longshore sediment transport. The rate of sand
and spits (Figure 15.9). They range in length
transport decreases downdrift of the headland due
to a reduction in wave energy. from a few tens of meters, such as those in the
elongated bays along the southern coast of
Martha’s Vineyard, to spits which are kilom-
along the irregular shoreline lies in the fact eters in length including those on the lagoonal
that wave energy decreases in embayments side of Santa Rosa Island in the western
and thus the capacity of waves to move sand Panhandle of Florida or those in Patos Lagoon
is reduced (Figure 15.8). along the southern coast of Brazil. Their
Remember from Chapter 6 that the lengths reflect the size of the bay and the
movement of sand on and along a coast is a resulting wave energy produced inside the
function of wave energy and breaker angle bay. Larger bays and lagoons have longer
among other parameters. Consider an ideal- fetches which allow larger waves to develop
ized case in which a wave crest extends a long and more sand to be transported along the
distance along the shore such that it can be bay shoreline. The semi‐protective nature of
followed from where it breaks at an angle the bays means that sand transport along the
along the exposed beach to where it breaks shoreline is governed by local wind‐generated
within the bay. The section of wave breaking waves and not by ocean swell or storm waves.
along the exposed beach will be higher and The multi‐directional winds that are com-
will expend more energy in the nearshore mon to most coasts produce bi‐directional
zone than the wave crest that breaks inside sand transport along these protected shores.
the bay. This makes sense because as the This back and forth movement of sand along
wave crest bends into the bay, it travels fur- bay shorelines is what forms cuspate spits.
ther than the wave breaking along the The tip of the spit may have a narrow inter-
exposed coast and thus uses up more energy tidal to sub‐tidal tail that changes its orienta-
interacting with the seabed. Because the rate tion as the wave climate changes. Growth and
of sand movement is a function of wave modification of the spit are often revealed in
height, more sand is transported along the the pattern of beach ridges that are common
exposed beach than inside the bay. This to cuspate spits.
means that as sediment transport decreases Flying Spits look similar to recurved spits
from a relatively high rate along the exposed and commonly exhibit cuspate‐shaped beach
beach to a lower rate inside the bay, some ridges, indicating former shoreline positions.
sediment must be deposited along the way. However, unlike recurved spits, they occur
This sediment accumulates at the edge of the along straight to slightly irregular shorelines
embayment because this is where the change and extend into deep water at an acute angle
Barrier Systems 371
(a)
WA
VE
TS
ES
CR
CR
ES
E
TS
AV
W
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
CUSPATE SPIT
CONVERGING SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
(b)
Figure 15.9 Cuspate spits occur in protected environments such as within bays and lagoons. (a) Model of
cuspate spit formation due to bi‐directional sand transport. (b) Example of a cuspate spit on the bay side of the
Coatue barrier, Nantucket Island, Massachusetts. (Source: Courtesy of Miles Hayes).
to the beach (Figure 15.10). Like cuspate spits, Presque Isle along the south‐central shore of
they are found most commonly along semi‐ Lake Erie, near Erie, Pennsylvania. Presque
protected shorelines where wave energy is a Isle is 10 km in length and its spit end is
product of local winds. Flying spits exist in approximately 2 km offshore of the beach.
the lagoons bordering the Texas coast; how- The reason why these spits build into deep-
ever, the best‐known and studied flying spit is water is not well understood but it may be
372 Chapter 15
(a)
SEDIMENT
STS TRANSPORT
CRE
E
AV
W
FLYING SPIT
(b)
Figure 15.10 Flying spits are relatively uncommon features found in semi‐protected waters. (a) Model of a
flying spit. (Source: Courtesy of Miles Hayes). (b) Example at Presque Isle, Pennsylvania. (Source: U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Presque_Isle_Pennsylvania_aerial_view.jpg).
related to some type of irregularity along attempt of the shoreline to minimize the
the original shoreline or in the nearshore longshore transport of sediment.
region. Because the trend of flying spits is Tombolos are a type of spit that was first
normally almost parallel to the dominant identified and named by Italians because they
wave crests of the region, some scientists are common features along the Italian coast
have argued that spit construction is an (Figure 15.11). In the strictest definition,
Barrier Systems 373
(a)
Time 1. Wave shadow (c)
beach
longshore REVERSED
sediment LONGSHORE
transport REGION OF TRANSPORT
DEPOSITION
WAVE
SHADOW
SONE
WAVE
DIFFRACTION
island
Time 2. Tombolo formation
TOMBOLO
tied island
(b)
Figure 15.11 A tombolo is an accretionary landform that connects the mainland to an island. (a) Model of the
development of a tombolo. Examples of tomobolos in (b) Covachos, Cantabria in northern Spain, and (c) at
Popham Beach, Maine.
374 Chapter 15
tombolos are spits of land that build out individual capes projecting 25–40 km
from the shoreline eventually producing a beyond the adjacent embayments. A similar
sediment bridge from the mainland to an group of capes with the same approximate
island. The largest of these occurs along the spacing (130 km) is found on the North
northern Tyrrhenian Sea coast of Italy at Slope of Alaska along the Chukchi Sea (Icy
Orbetello where two tombolos, almost 8 km Cape, Point Franklin, and Point Barrow).
in length, have evolved due to the large size of Formation of the Carolina capes has been
the island (10 km long) and an abundant sedi- related to giant eddies associated with the
ment supply along the coast. Moderate‐ and northward flowing Gulf Stream, wave refrac-
small‐sized islands tend to have a single tion around offshore shoals, basement con-
tombolo. trols and the reworking of former delta
Tombolos form on the lee side of an island deposits. Although rivers do not presently
due to the obstruction and redistribution of supply sand to the capes, excepting possibly
wave energy caused by the island. The the Cape Fear River, each of the capes is
expenditure of wave energy on the island cre- associated with one or more moderately‐
ates a “wave shadow zone” along the land- sized rivers, which may have delivered sedi-
ward beach. The reduction in the rate of ment to the coast during the Pleistocene,
longshore sand transport in this region pro- when sea level was lower. These deltaic
duces sediment accumulation and spit deposits may have been the source of the
growth toward the island. Waves bending cape sediments or may have preceded bar-
around the island also create a reversal in the rier development and influenced sand trans-
direction of dominant sand movement along port trends along the coast.
the shore, augmenting the sand‐trapping
processes in the wave‐sheltered zone.
15.5.2 Welded Barriers
Cuspate Forelands are large triangular‐
shaped projections of the shoreline that may Welded barriers occur along irregular coasts
extend seaward more than 25 km. The apex where the supply of sediment is adequate for
of the foreland is commonly composed of barrier construction (Figure 15.13). They are
beach ridges, which parallel the two con- common features along rocky coasts such as
verging shorelines (Figure 15.12). parts of the west coast of the United States
Alternatively, the ridges parallel a single and along glaciated coasts including New
shoreline and are truncated along the other, England, eastern Canada, and Alaska. Most
indicating a reorientation of the foreland often, these barriers are backed by shallow
(i.e. Cape Canaveral, Florida). Bays and water bays and lagoons; however, freshwa-
lagoons or marshy areas generally occupy ter and brackish water marshes also exist.
the region between the foreland and the Welded barriers are most common along
mainland. Cuspate forelands may be isolated microtidal coasts where bay areas are diminu-
or can occur in a series such as those along tive in size. In this type of setting there is
the coast of North and South Carolina. insufficient tidal energy to keep a tidal inlet
Dungeness is a solitary foreland located open. If a welded barrier is breached during a
along the southern coast of Britain where storm, the inlet normally closes quickly,
the English Channel is narrowed by the because the exchange of tidal waters between
closeness of France. It is built of gravel ridges the bay and ocean cannot remove the sand
and is prograding seaward and to the north- dumped into the inlet by waves. Thus, envi-
east due to dominant wave energy from the ronments with low tidal ranges and moderate
southwest. The Carolina forelands, includ- to high wave energy promote the development
ing Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, Cape Fear, of welded barriers.
and Cape Romain, form an evenly‐spaced The formation of a welded barrier can be a
(110–165 km apart) scalloped shoreline with simple process whereby a spit builds across
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.12 Cuspate forelands occur along many sandy coasts including (a) the North Carolina coast
(Source: NASA), and (b) the Amur Sea (Source: Image © 2018 Google Earth).
376 Chapter 15
Figure 15.13 Welded barrier fronting a brackish Trustom Pond, Rhode Island. After the tidal inlet closed at the
right side of the barrier, tidal exchange ceased and water in the pond became increasingly less saline.
a bay and attaches to the opposite shoreline. cutting an ephemeral outlet as water drains
However, in many instances, their evolution into the ocean. After bay water levels have sub-
represents a long‐term response to rising sea sided, increased rates of sediment transport
level. This process is evident along the south- commonly accompanying storms and high
ern shore of Martha’s Vineyard offshore of wave events once again seal off the opening.
Cape Cod where low welded barriers front
elongated bays. Historical evidence shows
15.5.3 Barrier Islands
that some of these barriers were once cut by
semi‐permanent tidal inlets. Closure of the Barrier islands are relatively narrow strips of
inlet occurred because the onshore migra- sand that parallel the mainland coast. They
tion of the barrier reduced bay area at a faster usually occur in chains and, excepting the
rate than rising sea level inundated the land- tidal inlets that separate them, may extend
ward bay shoreline. uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers.
An interesting phenomenon of welded For example, Padre Island along the Texas
barriers occurs on the peninsula coast of coast is about 200 km long. Barrier chains
Alaska and along other gravelly shorelines may consist of a few islands or more than a
of the world. Here, welded barriers, which dozen. The length and width of barriers and
are composed chiefly of gravel and lesser overall morphology of barrier coasts are
amounts of sand, contain multiple gravel related to several parameters including tidal
ridges constructed by storm waves. The range, wave energy, sediment supply, sea‐
barriers front ponded water areas and the level trends and basement controls. The fact
permeable nature of their sediment permits they exist along most of the east and Gulf
the seepage of water from the pond through coasts of the United States with different
the barrier and into the ocean. Land drainage geologic and oceanographic conditions sug-
and the permeability of the barrier sediments gests that barriers can form and be main-
control the level of water in the bays. During tained in a variety of settings. In the next few
periods of high water influx, the level of sections of this chapter we will explore the
the bay may overtop the crest of the barrier formation of barrier islands, the different
Barrier Systems 377
layers comprising barriers and what they believed that waves moving into shallow
look like in cross section, and the morphol- water churned up sand, which was deposited
ogy of barrier island coasts and individual in the form of a submarine bar when the
barrier islands. waves broke and lost much of their energy.
As the bars accreted vertically, they gradually
15.5.3.1 Origin of Barrier Islands built above sea level forming barrier islands.
The widespread distribution of barrier
islands along the world’s coastlines and their G.K. Gilbert
occurrence in many different environmental Some years later in 1885, de Beaumont’s
settings has led numerous scientists to spec- idea that barriers were formed from off-
ulate on their origin for more than 150 years shore sand sources was countered by
(Figure 15.14). Any acceptable theory of their G.K. Gilbert, who argued that the barrier
formation must explain the following: sediments came from alongshore sources.
Gilbert proposed that sediment moving in
1) Barrier chains are aligned parallel to the
the breaker zone through agitation by
coast.
waves would construct spits extending
2) Most have formed in a regime of slow
from headlands parallel to the coast. The
eustatic sea‐level rise.
subsequent breaching of spits by storm
3) They are separated from the mainland by
waves would form barrier islands. What is
shallow lagoons, marshes and/or tidal
truly amazing about G.K. Gilbert is that
flats.
this theory was conceived in western
4) Tidal inlets separate individual barriers
Utah while he was studying former lake
along a chain.
deposits associated with the terraces along
5) They are composed of sand (some contain
the Wasatch Mountains. The former lake
gravel).
was Lake Bonneville, which formed during
6) They formed during periods of sand
the Pleistocene when the climate was
abundance (Question: where did the
cooler, reaching a size of 50,000 km2 or
sediment come from?)
about the size of present‐day Lake
The different explanations of barrier island Michigan. It was along this lake that spits
formation can be grouped into three major had once developed. As the climate warmed
theories: Offshore bar theory (de Beaumont in the Holocene, Lake Bonneville dimin-
and Johnson); Spit accretion theory (Gilbert – ished to one tenth its size to what is now
Fisher); and Submergence theory (McGee – Great Salt Lake.
Hoyt). It will be shown that no one theory
can explain the development of all barriers W.D. McGee
and moreover, it is sometimes difficult or A third barrier island theory was published by
impossible to prove how an individual bar- W.D. McGee in 1890. He reasoned that the
rier formed because many barriers have been east and Gulf coasts of the United States were
drastically modified after they were formed undergoing submergence, as evidenced by the
due to rising sea‐level, onshore migration many drowned river valleys that occur along
and other related processes. these coasts including Raritan, Delaware and
Chesapeake Bays. He believed that during
E. de Beaumont submergence, coastal ridges were separated
One of the earliest ideas of barrier island from the mainland, forming lagoons behind
formation was published in 1845 by a
the ridges. He called the barriers “keys” and
Frenchman, Elie de Beaumont, who studied used Dolphin, Petit‐Bois, Massacre, Horn,
coastal charts of barriers along the North Sea Dog, Ship, and Cat Islands along the coast of
and Baltic Sea in Europe, those in the Gulf of Mississippi as examples where coastal sub-
Mexico, North Africa, and elsewhere. He mergence had formed barrier islands.
378 Chapter 15
Offshore Bar Accretion - de Beaumont, 1845
sea level
mainland ocean
1
sea level
mainland 2 ocean
offshore
shoal
barrier island
lagoon 3 sea level
mainland ocean
Spit Accretion and Breaching – Gilbert, 1885
TIME 1 TIME 2
mainland mainland
bay/ bay/
lagoon longshore lagoon
longshore
transport transport
storm breach
(tidal channel)
sediment barrier
added ocean island ocean
Mainland Detachment – Hoyt, 1967
mainland ocean
lower sea level
mainland
beach ridge
mainland lagoon barrier ocean

island
higher sea level
submergence
Figure 15.14 Major models of barrier island formation.

Barrier Systems 379
D.W. Johnson Hoyt maintained that if coastal dunes or

At the turn of the century there were three beach ridges were gradually submerged by
viable explanations of barrier island formation, rising sea level, then the mainland shoreline
however, none of these theories had been tested would never have been exposed to waves and
using laboratory experiments or through the thus nearshore deposits would never have
collection of field data. In 1919, D.W. Johnson developed. Hoyt went on to show that width
re‐investigated the various theories and studied of the lagoon was a function of the level of
the shore‐normal profile of barrier coasts. submergence and slope of the land surface.
He reasoned that if barriers had formed from Steeper slopes and lower levels of submer-
spits, then the offshore profile should inter- gence produced narrow lagoons; whereas flat
sect the mainland at the edge of the lagoon. land gradients and greater levels of submer-
Additionally, the profile should appear as gence led to wider lagoons. In his theory the
though sand had simply been deposited onto low areas along the beach ridges became the
a uniform sloping nearshore ramp. However, sites of tidal inlets. He also noted that once
Johnson discovered that most barrier coasts the barrier was formed it could then be mod-
do not exhibit this type of profile, rather they ified by waves, sediment supply and sea‐level
seem to indicate that sand had been scooped changes.
from the nearshore and moved onshore to
build the barrier. Thus, Johnson became a John Fisher
champion of the offshore bar theory. Armed with sedimentologic data, Hoyt had
made a compelling case for barrier islands
John Hoyt forming by submergence of coastal dunes or
During the next 50 years the formation of beach ridges due to rising sea level. However,
barrier islands was a subject of much debate, in 1968 John Fisher produced a critical
but it was not until sediment cores began to review of the submergence theory pointing
be gathered through barriers and in lagoonal out that long, straight, and continuous dune
regions that progress was made in under- ridges would not occur along a coast being
standing their development. John Hoyt inundated by rising sea level. Moreover, in
worked along the coast of Georgia and many his own research along the Outer Banks of
of his conclusions concerning barrier island North Carolina he found that sediments
formation were based on coring studies beneath the lagoonal deposits were more like
there. In an article published in 1967, he cor- those occurring behind a spit than in a coastal
rectly argued that if barriers had developed upland as suggested by Hoyt. In light of these
from offshore bars or through the breaching observations, Fisher became a strong propo-
of spits, then open‐ocean conditions would nent of Gilbert’s spit accretion theory.
have existed along the mainland prior to bar-
rier formation. Before becoming sheltered, Recent Barrier Studies
breaking waves and onshore winds would Since the late‐1960s there have been many
have formed beaches and dune systems at studies of barrier islands aimed at determin-
these locations. Hoyt was able to show that ing the sedimentary layers making up the
for most barrier systems an open‐ocean coast barrier and deciphering the manner in which
never existed along the present mainland these layers were deposited. This research
coast. In situations where rising sea level and has been aided by the radiometric dating of
marsh development has led to an encroach- organic material contained within the barri-
ment of lagoonal deposits onto the mainland, ers’ sediments, such as shells, peat and wood,
sediment cores from these regions have thereby providing a chronology (timing) of
showed no evidence of beach and nearshore barrier construction. In addition to coring
sediments or the shells of organisms that the barrier sediments, ground‐penetrating
commonly inhabit the nearshore region. radar (GPR) has also been employed to study
380 Chapter 15
barriers. This device sends electromagnetic regime of rising sea level but during a time
energy into the ground and where the elec- when the rate of rise began to slow.
trical conductivity of the sediment changes, Sedimentological data from the inner conti-
such as at the interface of two sediment layers nental shelves off the East Coast of the United
having different grain sizes, mineral compo- States, in the North Sea, and in southeast
sitions or organic content, some of the energy Australia suggest that barriers once existed
is reflected back to the surface. These signals offshore and have migrated to their present
are received by an antenna and after process- positions. When we core the landward side
ing provide an X‐ray view of the sediment of barrier islands, which in most cases repre-
layers comprising the barrier. Sediment cores sents the oldest part of the barrier, we dis-
are taken in conjunction with the GPR cover that these sediments consists of
surveys to determine the composition of the overwash deposits, often overlying lagoonal
sediment layers and the environment in units. This sequence of sediment layers indi-
which they were deposited. Additional infor- cates that the barrier was migrating onshore
mation concerning former barriers and their during its initial development. Many barriers
associated tidal inlets and lagoons has been eventually stabilized and then prograded sea-
gathered from the inner continental shelf ward when the supply of sediment became
using high‐resolution shallow seismic sur- more plentiful and the rate of sea‐level rise
veys, a technology similar in principle to continued to slow.
GPR. These advancements have provided
new insights about the formation of coastal Final Observation
barrier systems. If the initial barriers migrated onshore to
Scientists now accept the idea that barriers their present position and most of the struc-
can form by a number of different mecha- ture of a barrier developed after it stabilized
nisms. For example, along the west coast of onshore, then it is a bit ironic that so much
Florida there is historical documentation and attention has been given to how barriers
direct observations that barriers have formed formed when little or none of this signature
from subtidal bars migrating onshore, pri- has been preserved in the present barrier
marily during storms. Other barrier systems system.
have undoubtedly developed from spits such
as the barriers along the outer coast of Cape
Cod or those found along the southern coast
of Washington. In both cases, the spits 15.6 Prograding,
are fed by abundant sand sources derived Retrograding,
from eroding glacial cliffs in Cape Cod and and Aggrading Barriers
the Columbia River in Washington. Along
the coast of Louisiana former lobes of the The overall form of barriers, their stability,
Mississippi River delta have been reworked and future erosional or depositional trends
by wave action forming beach ridge com- are related to the supply of sediment, the rate
plexes. Prolonged sinking of the marshes of sea‐level rise, storm cycles, and the topog-
(subsidence) behind the barriers has con- raphy of the mainland. When a barrier builds
verted these former vegetated wetlands to in a seaward direction it is said to prograde
open‐water areas leading to barrier detach- and is called a prograding barrier. The oppo-
ment from the mainland (Figure 15.15). site of this condition occurs when a barrier
In considering the formation of barrier retreats landward, called a retrograding
islands, it is important to recognize that barrier. If a barrier builds vertically and

almost all the world’s barriers are less than maintains its form as sea level rises, it is
6500 years old and most are younger than labeled an aggrading barrier. These different
4000 years old. Most barriers formed in a types are described below.
Barrier Systems 381
90 59’ 90 55’ 90 50’ 90 45’ 90 40’ 90 35’ 90 30’

29 07’
Ca y
illo Terrebonne Ba
29 05’ u
Ba
y
Lake Pelto
ico
f Mex
1853 Gulf o
29 01’
1890
1934
Lake Pelto
1978
1988
Ca
illo y
u Terrebonne Ba
Ba
y
ico
f Mex
Gulf o
2015
Figure 15.15 Barrier detachment process illustrated along the Isles Dernières located on the Mississippi River
Delta. As the delta plain subsides, marshlands are converted to bays. In a period of only 125 years, semi‐
protected Pelto and Little Pelto Bays were transformed to large open‐water environments (Source: From Boyd
et al. (1987)).
15.6.1 Prograding Barriers

along the shore or from offshore sources.
Prograding barriers form in a regime of abun- These conditions were met along much of the
dant sand supply during a period of stable or east coast of the United States and many
slowly rising sea level (Figure 15.16). The other regions of the world about 4000–
sand to build these barriers may come from 5000 years ago when the rate of sea‐level rise
(a) Prograding Barrier
Time 1
LAGOON
sea level
sand
ge
supply
r id
lagoonal
ne
du
muds
re
fo
barrier
sands
new
BARRIER
Time 2 foredune
PRGRADATION
ridge
Sea level:
beach falling
or
ridge stable/rising
+
high
sediment
supply
former beach profile
(b)
Figure 15.16 Prograding barriers develop in regions of

abundant sediment supply. (a) Model of a prograding
barrier. (b) Bull Island is a beach‐ridge barrier located
north of Charleston, South Carolina, which formed
through the addition of prograding ridges. Periods of
erosion are indicated by truncated beach ridges.
Barrier Systems 383
slowed and sand was contributed to the ●● Scarp development When a beach builds
shore from eroding headlands (examples: out gradually, the wind molds the upper
Provinceland Spit in northern Cape Cod, berm into random hummocks (small
Massachusetts; Lawrencetown barrier along incipient dunes). During moderate to large
the northeast shore of Nova Scotia), from the storms, the berm erodes back, producing a
inner continental shelf (examples: the barrier continuous scarp along the beach that cuts
system along Bogue Banks, North Carolina; across these hummocks. This scarp pro-
the Algarve barrier chain in southern vides a locus against which wind‐blown
Portugal; the Tuncarry barrier in southeast sand is deposited. In this way a dune ridge
Australia; the East Frisian Islands along the is established along the entire length of the
German North Sea coast), and directly from barrier. Repetition of these processes forms
rivers (examples: most barrier systems in a beach‐ridge barrier such as those along
northern New England; the barrier chain sit- the central South Carolina and Georgia
uated north of the Columbia River along the coasts.
southern coast of Washington). ●● Wrack lines During the winter and early
Prograding barriers commonly build in spring, storms coupled with spring high
spurts when the supply of sand is plentiful. tides float organic material, largely com-
Increases in the rate of sediment contribu- posed of dead marsh grass, out of the back-
tion to the downdrift coast can occur during barrier dispersing it along adjacent
storms when unconsolidated cliffs are beaches. The high water levels and large
eroded, releasing large quantities of sand to waves accompanying storms cause the
the littoral system, or during floods when riv- debris to be deposited along the upper
ers transport high sediment loads to the portion of the beach. Depending upon the
coast. In other instances, sediment is moved region, these wrack or drift lines, as they
onshore from the inner shelf during long‐ are called, may also consist of eel grass,
term accretionary wave conditions. These seaweed, or driftwood. The wrack line
processes cause beaches to build in a seaward traps wind–blown sand causing dune
direction, widening the berm and separating development. In this way, a dune ridge and
the foredune ridge from the ocean by an future beach ridge may form along the
enlarging expanse of sand. entire length of the barrier.
A common end‐product of shoreline pro- ●● Bar migration A barrier can prograde
gradation is the development of beach ridges. through the addition of sand bars that
As described earlier, beach ridges are dune migrate onshore and attach to the upper
systems that usually become vegetated first beach. Landward‐migrating bars are par-
by grasses, then shrubbery, and finally by ticularly common in the vicinity of tidal
trees. This change in the maturity of the veg- inlets and are discussed in much greater
etative cover occurs as the ridges are dis- detail in Chapter 16 If one of these bars
placed further and further from the shoreline incompletely welds to the upper berm,
and become more protected from salt spray then a low area or swale develops between
and the effects of storms. Each beach ridge the bar and the landward beach. The bar
marks a former shoreline position and their itself commonly builds vertically from
overall pattern indicates how the barrier grew wind‐blown sand, forming a dune ridge.
and evolved through time. The interval of When a series of bars migrates onshore
time between the formation of successive and attaches to the beach, the resulting
beach ridges may be tens to hundreds of ridge and swale topography often becomes
years. a beach‐ridge barrier.
Beach ridges form by a number of different
mechanisms involving both erosional and In fact, beach ridges may develop by a
depositional processes (Figure 15.17): combination of two or more of the above
384 Chapter 15
(a)
Existing
SLOW beach ridge
Time 1 PROGRADATION Hummocks
(incipient dunes)
Small
h waves
Beac
CONTINUOUS
Time 2 BERM SCARP
STORM
WAVES
Windblown
sand
Time 3 accumulates
aginst the scarp
Small
Old Swale waves
beach ridge
Sburied
scarp
NEW
BEACH RIDGE
Figure 15.17 Various mechanisms of beach ridge formation. (a) Dune scarping. (b) Accumulation of sand
around a wrack line. (c) Bar welding.
processes. A barrier composed of beach becomes retrogradational when the amount

ridges is easily identified as one having of sand contributed to the barrier is less
evolved through progradation; however, this than the volume transported away from the
morphology does not necessarily indicate barrier (Figure 15.18). The sand may be lost
that the barrier is still prograding. Conversely, offshore during storms, moved along shore
sedimentation conditions along the barrier in the littoral system, or transported across
may have changed such that now it has the barrier by overwash. The end result is
become erosional. erosion to the front of the barrier causing
a decrease in width of the beach and ulti-
mately a destruction of the foredune ridge.
15.6.2 Retrograding Barriers
Eventually, a narrowing and lowering of the
This type of barrier forms when the supply of barrier profile produce a retreat of the bar-
sand is inadequate to keep pace with relative rier across the adjacent bay, lagoon, or marsh
sea‐level rise and/or with sand losses. Stated system. This landward migration of the bar-
in terms of a sediment budget, a barrier rier, termed barrier rollover, is accomplished
Barrier Systems 385
(b) Wrack-Line Stabilization
Time 1
WRACK-LINE
Existing
beach ridge
ch
Bea
STORM WAVES
+
HIGH TIDES
INCIPIENT
Time 2 DUNE RIDGE
Trapping of
windblown
sand
small
waves
Buried
wrack-line
Old
beach ridge
Time 3
WELL-DEVELOPED
RIDGE
Swale
Decomposing
wrack
primarily during storms by overwash. Gulf Coast region is attributed to relative

Overwash is a cannibalistic process whereby sea‐level rise and exhausted sediment sup-
storm waves transport sand from the beach plies. Retreat of the Isles Dernières is coin-
through the dunes, depositing it along the cident with storm surges and large waves
landward margin of the barrier. In this way associated with the passage of hurricanes.
the barrier is preserved by retreating land- A somewhat different scenario of barrier
ward (Figure 15.19). retreat has occurred along the central
Historical records demonstrate that some Maryland coast. Here in 1933 a severe hur-
barriers, such as the Isles Dernières off the ricane breached the northern end of
Louisiana coast, have migrated onshore Assateague Island, creating a tidal inlet
from one to several times their widths dur- (Ocean City Inlet). In 1935, jetties built to
ing the past 100 years. The major cause of stabilize the entrance to the inlet blocked
barrier retreat in Louisiana and much of the the southerly transport of sand that had
386 Chapter 15
(c) Bar Migration and Attachment

ONSHORE
BAR
Time 1
MIGRATION
ch
Bea
Existing
beach ridge
Marsh-filled
swale
Time 2
INCOMPLETELY
WELDEDBAR
RIDGE
DEVELOPMENT
Windblown
Time 3 sand
hightens
le
Swa the ridge
Old
beach ridge
Buried
marsh peat
once nourished Assateague Island. In addi- the inlet had retreated one island width
tion, strong ebb tidal currents produced in across the adjacent lagoon.
the jettied channel transported large quan- Retrograding barriers are identified by
tities of sediment offshore, forming a mas- their overall narrow width, single or
sive sand shoal known as an ebb‐tidal delta. nonexistent foredune ridge, and washover
Due to these sand‐trapping mechanisms, aprons. Because these barriers have been
the sediment‐starved shoreline immedi- migrating over various types of backbarrier
ately downdrift of the inlet began to erode. settings, including lagoons and marshes, the
Eventually, erosion along northern sedimentary components comprising these
Assateague Island reached a critical width environments are commonly exposed along
(~200 m) and low overall elevation such the front side of the barrier, usually in the
that overwash activity produced barrier intertidal zone. This explains the appear-
rollover. In less than 50 years after the ance of stiff muds and the remnants of peat
island was breached, the barrier south of deposits along the lower beach of many
(a)
LAGOON BARRIER
Time 1
Rising
sea level
Washover
Lagoonal OVERWASH
muds
Barrier
sands
Former
LANDWARD
shoreline
BARRIER
position
MIGRATION
Time 2
Higher
sea level
Washover
Buried backbarrier
sediments
(b)
Figure 15.18 Retrogradational barriers develop in a regime of rising sea level and a depleted sediment supply.
(a) Model of a retrogradational barrier. (b) Barrier rollover is occurring along the Magdalen Islands by storm
overwash.
388 Chapter 15
(a)
Washover
Barrier Fan
Island
La
go
on
Oc
ea
Su n
rge
rsh
Ma
une
o redge
F id
R
ach
Be
(b)
Figure 15.19 (a) Washovers are the primary mechanism whereby a barrier migrates onshore (Source: From
Davis (1994)). (b) In some instances a washover is a precursor to barrier breaching and tidal inlet formation.
This aerial view of Monomoy Island along the southeast coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts depicts a case in
which a overwash activity progressed into a breaching of the island and transformation of the washover fan
into an expansive flood‐tidal delta more than 1.5 km in width.
15.6.3 Aggrading Barriers

retrograding barriers. In some instances,
tree stumps may extend through the sands of If a barrier has built vertically during a
the intertidal zone, indicating that the barrier regime of rising sea level and occupies
has migrated onshore so far that trees once approximately the same footprint as it did
growing on the mainland have resurfaced as when it first formed or stabilized, it is
stumps on the seaward side of the barrier. termed an aggrading barrier (Figure 15.20).
(a) Aggrading Barrier
Time 1
LAGOON BARRIER
Rising
sea level
Single dune ridge
Lagoonal
muds
barrier
sands
Time 2 SEDIMENT SUPPLY

VERTICAL BALANCES
BARRIER GROWTH SEA-LEVEL RISE
(AGGRADATION)
Higher
sea level
Former barrier
outlines
(b)
Figure 15.20 Aggrading barriers remain approximately in the same position, building vertically in a regime of
slow sea level rise. (a) Model of an aggrading barrier. (b) Good Harbor Beach, in northern New England, is a
pocket barrier positioned between bedrock promontories and backed by a salt marsh and tidal creek system.
Coring studies have revealed that the barrier has accreted vertically during the past 2500 years and is more
than 7 m in thickness.
390 Chapter 15
(a)
Marsh Beach
Was
hov
er
Lagoon
Ma
rsh
(b)
Beach
Lagoon
Shoreface
Offshore
(c) Beach/
dune
Washover/eolian
Lagoon/estuary
Shoreface
Channel-fill
Figure 15.21 Stratigraphic models of different types of barrier sequences (Source: From Galloway and Hobday
(1980)), (a) In the transgressive model, barrier sands are underlain by washover and lagoonal facies. (b)
Regressive barriers tend to be relatively wide and commonly contain prograding beach ridges. Barrier sands
overlie shoreface units. (c) Aggradational barriers represent steady‐state conditions whereby the supply of
new sand just compensates for rising sea level. Under these conditions the barrier neither migrates onshore or
offshore, but rather builds vertically.
These barriers are rare because it requires to non‐beach ridge, prograding barrier or
that sediment is supplied (to the barrier) at even a retrograding barrier that has stopped
a rate that exactly compensates for rising moving onshore.
sea level. Too little sand and the barrier
migrates onshore (retrograding), too large
a supply and the barrier builds seaward. 15.7 Barrier Stratigraphy
Part of Padre Island along the Texas coast
is an example of an aggrading barrier. Barriers exhibit a variety of architectures
Without subsurface information aggrading consisting of many different types of sedi-
barriers are difficult to r ecognize, because mentary deposits depending upon their
morphologically they may appear similar evolutionary development (Figure 15.21).

Barrier Systems 391
Figure 15.22 Coke Island in southern North Carolina is a relatively thin retrogradational barrier consisting
largely of coalescing overwash fans deposited on top of the marsh.
The sequence and composition of the layers composed of two populations: carbonate sand
making up the barrier, termed its stratigra- derived from shells and other carbonate mate-
phy, are defined by a set of grain size, miner- rial, and terrigenous sand originally sourced
alogical, and other characteristics of the from the Appalachian Mountains and trans-
layers. Factors such as sediment supply, rate ported south along the Florida coast.
of sea‐level rise, wave and tidal energy, cli- Barriers exhibit highly variable thicknesses
mate and topography of the land dictate how from the thin deposits (~2 m) such as the
a barrier develops and its resulting stratigra- Chandeleur Islands off the Louisiana coast
phy. For example, barriers that have formed or (1.2 m) Coke Island in North Carolina
in the vicinity of the Mississippi River delta (Figure 15.22) to thick sand deposits,
consist of fine to very fine sand because this including the Tuncurry barrier in southeast
is the most abundant sand size delivered by Australia, where barrier sands extend to
the river. In contrast, barriers along glaciated depths of more than 20 m or Plum Island in
coasts tend to consist of coarser‐grained northern Massachusetts which ranges from
sediment, including gravel, due to the
15 to 20 m in thickness. Along the west coast
coarse‐grained, often heterogeneous, nature of Florida there is little new sand being added
of glacial deposits found along these coasts. to this coast due to the lack of any riverine
The rivers of these regions also tend to supply and the dearth of sediment on the
deliver fine to coarse sand to the coast. The inner continental shelf. Thus, the barrier
gravelly sand barriers along the northeast deposits here are mostly less than 5 m thick.
shore of Nova Scotia exemplify this condi- Generally, there is a direct correspondence
tion, having been formed from the erosion between barrier thickness and sediment
of glacial features called drumlins (see abundance. Plentiful sand supplies cause bar-
Chapter 17). In some regions the sediment riers to build seaward and aid in dune con-
comprising the barriers may have come from struction. Both processes contribute to thick
more than one source. For example, on the barrier sequences. Another important factor
Gulf Coast of Florida, barrier sediments are affecting barrier thickness is accommodation
392 Chapter 15
space, which defines how much room is case discussed below, the stratigraphy is
available for the accumulation of barrier described from the base of Holocene (post
sands. Steeper‐gradient coasts produce Pleistocene, 10,000 years ago to present) bar-
more accommodation space as a barrier rier contact to the surface.
progrades than do flat‐lying coasts. Likewise
as spit builds into a deep bay, the thickness of ●● Prograding barrier Because this type of
the barrier sands will increase as the accom- barrier builds in a seaward direction, the
modation space increases. Rising sea level barrier sequence is commonly thick (10–
can produce a similar effect. For example, in 20 m) and overlies offshore deposits, usu-
Cape Cod Bay the Sandy Neck barrier has ally composed of fine‐grained sands and
been building across Barnstable Bay for the silts. The barrier sequence consists of
past 3500 years. During that time, sea level nearshore sands, overlain by beach depos-
has risen approximately 3 m and thus if the its, and topped by dune sands. The con-
barrier maintains nearly the same elevation tacts between the units are gradational and
above mean high water through time, then for the most part the sedimentary sequence
the spit will be about 3 m thicker at its end coarsens upward except for the uppermost
than where spit growth was initiated. fined‐grained dune sands.
Barrier sequences often contain tidal inlet ●● Retrograding barrier This barrier type
deposits, especially along barrier coasts migrates in a landward direction over the
where tidal inlets open and close and/or marsh and lagoon by overwash processes.
where tidal inlet migration is an active pro- The Holocene sequence typically bottoms
cess. A tidal inlet migrates by eroding the in backbarrier sediments, however, if the
downdrift side of its channel while at the barrier has retreated far enough landward,
same time sand is added to the updrift side of mainland deposits may be preserved,
its channel. In this way, the updrift barrier forming the base of the sequence. In this
elongates, the downdrift barrier becomes instance, we may find tree stumps, soils,
shorter, and the migrating inlet leaves behind and other deposits. The mainland units are
channel‐fill deposits underlying the updrift overlain by a variety backbarrier deposits
barrier (Figure 15.23). Independent studies including lagoonal silt and clay and marsh
along New Jersey and the Delmarva Peninsula, peat, which had formed in intertidal areas.
North Carolina, and South Carolina indicate In the vicinity of tidal inlets, backbarrier
that 20–40 % of these barrier coasts are deposits consist of channel sands and large
underlain by tidal inlet fill deposits. Long‐ sand shoals called flood‐tidal deltas (see
term tidal inlet migration along Shackleford Chapter 16 on tidal inlets). Overlying the
Banks in North Carolina has produced inlet backbarrier deposits is the thin barrier
fills 10–20 m thick beneath 90 % of the island. sequence (<3–4 m) consisting of washo-
In terms of prograding, retrograding, and vers, beach deposits, and dune sediments if
aggrading barriers, each of these systems has they are present.
a diagnostic stratigraphy that reflects the ●● Aggrading barrier These barriers build
manner in which it developed (Figure 15.21). upward in a regime of rising sea level and
If we were able to cut a deep trench through in an ideal case, the deposits from the same
the barrier, the layers of the sediments com- environmental setting are stacked verti-
prising the barrier would be revealed. In cally. In most cases, however, the barrier
actuality, the stratigraphy of barriers is deter- has shifted slightly landward and seaward
mined from numerous sediment cores drilled through time due to changes in sediment
throughout the barrier, and in some instances supply and rates of sea‐level rise. Therefore,
augmented with ground‐penetrating radar most aggrading barriers exhibit some
and other geophysical information. In each interstacking of various units. For example,
Barrier Systems 393
Map Mainland
A
Washover
Lagoon fan
Flood-tidal
Grassflat and
delta
marsh
Inlet channel
Beach-dune
B B' ridge
Shoreface Beach Storm

Ebb-tidal channel
delta
Offshore A'
or shelf
Section perpendicular to shore Progradation

A A'
Washover fan Beach-dune ridges Beach
Lagoon Sea level
Beach-dune
Upper shoreface
Marsh – lagoonal Sh
ore
face
Older deposits Lower shoreface
Shoreface Offshore
erosion
Section parallel to shore

Inlet migration
B B'
Beach-dune Inlet Beach-dune

Upper shoreface Upper shoreface
Lower shoreface
Lower shoreface
Channel/spit
Offshore sequence
Figure 15.23 The stratigraphy of a barrier is dependent of its evolutionary history (Source: From McCubbin
(1982). Reproduced with permission of American Association of Petroleum Geologists). It may contain
elements of storm washovers (section A–A′), beach ridge progradation (section A–A′), or tidal inlet migration
and spit accretion (section B–B′).
in the rear of the barrier the sequence may 15.8 Barrier Coast

consist of washover and dune units inter‐ Morphology
layered with marsh and lagoonal deposits.
Aggrading barriers tend to be thick (10– There are many factors that determine the
20 m) and for reasons stated previously, are location and size of individual features along
uncommon. a coast, such as the slope of the land dictating
394 Chapter 15
the size of a lagoon or a former stream valley wave‐dominated and mixed‐energy environ-
controlling the position of a tidal inlet. ments. It should be noted that it is the ratio of
Despite the many factors influencing coastal wave height and tidal range that dictate the
morphology in coastal plain settings, the presence and distribution of barriers. For
overall distribution of barriers, tidal inlets example, in the Ten Thousand Island region
and various backbarrier environments is pri- along the southern Florida Gulf Coast the
marily related to the relative magnitude of tidal range is only about 1 m, but this section
wave and tidal energy. In a simplification of of coast, consisting primarily of mangrove
their respective roles, waves are responsible islands, is clearly tide‐dominated. The lack of
for transporting sediment alongshore, which barriers along this coast is the result of very
tends to elongate barriers. The rise and fall low wave energy. Remember that barriers are
of the tides cause a filling and emptying of wave‐built accumulations of sand and there-
backbarrier areas. Tidal inlets through which fore, where wave energy is insufficient to
this exchange of water occurs are the sites of concentrate sand, beaches and barriers do
strong tidal flow. These currents transport not form. Similarly, in the German Bight of
sand in an onshore and offshore direction. the North Sea extensive barrier development
disappears toward the apex of the bight at
the entrance to the Elbe River where the tidal
15.8.1 Hayes Models
range increases to almost 3.5 m. The large
In a scheme conceived by Miles Hayes and tidal range and expansive tidal flats of this
later modified by him and others, deposi- region diminish wave energy, precluding the
tional coastlines are separated into three formation of beaches and barriers. Moreover,
classes based on the wave height and tidal the importance of wave energy is illustrated
range of the region. The three major divi- along the west coast of the United States,
sions are wave‐dominated, mixed‐energy where barriers exist despite spring tidal
and tide‐dominated settings (Figure 15.24). ranges approaching 4 m. Here an abundant
Barriers are found almost exclusively in the sand supply and strong wave energy over-
come the effects of tides to produce some
very long progradational barriers (e.g. North
6
Beach, and barriers fronting Grays Harbor,
5
Washington).
Given the same ratios of wave height and
Mean Tidal Range (m)
Tide-dominated
4 tidal range, depositional coasts throughout
the world exhibit similar morphologies as
3 described below:
Mixed-energy
2 15.8.1.1 Wave‐dominated Coast
These coasts are dominated by wave‐
1
Wave-dominated generated longshore sediment transport;
tides play a secondary role. They are charac-
0
terized by long linear barrier islands and few
0 1 2
tidal inlets (Figure 15.25). The backbarriers
Mean Wave Height (m)
are composed of mostly open‐water lagoons
Figure 15.24 Depositional coastlines can be or bays. Marshes occur along the backside of
separated into three major types based on their wave the barriers, commonly on former washover
and tidal energy. Barrier coasts occur almost deposits, and at the edge of the mainland.
exclusively in the wave‐dominated and mixed‐energy
environments. Tide‐dominated coasts are generally Large sand shoals are usually found on the
funnel‐shaped and associated with a river. (Source: landward side of the tidal inlets. Sand shoals
From Davis and Hayes (1984) after Hayes (1979)). on the seaward side are diminutive in size.
Barrier Systems 395
(b)
(a)
FLOOD-TIDAL
DELTA
WAVE
BAY OR
LAGOON
OCEAN
0 5 km
Figure 15.25 (a) Model of a wave‐dominated barrier coast. (Source: From Hayes (1975, 1979)). These coasts are
characterized by long barrier islands backed by lagoons and bays with few tidal inlets. (b) The Outer Banks of
North Carolina are an example of a wave‐dominated coast. The cuspate forelands of Cape Hatteras (north) and
Cape Lookout (south) are joined by long, linear barrier islands that are interrupted by few tidal inlets.
Coastlines fitting into this class include the increase in extent near the inlets. In at least
coasts of Texas, the Panhandle of Florida, the two locations of the world, the backbarriers
Outer Banks of North Carolina, Maryland, of this coastal type (East Frisian Islands
northern New Jersey, the barrier coast along along the Germany North Sea coast and
the Nile River delta, and Southeast Iceland. the Copper River Delta barriers in Alaska)
consist of extensive tidal flats. It is likely
15.8.1.2 Mixed‐Energy Coast that the change from open‐water lagoons of
In this model both wave and tidal processes wave‐dominated coasts to the intertidal envi-
are important in shaping coastal morphology. ronments of mixed‐energy coast is the result
Barriers on these coasts tend to be short and of more sediment being transported into the
stubby (drumstick‐shaped, see Chapter 16, backbarrier by tidal currents. In addition, an
Section 16.8.5) and tidal inlets are more increase in tidal range produces larger inter-
numerous than along wave‐dominated coasts, tidal areas, which promote the development
reflecting the greater role of the tides of marshes and stabilization of sediment.
(Figure 15.26). The backbarriers of these Mixed‐energy coasts include the barrier
regions are mostly filled with sediment and coasts of northern New England, southern
covered by expansive marshes incised by New Jersey, Virginia, southern North
tidal creeks. Open‐water areas commonly Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, much of
396 Chapter 15
(a)
(b)
WAVE
OCEAN
0 10 km
Figure 15.26 (a) Model of a mixed‐energy barrier coast. (Source: From Hayes (1975, 1979)). Typically, these
coasts contain short stubby barrier islands and numerous tidal inlets that connect to marsh and tidal creek
backbarrier systems. (b) The beach ridge barriers in Georgia are an example of a mixed‐energy coast. Many of
the barriers along the Georgia Bight have formed around pre‐existing Pleistocene‐age barrier islands.
the west coast of Florida, the Frisian Islands flats. Landward of the tidal flats are wide
in the North Sea (see Box 15.1), the Algarve marshes. In equatorial regions, marshes are
in southern Portugal, and the Copper River replaced by mangroves. The Bay of Fundy in
delta barrier system in Alaska. Nova Scotia, the Gulf of Cambay, India, the
head of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, the
15.8.1.3 Tide‐Dominated Coasts mouth of the Amazon River and Bristol Bay,
Many tide‐dominated coasts coincide with Alaska are examples of tide‐dominated coasts.
very large funnel‐shaped embayments
(>100 km across). This coastline configuration
15.8.2 Georgia Bight
enhances the tidal wave, which produces large
tidal ranges, strong tidal currents, and a A particularly interesting section of coast,
sedimentation regime that is dominated by demonstrating the relative influence of wave
onshore–offshore transport. Due to the low versus tidal energy, is seen in the Georgia
wave energy along these coasts, barriers and Bight encompassing the region from North
tidal inlets are absent. Rivers commonly dis- Carolina to Florida. The arcuate shape of this
charge sediment at the head of the embay- coast produces relatively narrow and steep
ments. The coarse‐grained component of this continental shelves along the flanks of the
sediment is deposited within the embayment bight and a wide, shallow shelf at the apex of
and transported to the inner shelf forming the bight. From the Outer Banks of North
large subtidal sand ridges that parallel the Carolina to the Georgia coast the continental
tidal flow. The fine‐grained sediment tends to shelf widens, amplifying the tidal wave as it
accumulate onshore forming expansive tidal moves across the shelf resulting in larger
Barrier Systems 397
Box 15.1 Three Hundred Year History of the East Frisian Islands

The East Frisian Islands provide a unique during the entire year, producing a net easterly
opportunity to assess the long‐term historical longshore transport rate of 270,000 m3 year−1
development of a barrier island chain. of sand. Spring tidal ranges vary systematically
Hahns Homeier and Gunter Luck of the from 2.5 m at the western end of the chain to
Forschungsstelle Norderney, Germany assem- 2.9 m at the eastern end.
bled a series of detailed maps that depict Much of the sand moving eastward in
shoreline and bathymetric changes of this the littoral system is eventually delivered to
barrier system that extend back to 1650. There the seegats (tidal inlets) where it bypasses the
are few barrier coasts in the world in which inlets through a complex pattern of wave and
the historical database goes back this far. The tidal processes. Sand enters the inlets from the
sequential maps demonstrate patterns of west and is transported across the ebb‐tidal
inlet migration, growth of individual barriers, delta, ultimately reaching the downdrift inlet
reduction in size of the backbarrier drainage shoreline in the form of large landward
areas, and decrease in size of the ebb‐tidal migrating swash bars. These bars are elongate
deltas. Interestingly, some of the historical parallel to shore and are 1–1.5 km in length,
changes are a product of a strong wind regime containing more than 100,000 m3 of sand. As
but others, including some large‐scale mor- discussed in greater detail in Chapter 16 on
phological changes, are solely related to the tidal inlets, the shape of the barriers is dictated
actions by humans. by where the swash bars weld to the beach.
The East Frisian Islands are composed of Drumstick‐shaped barriers develop where the
seven barriers and five tidal inlets spanning bars attach to the updrift end of the island,
the southeast coast of the North Sea between hump‐backed barriers form when bars weld to
Ems River on the west and Weser River to the the middle of the island, and a downdrift bul-
east (Box Figure 15.1.1). The barrier chain is bous barrier shape is a product of bars moving
90 km long and separated by from the main- onshore at the distal eastern end of the island.
land by 4–12 km wide tidal flat, which is incised The East Frisian islands have evolved in a
by a network of tidal channels. The winds in regime of rising sea level like most other bar-
this region blow from the westerly quadrant rier sytems in the world. The fact that the
Ot
Ha
WANGEROOGE
zu
rle
m
er
SPIEKROOG
Ba
Ac
lje
cu
m
LANGEOOG
er
No
Ee
rd See
BALTRUM
em g
ey at
NORDERNEY
er
Box Figure 15.1.1 The East Frisian Islands are located along the coast of Germany on the North Sea.
398 Chapter 15
Wangerooge
Spiekeroog
Langeoog
Har
Otz
le
ume
r Ba
lje
1650
1750
1860
1960
Box Figure 15.1.2 Changes in areal extent of the drainage system of Harle Inlet. Land reclamation of tidal
flats has decreased the size of the backbarrier, resulting in smaller inlet tidal prism. (From FitzGerald, 1988).
Frisian barriers have grown in size during the During the same period of time, individual
past 300 years is evidence that the supply of barriers along the East Frisian chain have
sand to the island chain has more than com- lengthened and some have prograded sea-
pensated for land loss due to continued sea‐ ward. Between 1650 and 1960 the barriers
level rise. The increase in dimensions of the increased in aerial extent by almost 42 km2, an
barriers is a product of new sand being added increase of 80 %. Of this new land 56 % was
to islands as well as due to human modifica- attributed to poldering and 44 % was the result
tion of the backside of the barriers through of barrier accretion. The source of new sand
poldering (Box Figure 15.1.2). Poldering is was puzzling to scientists until an historical
the process whereby land is reclaimed from analysis was made of the backbarrier region. It
the sea. The practice involves building dikes was found that from 1650 to 1960 the area
across tidal flats and allowing sediment‐laden drained by the tidal inlets (drainage area)
tidal waters to enter regions that have been decreased by 30 %, amounting to 149 km2 loss
diked. After the suspended sediment from in tidal flats and open‐water areas. The
the seawater is deposited, the clear water is decrease in drainage area was due in part to
discharged from the dikes at low tide and spit accretion at the eastern end of the barriers
new muddy sea water is allowed to flood but primarily a result of poldering, not only
through the dikes during the next high tide. along the landward side of the barriers but
After this procedure is repeated many hun- also along the mainland shore. As the size of
dreds of times, the tidal flat region accretes the backbarrier areas decreased, so too did
to an elevation where it can become produc- tidal prism of the inlets. Because inlet tidal
tive farmland. Poldering explains how the prism controls the volume of sand contained
backsides of the barrier have grown in size in the ebb‐tidal deltas, extensive poldering in
since 1650. the backbarrier during the 1650–1960 period
Barrier Systems 399
80 500 ultimately led to smaller equilibrium‐sized ebb

deltas. As the ebb deltas reduced in volume,
wave energy transported the deltaic sand back
Total Barrier Island Length
60 450 onshore, increasing the sand supply to the
adjacent beaches.
Drainage Area (km2)

The end result of backbarrier poldering has
Length (km)
been highly beneficial to the stability and

40 400
long‐term depositional trend along most of
Total Drainage Area
East Frisian Island chain. The striking growth
of the barriers between 1650 and 1960 is
20 350 reflected in an increase in the total length of
Total Inlet Width the barriers by more than 14 km. Most of this
increase has been at the expense of the tidal
0 300 inlets, which collectively have narrowed by
1650 1750 1860 1960 over 10 km (Box Figure 15.1.3). Thus, the his-
Box Figure 15.1.3 Graph showing morphological tory of the East Frisian Island chain demon-
changes of the East Frisian inlets between 1650 strates that changes to the backbarrier can
and 1960. During this 310‐year period the affect the sediment supply to the fronting bar-
drainage areas decreased in size, resulting in riers and more importantly, human alterations
smaller tidal inlets and longer barrier islands. can have a pronounced impact on the ero-
(Source: From FitzGerald (1988)).
sional–depositional trends of a barrier coast.
tidal ranges. Conversely, as the inner conti- 15.9 Barrier Coasts:

nental shelf flattens along this same stretch Morphology and Evolution
of coast, a greater proportion of the deepwa-
ter wave energy is attenuated. Thus, all other In some areas of the world, the historical
factors being approximately equal, tidal records are long enough to record the physi-
energy increases and wave energy decreases cal processes that produce major changes
from North Carolina to Georgia. The coastal to the coast, thereby revealing how these
response to this change in physical setting barriers evolve. In other locations, detailed
is dramatic (Figure 15.27). The wave‐ stratigraphic studies have led to a good
dominated Outer Banks consists of long lin- understanding of barrier development. Using
ear barriers interrupted by few tidal inlets these studies, examples of different barrier
and separated from the mainland by broad settings, their morphology, and evolution are
shallow sounds. Contrastingly, the mixed‐ presented below.
energy Georgia coast is composed of rela-
tively short beach ridge barriers separated by
large tidal inlets with well‐developed sand
15.9.1 Eastern Shore of Nova
shoals. The backbarrier consists of marsh
Scotia
and tidal creeks. Whereas other factors con-
trol the width of the backbarrier, location of Along glaciated coasts, local glacial deposits
inlets, sediment supply and longshore trans- are commonly the major source of sediment
port directions, the overall morphology of to form barriers. These deposits are usually
the coast is a function of wave versus tidal composed of till (a poorly sorted mixture
energy, which, in turn, is strongly influenced of gravel, sand, silt and clay) or somewhat
by continental shelf width. better‐sorted outwash sediments consisting
400 Chapter 15
of the embayment joined, a baymouth barrier

(a type of welded barrier) was formed (Stage
3) (Figure 15.29). As long as sediment sup-
plies are adequate the barriers may prograde,
resulting in a number of beach ridges and
swales. As the headlands continue to erode,
boulder retreat pavements define their for-
mer extent. Eventually, continuing sea‐level
rise and diminishing sediment supplies lead
to erosion and breaching of the barriers
(Stage 4). By Stage 5, the barriers are mostly
destroyed and some of the sediment once
contained in them is transported onshore by
flood‐tidal currents and storm wave action,
forming intertidal and subtidal shoals.
Continued sea level rise causes portions of
the subaqueous shoals to migrate onshore
and attach to new headland areas. Sediment
contributed from the shoals and from the
erosion of the new headlands helps to re‐
Tidal Range establish the barriers at the landward sites
0 1 2m (Stage 6). At this point, the growth of the new
barrier proceeds to Stage 3. With time, there
Figure 15.27 The Georgia Bight exhibits a
may be several cycles of barrier growth,
systematic alteration in coastal morphology that is
largely a product of changes in wave energy versus retreat, destruction, and re‐establishment.
tidal energy which in turn is a function of Along glaciated coasts such as the eastern
continental shelf width. (Source: From FitzGerald shore of Nova Scotia it is possible to find
(1996) using data from Nummedal et al. 1977 and examples of different stages of this evolution-
Hayes (1979)).
ary model.
of sand and fine gravel layers laid down by

15.9.2 Mississippi River Delta
glacial meltwater streams. Due to the mixed
Barriers
nature of these deposits, the barriers that
are derived from this sediment are composed The Mississippi River delta in the Gulf of
of sand and gravel. In 1987, Ron Boyd and Mexico is composed of seven major delta
colleagues at Dalhousie University proposed lobes that were deposited approximately
a six‐stage model to explain the evolution of during the past 7000 years. Each lobe repre-
the eastern shore of Nova Scotia (Figure 15.28). sents a period when the Mississippi River
According to their model, when the last was debouching its sediment load essentially
continental glaciers retreated from a position in one primary location. Thus, deltaic sedi-
on the continental shelf, a variety of glacial mentation has been characterized by periods
deposits were left behind (Stage 1). As sea of delta progradation followed by abandon-
level rose, the large valleys excavated by the ment and delta building at a different nearby
glaciers were drowned and transformed into site. This process of delta lobe switching has
embayments bordered by glacial headlands produced five different barrier shorelines
(Stage 2). As these headlands eroded due to along the Holocene delta plain.
wave attack, sand, and gravel were released., Shea Penland, John Suter, and Ron Boyd
building spits into the adjacent bays. Where presented a model of barrier evolution for the
two spit systems growing from opposite sides Mississippi River delta in 1985 (Figure 15.30).
Barrier Systems 401
2 Sea-level rise and estuary formation 3 Barrier genesis and progradation 4 Barrier retreat
Glacial
estuary
Continental
glacier
Exposed
bedrock
Ice shelf
Iceberg
1 Continental glacier and ice shelf 6 Barrier re-establishment 5 Barrier destruction
Drumlin Subaerial barrier Ocean and estuary
Glacial till Marsh Intertidal estuary sediment
Boulder retreat shoal Barrier migration path Subaqueous barrier (shoreface, tidal deltas)
Figure 15.28 Model of shore evolution for the drumlin coast of the Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia. The pathway
of barrier evolution (progradational versus retrogradational) is controlled by sediment supply and the rate of
sea‐level rise. (Source: From Boyd et al. (1987)).
Figure 15.29 The welded barrier and spits of central Nova Scotia portray Stage #3 of the drumlin coast model
of Boyd et al. (1987).
402 Chapter 15
Active delta Stage 1

Progradational deltaic headland Erosional headland: flanking barriers
Abandonment
Shell
reef
Restricted
Interdistributary
bay
Interdistributary Flanking
bay barrier
island
Flanking Erosional Tidal
barrier island headland inlet
Submergence
Reoccupation
Landward-
Shoal migrating
crest
Submergence
barrier
Shoal
Shoal front
base
Intradeltaic
Washover
lagoon terrace
Tidal
inlets
Stage 3 Stage 2
Shoreline retreat: inner shelf sand shoal Shoreline retreat: transgressive barrier arc
Regressive environments Transgressive environments

Distributary mouth bar Subaerial barrier and beach sands Adandoned distributary
Freshwater marsh Subaqueous barrier sands Active distributary
Beach ridge Sand sheet
Channel belt/alluvial ridge Salt marsh
Figure 15.30 Model of barrier evolution for the Mississippi River Delta. (Source: From Penland et al. (1988)
Source: Penland, Boyd, and Suter, 1988. Reproduced with permission of Society for Sedimentary Geology). The
driving forces behind this model are the subsiding delta plain, the rising sea level and the changes in the locus
of sediment-discharge by the Mississippi River.
In the first stage of their model, abandonment Sediment eroded from the headland forms
of the active delta leads to a subsidence of the flanking barrier spits, which are subsequently
delta plain and a high rate of relative sea‐level breached during storms. A barrier island arc
rise. The active delta is transformed into an replaces the flanking barrier spit stage as the
eroding headland with retreat of the shoreface. headland region continues to subside and sea
Barrier Systems 403
level continues to rise rapidly (Stage 2). In edge continental margins in coastal plain set-
time, the barrier island arc is separated from tings where the supply of sand is abundant.
the mainland by a large expanse of shallow The coastal plain setting appears to be an
open water. The barrier island arc migrates important requirement for the wide distribu-
onshore through overwash activity and the tion of barriers in that it provides a sediment
construction of flood shoals on the landward source and a platform upon which sediment
side of the inlets. For a time, the arc maintains can accumulate. Barriers have many different
a position above sea level by migrating on top forms but can be grouped into three major
of a stacked sequence of flood shoals and classes dependent on their connection of the
washover deposits. Eventually, the arc is trans- mainland (barrier islands, barrier spits, and
formed into a subtidal shoal as sea‐level rise welded barriers). Barriers have formed by dif-
outpaces the ability of the barrier to build ver- ferent mechanisms and most have migrated
tically (Stage 3). At this point, the active onshore to their present position. Retrograding
delta may reoccupy this region and process barrier continuously move onshore through
can begin anew. Each stage in the evolution of rollover processes, whereas, prograding barri-
the barrier coast can be seen today along the ers build seaward due to abundant sediment
Mississippi River delta. supplies and/or stable sea levels to slow rates
in sea‐level rise. Aggrading barriers are accrete
vertically, keeping pace with rising sea level.
15.10 Summary The stratigraphy of barriers is dependent on
their evolution and factors such as sediment
Barriers occur on a worldwide basis but are supply, rate of sea‐level rise, wave and tidal
predominantly found along Amero‐trailing energy, climate and topography of the land.
References
Boyd, R., Bowen, A.J., and Hall, R.K. (1987). inlets, Hydrodynamics and sediment
An evolutionary model for transgressive dynamics of tidal inlets. In: Hydrodynamics
sedimentation on the eastern shore of and Sediment Dynamics of Tidal Inlets,
nova scotia. In: Glaciated Coasts (Lecture Notes on Coastal and Estuarine
(ed. D.M. FitzGerald and P.S. Rosen), Studies Volume 29) (ed. D.G. Aubrey and L.
87–114. New York: Academic Press. Weishar), 186–225. Berlin: Springer.
Davies, D.K. (1980). Geographic Variation of FitzGerald, D.M. (1996). Geomorphic
Coastal Development. Harlow: Longman variability and morphologic and
Group. sedimentologic controls on tidal inlets.
Davies, J.L. (1973). Geographical Variation in Journal of Coastal Research, Spec Issue #
Coastal Development, 435. Edinburgh: (23): 47–71.
Oliver and Boyd. Galloway, W.E. and Hobday, D.K. (1980).
Davis, R.A. Jr. The Evolving Coast, 232. Terrigenous Clastic Depositional Systems.
Scientific America Library. New York: Springer.
Davis, R.A. Jr. and Hayes, M.O. (1984). What is a Gierloff‐Emden, H.G. (1961). Nehrungen und
wave‐dominated coast? Mar. Geol. 60: 313–329. Lagunen. Petermanns Geogr. Mitt. 105:
Dingler, J.R. and Clifton, H.E. (1994). Barrier 81–92; 161–176.
systems of California, Oregon, and Hayes, M.O. (1975). Morphology of sand
Washington. In: Geology of Holocene Barrier accumulations in estuaries. In: Estuarine
Island Systems (ed. R.A. Davis), 115–166. Research, vol. 2 (ed. L.E. Cronin), 3–22.
Berlin: Springer. New York: Academic Press.
FitzGerald, D.M. (1988). Shoreline erosional– Hayes, M.O. (1979). Barrier island morphology
depositional processes associated with tidal as a function of tidal and wave regime.
404 Chapter 15
In: Barrier Islands (ed. S.P. Leatherman), Hatteras to Cape Canaveral. Proc. of Coastal
1–28. New York: Academic Press. Sediments ’77. ASCE, Charleston, SC, pP.
Hayes, M.O., and T. Kana (1978). Terrigenous 543–562.
Clastic depositional Environments, Dept. of Oertel, G. (1975). Ebb‐tidal deltas of Georgia
Geology, University of South Carolina, estuaries. In: Estuarine Research, vol. 2
Columbia, South Carolina. (ed. L.E. Cronin), 267–276. New York:
McCubbin, D.G. (1982). Barrier‐island strand Academic Press.
plain facies. In: Sandstone Depositional Penland, S., Boyd, R., and Suter, J.R. (1988).
Environments (ed. P.A. Scholle and D. Transgressive depositional systems
Spearing), 247–280. Tulsa, OK: A.A.P.G. of the Mississippi Delta plain: model
Publishers. for barrier shoreline and shelf sand
Nummedal, D., Oertel, G., Hubbard, D.K., and development. Jour. of Sed. Pet. 58:
Hine, A. (1977). Tidal inlet variability ‐ Cape 932–949.
Suggested Reading
Carter, R.W.G. and Woodroffe, C.D. (eds.) Geology, University of South Carolina,
(1994). Coastal Evolution. Cambridge: Columbia, South Carolina.
Cambridge University Press. King, C.A.M. (1972). Beaches and Coasts.
Coates, R. (ed.) (1973). Coastal New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Geomorphology. Binghamton, NY: State Leatherman, S.P. (1983). Barrier Island: From
University of New York Press. the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of
Cronin, L.E. (ed.) (1978). Estuarine Research, Mexico. New York: Academic Press.
vol. 2. New York: Academic Press. Oertel, G.F., and S.P. Leatherman (1985).
Davis, R.A. (ed.) (1994). Geology of Holocene Marine Geology, 63. Special Issue: Barrier
Barrier Island Systems. Berlin: Springer. Islands.
Fletcher, C.H., and J.F. Wehmiller, eds. (1992). Nummedal, D., Pilkey, O.H., and Howard, J.D.
Quaternary Coasts of the United States: (eds.) (1987). Sea Level Fluctuation and
Marine and Lacustrine Systems. SEPM Coastal Evolution, SEPM Spec. Pub. #41.
Spec. Pub. #48. Schwartz, M.L. (ed.) (1973). Barrier Islands.
Hayes, M.O., and T. Kana (1978). Terrigenous Stroudsburg, PA, Dowden, Hutchinson,
Clastic depositional Environments, Dept. of and Ross.
405
16
Tidal Inlets
16.1 Introduction close. When this occurs, the freshwater

influx gradually reduces the salinity in the
Tidal inlets are found along barrier coastlines lagoon, making the environment inhospita-
throughout the world. They provide a pas- ble to many saltwater shellfish. The spits
sageway for ships and small boats to travel fronting these lagoons are then artificially
from the open ocean to sheltered waters opened to maintain the proper habitat for
(Figure 16.1). Along many coasts of the various types of clams that are harvested by
world, including much of the east and Gulf local fishermen.
Coasts of the United States, the only safe Understanding tidal inlet processes is not
harborages, including some major ports, are only important for the maintenance of navi-
found behind barrier islands. The impor- gable waterways, but also for the manage-
tance of inlets in providing navigation routes ment of adjacent barrier shorelines. Tidal
to these harbors is demonstrated by the large inlets interrupt the longshore transport of
number of improvements that are performed sediment affecting both the supply of sand to
at the entrance to inlets such as stabilization the downdrift beaches and erosional–depo-
by the construction of jetties and breakwa- sitional processes along the inlet shoreline.
ters, dredging of channels and the operation As will be shown, the largest scale of shore-
of sand‐bypassing facilities. line changes along barriers occurs in the
Tidal inlets are also conduits through vicinity of inlets and these are a direct conse-
which nutrients are exchanged between quence of tidal inlet processes. The changes
backbarrier lagoons and estuaries and the may be due to inlet migration, concentrated
open coast. Numerous species of finfish and wave energy, large bars migrating onshore,
shellfish rely upon tidal inlets for access to sand losses to the backbarrier, and other
backbarrier regions for feeding, breeding, processes that will be treated in this chapter.
and as nursery grounds of their young. The This information may become particularly
fact that many fish travel through inlets in important when considering the purchase
search of food makes tidal inlets prize loca- of real estate on barrier islands in the vicinity
tions for saltwater sport‐fishing. In many of inlets (Figure 16.2).
lagoons, tidal inlets maintain the salinities,
temperatures, and nutrient levels that are
necessary for the reproduction and growth of 16.2 What Is a Tidal Inlet
valuable shellfish. For example, along the
coast of Massachusetts, there are several A tidal inlet is defined as an opening in the
sites in which the saltwater passageways shoreline through which water penetrates
(tidal inlets) to the bay or lagoon periodically the land, thereby proving a connection
406 Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Tidal inlets serve as passageways to harbors and conduits through which nutrients are exported
to coastal waters.
Figure 16.2 The apartment building at the northeastern end of Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina is
endangered by the southerly migration of Masons Inlet.
between the ocean and bays, lagoons, and The second half of this definition
marsh and tidal creek systems. The main istinguishes tidal inlets from large, open
d
channel of a tidal inlet is maintained by tidal embayments, or passageways along rocky
currents (Figure 16.3). coasts. Tidal currents at inlets are responsible
Tidal Inlets 407
Figure 16.3 Tidal inlets are the openings along barrier shorelines. They allow the exchange of tidal waters
between the ocean and backbarrier, which consists of bays, lagoons and marsh and tidal creeks. They are
fronted by ebb‐tidal deltas and backed by flood‐tidal deltas.
for the continual removal of sediment in the channel or seaward of the harbor. In
dumped into the main channel by wave this case, the tidal currents generated by a
action. Thus, according to this definition, 2.7 m tidal range remove little or no sedi-
tidal inlets occur along sandy or sand and ment from the entrance channel. Because
gravel barrier coastlines, although one side tidal currents are not required to sustain the
may abut a bedrock headland. For example, dimensions of the channel, the entrance to
along the coast of Maine the entrance to York York Harbor is not a tidal inlet (Figure 16.4).
Harbor is bordered on both sides by bedrock Some tidal inlets coincide with the mouths
and there is very little mobile sediment found of rivers (estuaries) but in these cases inlet
408 Chapter 16
Figure 16.4 Entrance to York Harbor, Maine. This is a bedrock passageway. It is not a tidal inlet because there
is little sediment deposited in the channel by wave action and tidal currents are not needed to keep the
channel open.
dimensions and sediment transport trends Bay-Ocean Tidal Lag

are still governed, to a large extent, by the
volume of water exchanged at the inlet
mouth and the reversing tidal currents,
Bay Ocean
respectively.
Tidal currents are produced at inlets due to A B
the rise and fall of the tides (Figure 16.5).
During the rising tide, the water level of the
ocean rises at a faster rate than that inside
the inlet. The water surface slope created
Land
by this condition causes the sea to flow into
the inlet. This landward flowing water is
Bay Ocean
called a flood‐tidal current. During the fall-
A B
ing tide, the water level of the ocean drops time 3 high slack water time 3
ahead of that of the bay inside the inlet.
The seaward‐sloping water surface produces time 4
ebb‐tidal currents. time 2
time 4
At most inlets over the long term, the
time 2
volume of water entering the inlet during flooding tide ebbing tide
the flooding tide equals the volume of (flow into bay) (flow out of bay)
water leaving the inlet during the ebbing time 1 low slack water time 1
cycle. This volume is referred to as the tidal
prism. The tidal prism is a function of the Figure 16.5 Tidal currents at inlets commonly reach
speeds of 1–2 m s–1. They are produced by a
open‐water area in the backbarrier and the constriction of the tidal wave whereby the changing
tidal range. For example, a rough estimate water level in the ocean precedes the tide level
of the tidal prism going into and out of inside the inlet.
Tidal Inlets 409
Mobile Bay, Alabama is determined by mum velocity. Commonly, the strength of the
multiplying the area of Mobile Bay by the currents at the throat causes sand to be
tidal range inside the bay. For backbarriers removed from the channel floor leaving
containing large intertidal areas such as behind a lag deposit consisting of gravel or
marsh and tidal creeks or tidal flats, calcu- shells or in some locations exposed bedrock.
lating the tidal prism is more difficult and
it must be determined from tidal current
and channel cross‐section measurements. 16.3.1 Tidal Deltas
Frictional effects imparted by the inlet Closely associated with tidal inlets are sand
channel and backbarrier system also affect shoals and tidal channels located on the
the tidal prism. landward and seaward sides of the inlets.
These sand deposits develop in response to
tidal inlet and backbarrier processes.
16.3 Inlet Morphology Waves breaking along adjacent beaches
deliver sand to the inlet, dumping some of
A tidal inlet is specifically the area between it into the main channel. Depending upon
the two barriers or between the barrier and the tidal cycle, this sand is transported sea-
the adjacent bedrock or glacial headland. ward by the ebb currents or landward by
Commonly, the sides of the inlet are formed the flood currents. As the tidal waters flow
by the recurved ridges of spits, consisting beyond the constriction of the barriers, the
of sand that was transported toward the currents expand laterally losing their veloc-
backbarrier by refracted waves and flood‐ ity and their ability to transport sand. The
tidal currents. The deepest part of an inlet, sand that is deposited landward of the inlet
which is termed the inlet throat, is normally forms a flood‐tidal delta and the sand
located where spit accretion of one or deposited on the seaward side forms an
both of the bordering barriers constricts ebb‐tidal delta.
the inlet channel to a minimum width
(Figure 16.6). This constriction is similar to 16.3.1.1 Flood‐tidal Deltas
placing your thumb over the nozzle of a The presence or absence, size, and develop-
hose to increase the velocity of the water ment of flood‐tide deltas are related to a
flowing from the hose. Likewise, the mini- region’s tidal range, wave energy, sediment
mum cross section of the inlet throat is the supply and backbarrier setting. Tidal inlets
site where tidal currents reach their maxi- that are connected to one broad backbarrier
Mainland Flood-Tidal
Delta Barrier
Island
Mainland Bay Ocean
Bay Terminal Lobe
MHW
MLW
Inlet
Barrier Ebb-Tidal Flood-Tidal Throat Ebb-Tidal
Island Delta A Delta Delta B
Ocean
B
Figure 16.6 Longitudinal and cross‐sections of a tidal inlet. Note that the inlet throat is the narrowest and
deepest region of the tidal inlet.
410 Chapter 16
channel and tidal marsh system (mixed‐ ●● Flood ramp – This is a landward‐shallowing

energy coast) usually contain a single relatively channel that slopes upward toward the
large flood‐tidal delta lobe (i.e. Essex River intertidal portion of the delta. The ramp is
Inlet, Massachusetts; Figure 16.7a). dominated by strong flood‐tidal currents
Contrastingly, inlets such as Drum Inlet and landward sand transport in the form of
along the Outer Banks of North Carolina (a landward‐oriented sandwaves.1
wave‐dominated coast), that are backed by ●● Flood channels – The flood ramp splits
large shallow bays, may contain flood‐tidal into two shallow flood channels. Like the
deltas with numerous lobes (Figure 16.7b). flood ramp, these channels are dominated
Along some microtidal coasts, such as Rhode by flood‐tidal currents and flood‐oriented
Island, flood deltas form at the end of narrow sand waves. Sand is delivered through
inlet channels cut through the barrier. these channels onto the flood delta.
Temporal and spatial changes in the locus of ●● Ebb shield – This defines the highest and
deposition at these deltas produce a multi‐ landwardmost part of the flood delta and
lobate morphology resembling a lobate river may be partly covered by marsh vegeta-
delta. (See Chapter 8 on deltas.) The small tion. When the ebb currents reach their
tidal range of this region prevents their strongest velocity in the backbarrier the
reworking by ebb‐tidal currents as occurs on tide has fallen such that the ebb shield is
mesotidal coasts. out of the water. Thus the ebb shields pro-
To some extent, delta size is related to the tects the rest of the delta from the effects of
amount of open water area in the backbar- the ebb‐tidal currents.
rier and the size of the tidal inlet. Along ●● Ebb spits – These spits extend from the ebb
the mixed‐energy coast of Maine, where shield toward the inlet. They form from
tidal inlets are comparatively small sand that is eroded from the ebb shield and
(width < 100 m), flood‐tidal deltas are cor- transported back toward the inlet by ebb‐
respondingly small and stacked in an alter- tidal currents.
nating pattern along the main tidal creek. ●● Spillover lobes – These are lobes of sand
Tidal inlets along the barrier coast of central that form where the ebb currents have
South Carolina have no flood‐tidal deltas breached through the ebb spits or ebb
because the backbarrier has almost com- shield depositing sand in the interior of the
pletely filled with fine‐grained sediment and delta.
marsh deposits, resulting in tidal channels
Through time, some flood‐tidal deltas
that are too narrow and deep for delta
accrete vertically and/or grow in size. This is
development. In some cases, deltas may
evidenced by an increase in areal extent of
have become colonized and altered by marsh
marsh grasses which require a certain
growth, and are no longer recognizable as
elevation above mean low water to exist.

former flood‐tidal deltas. This may be the case
At migrating inlets new flood‐tidal deltas are
for some inlets in central South Carolina. At
other sites, portions of flood‐tidal deltas are
dredged to provide navigable waterways and 1 Bedforms- Sediment moved along the channel
thus they become highly modified. bottom by tidal currents is commonly organized into
repetitive, elongated packets of sand called bedforms.
Flood‐tidal deltas are best revealed in Like any waveform, each bedform has a crest and
areas with moderate to large tidal ranges trough. A group of bedforms covering any one area
(1.5–3.0 m) because in these regions they are tend to parallel one another and their crests are aligned
well exposed at low tide. As tidal range perpendicular to the flow. Sandwaves are a type of
decreases, flood deltas become largely sub‐ bedform usually ranging in height (vertical distance
from crest to trough) from 0.5 to 3 m with a spacing
tidal shoals. Mixed‐energy flood‐tidal deltas (distance from crest to crest) of 10 m to more than
have similar morphologies consisting of the 100 m. Sandwaves commonly floor channels and extend
following components (Figure 16.8): across the width of the channel.
Tidal Inlets 411
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.7 The morphology of flood‐tidal deltas is a function of inlet size, open‐water area of the bay, tidal
range, and other factors. (a) View of single flood‐tidal delta in New Zealand. (b) Multiple delta lobes at
Chatham Inlet, Massachusetts. (Source: Photo taken by Albert Hine in early 1970s.)
formed as the inlet moves along the coast deltas is controlled by the elevation of the
and encounters new open water areas in the tide and the strength and direction of the
backbarrier. At most stable inlets, however, tidal currents. During the rising tide, flood
sand comprising the flood delta is simply currents reach their strongest velocities near
recirculated. The transport of sand on flood high tide when the entire flood‐tidal delta is
412 Chapter 16
(a)
(b) (c)
Flood Tidal Delta
5 3 1. Flood Ramp
2. Flood Channel
4 3. Ebb Shield
2
4. Ebb Spit
5. Spillover Lobe
(d) Flood Tidal Delta

nd 1. Main Ebb Channel
Isla
rier 2. Marginal Flood
Bar
2 Channel
1 3. Swash Platform
d
lan 3
r Is 6
rrie 4. Terminal Lobe
Ba 5
2 4 5. Swash Bars
6. Channel Margin
Linear Bars
Figure 16.8 Miles Hayes conceived mixed‐energy models of tidal deltas in the early 1970s working along the
coast of New England. (a) Oblique aerial photograph of Essex River Inlet. (b) Overhead aerial photograph of
Essex River Inlet. (c) Model of flood‐tidal delta. (Source: After Hayes (1975).) (d) Model of ebb‐tidal delta.
(Source: After Hayes (1975).)
covered by water. Hence, there is a net trans- and into the surrounding tidal channel.
port of sand up the flood ramp, through the During the falling tide, the strongest ebb cur-
flood channels and onto the ebb shield. Some rents occur near mid to low water. At this
of the sand is moved across the ebb shield time, the ebb shield is out of the water and
Tidal Inlets 413
diverts the currents around the delta. The ●● Swash bars – Waves breaking over the ter-
ebb currents erode sand from the landward minal lobe and across the swash platform
face of the ebb shield and transport it along form arcuate‐shaped swash bars that
the ebb spits and eventually into the inlet migrate onshore. The bars are usually
channel, where once again it will be moved 50–150 m long, 50 m wide, and 1– 2 m in
onto the flood ramp, thus completing the height.
sand gyre. ●● Marginal‐flood channels – These are shal-
In some locations, such as Shinnecock low channels (0.2–2.0 m deep at mean low
Inlet on Long Island, New York and Ogunquit water) located between the channel mar-
River Inlet, Maine flood‐tidal deltas have gin linear bars and the onshore beaches.
been mined for their sand which is pumped The channels are dominated by flood‐tidal
onto eroding beaches. However, this practice currents.
may actually create a sediment sink in the
As stated previously, the deepest section
backbarrier which, in turn, may contribute to
of an inlet occurs at the inlet throat, where
the erosion of beaches along the adjacent
depths exceeding 8 m are common. Moving
inlet shoreline.
out the inlet channel, depths gradually shal-
low to the point one or two kilometers sea-
16.3.1.2 Ebb‐tidal Deltas ward of the inlet throat where water depths
These are an accumulation of sand that has may be less than 2 m. Waves breaking over
been deposited by the ebb‐tidal currents the terminal lobe lead to numerous boating
and which has been subsequently modified accidents each year including the loss of
by waves and tidal currents. Ebb deltas lives. Boaters may be caught unaware of the
exhibit a variety of forms dependent on the breaking wave conditions because in the
relative magnitude of wave and tidal energy deeper, landward portions of the main ebb
of the region as well as geological controls. channel the waters may be relatively calm.
Despite this variability, most ebb‐tidal Breaking waves along the periphery of the
deltas contain the same general features
ebb delta are usually due to a combination
including (Figure 16.8): of near‐low‐tide conditions which produce
●● Main ebb channel – This is a seaward‐shal- shallow water depths, large waves and ebb‐
lowing channel that is scoured in the ebb‐ tidal currents. The ebb currents cause a
tidal delta sands. It is dominated by shortening of the distance between the
ebb‐tidal currents. incoming waves. This stacking phenome-
●● Terminal lobe – Sediment transported out non produces steep waves, leading to break-
the main ebb channel is deposited in a lobe of ing waves.
sand forming the terminal lobe. The deposit
slopes relatively steeply on its seaward side.
16.3.2 Ebb‐Tidal Delta
The outline of the terminal lobe is well
Morphology
defined by breaking waves during storms or
periods of large wave swell at low tide. The general shape of an ebb‐tidal delta and
●● Swash platform – This is a broad shallow the distribution of its sand bodies tell us
sand platform located on both sides of the about the relative magnitude of different
main ebb channel, defining the general sand transport processes operating at a
extent of the ebb delta. tidal inlet (Figure 16.9). Ebb‐tidal deltas
●● Channel margin linear bars – These are that elongate with a main ebb channel
bars that border the main ebb channel and and channel margin linear bars that extend
sit atop the swash platform. These bars far offshore are tide‐dominated inlets.
tend to confine the ebb flow and are Wave‐generated sand transport plays a
exposed at low tide. secondary role in modifying delta shape at
414 Chapter 16
(a) (c) Predominant north

longshore current
Longshore currents
exceed effects of
tidal flow
(b) (d) Inlet (tidal) currents

Predominant south exceed effects of
longshore currents longshore tidal
currents
North
Figure 16.9 The morphology of an ebb‐tidal delta indicates the relative influence of wave versus tidal energy
as well as the dominant direction of longshore sediment transport. (Source: From Oertel (1975).)
these inlets. Because most sand movement ebb channel, which is a product of ebb‐tidal
in the inlet is in an onshore–offshore direc- currents. Their swash platform and sand bod-
tion, the ebb‐tidal delta overlaps a relatively ies substantially overlap the inlet shoreline
small length of inlet shoreline. As will be many times the width of the inlet throat due to
demonstrated, this has important implica- wave processes and flood‐tidal currents.
tions concerning the extent to which the Ebb‐tidal deltas may also be highly asym-
inlet shoreline undergoes erosional and metric such that the main ebb channel and
depositional changes. its associated sand bodies are positioned
Wave‐dominated inlets tend to be small primarily along one of the inlet shorelines.
relative to tide‐dominated inlets. Their ebb‐ This configuration normally occurs when
tidal deltas are pushed onshore, close to the the major backbarrier channel approaches
inlet mouth by the dominant wave processes. the inlet at an oblique angle or when a pref-
Commonly, the terminal lobe and/or swash erential accumulation of sand on the
bars form a small arc outlying the periphery updrift side of the ebb delta causes a deflec-
of the delta. In many cases the ebb‐tidal delta tion of the main ebb channel along the
of these inlets is entirely subtidal. In other downdrift barrier shoreline. Both condi-
instances, sand bodies clog the entrance to tions occur at Parker River Inlet along the
the inlet, leading to the formation of several North Shore of Massac husetts and thus
major and minor tidal channels. its ebb‐tidal delta significantly overlaps the
At mixed‐energy tidal inlets the shape of downdrift shoreline of Castle Neck whereas
the delta is the result of tidal and wave pro- very little of the ebb delta overlaps the
cesses. These deltas have a well‐formed main updrift shoreline of Plum Island.
Tidal Inlets 415
16.4 Tidal Inlet Formation elevated bay waters flow across the barrier
toward the ocean, gradually incising the
The formation of a tidal inlet requires the barrier and cutting a channel. If subse-
presence of an embayment and the develop- quent tidal exchange between the ocean
ment of barriers. In coastal plain settings, and bay is able to maintain the channel, a
the embayment or backbarrier was often tidal inlet is established. The breaching
created through the construction of the bar- process is enhanced when offshore winds
riers themselves, like much of the east coast accompany the falling tide and if an over-
of the United States or the Frisian Island wash channel is present to facilitate drain-
coast along the North Sea. In other age across the barrier. Along the Gulf Coast
instances, the embayment was formed due of the United States hurricanes have been
to rising sea level inundating an irregular responsible for the development of numer-
shoreline during the late Holocene. The ous tidal inlets (e.g. Hurricane Pass,
embayed or indented shoreline may have Florida). Many of the tidal inlets that are
been a rocky coast such as that of northern formed through breaching are ephemeral
New England and California or it may have and may exist for less than a year, especially
been an irregular unconsolidated sediment if stable inlets are located nearby. Barriers
coast such as that of Cape Cod in most susceptible to breaching are long and
Massachusetts or parts of the Oregon coast. thin and wave‐dominated. For example,
The flooding of former river valleys has also although there are only four stable inlets
produced embayments associated with tidal along the Outer Banks of North Carolina
inlet development. The coastal processes today, historical records indicate that at
responsible for the formation of tidal inlets least 26 former inlets have opened and
are described below. closed at various locations in the past. The
reason why inlets close will be discussed
later in this chapter.
16.4.1 Breaching of a Barrier
Rising sea level, exhausted sediment sup-
16.4.2 Spit Building across a Bay
plies, and human influences have led to
erosion along much of the world’s coastlines, The development of a tidal inlet by spit con-
including its barrier island chains and bar- struction across an embayment usually
rier spit systems. This condition has caused occurs early in the evolution of a coast. The
a thinning of many barriers such that they sediment to form these spits may have come
are vulnerable to breaching during storms. from erosion of the nearby headlands, dis-
Breaching occurs when a barrier is cut form- charge from rivers, or from the landward
ing a channel (Figure 16.10). It is by far the movement of sand from inner shelf deposits.
most common mechanism by which tidal As discussed in Chapter 15, Barrier Systems,
inlets form today. The breaching process most of barriers along the coast of the United
normally occurs during storms after waves States and elsewhere in the world are less
have destroyed the foredune ridge and storm than 5000 years old, coinciding with a decel-
waves have overwashed the barrier deposit- eration of rising sea level. It was then that
ing sand aprons (washovers) along the back- spits began enclosing portions of the irregu-
side of the barrier. Even though this process lar rocky coast of New England, the west
may produce a shallow overwash channel, coast, parts of Australia, and many other
seldom are barriers cut from their seaward regions of the world.
side. In most instances, the breaching of a As a spit builds across a bay, the opening
barrier is the result of the storm surge to the bay gradually decreases in width and
heightening waters in the backbarrier bay. in cross sectional area (Figure 16.11). It
When the level of the ocean tide falls, the may also deepen. Coincident with the
416 Chapter 16
Time 1: ~20 years prior to breaching

lagoon
foredune
barrier
tidal
inlet
ocean
Long-term Erosion
Time 2: ~2 years prior to breaching
Localized Breaching of Foredune
Former Shoreline Position

Time 3: Storm overwash
Prior to Storm Landfall lagoon - LOW water level
partial barrier submergence ocean - HIGH

by storm surge OVERWASH water level
Time 4: Storm ebb-surge and breaching

Following Storm Landfall lagoon - HIGH water level
new inlets
ocean - LOW
emergence following EBB-SURGE water level
storm surge
Figure 16.10 Generally the formation of a new tidal inlet is associated with the breaching of a barrier during a
storm. The stages in this process involve a thinning of the barrier through long‐term erosion, destruction of
the fore‐dune ridge, storm overwash, and finally a deepening of a channel through the barrier.
decrease in size of the opening is a corre- The equilibrium size of a tidal inlet can
sponding increase in tidal flow. The tidal also be explained in terms of sediment trans-
prism of the bay remains constant, so as port. Waves and flood‐tidal currents are
the opening gets smaller, the current veloc- responsible for delivering sediment to the
ities must increase. Again, this is similar to inlet and dumping a large portion of the sand
gradually placing your thumb over an into the inlet channel. The inlet responds to
increasingly larger portion of the nozzle to this deposition and decrease in cross sec-
a hose. For the flow out the hose to remain tional area by increasing the tidal flow,
constant, the velocity has to increase. The thereby increasing the transport capacity
tidal inlet is formed as the bay reaches a of the tidal currents. Thus, the tidal inlet
stable configuration. reaches an equilibrium state when the
Tidal Inlets 417
(a)
Time 1. Spit growth across a bay Time 2. Spit extension and inlet formation
open bay
bay FORMER
SHORELINE
POSITIONS
GROWING
SPIT
ocean TIDAL
longshore INLET spit extension
sediment transport ocean
(b)
Figure 16.11 Spit construction across an embayment can create a tidal inlet. (a) Model of inlet formation due
to spit accretion. (b) Aerial photograph of spit building and inlet development in Slocum Embayment,
Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts.
amount of sand dumped into the inlet equals

16.4.3 Drowned River Valleys
the volume removed by the tidal currents.
In fact, there are some tidal inlets, such as In many locations tidal inlets are located at
Barnstable Harbor Inlet located in Cape Cod the sites of drowned river valleys. A drowned
Bay, Massachusetts, that are still developing river valley is valley that was enlarged when
because Sandy Neck continues to build sea level was lower and rivers extended their
across the Barnstable Bay. As the width of the pathways across the continental shelf to
inlet decreases, the equilibrium throat cross‐ shorelines that were many miles seaward of
section is maintained by the inlet channel where they are today. Sea level lowering was
deepening. This spit and inlet system has in response to the growth of continental
been evolving over the past 3500 years. glaciers during the Pleistocene Epoch. When
418 Chapter 16
the ice sheets retreated northward and water tidal inlet because its mouth has not been
from the melting ice was returned back to constricted through barrier construction,
ocean basins, rising sea level flooded the whereas the entrances to Mobile Bay in
enlarged valleys, forming drowned river Alabama and Grays Harbor in Washington
valleys. Due to the freshwater discharge and are tidal inlets due to barrier development.
saltwater mixing at these locations, most It has been shown through stratigraphic
drowned river valleys are estuaries. studies, particularly along the east coast of
Tidal inlets have formed at the entrance to the United States, that in addition to drowned
drowned river valleys due to the growth of river valleys, many tidal inlets are positioned
spits and the development of barrier islands in paleo‐river valleys in which there is no
which have served to narrow the mouths of river leading to this site today. These are old
the estuaries (Figure 16.12). They are deline- river courses that were active during the
ated as tidal inlets when the dimensions of the Pleistocene when sea level was lower and they
inlet throat and overall sediment transport were migrating across the exposed continen-
trends are a consequence of the saltwater tal shelf. Tidal inlets become situated in these
tidal prism and the reversing tidal currents. valleys because the sediment filling the val-
Thus, the entrance to Chesapeake Bay is not a leys is easily removed by tidal currents. Once
Explanation
Seabrook
Beach Coastal Drumlin
Deposits
Merrimack
River Salisbury Mainland &
Beach Supratidal
Backbarrier
Islands
Marsh
Joppa Intertidal Sand

Merrimack
Flats Flats
Inlet
Parker
Barriers
River Plum
Island Anthropogenic
Freshwater
Marsh
Rowley
River N
Parker
River Inlet
5 km
Castle
Neck Essex Inlet
Ipswich
River Coffins
Essex Beach
Cape
River
Ann
Figure 16.12 The location of tidal inlets commonly coincides with former river valleys. This situation is
exemplified by the inlets that occupy drowned river valleys along the Merrimack barrier system in northern
New England.
Tidal Inlets 419
a tidal inlet migrates to one of these former 16.5 Tidal Inlet Migration

valleys the inlet channel scours vertically,
excavating the former riverine sediments and Some tidal inlets have been stable since their
becoming anchored. Commonly, the sedi- formation whereas others have migrated
ment layers on either side of the paleo‐valley long distances along the shore. In New
are more resistant to erosion than are the val- England and along other glaciated coasts,
ley‐fill sediments. Therefore after a tidal inlet stable inlets are commonly anchored next to
occupies a paleo‐valley further migration of bedrock outcrops or resistant glacial depos-
the inlet is impeded. Drowned river valleys its. Along the California coast most tidal
and paleo‐river channels comprise at least inlets have formed by spit construction
25 % of tidal inlet locations today, especially across an embayment, with the inlet becom-
deep inlets (depth > 8 m). ing stabilized adjacent to a bedrock head-
land. As previously discussed, in coastal
plain settings stable inlets are commonly
16.4.4 Ephemeral Inlets
positioned in former river valleys. One factor
The most common type of ephemeral inlet is that appears to separate migrating inlets
the one that is a product of hurricanes from stable inlets is the depth to which the
(Figure 16.13). During Hurricane Alicia in inlet throat has eroded. For example, along
1983, 185 km h−1 (115 mph) winds and 3‐m the South Carolina coast tidal inlets deeper
storm surge were responsible for cutting 80 than 8 m are stable, whereas inlets shallower
tidal inlets along the Texas coast. None of than 3–4 m have histories of migration.
these hurricane passes, as they are called, Deeper inlets are often entrenched in
lasted for more than a month. The ephemeral consolidated sediments that resist erosion.
inlets were filled with sediment that was The channels of shallow migrating inlets are
transported onshore and along the coast by eroded into sand.
wave action. Tidal inlets migrate when the longshore
A special case of tidal inlet formation transport of sand is added predominantly to
occurs at welded barriers along glaciated one side of the inlet causing a constriction of
coasts such as sections of Alaska, New the flow area (Figure 16.15a). As the tidal
England, and Canada. Welded barriers at currents scour the channel to remove this
these sites are usually short in length (<1 km), sand, the downdrift side of the inlet channel
composed of sand and gravel, and are backed is eroded preferentially and the inlet migrates
by small fresh‐ to brackish‐water ponds and in that direction. Generally, the rate of inlet
lakes. Freshwater inflow to the backbarrier is migration tends to be high along wave‐domi-
derived from small streams and precipita- nated coasts, where the inlet channel is
tion. Under normal conditions the freshwa- scoured into sand and there is abundant
ter influx is insufficient to cause overtopping sediment supply.
of the barriers because the sand and gravel Although the vast majority of tidal inlets
comprising the barrier permits water to per- migrate in the direction of dominant long-
colate through the barrier sediment and shore transport, there are some inlets that
drain into the ocean. However, during intense migrate updrift. In these cases the drainage
rain storms and/or melting snow, stream dis- of backbarrier tidal creeks control flow
charge may increase substantially until water through the inlet. When a major backbarrier
in the pond flows across the barrier, cutting a tidal channel approaches the inlet at an
channel and forming a tidal inlet. These oblique angle, the ebb‐tidal currents coming
inlets are usually short‐lived and last only a from this channel are directed toward the
few months because spit accretion and the margin of the inlet throat. If this is the updrift
formation of flood tidal deltas seal off the side of the main channel, then the inlet will
channel (Figure 16.14). migrate in that direction. This is similar to a
420 Chapter 16
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.13 Tidal inlets may form during the passage of major storm when waves batter and dismantle
dunes and washover from incipient channels across the barrier. When floodwaters exit the bays, water is often
funneled through these channels, deepening them and sometimes forming a permanent inlet. In most cases,
the inlet channel closes after a few months. (a) Several ephemeral inlets were opened along the northeast
coast of Dauphine Island, Mississippi in 1979 as a result of Hurricane Frederick. Hurricane passes, as they are
called in Gulf Coast region, usually close shortly after they are formed because they are unable to capture a
signification portion of the bay tidal prism. (b) In 2011, Hurricane Irene cut temporary hurricane passes
through the Outer Banks of North Carolina.
Tidal Inlets 421
(a)
(b)
Briggs Marsh Pond
Salt marsh
LW Supratidal grasses and shrubbery

M
Beach grass (ammophila)
Unvegetated sand and gravel
Beach ridges
Flood-tidal delta complex
Tombolo components
Sand
Gravel lag
Quicksand Pond Bedrock island
200 m
MLW
Figure 16.14 Ephemeral tidal inlets form along sand and gravel welded barriers on glaciated coasts. Inlets
develop when the inflow of freshwater causes lake levels to overtop the barrier. As water drains across the
barrier a channel is cut, forming an ephemeral tidal inlet. (a) Aerial photograph of welded barriers along the
southern coast of New England. (b) Map of two ephemeral inlets illustrating how they close due spit accretion
and the deposition of flood tidal deltas.
422 Chapter 16
(a) FORMER
SHORELINE
POSITION
barrier
tidal island
barrier inlet
island
A B
longshore
sediment
transport
DOWNDRIFT CHANNEL MIGRATION

A B
erosion deposition
INLET
CHANNEL
(b)
Figure 16.15 Migrating tidal inlets generally occur along coasts having a dominant longshore sediment
transport direction such that sand is added preferentially to one side of the inlet channel. This type of inlet is
usually shallow. The inlet channel is not eroded into resistant sediments, which would impede the process of
migration. (a) Model of a migrating inlet. (b) This inlet is migrating left to right. Flood‐tidal deltas formed at
former inlet positions are vegetated, whereas the flood‐tidal delta immediately landward of the inlet is
relatively immature and mostly intertidal to subtidal.
Tidal Inlets 423
river where strong currents are focused along locations. Through statistical analysis
the outside of a meander bend, causing (regression analysis), whereby inlet param-
erosion and channel migration. Inlets that eters are plotted against one another, two
migrate updrift are usually small to moder- important correlations have been discov-
ately sized and occur along coasts with ered: Inlet throat cross‐sectional area is
small to moderate net sand longshore closely related to tidal prism; and ebb‐tidal
transport rates. delta volume is a function of tidal prism.
16.6 Tidal Inlet 16.6.1 Inlet Throat Area–Tidal

Prism Relationship
Relationships
It has long been recognized that the size of a
Tidal inlets throughout the world exhibit tidal inlet is tied closely to the volume of
several consistent relationships that have water going through it. In 1931 Morrough
allowed coastal engineers and marine geol- O’Brien quantified this relationship for inlets
ogists to formulate predictive models. These on the west coast (hence it is called the
models are effective tools when undertaking O’Brien Relationship) by plotting the cross‐
tidal inlet projects and are used by engi- sectional area of the inlet throat (measured at
neers and coastal managers to plan jetty mean sea level) versus its tidal prism during
construction, channel dredging, and the use spring tide conditions (Figure 16.16). Because
of ebb‐tidal deltas for beach nourishment the data plot approximately along a line, he
material. The models are based on field was able to derive a simple equation to repre-
data collected at many different tidal inlet sent this correlation. Later, in 1969 he showed
1011
A = 8.598 × 10–4 P0.85

TIDAL PRISM (SPRING OR DIURNAL) m3 (P)
2
1010
109 2
108
107
102 103 104 105 106
MINIMUM CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF INLET (m)2
BELOW MSL (A)
Figure 16.16 O’Brien’s Relationship demonstrates that a strong correlation exists between an inlet’s spring
tidal prism and its throat cross‐sectional area (O’Brien 1931, 1969).
424 Chapter 16
that the relationship could be extended to 16.6.1.1 Variability

inlets along the East and Gulf Coasts and It is important to understand that the dimen-
since that time other scientists have revealed sions of the inlet channel are not static but
that, with slight modification, the relation- rather the inlet channel enlarges and contracts
ship exists for inlets all over the world. slightly over relatively short time periods
Although it seems very reasonable that the (<1 year) in response to changes in tidal prism,
opening of an inlet should be controlled by variations in wave energy, effects of storms,
its tidal prism, the reason why this corre- and other factors. For instance, the inlet tidal
spondence exists globally is because the fill- prism can vary by more than 30 % from neap
ing and emptying of the backbarrier are to spring tides due increasing tidal ranges.
governed by the rise and fall of the ocean Consequently, the size of the inlet varies as a
tides. Most barrier coasts experience semi‐ function of tidal phases. Along the southern
diurnal tides (two tidal cycles daily) and Atlantic coast of the United States water tem-
therefore the ocean tidal forcing of the filling peratures may fluctuate seasonally by 16 °C
and emptying of backbarrier areas world‐ (30 °F). This causes the surface coastal waters
wide has the same duration, approximately to expand, raising mean sea level by 30 cm or
6 hours and 13 minutes. This concept is illus- more. In the summer and fall when mean sea
trated well by comparing two inlets along the level reaches its highest seasonal elevation,
Gulf Coast – Midnight Pass in Florida, with a spring tides may flood backbarrier surfaces
tidal prism of 7.4 million cubic meters, and that normally are above tidal inundation. This
the entrance to Mobile Bay in Mississippi produces larger tidal prisms, stronger tidal
which has a much larger tidal prism of currents, increased channel scour, and larger
960 million cubic meters. If both inlets are to inlet cross‐sectional areas. At some Virginia
discharge their tidal prisms over the same inlets this condition increases the inlet throat
time interval, it is easily understood that by 5–15 %. Longer‐term (>1 year) changes in
the opening to Mobile Bay (29,280 m2) has to the cross‐section of inlets are related to inlet
be much larger (100 times) than Midnight migration, sedimentation in the backbarrier,
Pass Inlet (300 m2). morphological changes of the ebb‐tidal delta,
Although it has been stressed that inlet and human influences.
size is primarily a function of tidal prism, to
a lesser degree inlet cross sectional area is 16.6.1.2 Application
also affected by the delivery of sand to the The O’Brien Relationship is a very useful
inlet channel. For example, tidal inlets with concept when designing modification pro-
jetties, which are stone or concrete struc- jects for inlets. For example, when an inlet is
tures built perpendicular to the entrance of to be jettied and dredged to provide a naviga-
an inlet, prevent the wave‐generated trans- ble waterway for large ships entering and
port of sand into the inlet. At these sites tidal leaving a port, the dimensions of the channel
currents can more effectively scour sand have to be planned (Figure 16.17). If the
from the inlet channel and therefore they channel is dredged to dimensions larger than
maintain a larger throat cross section than what is in balance with the existing tidal
would be predicted by the O’Brien prism, the channel will fill with sediment
Relationship for inlets with no jetties. until the cross‐section decreases to the equi-
Similarly, for a given tidal prism, Gulf Coast librium area. Remember that tidal prism is
inlets have larger throat cross‐sections than primarily a function of the open‐water area
Pacific coast inlets. This is explained by the in the backbarrier and the tidal range in the
fact that wave energy is greater along the backbarrier and under most conditions will
West Coast and therefore the delivery of not change if the size of the inlet is enlarged.
sand to these inlets is higher than at Gulf Therefore, if the improved inlet has an equi-
Coast inlets. librium cross sectional area of 12,000 m2 and
Tidal Inlets 425
1. Natural Channel Configuration
1,500 m
8m
A = 1,500 m × 8 m = 12,000 m2
2. Stabilized Channel Configuration
jetty
1,000 m
12 m
A = 1,000 m × 12 m = 12,000 m2
Figure 16.17 Application of O’Brien’s Relationship. Disregarding the effects of friction, if the jetties are
positioned closer together, then tidal currents will scour the channel deeper. Inlet dimensions will increase
until the equilibrium cross sectional area that is indicated by O’Brien’s Relationship is achieved.
navigational constraints require a 12 m deep seaward by ebb‐tidal currents. The greater
channel, then the jetties should be positioned the ebb discharge, the more sand that is con-
approximately 1000 m apart. tained in the ebb‐tidal delta. Walton and
Adams also showed that the relationship was
improved slightly when wave‐energy was
16.6.2 Ebb‐Tidal Delta
taken into account. This was accomplished
Volume–Tidal Prism Relationship
by separating the data set into three inlet
In the mid‐1970s Todd Walton and graduate classes based on their wave energy: high
assistant, William Adams, did further statis- wave‐energy coasts such as inlets along
tical analysis (regression analysis) of various Oregon and Washington; moderate wave‐
inlet parameters and discovered that, like energy coasts including New Jersey, Outer
inlet cross sectional area, the volume of sand Banks of North Carolina, and Delaware; and
contained in the ebb‐tidal delta was closely low wave‐energy coasts such as the Gulf
related to the tidal prism. This relationship Coast. Waves are responsible for transport-
has come to be known as the Walton and ing sand back onshore, thereby reducing the
Adams Relationship (Figure 16.18). As we volume of the ebb‐tidal delta. Therefore, for
have already discussed, the ebb‐tidal delta a given tidal prism, ebb‐tidal deltas along the
comprises the sand that is diverted from the West Coast contain less sand than do equal
longshore transport system and transported sized inlets along the Gulf or east coast.
426 Chapter 16
1000
SAND VOLUME OF EBB-TIDAL DELTA, V (106 m3)
v = 1.89 × P1.23
100
10
1 10 100 1000
TIDAL PRISM, P (108 m3)
Figure 16.18 Walton and Adams Relationship indicates a strong correspondence exists between an inlet’s
tidal and the volume of its ebb‐tidal delta. (Source: From Walton and Adams (1976).)
16.6.2.1 Variability The Walton and Adams Relationship helps

The Walton and Adams Relationship works engineers compute ebb‐tidal delta volumes
well for inlets all over the world. Field studies and the effects to adjacent beaches. The rela-
have shown, however, that the volume of tionship is also used to determine how
sand comprising ebb‐tidal deltas changes nearby beaches will respond when a tidal
through time due to the effects of storms, inlet is formed due to storm breaching or if
changes in tidal prism, or processes of inlet an artificial cut is made through a barrier.
sediment bypassing. When sand is moved Immediately following inlet formation, the
past a tidal inlet, it is commonly achieved by ebb‐tidal delta grows until it reaches an equi-
large bar complexes migrating from the ebb librium volume as predicted by the Walton
delta and attaching to the landward inlet and Adams Relationship. The sediment that
shoreline. These large bars may contain more builds the ebb delta is sand that is removed
than 300,000 m3 of sand and represent more from the longshore transport system, thereby
than 10 % of sediment volume of the ebb‐ causing erosion. The relationship helps
tidal delta. coastal engineers calculate rates of change.
16.6.2.2 Application
Due to pervasive shoreline erosion, many 16.7 Sand Transport
barrier systems in the United States and else- Patterns
where are being nourished with sand
obtained from offshore sites, backbarrier and The movement of sand at a tidal inlet is
inlet dredging, and land sources. As these complex due to reversing tidal currents,

borrow sites become depleted, ebb‐tidal effects of storms, and interaction with
deltas are also being mined for their sand. the longshore transport system. The inlet
Tidal Inlets 427
contains short‐term and long‐term reser- channel, the swash platform is most affected
voirs of sand, varying from the relatively by landward flow produced by the flood‐tidal
small sandwaves flooring the inlet channel currents and breaking waves. As waves shoal
that migrate meters each tidal cycle to the and break, they generate landward flow,
large flood‐tidal delta shoals where some which augments the flood‐tidal currents but
sand is recirculated but the entire deposit retards the ebb tidal currents. The interac-
may remain stable for hundreds or even tion of these forces acts to transport sedi-
thousands of years. Sand dispersal at tidal ment in net landward direction across the
inlets is complicated because in addition swash platform. In summary, at many inlets
to the onshore–offshore movement of sand there is a general trend of seaward sand
produced by tidal‐ and wave‐generated transport in the main ebb channel, which is
currents, there is constant delivery of sand to countered by landward sand transport in the
the inlet and transport of sand away from the marginal flood channels and across the swash
inlet produced by the longshore transport platform.
system. The discussion below describes the
patterns of sand movement at inlets, includ-
16.7.2 Inlet Sediment Bypassing
ing how sand is moved past a tidal inlet.
Along most open coasts, particularly in
coastal plain settings, angular wave approach
16.7.1 General Sand‐Dispersal
causes a net movement of sediment along
Trends
the shore. As we learned in Chapter 13, the
The ebb‐tidal delta segregates areas of land- net volume of sand transported along
ward versus seaward sediment transport that the east coast of the United States varies
are controlled primarily by the way water from 100,000 to 200,000 m3 year−1 Thus,
enters and discharges from the inlet as well there is upward of 200,000 m3 year−1 of sand
as the effects of wave‐generated currents delivered to tidal inlets along this coast. If the
(Figure 16.19). During the ebbing tidal cycle sand reservoirs of these inlets remain approx-
the tidal flow leaving the backbarrier is imately constant over the long‐term then
constricted at the inlet throat, causing the there must be mechanisms whereby sand
currents to accelerate in a seaward direction. moves past tidal inlets and is transferred to
Once out of the confines of the inlet, the ebb the downdrift shoreline. This process is
flow expands laterally and the velocity slows.
Sediment in the main ebb channel is trans-
ported in a net seaward direction and
eventually deposited on the terminal lobe
Bay Ocean
due to this decrease in current velocity. One

response to this seaward movement of sand
is the formation of ebb‐oriented sandwaves
having heights of 1–2 m.
In the beginning of the flood cycle, the
ocean tide rises while water in main ebb
channel continues to flow seaward as a result
of momentum. Due to this phenomenon,
water initially enters the inlet through the Tide-generated
current transport
marginal flood channels, which are the Wave-generated
pathways of least resistance. The flood chan- current transport
nels are dominated by landward sediment Figure 16.19 Sand dispersal patterns at a tidal inlet
transport and are floored by flood‐oriented reflect the dominance of wave and tidal processes.
bedforms. On both sides of the main ebb (Source: Modified after Smith (1989).)
428 Chapter 16
called inlet sediment bypassing. There are act over an increasingly shorter period of the
multiple ways in which inlets bypass sand tidal cycle. Thus, their rate of movement
including: Stable inlet processes; Ebb‐tidal onshore decreases. The growth of the bar
delta breaching; and Inlet migration and complex is similar to cars on a highway all
spit breaching. One of the end products in all stacking up when they approach a toll booth.
the different mechanisms is the landward Eventually the entire bar complex migrates
migration and attachment of large bar onshore and welds to the upper beach. When
complexes to the inlet shoreline. a bar complex attaches to the downdrift inlet
shoreline, some of this newly accreted sand is
16.7.2.1 Stable Inlet Processes then gradually transported by wave action to
This mechanism of sediment bypassing the downdrift beaches, thus completing the
occurs at inlets that do not migrate and inlet sediment bypassing process. It should
whose main ebb channels remain approxi- be noted that some sand bypasses the inlet
mately in the same position (Figure 16.20). independent of the bar complex. In addition,
Sand enters the inlet by: wave action along some of the sand comprising the bar
the beach; flood‐tidal and wave‐generated re‐enters the inlet via the marginal flood
currents through the marginal flood channel; channel and along the inlet shoreline.
and waves breaking across the channel
margin linear bars. Most of the sand that is 16.7.2.2 Ebb‐tidal Delta Breaching
dumped into the main channel is transported This means of sediment bypassing occurs at
seaward by the dominant ebb‐tidal currents inlets with a stable throat position, but whose
and deposited on the terminal lobe. main ebb channels migrate through their
At lower tidal elevations waves breaking on ebb‐tidal deltas like the wag of a dog’s tail
the terminal lobe transport sand along the (Figure 16.21). Sand enters the inlet in the
periphery of the delta toward the landward same manner as described above for Stable
beaches in much the same way as sand is inlet processes. However, at these inlets
moved in the surf and breaker zones along the delivery of sediment by longshore trans-
beaches. At higher tidal elevations waves port produces a preferential accumulation of
breaking over the terminal lobe create swash sand on the updrift side of the ebb‐tidal delta.
bars on both sides of the main ebb channel. The deposition of this sand causes a deflec-
The swash bars (50–150 m long, 50 m wide) tion of the main ebb channel until it nearly
migrate onshore due to the dominance of parallels the downdrift inlet shoreline. This
landward flow across the swash platform. circuitous configuration of the main channel
Eventually, they attach to channel margin lin- results in inefficient tidal flow through the
ear bars forming large bar complexes. Bar inlet, ultimately leading to a breaching of a
complexes tend to parallel the beach and may new channel through the ebb‐tidal delta.
be more than a kilometer in length. They The process normally occurs during spring
are fronted by a steep face (25–33°) called a tides or periods of storm surge when the tidal
slipface, which may be up to 3 m in height. prism is very large. In this state the ebb
At mid‐tide, pleasure boaters often anchor discharge piles up water at the entrance to
behind the bars taking advantage of the quiet the inlet where the channel bends toward
water and so that swimmers may dive off the the downdrift inlet shoreline. This causes
bar slipface. some of the tidal waters to exit through the
The stacking and coalescing of swash bars marginal flood channel or flow across low
to form a bar complex is the result of the regions on the channel margin linear bar.
bars slowing their onshore migration as they Gradually over several weeks or convulsively
move up the nearshore ramp. As the bars during a single large storm, this process cuts
gain a greater intertidal exposure, the wave a new channel through the ebb delta thereby
bores which cause their migration onshore providing a more direct pathway for tidal
Tidal Inlets 429
(a) STABLE INLET PROCESSES
Main ebb-channel
Dominant
longshore
transport
Channel margin
linear bars
Incipient spit
Growth of
bar complexes
Swash Bar Formation

and landward Migration
Ebb
flow
Eventually welding
to the beach
Spit attachment
Channel margin
linear bar formation
Figure 16.20 Inlet sediment bypassing at stable inlets. (a) Model of stable inlet processes. (Source: From
FitzGerald (1988).) (b) North Inlet along the northern South Carolina coast is an example where sediment
bypassing occurs through stable inlet processes. Note the large bars migrating onshore to the downdrift inlet
shoreline.
430 Chapter 16
(b)
exchange through the inlet. As more and realignment that more efficiently conveys
more of the tidal prism is diverted through water into and out of the inlet, as well as sand
the new main ebb channel, tidal discharge being bypassed in the form of a bar.
through the former channel decreases, caus- One of the largest scale ebb‐tidal delta
ing it to fill with sand. breaching processes takes place at Willapa
The sand that was once on the updrift side Bay Inlet on the Oregon coast. This inlet is
of the ebb‐tidal delta and which is now on the 11 km wide and more than 12 m deep. Its
downdrift side of the new main channel is outer channel is deflected south by a mostly
moved onshore by wave‐generated and submerged spit that builds 6 km southward
flood‐tidal currents. Initially, some of this from Cape Shoalwater. Every 8–27 years
sand aids in the filling of the former channel (16 year average) a new channel is breached
while the rest forms a large bar complex that back to the north straightening the main
eventually migrates onshore and attaches to entrance channel. The submerged shoal that
the downdrift inlet shoreline. The ebb‐tidal is bypassed moves onshore merging with
breaching process results in a large packet of inner bars. An additional interesting aspect
sand bypassing the inlet. Similar to the stable of this cycle is that the breaching process
inlets discussed above, some sand bypasses correlates well with El Nino events, which
these inlets in a less dramatic fashion, grain cause water levels on the West Coast to be
by grain on a continual basis. elevated by 20–30 cm. Higher water levels
It is noteworthy that at some tidal inlets cause areas within Willapa Bay that are nor-
the entire main ebb channel is involved in the mally above mean high water to be inun-
ebb‐tidal delta breaching process, whereas at dated, thereby increasing the tidal prism. In
others just the outer portion of main ebb turn, larger tidal prisms lead to stronger tidal
channel is deflected. In both cases, the end‐ flow and greater potential to cut a new chan-
product of the breaching process is a channel nel through the ebb delta.
Tidal Inlets 431
16.7.2.3 Inlet Migration and Spit at the end of the barrier (Figure 16.22). To
Breaching accommodate spit construction, the inlet
A final method of inlet sediment bypassing migrates by eroding the downdrift barrier
occurs at migrating inlets. In this situation an shoreline. Along many coasts as the inlet is
abundant sand supply and a dominant long- displaced further along the downdrift shore-
shore transport direction cause spit building line, the inlet channel to the backbarrier
(a) EBB-TIDAL DELTA BRFACHING
Dominant
longshore
transport
Spill-over
Channel channels
migration
Ebb
flow
Occupation
of spill-over
channel
Landward bar
migrations
Bar welding
Accretion
Channel deflection
Figure 16.21 Sediment bypassing at inlets whose main ebb channel migrates downdrift in response to wave
energy and sand influx via the longshore transport system. (a) Model of inlet sediment bypassing by ebb‐tidal
delta breaching processes. (Source: From FitzGerald (1988).) (b) View of Murrells Inlet, South Carolina showing
two large bar complexes welding to the beach after a recent channel was breached through the updrift
portion of the ebb‐tidal delta.
432 Chapter 16
(b)
lengthens, retarding the exchange of water Inlet along central coast of South Carolina
between the ocean and backbarrier. This has had a similar history, with at least three
condition leads to large water‐level differ- periods of southwesterly migration of the
ences between the ocean and bay, making the inlet of up to 15 km followed by breachings of
barrier highly susceptible to breaching, par- the spit updrift at about the same position
ticularly during storms. Ultimately, when the each time during a 150‐year period. (See
barrier spit is breached and a new inlet is Box 16.1.)
formed in a hydraulically more favorable
position, the tidal prism is diverted to the 16.7.2.4 Bar Complexes
new inlet and the old inlet closes. When this Depending on the size of the inlet, the rate of
happens, the sand comprising the ebb‐tidal sand delivery to the inlet, the effects of
delta of the former inlet is transported storms, and other factors, the entire process
onshore by wave action, commonly taking of bar formation, its landward migration, and
the form of a landward migrating bar com- its attachment to the downdrift shoreline
plex. It should be noted that when the inlet may take from 6 to 10 years. The volume of
shifts to a new position along the updrift sand bypassed can range from 100,000 to
shoreline a large quantity of sand has effec- over 1,000,000 m3. The bulge in the shoreline
tively bypassed the inlet. The frequency of that is formed by the attachment of a bar
this inlet sediment bypassing process is complex is gradually eroded and smoothed
dependent on inlet size, rate of migration, as sand is dispersed to the downdrift shore-
storm history and backbarrier dynamics. line and transported back toward the inlet.
Nauset Spit along the outer coast of Cape In some instances, a landward‐migrating
Cod, Massachusetts exhibits a cycle of spit bar complex forms a salt water pond as the
accretion and inlet migration of 10–15 km tips of the arcuate bar weld to the beach, sta-
followed by multiple breachings occurring bilizing its onshore movement. Although the
approximately every 100 years. Kiawah River general shape of the bar and pond may be
(a) INLET MIGRATION AND SPIT BREACHING
Ebb
flow
TIME 1
Erosion
Erosion
Dominant
Inlet migration and longshore
spit accretion transport
Ebb tidal delta

migration
Spit breaching
TIME 2
Inlet filling
Spit accretion
TIME 2
Abandoned
inlet
Spit accretion
Landward bar
migration
(b)
Figure 16.22 Breaching of a spit allows a large quantity of sand to bypass the tidal inlet. (a) Model of inlet
migration and spit breaching processes. (Source: From FitzGerald (1988).) (b) Small inlet near the mouth of the
Santee River, South Carolina illustrating at least two episodes of spit breaching.
434 Chapter 16
Box 16.1 Breaching of Nauset Spit and Formation of New Inlet, Cape Cod, Massachusetts
The Town of Chatham, which is located along threatened by storm waves, shoreline erosion,
the outer coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, is shoaling of its navigation channels, closure of
protected by a sandy barrier known as Nauset its harbors, and tidal inundation of its lowland
Spit. The ancestors of this town were not fool- areas.
hardy when they chose to build their homes The Nauset barrier is part of a spit system
and establish their community along the gla- that has accreted southward‐forming lagoons
cial uplands across Pleasant Bay. Normally, the and bays along the irregular southeast main-
northeast storms that wreak havoc along this land coast of Cape Cod. The chain is broken by
coast have less effect on the mainland coast several tidal inlets. The sand forming the bar-
here due to the shelter afforded by the barrier. rier complex is sourced from eroding glacial
However, all that changed following the north- bluffs along upper Cape Cod and is trans-
east storm of January 2, 1987 that breached ported southward by the dominant northeast
Nauset Spit, establishing a new opening to wave climate. Prior to the breaching event,
Pleasant Bay – New Inlet (Box Figure 16.1.1). Nauset Spit was 14 km long, extending
The once‐idyllic coastal community was now southward from a glacial headland to where it
Box Figure 16.1.1 Aerial photographs of Nauset Spit before New Inlet formed (1985), after the
spit was breached (1987), and after a second inlet had formed north of New Inlet in 2007.
Tidal Inlets 435
Box Figure 16.1.1 (Continued)
overlapped the northern end of Monomoy Segmentation of Nauset Spit is related to a

Island. At this time Pleasant Bay was connected gradual reduction in tidal exchange between
to the open ocean through a long circuitous Pleasant Bay and the ocean, which is caused by
route of shallow channels, shoals, and a wave‐ a restriction in tidal flow through the existing
dominated tidal inlet. Scientists studying the inlets. This hydraulic inefficiency produces large
long‐term history of outer Cape Cod, including differences in both tidal range and times of high
Charles McClennen at Colgate University in and low tide on opposite sides of the barrier.
New York and Graham Giese at Woods Hole These differences lead to certain times of the
Oceanographic Institute on Cape Cod, discov- tidal cycle in which the water level in the ocean
ered that the barrier spit system experiences is more than a meter higher than in the bay.
a long‐term cycle of growth and decay. Under these conditions the barrier is suscepti-
They showed that with a frequency of about ble to breaching, particularly during storms
100–150 years the barrier maintains a period when the storm surge increases the height
of southerly accretion followed by a destruc- of the ocean tide level. It should be noted
tional phase whereby the spit becomes seg- that the periodicity and location of breaching
mented and portions of the barrier migrate along Nauset Spit is also dependent on the
onshore (Box Figure 16.1.2). morphology and overall width of the barrier.
436 Chapter 16
1770-1790 1790-1810 1810-1830 1830-1850 1850-1870 1870-1890 1890-1910
1910-1930 1930-1950 1950-1970 1975-1985 1985-1989 1989-1995 1995-2016
Box Figure 16.1.2 Historical shoreline changes to Nauset spit during the past 200 years. (Source: Modified
from Giese (1988)).
(a)
Eas
2m
t Ch
nnel
Mussel bed
(b)
ann
t Cha
300
el
Wes
Flood-tidal delta
migration rates
2m (1982–1990)
200 B
C
Migration rates (m)
B
A
C 90
89
88 100
1982 87
2m
N 0
A
2m
–100
100 m
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
Years
Box Figure 16.1.3 (a) Map of landward movement of flood‐tidal delta. (b) Graph showing the rate of
growth coinciding with the arrows A–C on the map.
If the spit is wide and has a well‐developed destruction of the foredune ridge and thinning
frontal dune ridge and secondary dune system, of the barrier facilitates barrier overwashing,
breaching of the barrier is difficult regardless channelization of the return flow, and inlet
of the potential hydraulic head. In contrast, formation.
Tidal Inlets 437
On January 2, 1987 high water levels associ- after two months, to 1.0 km in six months, and
ated with perigean spring tides (see Chapter 7) by early 1988 New Inlet had reached almost
and a storm surge produced by a strong 2.0 km in width.
Nor’easter (see Chapter 5) allowed storm Opening of New Inlet drastically changed
waves to carved away the last vestiges of the the hydraulic setting and sediment‐transport
frontal dune ridge along central Nauset Spit. patterns in Pleasant Bay. In the process of
As waves continued to overwash the barrier, enlarging the inlet channel, tidal currents
eventually an overwash channel was created washed much of the sand from the eroding
that allowed tidal exchange between the barrier into the bay. Here, the sand was
ocean and bay. The day after the storm the reworked into shoals, bedforms and other
channel was several meters wide and about a deposits. Some of the eroded sand was also
meter deep. This marked the beginning of a transported seaward, forming a large ebb‐tidal
new tidal inlet. As the channel captured an delta. After the breaching event the tidal
increasingly larger portion of the Pleasant Bay range in Pleasant Bay increased by 0.3 m from
tidal prism, the inlet grew in size from 0.5 km 1.2 to 1.5 m. The increased tidal fluctuation
(a)
Box Figure 16.1.4 (a) 2003 photograph of the inlet illustrating how ocean waves can propagate through
the inlet causing erosion along the landward shoreline. (b) Revetments were constructed to combat this
erosion. Location of photo shown in vertical aerial photograph.
438 Chapter 16
(b)
Box Figure 16.1.4 (Continued)
generated stronger tidal currents in the back- destroyed as the deltaic sands drowned a large
barrier channels, which changed the sand community of mussels.
dynamics in the bay. The influx of sand and its These were not the only changes to the bay.
movement within the bay resulted in the After inlet formation the inner harbor shore-
migration of bedforms and shoals, which in line landward of the inlet was subjected to
turn led to the closure of certain channels and wave erosion, endangering millions of dollars‐
the opening of others. One dramatic example worth of properties (Box Figure 16.1.4). The
of changes that took place in Pleasant Bay was owners responded by constructing expensive
the movement of a large flood‐tidal delta seawalls and revetments, but not before acres
0.7 km long and 0.5 m wide. Over an eight‐year of valuable real estate were lost and numerous
period from 1988 to 1996 the flood delta structures had to relocated. The havoc wreaked
marched northward into the bay, moving by the formation of the new inlet will continue
about a half kilometer (Box Figure 16.1.3). As a because the new inlet is not stable in its posi-
result of this migration, the access channel to tion but is migrating downdrift in response to
the town’s main harbor was temporarily closed the dominant southerly longshore transport
and had to be dredged, the buoys in the navi- system. Thus, in the foreseeable future many
gation channel on the west side of delta had to other erosional and depositional problems will
be repositioned, and a major shellfish bed was occur as the inlet migrates southward.
modified by overwash and dune‐building 16.8 Tidal Inlet Effects

activity, the overall shoreline morphology on Adjacent Shorelines
is frequently preserved. Lenticular‐shaped
coastal ponds or marshy swales become Many people wish to live along waterways,
diagnostic of bar‐migration processes and particularly at tidal inlets due to their scenic
are common features at many inlets. beauty, fishing opportunities and boat access
Tidal Inlets 439
Figure 16.23 Factors affecting the size 1 Backshore slope

and number of tidal inlets along a barrier Bay 2 Regional topography
shoreline. (Source: From FitzGerald (1988).) size 3 Sedimentation history
of bay
INLET Bay tidal

Frictional factors
SIZE prism
1 Shoreline configuration
2 Shelf width
Tidal 3 Size and dimensions of
range amphidromic system
4 Position within
amphidromic system
to backbarrier bays and the open ocean. For tidal inlets. Correspondingly, along the wave‐
these reasons, property values are unusually dominated, microtidal coasts of Texas and
high in the vicinity of tidal inlets and eastern Florida tidal inlets occur every
frequently there is considerable demand by 40–50 km, whereas along the mixed‐energy,
the private sector to develop these areas. mesotidal coasts of Georgia, the East Frisian
In conflict with these pressures is the insta- Islands of Germany, and the Copper River
bility of inlet shorelines. In addition to the Delta barriers of Alaska, inlets are found
direct consequences of spit accretion and every 10–20 km. Presumably, mesotidal con-
inlet migration there are the effects of vol- ditions produce larger tidal prisms than
ume changes in the size of ebb‐tidal deltas, occur along microtidal coasts, which neces-
sand losses to the backbarrier, processes of sitate more holes in the barrier chain to let
inlet sediment bypassing and wave sheltering the water into and out of the backbarrier.
of the ebb‐tidal delta shoals. The manner in Many coastlines follow this general trend but
which these processes affect tidal inlet shore- there are many exceptions due to the influ-
lines is presented below. ence of sediment supply, large versus small
bay areas, and other geological controls. For
example, along the central Gulf Coast of
16.8.1 Number and Size
Florida the low wave energy of this region,
of Tidal Inlets
limited sand resources, and large open‐water
The degree to which barrier shorelines are bays produce a coast containing numerous
influenced by tidal inlet processes is depend- tidal inlets occurring about every 10–20 km.
ent on their size and number. As the O’Brien Along the glaciated coast of southern
Relationship demonstrates, the size or cross‐ Massachusetts in Buzzards Bay, the influence
sectional area of an inlet is governed by its of bedrock controls on the size and number
tidal prism. This concept can be expanded to of tidal inlets is well illustrated (Figure 16.24).
include an entire barrier chain in which the The peninsula and deep embayments of this
size and number of inlets along a chain are region are a product of river erosion during
primarily dependent on the amount of open the Tertiary (geological time period lasting
water area behind the barrier and the tidal from 66.4 to 1.6 million years before present)
range of the region. In turn, these parameters and repeated Pleistocene glaciations. As the
are a function of other geological and physi- valleys of this coast became flooded by rising
cal oceanographic factors (Figure 16.23). As sea level following deglaciation, erosion of
demonstrated in Chapter 15, wave‐domi- the surrounding glacial deposits produced
nated coasts tend to have long barrier islands sediment for the construction of the barriers
and few tidal inlets and mixed‐energy coasts fronting the embayments. As the Holocene
have short, stubby barriers and numerous transgression proceeded along the shoreline,
440 Chapter 16
SLOCUM
RIVER
WEST
BRANCH
N
WESTPORT
EAST
RIVER
BRANCH
WESTPORT
RIVER
A = 1.2 km2
W = 35 m
ALLENS
QUICKSAND POND SLOCUM
POND COCKEAST
RIVER
POND
INLET
RICHMOND
POND
TUNIPUS WESTPORT
POND RIVER
INLET A = 2.7 km2 W = 150 m
A = .4 km2
A = .3 km2
A = .2 km2
A = 1.9 km2 W = 40 m
A = 1.7 km2
A = 17 km2 W = 260 m
BUZZARDS BAY
Figure 16.24 Along the transgressive coast of northwestern Buzzards Bay in Massachusetts barriers have built
in front of flooded valleys. Rising sea level and a scarcity of sediment has caused the barriers to migrate
onshore, decreasing the size of the bays. Reduced bay areas and decreasing tidal prisms has led to closure of
several inlets along this coast. Westport River Inlet is the largest inlet in this region and contains the largest bay
area. Key: A = Bay area…; W = Inlet width.... (Source: From FitzGerald (1996).)
the barriers migrated landward at a faster inlets during severe storms (Figure 16.25).
rate than the bay shorelines were inundated. During these periods increased wave energy
This resulted in increasingly smaller‐sized produces greater sand transport to the inlet
bays and the gradual closure of many tidal channel. At the same time the accompanying
inlets due to decreasing tidal prisms. storm surge increases the water surface slope
at the inlet, resulting in stronger than normal
flood tidal currents. The strength of the flood
16.8.2 Tidal Inlets as Sediment
currents coupled with the high rate of sand
Traps
delivery to the inlet results in landward sedi-
Tidal inlets not only trap sand temporarily on ment transport into the backbarrier. Along
their ebb‐tidal deltas, but they also are the Malpeque barrier system in the Gulf of
responsible for the longer‐term loss of sedi- St. Lawrence, New Brunswick, it has been
ment moved into the backbarrier. At inlets determined that over 90 % of the sand trans-
dominated by flood‐tidal currents, sand is ferred to the backbarrier took place at tidal
continuously transported landward, enlarg- inlets and at former inlet locations along the
ing flood‐tidal deltas and building bars in the barrier.
tidal creeks. Sand can also be transported Sediment may also be lost at migrating
into the backbarrier of ebb‐dominated tidal inlets when sand is deposited as channel fill.
Tidal Inlets 441
TIDAL INLET
STORM PROCESSES
increased
gr
longshore
ea
transport
ter
wa
ve
en
erg
y
washovers onto marsh
vertical accretion on
flood-tidal delta net landward
movement increased hydraulic slope produces STORM
of sediment stronger flood-tidal currents SURGE
grater sand transport

washover across ebb-tidal delta
increased
flood-tidal
currents
Figure 16.25 Processes of sand addition to a flood‐tidal delta during a storm. (Source: From FitzGerald (1988).)
If the channel scours below the base of the size of the recurves and the length of barrier
barrier sands, then the beach sand which fills extension, this process has been one of the
this channel will not be replaced entirely by chief natural mechanisms of bay infilling.
the deposits excavated on the eroding por-
tion of the channel. Because up to 40 % of the
16.8.3 Changes in Ebb‐Tidal
length of barriers is underlain by tidal inlet
Delta Volume
fill deposits ranging in thickness from 2 to
10 m, this volume represents a large, long‐ Ebb‐tidal deltas represent huge reservoirs of
term loss of sand from the coastal sediment sand that may be comparable in volume to
budget. Another major process producing that of the adjacent barrier islands along
sand loss at migrating inlets is associated mixed‐energy coasts (i.e. East and West
with the construction of recurved spits that Frisian Islands, northern Massachusetts,
build into the backbarrier. For example, along southern New Jersey, Virginia, South
the East Frisian Islands recurved spit devel- Carolina, and Georgia). For instance, the
opment has caused the lengthening of barri- ebb‐tidal delta volume of Stono and North
ers along this chain by 3–11 km since 1650. Edisto Inlets in South Carolina is 197 × 106 m3
During this stage of barrier evolution the size and the intervening Seabrook–Kiawah Island
of the tidal inlets permitted ocean waves to barrier complex contains 252 × 106 m3 of
transport large quantities of sand around the sand. In this case, the deltas comprise 44 %
end of the barrier, forming recurves that of the sand in the combined inlet–barrier
extend far into the backbarrier. Due to the system. The magnitude of sand contained in
442 Chapter 16
ebb‐tidal deltas suggests that small changes extension of recurved spits, decreased the
in their volume dramatically affects the sand size of the backbarrier by 80 %. In turn, the
supply to the landward shorelines. reduction in bay area decreased the inlet
To illustrate this concept consider the con- tidal prisms, which led to smaller sized inlets,
sequences of changing hydraulic conditions longer barrier islands, and smaller ebb‐tidal
at a tidal inlet along the central coast of deltas (see Chapter 15). Wave action trans-
Maine. It has been theorized that if a planned ported ebb‐tidal delta sands onshore as tidal
hydroelectric power plant is constructed in discharge decreased. This process increased
the Bay of Fundy, tidal ranges in the Gulf of the supply of sand to the beaches and aided
Maine would increase by approximately the lengthening of the barriers.
30 cm. At the Kennebec River Inlet the larger
tidal range would increase the tidal prism by
16.8.4 Wave Sheltering
a minimum of 5 %. Using the Walton and
Adams Relationship, it is calculated that a The shallow character of ebb‐tidal deltas
potential 5 % increase in tidal prism would provides a natural breakwater for the land-
ultimately add over 60 × 106 m3 of sand to the ward shorelines. This is especially true
Kennebec ebb‐tidal delta. Although some of during lower tidal elevations when most of
this sand would come from scour of the inlet the wave energy is dissipated along the ter-
channel, most of the sand would be eroded minal lobe. During higher tidal stages inter-
from the adjacent beaches, resulting in over tidal and subtidal bars cause waves to break
100 m of shoreline recession. offshore expending much of their energy
A similar transfer of sand takes place when before reaching the beaches onshore. The
a new tidal inlet is opened, such as the forma- sheltering effect is most pronounced along
tion of Ocean City Inlet when Assateague mixed‐energy coasts where tidal inlets have
Island, Maryland was breached during the well developed ebb‐tidal deltas.
1933 hurricane. Initially, the inlet was only The influence of ebb shoals is particularly
3 m deep and 60 m across but quickly well‐illustrated by the history of Morris
widened to 335 m when it was stabilized Island, South Carolina, which forms the
with jetties in 1935. Since the inlet formed, southern border of Charleston Harbor
more than a million cubic meters of sand (Figure 16.28). Before human modification,
have been deposited on the ebb‐tidal delta the entrance channel to the harbor paralleled
(Figure 16.26). Trapping the southerly long- Morris Island and was fronted by an exten-
shore movement of sand by the north jetty sive shoal system. The deflected southerly
and the growth of the ebb‐tidal delta have led course of the main ebb channel was due to
to serious erosion along the downdrift the preferential accumulation of sand on the
beaches. The northern end of Assateague updrift side (northeast side) of the harbor’s
Island has been retreating at an average rate ebb‐tidal delta caused by the dominant
of 11 m per year. The rate of erosion lessened southerly longshore transport of sediment.
when the ebb tidal delta reached an The shallow and constantly shifting position
equilibrium volume and the inlet began to of the outer portion of the entrance channel
bypass sand. made for treacherous navigation into the
In contrast to the cases discussed above, harbor, resulting in numerous shipwrecks
the historical decrease in the inlet tidal along the outer shoals. In the late 1800s jet-
prisms along the East Frisian Islands has had ties were constructed at the harbor entrance
a beneficial effect on this barrier coast to straighten, deepen, and stabilize the main
(Figure 16.27) From 1650 to 1960 the recla- channel; the project was completed in 1896.
mation of tidal flats and marshlands border- During the period prior to jetty construction
ing the German mainland as well as natural (1849–1880) Morris Island had been eroding
processes, such as the building and landward at an average rate of 3.5 m year−1. After the
Tidal Inlets 443
(a)
Ocean City
X
Upper X′
Sinepuxent
Neck
Ocean City Inlet
1980
1849
ATLANTIC
Sinepuxent OCEAN
Bay
Assateague
Island
(b) 0 X X′
1934/37 Inlet
1995 Inlet
(c)
–4
12 12
Volume
Elevation (m)
Volume (106 m3)
Area (106 m2)
8 8
–8
4 4
Area
–12
0 0
0 1000 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000
Distance from Inlet Throat (m) Year
Figure 16.26 Ocean City Inlet was opened along northern Assateague Island, Maryland during the 1933
hurricane. (a) The Army Corps of Engineers then constructed jetties to stabilize the entrance. (b) The ensuing
tidal exchange between the ocean and Isle of Wight Bay and Sinepuxent Bay produced a large tidal prism, a
deepening of the inlet channel (location of longitudinal section shown in panel A). (c). Since 1933, the volume
of the ebb delta has grown to more than a million cubic meters of sand. (Source: From Leatherman (1984).)
Note in panel B the seaward extension and growth of the ebb delta. As seen in panel A, this sand‐trapping has
starved the downdrift shoreline of sand, resulting in a landward migration of the northern end of Assateague
Island by more than several hundred meters. (Source: From Stauble (1997).)
444 Chapter 16
(a)
Ot
Ha
WANGEROOGE
zu
rle
m
er
SPIEKROOG
B
alj
Ac
e
cu
m
LANGEOOG
er
No
eE
rd See
BALTRUM
em g
ey at
NORDERNEY
er
(b) Wangerooge
Spiekeroog
Langeoog
(c)
Har
80 500
Otz
le
ume
Total Barrier Island Length

r Ba
60 450
Drainage Area (km2)

lje
Length (km)
40 400
Total Drainage Area
1650 20 350
1750 Total Inlet Width
1860
1960 0 300
1650 1750 1860 1960
Figure 16.27 (a) Historical morphological changes to the Frisian Islands along the German North Sea coast.
(b) From 1650 to 1960 widespread land reclamation along the backside of the barriers and on the mainland
significantly decreased the size of the bays behind the tidal inlets. Coincident with a large decrease in drainage
area behind Harle Inlet was a narrowing of Harle Inlet and an eastward extension of the Spiekeroog barrier
island. (c) Moreover, land reclamation and reduction in bay area along the entire length of the barrier chain
decreased the width of the tidal inlets as well as the volume of sand contained in the ebb‐tidal deltas.
During the 1650–1960 period, sand from the ebb‐tidal delta moved onshore, which facilitated the growth the
barrier islands.
jetties were in place, the ebb‐tidal delta 1100 m at its southeast end, a rate three times
shoals, which bordered the old channel, were what it had been prior to jetty construction.
cut off from their longshore sand supply. As One dramatic response to this erosion was
the shoals eroded and gradually diminished the detachment of a lighthouse from the
in size, so did the protection they afforded southeast end of the island. In 1900 the light-
Morris Island, especially during storms. house was located 640 m onshore but by
From 1900 to 1973 Morris Island receded 1970 it was sitting in 3 m of water 360 m from
500 m at its northeast end increasing to the shoreline.
Tidal Inlets 445
CHARLESTION
HARBOR
Lig
hth inl
3m
ou et
L
NE
MORRIS ISLAND DETAIL
se
AN
CH
N subtidal shoals
3m
AI
M
1848–54
1867
1848
1900
1933
1955 MORRIS
ISLAND
3m
Lighthouse 3m
LIG
1922
T HO
Sullivans
US
FOLLY island
E
ISLAND LE
IN
T Morris
Folly island
island
0 50 m
3m
3m
0 1000 m
1964
Figure 16.28 Jetty construction at the entrance to Charleston Harbor, South Carolina in the late 1800s
significantly diminished the size and extent of sand shoals fronting the harbor, which in turn affected
erosional–depositional processes along the landward shorelines. (Source: From FitzGerald (1988)).
16.8.5 Effects of Inlet Sediment direction. This morphology is coincident

Bypassing with an increase in the degree of overlap of
the ebb‐tidal delta along the downdrift inlet
Tidal inlets interrupt the wave‐induced long-
shoreline. The offset of the inlet shoreline
shore transport of sediment along the coast,
and bulbous shape of the barriers are pro-
affecting both the supply of sand to the
duced by sand being trapped at the eastern,
downdrift beaches and the position and
updrift end of the barrier. The amount of
mechanisms whereby sand is transferred to
shoreline progradation is a function of inlet
the downdrift shorelines. The effects of these
size and extent of its ebb‐tidal delta. What we
processes are exhibited well along the Copper
learn from the sedimentation processes
River Delta barriers in the Gulf of Alaska.
along the Copper River Delta barriers is that
From east to west along the barrier chain the
tidal inlets can impart a very important
width of the tidal inlets increases as does the
signature on the form of the barriers.
size of the ebb‐tidal deltas (Figure 16.29). In
this case the width of the inlet can be used as
a proxy for the inlet’s cross sectional area. 16.8.5.1 Drumstick Barrier Model
These trends reflect an increase in tidal In an investigation of barrier islands shore-
prism along the chain caused by an increase lines in mixed energy settings throughout the
in bay area from east to west while tidal world, Miles Hayes at the University of South
range remains constant. Also quite noticea- Carolina noted that many barriers exhibit a
ble along this coast is the greater downdrift similar shape. Numerous tidal inlets studies
offset of the inlet shoreline in an westerly by Professor Hayes and his students allowed
446 Chapter 16
CORDOVA
DOWN
DRIFT
OFFSET
DELTA
SIZE
INLET
WIDTH
Figure 16.29 The Copper River Delta barrier chain in the Gulf of Alaska is a product of an abundant sand
supply from the Copper River and high wave energy. From east to west the extent of open water in the
backbarrier increases. This trend leads to larger tidal prisms, larger‐sized tidal inlets, and barrier morphology
that is strongly influenced by tidal inlet processes. (Source: From Hayes (1975).)
him to formulate his drumstick barrier island they weld to the beach. In fact, it is the posi-
model (Figure 16.30). In this model the meaty tion where the bar complexes attach to the
portion of the drumstick barrier is attributed shoreline that dictates the form of the barrier
to waves bending around the ebb‐tidal delta, along this coast. If the ebb‐tidal delta greatly
producing a reversal in the longshore trans- overlaps the downdrift barrier, then the bar
port direction. This process reduces the rate complexes may build up the barrier shoreline
at which sediment bypasses the inlet, result- some distance from the tidal inlet. In these
ing in a broad zone of sand accumulation cases, humpbacked barriers are developed,
along the updrift end of the barrier. The such the Norderney or Spiekeroog. If the
downdrift, or thin part of the drumstick, is downdrift barrier is short and the ebb‐tidal
formed through spit accretion. Later studies delta fronts a large portion of the downdrift
demonstrated that bar complexes migrating barrier, such as at the island of Baltrum, the
onshore from the ebb‐tidal delta are an bar complexes weld to the eastern end of the
important factor dictating barrier island barrier forming downdrift bulbous barriers.
morphology and the overall erosional–depo- Thus, studies of the Friesian Islands demon-
sitional trends, particularly in mixed energy strate that inlet processes exert a strong
settings. The Copper River barriers conform influence on the dispersal of sand along
well to the Hayes drumstick model. mixed‐energy barrier island shorelines and
Looking at the East Frisian Islands we see in doing so dictate barrier shape.
that in addition to drumsticks, barriers can
have many other shapes (Figure 16.31). Inlet
16.8.6 Human Influences
sediment bypassing along this barrier chain
occurs, in part, through the landward migra- Dramatic changes to inlet beaches can also
tion of large swash bars (>1 km in length) result from human influences including the
that deliver up to 300,000 m3 of sand when obvious consequences of jetty construction
Tidal Inlets 447
DOMINANT LONGSHORE
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
PREDOMINANT
WAVE APPROACH
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
REVERSAL
BARRIER ISLAND
DRUMSTICK MODEL
Figure 16.30 Miles Hayes’ drumstick barrier island model explains barrier shape as a function of wave
refraction around the ebb‐tidal delta trapping sand along the downdrift inlet shoreline. (Source: From Hayes
and Kana 1978).
that reconfigures an inlet shoreline. By pre- the construction of causeways, extensive

venting or greatly reducing an inlet’s ability backbarrier filling and dredging projects, and
to bypass sand, the updrift beach progrades the building of numerous engineering struc-
while the downdrift beach, whose sand sup- tures along the coast. Of the 17 inlets that
ply has been diminished or completely cut have closed along this coast since the late
off, erodes. There can also be more subtle 1980s, more than half of the closures can be
human impacts that can equally affect inlet traced to human influences caused primarily
shorelines, especially those associated with by changes in inlet tidal prism. For example,
changes in inlet tidal prism, sediment supply, access to several barriers has been achieved
and the longshore transport system. Nowhere through the construction of causeways that
are these types of impacts better demon- extend from the mainland across the shallow
strated than along the central Gulf Coast of bays. Along most of their lengths the cause-
Florida where development has resulted in ways are dike‐like structures that partition
448 Chapter 16
Drumstick
Barrier Island
Humpbacked
Location where Barrier Island
swash Bars
Attach to
the Beach
Downdrift Builbous
Barrier Island
Figure 16.31 The shape of mixed‐energy barriers along the Frisian Islands is primarily a function of wave inlet
sediment bypassing processes. The bulbous portion of the barrier coincides with the location where sand
bypasses the updrift inlet and where bar complexes migrate onshore. (Source: From FitzGerald (1988).)
the bays, thereby changing bay areas and redging small canals and then using the
d
inlet tidal prisms. In some instances, tidal dredge spoil to build land peninsulas where
prisms were reduced to a critical value caus- there was once just water. As seen in a com-
ing inlet closure. At these sites the tidal cur- parison of historical and present day maps of
rents were unable to remove the sand Boca Ciega Bay, this process has drastically
dumped into the inlet channel by wave reduced the open‐water area, leading to
action. Similarly, when the Intracoastal smaller tidal prisms and smaller equilibrium‐
Waterway (a protected inland canal built for sized tidal inlets (Figure 16.32). These exam-
barge and boat traffic) was constructed along ples demonstrate that altering the natural
the central Gulf Coast of Florida in the early system can produce undesired consequences,
1960s, the dredged waterway served to con- which emphasizes the need to assessed the
nect adjacent backbarrier bays, thereby potential effects of developmental projects
changing the volume of water that was before they are undertaken.
exchanged through the connecting inlets.
The Intracoastal Waterway lessened the flow
going through some inlets while at the same 16.9 Summary
time increasing the tidal discharge of others.
This resulted in the closure of some inlets As we have seen in this chapter, tidal inlets
and the enlargement of others. Improved occur along barrier coasts in coastal plain
access to the central Florida barriers led to settings and in other regions where there
their development including the formation of has been a sufficient supply of sand for
marinas and finger canals along the backbarrier spit construction across embayments.
side of the barriers. These were formed by Inlet formation today occurs primarily when
Tidal Inlets 449
1883 1997
John’s Pass John’s Pass

ay
iega B
Blind Pass
Boca C
Blind Pass
Int
rac
oa
N
sta
1km
lW
ate
rw
ay
Pass-a- Pass-a-
Grille Grille
Figure 16.32 Anthropogenic changes along the west‐central coast of Florida as indicated by maps of the
region in 1883 and 1997. Construction of finger canals and solid causeways have decreased open water
areas and reduced water circulation in the bays. This condition has led to smaller bay tidal prisms and
reduced sized of associated tidal inlets. (Source: From Barnard and Davis (1999).)
narrow, low barriers are breached during shallow and positioned in easily eroded
severe storms. Tidal inlets are narrowest sands. Flood‐tidal deltas are horseshoe‐
and deepest at their throat section where shaped shoals situated on the landward side
tidal currents and potential sediment trans- of an inlet and formed from sand entering
port reach their maximums. Many inlets the inlet channel and being transported into
have stabilized next to bedrock outcrops, in the backbarrier by flood‐tidal currents (see
former river channels or in resistant sedi- Box 16.2). Sand transported seaward by ebb‐tidal
mentary strata. Migrating inlets are usually currents forms arcuate‐shaped ebb‐tidal deltas.
450 Chapter 16
The morphology of ebb deltas reflects the action. At mixed‐energy inlets one of the
wave versus tidal energy that shapes them. end‐products of sediment bypassing is the
A direct correspondence exists between an formation of large bar complexes which
inlet’s tidal prism and its throat cross sec- migrate onshore and attach to the land-
tional area, and the volume of sand con- ward shoreline. Processes of inlet sediment
tained in its ebb‐tidal delta. These concepts bypassing, volumetric changes of the ebb‐
are very useful when planning jetty con- tidal delta, sand losses to the backbarrier,
struction, channel dredging, and sourcing the sheltering effect of the ebb‐tidal delta,
ebb‐tidal deltas for beach nourishment and other inlet processes strongly influ-
programs. There are various mechanisms ence the distribution of sand along inlet
whereby sand bypasses unmodified tidal beaches. Along mixed‐energy coasts tidal
inlets. Wave‐dominated inlets bypass sand inlets may dictate the shape of barrier
along the periphery of the delta by wave islands.
Box 16.2 Rapid Changes at Anclote Key, Florida (Box #2)

We generally think that major changes to bar- accretion extended the northern end of
rier islands take either a long time to eventuate Anclote Key by more than a kilometer.
or are the result of hurricanes or other intense Historical records reveal that the spit system
storms. Major changes in the length and mor- has consistently terminated at the site of a
phology of Anclote Key on the Gulf Coast of the deep tidal channel. Strong flood‐tidal currents
Florida peninsula have taken place over only a in this channel (landward‐directed currents)
few decades in the absence of any significant along with wave action and a large sediment
storm. This island, which is the northernmost supply, have produced a long spit that has
barrier along this section of coast, is separated widened the northern end of the island by
from the mainland by a 5‐km‐wide, shallow about a kilometer (Box Figure 16.2.1).
expanse of water. Anclote Key is a wave‐domi- The growth of a barrier over a 20‐year
nated linear barrier exhibiting recurved beach period is in itself remarkable, particularly
ridges at both ends. Despite having no nearby along a segment of coast that is sediment‐
barriers, fairly deep, inlet‐like channels exist at starved. Where did all the sand come from?
both ends of the island. Radiocarbon dates of The answer to this question was found in an
shells and organic material obtained during analysis of aerial photographs taken along
extensive coring of the island have shown it to this coast during the 1950s (1951 and 1957).
be about 1500 years old. The barrier sand rests Both of these sets of photographs show that
on a pavement of Miocene limestone that is sea grass once covered an expansive area of
from 3 to 5 m below mean sea level. the inner shoreface to within 30 m or so of the
Historical maps and charts of the region shoreline. A 1963 aerial photograph of the
indicate that Anclote Key did not change sig- same region shows that the vegetation had
nificantly from 1881 to the1960s. Most of the disappeared. Some process or condition, as
changes that did occur were associated with a yet undetermined, caused the demise of the
modest southward extension of the island. sea grass, which had been stabilizing the sand
During this time the landward migration and substrate. Once the stabilizing effect of the
attachment of swash bars to the southern grass was removed, wave action transported
shoreline relegated an old Coast Guard pier to the nearshore sand onto the adjacent beaches
an upland position. The northern end of the of Anclote Key. Much of the newly accreted
island displayed no noticeable change until sand was then carried by longshore currents
the early 1960s. Over the next 20 years, spit to the northern end of the island forming
Tidal Inlets 451
Anclote Key, FL, 1979
Box Figure 16.2.1 Aerial photograph of northern Anclote Key, Florida in 1979. (modified from Giese,
1988).
recurved spits. This same phenomenon also of long spit on Honeymoon Island as well as
occurred a few kilometers south of Anclote the formation of a new barrier island called
Key and was responsible for the construction Three‐Rooker Bar.
References
Barnard, P.L. and Davis, R.A. (1999). Tidal Inlets, Special Issue #23, Journal of
Anthropogenic versus natural influences on Coastal Research (ed. A.J. Mehta), 47–71.
inlet evolution: west‐Central Florida. In: Coastal Education and Research
Coastal Sediments ’99 (ed. N.C. Kraus and W.G. Foundation.
McDougal), 1498–1504. Reston, VA: A.S.C.E. Giese, G.S. (1988). Cyclic behavior of the tidal
FitzGerald, D.M. (1988). Shoreline erosional– inlet at Nauset Beach, Chatham, MA. In:
depositional processes associated with tidal Hydrodynamics and Sediment Dynamics of
inlets, hydrodynamics and sediment Tidal Inlets (ed. D.G. Aubrey and L.
dynamics of tidal inlets. In: Hydrodynamics Weishar), 269–283. New York: Springer.
and Sediment Dynamics of Tidal Inlets Hayes, M.O. (1975). Morphology of sand
(Lecture Notes on Coastal and Estuarine accumulations in estuaries. In: Estuarine
Studies Volume 29) (ed. D.G. Aubrey and Research, vol. 2 (ed. L.E. Cronin), 3–22.
L. Weishar), 186–225. Berlin: Springer. New York: Academic Press.
FitzGerald, D.M. (1996). Geomorphic Hayes, M.O. and Kana, T. (1978). Terrigenous
variability and morphologic and Clastic depositional Environments.
sedimentologic controls on tidal inlets. Columbia, SC: Deparment of Geology,
In: Understanding Physical Processes at University of South Carolina.
452 Chapter 16
Leatherman, S.P. (1984). Shoreline evolution Smith, J.B. (1989). Morphodynamics and
of north Assateague Island, Maryland. stratigraphy of Essex River ebb‐tidal delta.,
J. Shore Beach 52 (4): 3–10. Masters Thesis, Boston University, 223 p.
O’Brien, M.P. (1931). Estuary tidal prisms Stauble, D.K. (1997). Ocean City Inlet,
related to entrance areas. Civ. Eng. Maryland, and Vicinity Water Resources
1: 738–739. Study, 46 p. Baltimore: U.S. Army Corps
O’Brien, M.P. (1969). Equilibrium flow areas of of Eng.
inlets on sandy coasts. 95: 43–55. Walton, T.L., and Adams, W.D. (1976).
Oertel, G. (1975). Ebb‐tidal deltas of Georgia Capacity of inlet outer bars to store sand.
estuaries. In: Estuarine Research, vol. 2 Proc. of 15th Coastal Engineering
(ed. L.E. Cronin), 267–276. New York: Conference, ASCE, Honolulu, Hawaii,
Academic Press. p. 1919‐1937.
Suggested Reading
Aubrey, D.G. and Giese, G.S. (eds.) (1993). Bruun, P. (1966). Tidal Inlets and Littoral
Formation and Evolution of Multiple Tidal Drift. Amsterdam: North‐Holland
Inlets. Washington, DC: American Publishing.
Geophysical Union. Bruun, P. and Gerritsen, F. (1960). Stability of
Aubrey, D.G. and Weishar, L. (eds.) (1988). Tidal Inlets. Amsterdam: North‐Holland
Hydrodynamics and Sediment Dynamics of Publishing.
Tidal Inlets, Lecture Notes on Coastal and Cronin, L.E. (ed.) (1978). Estuarine Research,
Estuarine Studies. New York: Springer. vol. 2. New York: Academic Press.
Boothroyd, J.C. (1985). Tidal inlets andtidal Hayes, M.O. and Kana, T. (1978). Terrigenous
deltas. In: Coastal Sedimentary Clastic depositional Environments.
Environments (ed. R.A. Davis), 445–532. Columbia, SC: Deparment of Geology,
New York: Springer. University of South Carolina.
453
17
Glaciated Coasts
17.1 Introduction were deposited during the deglaciation of this

region approximately 17000–18000 years
Glaciated coasts exhibit diversity in both before present. Not only have the effects of
their types of features and the changing glaciation produced very different sediment
landscape that is unparalleled in geomor-
abundance along the New England coast, but
phology. The ability of continental glaciers also glacial processes combined with the pre‐
(ice sheets) and valley glaciers to sculpture existing bedrock geology of the region have
land surfaces, transport large quantities of created a coast with numerous bays and
rock and sediment, and eventually to deposit sounds. In turn, this coastal morphology has
these materials in a number of glacial fea- resulted in highly varied physical settings
tures accounts for this variability. For exam- including wave‐dominated, mixed‐energy,
ple, the northern New England coast is and tide‐dominated coasts.
mostly rocky with small pocket beaches that The glaciated coast along the tectonically
range in composition from sand to gravel and active Gulf of Alaska is even more diverse
even to boulder‐sized sediment over dis- and more spectacular than that of New
tances of less than a kilometer. Interrupting England (Figure 17.2). In some locations,
this trend in northern Massachusetts and such as the Kenai Peninsula, valley glaciers
southern Maine are several extensive barrier are still found a short distance from the coast,
systems (5–30 km long) that occur at the having retreated into the bordering moun-
mouths of estuaries within arcuate embay- tain valleys. The deep fjords of this region are
ments. The existence of these barriers along a testament to the ability of glaciers to carve
an otherwise sediment‐starved coast is due coastal landscapes. Along the Alaskan
to the large volumes of sand brought to the Peninsula, glacial meltwater streams feed
coast by rivers following deglaciation. sediment into broad embayments forming
Continuing northward, the central and extensive tidal flats, marshes and barriers
northeast coast of Maine is rugged and highly spits. During the summer, these streams bur-
irregular with rocky peninsulas giving way to geon with salmon seeking spawning grounds,
broader embayments and finally to bedrock thereby providing a tasty meal for the waiting
cliffs. Here glaciers have stripped away most brown bears. In yet another site along this
of the sediment overlying the bedrock. This active coast, several glaciers east of Prince
morphology contrasts sharply with that of William Sound have produced a wealth of
Cape Cod (Figure 17.1), which has smooth sediment that has been carried to the coast
coastlines consisting of mainland beaches, via a myriad of meltwater streams. The depo-
barrier spits, and barrier islands. Cape Cod is sition of these sediments and their rework-
composed entirely of glacial sediments that ing by waves and tides are responsible for
454 Chapter 17
forming the 80‐km long Copper River Delta

barrier chain and an expansive backbarrier
tidal flat system.
This chapter describes how glacial pro-
cesses have produced diverse and dramatic
landscapes along many high‐latitude coasts.
The manner in which glaciers excavate
bedrock, transport large quantities of sedi-
ment and rock, and the processes whereby
these materials are deposited are discussed.
The effects of sea‐level changes associated
with the enlargement and melting of conti-
nental ice sheets are also explained. Finally,
the causes of repeated episodes of glaciation
during the Ice Ages (past 2.2–2.4 million
years) are explored.
17.2 The World’s Glaciers

Glaciers exist on almost every continent of the
Figure 17.1 Color infrared photograph of Cape Cod world, including Africa, where retreating gla-
and the islands of Nantucket (right) and Martha’s ciers top portions of Mount Kilimanjaro and
Vineyard (left). These regions were built from
Mount Kenya (Figure 17.3). They are not pre-
sediment carried south by glaciers and deposited as
end moraines, outwash plains and other sent in Australia but are found in nearby New
sedimentary features. Zealand. Glaciers occur as narrow r ibbons of
Figure 17.2 Aerial view of the northern Alaskan Peninsula. Meltwater from nearby glaciers transports
sediment to the coast via a braided stream. A large gravel and sand recurved spit has built from the abundant
sediment supply.
Glaciated Coasts 455
(a)
60 60
EUROPE
ASIA NORTH
40 40
AMERICA
60 20
20 20
140 140 120 100 80 0

AFRICA
0 0
60 80 100 160 180
120 SOUTH
20 AMERICA 20
40
AUSTRALIA 160
40
40 40
20
60 60
(b)
Greenland
Laurentide
Hudson
bay
Cordilleran
Figure 17.3 Extent of glacial ice during maximum Pleistocene glaciation. (a) Ice covered portions of North
America, Europe, and Asia and the high mountains in other regions 18,000 to 20,000 years ago. (b) In North
America majors ice sheets included the Laurentide, Greenland, and Cordilleran sheets.
flowing ice in high mountain regions or as 1.6 million years) they extended over 30 % of
thick ice sheets covering vast continental the land surface. This fact suggests that glacial
areas. Presently, glaciers cover about 10 % of processes have formed or strongly influenced
the continental landmass but in the recent a large portion of the world’s coastlines, a con-
geologic past (several times during the past cept that is not widely appreciated.
456 Chapter 17
17.2.1 Glacier Formation air is gradually forced out to produce a dense

A glacier is defined broadly as a large mass of mass of interlocking ice crystals (Figure 17.5).
ice that flows internally. The oldest glacier Freshly fallen snow is commonly light and
ice on Earth is a stagnant ice mass in the Dry fluffy and may be 90 % air, although those
Valleys region of Antarctica, which was who live in northern regions and shovel snow
part of an active glacier 14 million years ago. during the winter might argue about this
The formation of glaciers is tied closely to presumed weightlessness. As more and more
certain climatic conditions where cool tem- snow accumulates, snow at the base is com-
peratures and precipitation produce more pacted by the overlying weight, changing the
snow accumulation during the colder months hexagonal snowflake crystals into smaller
of the year than ablates during the warmer spherical structures called granular snow
months (Figure 17.4). Ablation is the term (i.e. the type of snow common during spring
given to the collective processes of ice wast- skiing). With greater weight added by more
age, including melting, sublimation and ice snowfall, along with some melting and freez-
calving into water. Thus, glaciers tend to ing, the granular snow is transformed into
form in regions of high latitude or high eleva- a denser, recrystalized granular structure
tion; even in these regions slight changes in called firn. This is the type of ice comprising
either temperature or precipitation can cause old snow banks along the sides of roadways
glaciers to advance or retreat. during the close of winter. Under the pres-
The transformation of snow to ice and then sure of more snowfalls and the development
to glacial ice is a progressive process whereby of thick firn layers, eventually all the air is
Zone of
accumulation Glacier
ice
Snow line
Zone of wastage
Glacier ice
wasted during
melt season
Figure 17.4 Cross‐sectional view of a glacier showing the annual accumulation zone and the ablation zone,
also called the zone of wastage. The accumulation zone occurs where there is a net gain in ice, whereas the
ablation zone experiences greater wastage than ice formation. The zone separating these two regions is called
the snow line.
Snowflake Granular snow Firm Glacier ice
Figure 17.5 Conversion from freshly fallen snow through several states to glacial ice.
expelled (except some minute air bubbles) and will shatter when a force is applied to it,
and a mass of interlocking ice crystals is as, for instance, when dropping an ice cube
created. At a depth of about 50 m glacial ice on the floor and seeing it break into many
is formed. This ice is highly compact and pieces. However, at a thickness of 50 m or
exhibits a vivid blue color in sharp contrast more ice behaves as a plastic material and
with the surface ice, which is commonly can be deformed. Under these conditions the
whitish to gray in color due to the presence glacial ice below 50 m will flow downslope
of air and sediment. under the influence of gravity. Differential
stresses in the overlying brittle ice may pro-
duce deep cracks in the ice surface called
17.2.2 Glacier Movement
crevasses.
Flow is a characteristic of all glaciers. Basal slip is an equally important means of
Movement by glaciers is achieved by two producing movement in glaciers. In this pro-
major mechanisms: Plastic Flow and Basal cess water acts as a lubricant and reduces
Slip (Figure 17.6). Most of our experience the friction between the base of the ice and
with ice leads us to believe that ice is brittle the underlying bedrock or sediment surface.
Figure 17.6 Cross‐section of a glacier (a)

illustrating ice movement involving two
methods. (a) The first is by plastic flow below a
depth of about 50 m. (b) The second process is
by sliding along the bottom, known as basal Total t
men
slip. move
cture al
of fra Intern
Zone flow Slidin
g
ock
Bedr
(b)
Total
surfa
ce m
ovem
Top ent
of gla Basa
cier l slip
Inter
nal flo
w
Brittle
zone
Basa Glacie
l slip r
Bedr
ock
458 Chapter 17
Basal slip allows the entire glacier to slide Named for the Alps where these glaciers are
downslope along a layer, or in some cases a common, alpine glaciers occur throughout
thin film, of water. Formation of meltwater at the world in all major mountain belts. They
the base of the glacier is caused by several originate in highest parts of mountains and
different mechanisms including frictional flow down former river valleys under the
heating, which is produced when the flowing force of gravity. Alpine glaciers in Alaska,
glacier comes in contact with the bedrock or cover an area equivalent to half the size of
sediment surface. Heat rising from within New England (75,000 km2). Most of these
the Earth’s interior may also contribute to the glaciers occur in southern Alaska, including
warming and melting of ice at the base of the many that have formed in mountain ranges
glacier. Meltwater is also formed beneath the along the Gulf of Alaska. Alpine glaciers are
glacier due to pressure exerted by the thick- responsible for carving coastal landforms in
ness and weight of the overlying ice. Finally, some locations and for delivering large
meltwater formed at the surface of the glacier quantities of sediment to others.
may eventually end up at the base of the gla-
cier by descending through the glacier via a 17.2.3.2 Ice Sheets
giant well‐like vertical to near vertical shafts Unlike alpine glaciers which are confined to
called a moulins. mountain valleys, ice sheets stretch across
millions of square kilometers, reaching sev-
eral kilometers in thickness. Because of their
17.2.3 Distribution and Types
great surface area, they are also called conti-
of Glaciers
nental glaciers. Although ice sheets once
17.2.3.1 Alpine Glaciers occupied vast regions of North America,
In mountainous regions where winters are Europe, and Asia as recently as 18,000 years
long with abundant snowfall and summers ago, there are only two ice sheets left today,
are cool and short‐lived, conditions are one in each of the two hemispheres. Ice
perfect for forming alpine glaciers, or valley covers over 80 % of Greenland (1.7 million
glaciers as they are also called (Figure 17.7). square kilometers), the world’s largest island.
Figure 17.7 Aerial view of an alpine glacier terminating in a proglacial lake.

Greenland Antarctica
1000
1500
00 0 150
0
20 100
Filchner
Ice Shelf
00
25
2000 2500
Ross
00
00
30
30
Ice Shelf 3000

3500
4000
A’ B
1500 000
1
B’
30
35
15
00
0
A 20
00
200
00 00 2
5 00
0
250
10
00
300 km
1000 km
B B’
A A’ 4000
Elevation
Elevation
3000 3000
2000 2000 Glacier
(m)
(m)
1000 Glacier 1000

Sea level Sea level
Cross-section Cross-section
Figure 17.8 The Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets have a combined area of almost 16 million square
kilometers, which is slightly less than the area of South America.
The central portion of the ice sheet is 3000 m The Antarctic ice sheet is a many times
thick and thins toward the coast, producing a larger than the one in Greenland (1.6 million
lens‐shaped ice mass (Figure 17.8). The square kilometers) having an area of just over
thicker ice sheet in the interior of the island 14 million square kilometers, which is about
causes the ice to radiate outward and flow 1.5 times the size of the contiguous United
toward the coast. Here it is met by rugged States. Antarctica is composed of the large
mountain systems that fringe much of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) and the
Greenland coast, interrupting its passage to smaller West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS).
the sea. The coastal mountains act as dams, The EAIS has a maximum thickness of about
causing the ice to bulge and build pressure 4200 m and overlies mostly a bedrock base-
behind them. Ridge systems dissect the ice ment (Figure 17.8). The smaller WAIS is
sheet while mountain passes allow individual mostly marine‐based and is susceptible to
lobes of ice to extend toward the sea. These melting beneath the ice, which thins the ice
glaciers are called outlet glaciers and are sim- causing eventual flotation and large‐scale
ilar in appearance to alpine glaciers. Flow calving (see Box 17.1). In several locations
rates of the main ice sheet are on the order of along the coast, the ice sheet extends across
40–120 m per year, in contrast to outlet gla- large embayments forming ice shelves. These
ciers, which may speed along by as much as a are regions where the ice thins and is no
meter per day. longer in contact with the land surface, but
460 Chapter 17
Box 17.1 The Fate of the Ice Sheets

With recent warnings of increasing global If all of the ice in both Greenland and
warmth, it is sometimes difficult to remember Antarctica today were to melt, global eustatic
that the Earth is still held firmly in the grips of a sea level would rise by approximately 66 m
great ice age that began about 40 million years (216 feet). Under a projected global warming
ago and intensified dramatically over the last scenario of 2‐3 °C resulting from a doubling of
three million years (Ma). Thirty million cubic atmospheric CO2, we now ask the question:
kilometers of ice still reside in Antarctica (Box will this ice melt with future warming? Or, is
Figure 17.1.1) with an additional three million the remaining ice in the polar ice sheets sta-
cubic kilometers of ice in Greenland. Visitors to ble and well‐positioned to endure the worst‐
Antarctica see the world much as it was case scenario of greenhouse‐induced global
20,000 years ago, when similar sheets of ice, up warmth? Furthermore, if the ice is at risk of
to 4 km thick, covered much of the northern collapse, how quickly might it disappear?
hemisphere. Over at least the last 2.5 Ma, great In order to predict the ice sheets’ response
ice sheets have expanded and contracted in to a warmer world, we first must recognize the
concert with changes in the geometry of the different geographic and physical characteris-
Earth’s orbit reaching similar maximum dimen- tics of the individual ice sheets. The Greenland
sions every 100,000 years or so. During each of ice sheet, which if melted would contribute
these glacial maximums, eustatic sea level falls approximately 6 m of sea level rise, is located in
due to water being temporarily stored in the the relatively warmer northern hemisphere
ice sheets – only to be returned to the oceans, and is believed to be vulnerable to a nearly
sometimes catastrophically, when the ice complete disintegration, mostly from surface
sheets return to near their present dimensions. melting and accelerated flow, under a 2‐3 °C
Box Figure 17.1.1 Satellite mosaic image of Antarctica.

increase in global temperature. The Antarctic is today. The most recent evidence suggests
ice sheet is not everywhere equally stable and that the real answer probably lays somewhere
will have a more complex response to warm- in the middle of these two extremes, but that
ing. The west Antarctic ice sheet (WAIS) is the majority of the EAIS is stable in the face of a
grounded mostly below sea level and would moderate amount of warming.
contribute approximately 3 m of sea level rise Overall, the above discussion suggests that
if melted. Because its base is vulnerable to 5‐15 m of eustatic sea level rise from melting
melting in a warmer ocean, the WAIS is consid- ice sheets is theoretically inevitable under a
ered by most researchers to be at risk of near global warming scenario of only 2‐3 °C.
total collapse under a warming scenario of However, even more uncertain and arguably
only 2‐3 °C. On the other hand, the east more important than the eventual fate of the
Antarctic ice sheet (EAIS) is grounded pre- ice sheets is rate at which they may decline.
dominately above sea level where it is less A sea level rise of 5‐15 m occurring over a
susceptible to ocean warming. Is the EAIS still few decades would have a vastly different
vulnerable to future global warming? The human impact than the same sea level
answer to this question is highly relevant. If increase stretched over many millennia. Up
the EAIS ‐ the true sleeping giant of the ice until relatively recently, most researchers
sheets ‐ were to melt completely, it would believed that the decline of the ice sheets
raise eustatic sea level by a massive 57 m. would be fairly gradual and partially offset by
One key to unlocking the mystery of the increased snowfall (and resulting ice accumu-
future behavior of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet lation) in warming world. From satellite obser-
comes from examining the past behavior of the vations, we know that the Greenland ice sheet
ice sheet during periods of prior global has already reduced in mass at an average
warmth – particularly those that match or pace of 280 gigatons per year over the last
exceed predicted warming from greenhouse 15 years and that WAIS has lost an average of
emissions. One such time interval is the early‐ 125 gigatons of ice per year over the same
to‐mid‐Pliocene, 3–4 million years ago. During period. This rate of ice loss, if continued at its
this time period, global temperatures were 2‐3 current pace, would result in only a few cen-
°C warmer than today, Greenland was predomi- timeters of e ustatic sea level rise by the year
nantly ice free, and the WAIS was mostly non‐ 2100. However, ice sheet behavior is known to
existent. However, a decades‐long debate has be highly nonlinear and several recent obser-
surrounded the stability of the EAIS during this vations and models hint that a rapid accelera-
period. Central to the debate are the presence tion of ice loss could be in store for the near
of Pliocene‐aged marine diatoms located in future. These include the disintegration and
glacial deposits in a mountain range that destabilization of ice shelves that buttress the
crosses Antarctica (the Transantarctic flow if ice on WAIS, the retreat of submarine
Mountains). One theory to explain the place- grounding lines for both WAIS and Greenland,
ment of marine diatoms in interior Antarctica the acceleration of ice flow velocity on all the
suggests that EAIS was almost completely ice sheets, and the discovery of deep marine
melted during the early‐to‐mid‐Pliocene which channels that may be capable of bringing
allowed for the existence of marine seaways in warm ocean water to the base of critical
crossing the South Pole. Opposing theories portions of the EAIS. Considering all of the
suggest that the marine diatoms were simply evidence, the current conservative estimate of
transported to the interior by wind blowing in sea level rise ‐ which includes both the effect
from the distant open ocean and point to other of melting ice sheets and the thermal expan-
evidence to suggest the EAIS was essentially sion of seawater ‐ is between 40 and 100 cm by
the same size in the early‐to‐mid‐Pliocene as it the year 2100.
462 Chapter 17
Box Figure 17.1.2 Hypothetical shoreline of North America 18,000 years ago during glacial maximum and
after ice sheets melt. (Source: From E. J. Tarbuck & F. K. Lutgens, 2002, Earth, New York, Prentice Hall.)
Wherever the truth lies, one thing is cer- (Box Figure 17.1.2). It will melt sometime.
tain. Ice contained in the great ice sheets has The question is when.
the potential to completely change the world Sean L. Mackay
as we know it. Most of the world’s largest Polar Scientist
cities would be lost if this ice should melt Earth and Environment Department
Boston University
rather floats above the sea floor. The ice This period is commonly referred to as the
shelves, of which the Ross and Filchner are Ice Ages. Through bedrock excavation and
the largest, are fed by ice flowing from the sediment deposition, glaciers significantly
Antarctic interior. altered the landscape of large sections of
North America, northern Europe and
Siberia, and lesser areas in the southern
17.3 Pleistocene Glaciation hemisphere. The vacillating extent of the ice
sheet and shifting climatic conditions led to
17.3.1 Introduction widespread changes in p atterns of vegeta-
tion as well as the types of animals dwelling
The cycles of glaciation which began in northern regions. Glaciers created the
approximately 2.4 million years ago marked Great Lakes, as well as Lake Winnipeg,
one of the most dramatic periods of change Great Slave Lake, Great Bear Lake, and
in the Earth’s recent history. During this numerous other large and small lakes. The
time, fluctuations in the worldwide climate advance and retreat of the ice sheets is tied
caused periodic advances of huge ice sheets very closely to sea‐level changes. The pre-
in high‐latitude regions followed by a gen- cipitation that falls on ice sheets causing
eral retreat of the glacial ice (Figure 17.9). their growth ultimately originates from
0
I
100
II
200
Thousands of years ago
III
Glacial cycle
300
IV
400
V
500 VI
600
VII
0.8 0.9 1.0
Ice volume
Mean ocean δ18O
Figure 17.9 Cycles of glaciation coincide with long‐term changes in the intensity of summer sunshine in
northern latitudes, which are driven by variations in Earth’s orbital characteristics (Source: From Broeker and
Denton, Scientific American, January 1990).
water that is evaporated from the ocean sur- 17.3.2 Defining the Pleistocene
face. Thus, when an ice sheet enlarges, it
means that more and more water from the The Ice Ages are intimately associated with
ocean is being stored in the form of glacial the geologic time period known as the
ice and that sea level will correspondingly Pleistocene Epoch. Charles Lyell, a British
drop. During the most recent glacial max- geologist, originally defined the beginning of
ima, sea level was lowered by at least 120 m. the Pleistocene. He based his designation on
The drastic changes such as ice sheet fossil‐bearing sedimentary rocks in Italy,
movement and sea‐level fluctuations had a which have been dated at 1.65 million years
major impact on many of the world’s coastal old. During the past 700,000 years the gla-
regions. In high latitudes, glacial action cial–interglacial cycles lasted approximately
resulted in various types of erosional and 100,000 years. Furthermore, analyses of
depositional coastlines. In low latitudes, not fossils from deep‐sea sediment cores reveal
affected by ice, the rise and fall of sea level that the Earth has experienced as many as
produced numerous features that give clues 20 episodes of glaciation. Consequently, it
to the timing and magnitude of the Ice Ages. is now accepted that although the lower
464 Chapter 17
Pleistocene boundary dates at 1.65 million case, the landmasses had assembled over the
years, the Ice Ages began 2.2–2.4 million South Pole in the super‐continent of Pangaea
years ago. (see Chapter 2). Glaciation ceased in these
areas after the breakup of Pangaea as the
continents moved to more equatorial regions.
17.3.3 Causes of the Ice Ages Thus, it is apparent that the rarity of glacial
In the mid‐1800s Louis Agassiz, a Swiss episodes throughout Earth’s history is
scientist, became a convert to the idea that because there have been few instances in
large masses of glacial ice once covered which the continents have been in polar
much of Europe and extensive parts of North positions when climatic conditions were
America. He eventually became the chief conducive for snow accumulation and ice
spokesman of the glaciation theory and sheet formation (Figure 17.10).
through his studies and many lectures is
credited with establishing glaciation as a 17.3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide Abundance
major geological event. General acceptance As already mentioned, the Earth was consid-
of the glacial theory among scientists erably warmer in the geologic past and has
spawned numerous hypotheses to explain cooled by as much as 10–15 °C during the
the cause of the Ice Ages. These ideas are past 65 million years. Coincident with this
still being debated today. Any satisfactory cooling trend has been a dramatic decrease
theory must account for the following: in the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
atmosphere, falling to a quarter of its level
●● Although glaciations have occurred in since the Cretaceous. Because CO2 is an
the geologic past, they have not been a important greenhouse gas, a decrease in its
common geological phenomenon. abundance causes less trapping of solar and
●● During most of the Earth’s history the cli- re‐radiated radiation by the atmosphere,
mate was warmer than it is today. Beginning resulting in cooler climates. Because the
about 65 million years ago global tempera- amount of CO2 in the oceans is about
tures began cooling, eventually leading 60 times greater than that found in the
to the Ice Ages that commenced about atmosphere, it would appear that the oceans
2.2–2.4 million years ago. must play a strong role in controlling atmos-
●● During the Ice Ages there has been a pheric CO2 and Earth temperature.
repeated succession of ice sheet growth
followed by ice retreat coinciding
17.3.3.3 Milankovitch Climatic Cycles
with variations in global temperatures of Although plate tectonics explains well the
about 5 °C. long periods between glaciations (measured
●● Periods of glaciation and interglacial in hundreds of millions of years) that have
climates occurred at approximately the
characterized most of Earth’s history, the
same times in both the northern and repeated glacial and interglacial climates that
southern hemispheres. have occurred during the Ice Ages require a
different mechanism. Plates move too slowly
17.3.3.1 Effects of Plate Tectonics to account for the waxing and waning of ice
When climatic conditions are favorable, ice sheets over periods of 100,000 years and less.
sheets form in polar regions and advance to In the early 1900s Milutin Milankovitch, a
the mid‐latitudes. Of course, this process can Serbian mathematician, calculated seasonal
only occur if landmasses are present in the changes in radiation received at various
high and mid‐latitudes. This requirement latitudes during the past 600,000 years.

may explain why periods of glaciation have He linked cyclic variations in the Earth’s
been rare events in geological history. orbital characteristics to changes in climatic
Extensive glaciation occurred approximately conditions, principally the Earth’s surface
600 and 250 million years ago. In the latter temperature. These variations are called
(a)
NORTH
Equator AMERICA EURASIA
SOUT H Tethys Sea

AMERICA AFRICA
Ice mass
AUSTRALIA
INDI A
ANTARCTICA
(b)
Equator
Figure 17.10 Glaciations occur when climatic conditions are favorable and when continental landmasses are
situated in polar regions. (a) View of Pangaea and the ice sheet that covered the Antarctic and surrounding
region 300 million years ago. (b) Present day position of the continents and aerial extent of the former
glaciated terrain.
Milankovitch cycles (Figure 17.11) and are

2) Obliquity – The Earth’s axis of rotation is
defined below:
inclined 23.5° with respect to a line drawn
1) Eccentricity – The Earth’s present orbit perpendicular to a plane containing the
about the Sun is elliptical but at other Earth’s orbit. This is commonly referred
times it is almost circular. The span of to the Earth’s tilt. Every 41,000 years the
time for the orbit to cycle from its most Earth’s tilt cycles between a minimum
elliptical to near‐circular and back to ellip- value of 21.8° and a maximum of 24.4°.
tical is approximately 96,000 years. The The greater the tilt the more pronounced
amount of eccentricity, which is a measure are the seasons.
of how elliptical the orbit is, dictates 3) Precession – Presently, the Earth’s axis of
changes in the distance between the Earth rotation points toward the North Star.
and Sun over the course of a year. Presently, However, in 11,500 years the axis will
the Earth is closest to the Sun when the point to the star of Vega, and 11,500 years
northern hemisphere is experiencing after that it will once again be directed
winter and the southern hemisphere has toward the North Star. This 23,000‐
its summer and furthest away from the year cycle describes a circular precession
Sun during summer in the northern hemi- of the axis of rotation. It can be likened to
sphere. The opposite was true approxi- a spinning top that slows down and begins
mately 50,000 years ago. to wobble. The wobble is the precession
466 Chapter 17
Eccentricity less melting of ice while at the same time

100,000 years
Sun
slightly warmer winters may actually increase
Sun
snowfall. This is an oversimplified scenario
but it does demonstrate the type of climatic
High eccentricity changes that are induced by the Milankovitch
Low eccentricity cycles. Present thought is that Milankovitch
cycles are somehow propagated through
changes in atmospheric and ocean circula-
Precession tion and these broad conveyer belts of heat
23,000 years
Spinning top and cold control global climatic fluctuations.
(See also Chapter 4, Section 4.5.1 and
Wobble Wobble
of axis Box 17.20.)
Axis of
Axis of rotation
Sun
rotation of top 17.3.4 The Late Pleistocene
Orbital plane Waxing and waning of ice sheets character-

ized the Pleistocene Epoch throughout
Tilt
41,000 years the world. In North America the last of
these major glaciations is referred to as the
Wisconsin Ice Age, named after the state in
Axis of
rotation which the deposits left behind by the ice
sheet are easily studied. During the begin-
ning of the Wisconsin (70,000–90,000 years
Sun 21.5° to 24.5°
ago) the ice sheets began expanding, reach-
Orbital plane ing their maximum southern extent about
20,000–18,000 years before present. The
margin of the ice sheets is defined in many
Figure 17.11 Milankovitch Cycles are a product of regions by particular types of glacial depos-
variations in Earth’s orbital behavior. (a) Orbital its, providing an ideal means of mapping the
elements include Eccentricity, Precession, and Tilt. limit of the ice. Ice sheets covered all of
(from Press and Siever 1998)). (b) The cyclicity of
orbital variations is responsible for the intensity of
Canada and the mountainous areas of Alaska.
the seasons and are linked to climatic changes In western Canada coalescing glaciers flowed
(Source: From Graedel and Crutzen (1993)). to the Pacific. An expansive ice sheet, called
the Laurentide Ice Sheet, was centered over
Hudson Bay in eastern Canada and flowed
of the spin axis. In the present configura-
outward in all directions. In Hudson Bay the
tion, summer in the northern hemisphere
ice was almost 4000 m thick and in New
occurs when the Earth is inclined toward
England it reached more than 2000 m in
the Sun. It is tilted away from the Sun dur-
thickness. The Laurentide Ice Sheet extended
ing winter. In 11,500 years the tilt will
eastward to the Atlantic Ocean and as far
have precessed 180° such that the present
south as central Illinois and Indiana. Ice
summer months will become winter
sheets also covered much of northern Europe
months and vice versa.
and parts of Siberia. The only vestige of the
Milankovitch showed that the interaction Laurentide ice sheet today is the Barnes ice
of these three cycles did not change the total cap on Baffin Island in northeastern Canada.
amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth; The end of the Pleistocene coincided with a
rather it affected the contrast in the seasons. period of abrupt global warming and rapid
For example, if summers were cooler, then retreat of ice sheets in the northern and
glaciers might be expected to enlarge due to southern hemispheres. It should be noted
Figure 17.12 Erosion by glaciers

occurs through ice wedging and
plucking and by abrasion. Bottom
of ice
Water seeps into cracks,
freezes, and fragments
Rocks being dragged along of bedrock are plucked
the base of the glacier out by glacier
Bedrock
that this and other sudden shifts in the Earth’s Yosemite National Park in California and the
climatic patterns are not easily explained by deepwater port of New York City. Erosion by
Milankovitch cycles and it is probable that glaciers occurs by several processes, the most
other mechanisms are responsible, such as important of which are ice wedging, plucking
changes in ocean circulation. By definition, and abrasion (Figure 17.12). Ice wedging
the Pleistocene ended 10,000 years ago when occurs when meltwater flows into the cracks
the Holocene commenced. The beginning and crevices of the bedrock underlying the
of the Holocene marks a period of rapid ice. As the meltwater refreezes, the expan-
warming in North America and Europe, as sion of water to ice applies appreciable pres-
indicated by pollen records. sure on the sides of the crack. As this process
is repeated over and over again, pieces of the
bedrock, large and small are wedged free.
17.4 Glacial Effects on The process is especially prevalent where the
Coastlines original bedrock surface is highly fractured
and meltwater can readily penetrate numer-
The growth and decay of ice sheets dramati- ous cracks. The excavation process (pluck-
cally affects the morphology of coastlines ing) is completed when the pieces of rock are
due to the ability of glaciers to carve into quarried from the bedrock and incorporated
bedrock, strip away loose materials overlying into the ice. This is achieved through mate-
bedrock, deposit large quantities of sediment rial freezing to the base of the glacier. The
and change the level of the world’s oceans. plastic nature of glaciers at depth also allows
Direct effects of glaciation include those due larger rocks and boulders to be enveloped by
to glacial erosional and depositional pro- ice. Once the material is incorporated within
cesses and those resulting from elevation the ice, it flows with the glacier and is trans-
changes of the coast associated with ice ported toward the ice margin. Along its jour-
loading and unloading the land. Indirect
ney, the rock fragments carried at the base of
effects of glaciation are linked to sea‐level the ice abrade the underlying bedrock. Just as
fluctuations produced by volume changes of the sediment that is transported by the
the ice sheets. Colorado River accelerates the cutting of the
Grand Canyon, the rock material carried by a
glaciar significantly increases the erosion pro-
17.4.1 General Erosional
cess. The grooves and scratches cut into bed-
Processes
rock surfaces, called striations, are evidence of
Erosional processes by glaciers have been glacial abrasion (Figure 17.13). Scientists use
responsible for the formation of the the orientations of these linear features to
Matterhorn in the Swiss Alps, Half Dome in determine the flow direction of the ice.
468 Chapter 17
Figure 17.13 View of glacial striations on bedrock along the coast of Maine. Striations are oriented left to right.
Figure 17.14 Fjords are flooded

coastal mountain valleys that are
created when alpine glaciers
excavate bedrock valleys below
sea level.
Glacial
excavation
17.4.2 Fjords
deepened existing mountain valleys pro-
17.4.2.1 Formation ducing U‐shaped glacial troughs. In these
The erosional coastal landscapes exposed settings the ends of the valleys were often
by the retreating ice at the end of the eroded well below sea level. When the gla-
Pleistocene exhibited considerable variabil- ciers retreated from the valleys and sea
ity. Their form was dependent on the origi- level rose following deglaciation, the glacial
nal topography and bedrock structure of troughs were flooded creating fjords
the region. Along mountainous coastlines (Figure 17.14). These features are found
in high‐latitude regions, alpine glaciers throughout the high‐latitude coastlines of
the world including the Scandinavian 17.4.3 Rocky Coasts

countries, Iceland, Greenland, eastern and
17.4.3.1 Formation
western Canada, Alaska, New Zealand, and
The effects of continental glaciers are strik-
Chile. Fjords are commonly spectacular
ingly different from those of alpine glaciers.
features with steep, cliff‐like sides and
Whereas alpine glacial processes tend to
winding valleys that follow the original sin-
erode and deepen mountain valleys, thereby
uous mountain valleys from which they
accentuating the rugged terrain, continental
were formed. They can be hundreds of
glaciers tend to reduce the relief along a
meters deep; some reaching more than
coast, although they may produce a highly
1000 m in depth. This means that creation
irregular coast. Continental glaciers are too
of the fjords is attributable to more than
thick to be confined to valleys but rather
just rising sea level resulting from melting
spread over entire landscapes, including low
ice sheets. In most instances, the depth of a
mountain systems. Along many high‐lati-
fjord is chiefly a function of the amount of
tude, glaciated coasts in North America,
bedrock excavation that was accomplished
Europe and elsewhere, the major effect of the
by the alpine glaciers.
Pleistocene ice sheets was to strip away the
sediment cover and excavate several meters
17.4.2.2 Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
of the underlying bedrock. Although the
The Kenai Peninsula is a 250 km‐long land-
glaciers left behind a thin layer of undifferen-
mass that juts southwestward from southern
tiated sediment, called till, these coastal
Alaska. It is separated from the Alaskan
regions are normally very rocky with numer-
Peninsula by the long, narrow, macrotidal
ous embayments, bedrock promontories,
embayment of Cook Inlet; Anchorage is
and islands. Beaches and barriers are uncom-
located in the upper reaches of Cook Inlet.
mon along these types of coastlines and
The mountainous landscape of this region is
where they do occur, their sediment supplies
a product of tectonic processes associated
are close by.
with the subduction of the Pacific Plate
beneath North America. During numerous
episodes of alpine glaciation, ice flowed 17.4.3.2 Northern New England
southeastward from the Kenai Mountains The coast of northern New England illus-
and excavated a series of deep fjords along trates well the general effects of the
the open coast, many of them more than Pleistocene ice sheets. From northern
100 m deep (Figure 17.15). Steep‐walled bed- Massachusetts to northeastern Maine the
rock slopes and cliffs that rise several hun- coast exhibits a wide range of morphologies
dred meters high characterize much of the that are a function of isolated sediment
seaward shoreline of the fjords. In contrast, sources, a highly variable bedrock fabric, and
the heads of many fjords contain outwash a land area that has been inundated by the
fans and fan deltas that are actively prograd- sea during the past 11,000 years. The bed-
ing into the deep water. Braided streams rock imprint on this region is particularly
draining meltwater and sediment from important, producing cliff coasts in extreme
retreating glaciers produce these sedimen- eastern Maine, broad deep embayments with
tary features and resulting low topography. numerous islands and peninsulas in central
During the 1964 Good Friday Earthquake Maine, and finally a straighter coast along
this region was downwarped a maximum of southern Maine, New Hampshire and north-
2.3 m below sea level. One of the major ern Massachusetts that contains bedrock
effects of this event was the formation of promontories separated by gently curved
drowned forests at the heads of some of the embayments. The rocky nature of this coast
fjords and in other embayments along the is a direct consequence of glacial erosion
Kenai coast. including the removal of sediment that had
470 Chapter 17
(a)
(b)
Figure 17.15 Views of two of the many fjords found along the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska.
once covered the bedrock basement. Along also led to the development of tombolos and
much of this coast the only depositional cuspate spits. The composition of these dep-
landforms are small pocket beaches and bar- ositional features is usually sand and gravel,
riers in protected embayments that have reflecting the mixed sediment of the glacial
developed from the reworking of local glacial sources.
deposits (Figure 17.16). The numerous bed- Exceptions to the general trends cited
rock islands that characterize this coast have above occur in regions where inland deposits
Figure 17.16 Pocket beach located along a rocky sediment‐starved coast. Sediment is derived from the
reworking of local thin till deposits.
of sand have been delivered to the coast in

17.4.4 General Depositional
large quantities. In the lowlands of Maine, as
Processes
in many other areas of New England, there
are immense sand and gravel deposits that Glaciers not only carve mountain valleys and
were produced as the ice sheet retreated strip away the sediment cover from vast
northward from this region (discussed areas; they are also responsible for wide-
below). During and following deglaciation, spread sediment deposition. The rock and
these deposits were excavated by tributaries sediment that are removed and transported
and trunk streams of major river systems and away by glaciers from one location are even-
brought to the coast. This movement of sand tually deposited at another site. The large
down rivers, although less active, continues boulders that are moved by glaciers and laid
to the present time. The sediment deposited down far from their origin are called erratics
at the mouths of these rivers has been redis- (Figure 17.18). They are commonly the size
tributed alongshore as well as onshore by of a car; however, the largest one in North
wind, waves, and tides to form sandy beaches America, the Okotoks of southern Alberta,
and barriers chains, some of which reach Canada, is larger than a two‐story house. By
30 km in length. Most of these barrier sys- matching the rock type of erratics to the bed-
tems are located within arcuate embayments, rock from which they were derived, glacial
and individual barriers are usually anchored geologists are able to determine the direction
to bedrock promontories or glacial head- of ice flow and how far the erratics have
lands. Likewise, tidal inlets along these traveled. For ice sheets, this distance may be
chains have stabilized next to bedrock as little as a few kilometers or in some cases
outcrops or glacial deposits (Figure 17.17). as much as 1000 km. Erratics litter the
Depositional features in this region are landscape of New England, portions of the
usually isolated and directly linked to nearby Mid‐West, and many areas within Canada
sediment sources such as rivers. and northern Europe. Louis Agassiz used
472 Chapter 17
Figure 17.17 Along glaciated coasts tidal inlets are commonly anchored next to bedrock exposures or till
headlands (Source: Westport River Inlet, Massachusetts).
directly by the ice, and Stratified Sediment –

layered sediments deposited by glacial melt-
water (Figure 17.19). Glaciers carry a variety
of sediment sizes from clay‐sized material to
large boulders. When a glacier retreats, the
sediment it carries melts out from the ice and
is deposited in an unsorted, chaotic mass
called till. Anyone who has dug a hole in till
to plant a bush or excavate a trench is famil-
iar with its bouldery composition. In the
farmlands that stretch across glaciated areas
the boundaries of their fields are commonly
outlined by stone walls. The rocks making up
these walls, large and small, were placed
there by farmers who wished to rid their
land of the boulders that obstructed the
cultivation of their fields.
Unlike till, stratified drift is deposited by
flowing water derived from the melting ice.
Because the energy needed to transport dif-
ferent sized sediment is directly related to the
Figure 17.18 Large erratic along the Cape Cod speed of the flow, water‐laid sediments tend
shoreline. to be sorted and are deposited in layers. In
stratified drift these layers commonly consist
these features as the primary evidence to of sand and fine gravel; however, if the current
advance his glaciation theory. is very strong, coarse gravel layers can form,
Glacial material comprises two major cat- or if the current flows into a standing body
egories of sediment: Till‐ sediment deposited of water, layers of silt and clay may develop.
Figure 17.19 Glacial sediment consists of till, undifferentiated sediment deposited by the glacier, and
stratified drift, layered sand and gravel deposited by meltwater (Source: From Miles Hayes).
17.4.5 Depositional Landforms whereby ice moves directly from solid to gas-
eous state), then the ice marginal position
Along glaciated coasts, there are numerous
will remain stationary. Under these condi-
examples where glacial deposits formed the
tions the ice sheet, acting like a conveyor
initial shoreline and although coastal pro-
belt, continuously transports sediment to the
cesses have subsequently modified these
terminus of the glacier where it melts out
deposits, the original glacial features are still
from the ice and is deposited. As this process
recognizable. These deposits may be large
continues through time, the accumulating
(>100 km) or small (<5 km) and may be com-
sediment forms a ridge of till called an end
posed of till or stratified drift, or in the case
moraine (Figure 17.20). The longer the ice
of Cape Cod, Massachusetts and Long Island,
terminus remains in the same position, the
New York they consist of both types of
greater the amount of sediment that is deliv-
deposits. The major types of glacial deposits
ered to the ice front and the larger the end
along coasts include end moraines, outwash
moraine becomes. Because the conditions
plains, and drumlins.
forming end moraines are so variable, their
size and extent range widely from prominent
17.4.5.1 End Moraines ridges 20–50 m in height and 100 km long to
As discussed earlier, ice sheets flow outward those that are only few meters high and
from interior regions of ice accumulation. extend discontinuously along the former ice
Glaciers continue to advance as long as more margin. End moraines are useful to scientists
ice is formed during the winter than melts studying past glaciations because they mark
during the summer. For ice sheets, the dis- the furthest advance of an ice sheet as well as
tance separating the area of net ice formation its recessional positions where the ice front
from the region of ice melting along the mar- remained stationary for relatively short peri-
gin of the glacier may be over 1000 km. If the ods of time before continuing to retreat. In
amount of ice that forms in the interior of an the midwest of the US, a series of end
ice sheet equals the amount that is lost moraines hundreds of kilometers long out-
through melting and sublimation (process line the southern borders of the Great Lakes.
474 Chapter 17
Figure 17.20 End moraines are formed when the margin of a glacier remains in the same position for a period
of time. Under these conditions the flowing ice piles sediment at its terminus forming a ridge of till called an
end moraine (Source: From Miles Hayes).
17.4.5.2 Outwash Plains Examples include most of Cape Cod,

As an end moraine is created at the terminus Massachusetts and Long Island, New York as
of a stationary ice sheet, the melting ice well as the Skiederarsandur in southeast
produces torrents of water choked with sedi- Iceland. Outwash plains are also formed at
ment. On warm summer days water flows the end of some valley glaciers.
everywhere from underneath, over the sur-
face, and through tunnels within the glacier. 17.4.5.3 Drumlins
Meltwater discharging from the ice front One of the most distinctive glacial deposi-
forms a broad network of shallow streams tional features is a drumlin. Drumlins are tear-
whose channels regularly divide and rejoin in drop‐shaped accumulations of till ranging
a braid‐like pattern. Within a short distance from 15 to 50 m in height and 0.5–2 km in
of the ice, much of the bedload transported length (Figure 17.22). In some instances they
by these braided streams is deposited due to may also be composed of highly contorted
the gentle slope and resulting decrease in stratified drift while others may be cored by
current velocity. Meltwater streams sort the bedrock. The blunt, steep side of a drumlin
glacial sediment, leaving behind the largest‐ faces the direction from which the glacier
sized material near or within the ice front. advanced. and the down‐glacier end is stream-
Sand and gravel are deposited in layers lined, with a gentler slope. This geometry is
beyond the ice terminus and in time build an reminiscent of a spoon turned upside‐down.
expansive outwash plain (Figure 17.21). The Because drumlins are elongated parallel to the
finest sediment (clay and silt) is transported flow direction, they are used by glaciologists
out of the system and often into the ocean or to study patterns of ice sheet movement.
a lake. Thus, outwash plains are large sandy‐ Drumlins usually occur in significant num-
gravel regions (some more than 100 km long bers. In upstate New York over 10,000 drum-
and an area greater than 1000 km2) with lins exist in an area of approximately
low topography consisting of stratified drift. 12,000 km2. A few hundred are located in the
(a)
Stabilized ice front
Melting ice
Outwash plain
Ice block
Crevasse
Tunnel Outwash
channel
Ice
Ice block
Till
(b)
Figure 17.21 An outwash plain consists of layers of sand and gravel (stratified drift). (a) They are formed
through deposition by glacial meltwater streams. (Source: From Strahler (1966).) (b) The braided streams in
this photograph are most active during the summer when nearby glaciers discharge abundant meltwater
(Source: From Dave Marchant).
immediate vicinity of Boston, Massachusetts, is that the Bunker Hill Monument commemo-
including a drumlin where the famous rating the battle stands on the drumlin of
Revolutionary War battle of Bunker Hill was Breeds Hill, the actual battle was fought on the
fought in 1775. An interesting note of history adjacent drumlin of Bunker Hill. The fact that
476 Chapter 17
(a)
Ice
sheet
Drumlin shaped
like upside-down
spoon
Bed
Spoon
(b)
Figure 17.22 Drumlins are composed of till, and usually occur in groups. (a) They are formed beneath the ice
and have the form of an upside down spoon. (Source: From (Chernicoff (1995).) (b) Erosion of a drumlin in Nova
Scotia has left behind a boulder‐retreat lag, which can be used to trace the former extent of the landform.
drumlins always occur in clusters with similar 18,000 years ago and in eastern United States
geometry and orientations leads scientists to perhaps a little earlier (~20,000 years ago). In
believe that they represent an equilibrium bed the vicinity of southeastern New England,
configuration in which the flowing ice molds the terminus of the ice sheet consisted of sev-
the underlying till. Other drumlins may be a eral large lobes that coincide with the pre-
product of glacial erosion. In addition to the sent‐day locations of Nantucket, Martha’s
drumlin fields of New York and New England Vineyard, Block Island off the Rhode Island
others are found in the United Kingdom, coast, and Long Island in New York. It is the
Ireland, eastern Canada, Wisconsin, Michigan, overall position, configuration, and dynam-
and western Washington. ics of these ice lobes that determined the
shape and location of the Cape and islands to
the south and west.
17.5 Examples of Glaciated Cape Cod and the Islands developed dur-
ing at least two periods when the margin of
Coastlines the Laurentide Ice Sheet stabilized and large
quantities of sediment were deposited at
17.5.1 Cape Cod
these ice terminuses. At the ice sheet’s south-
17.5.1.1 Formation ernmost position, an end moraine formed
During the summer, one of the most popular corresponding to the northern third of
vacation spots in New England is Cape Cod, Martha’s Vineyard. This is a hilly, bouldery
Massachusetts, including the two islands of region and is relatively elevated compared
Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket that lie with the rest of the island. A similar but less
directly off the Cape’s southern shore. Cape extensive moraine exists on Nantucket.
Cod is shaped like an extended bent arm with During the same time as the moraines were
a curled‐fingered hand pointing northward. formed, broad, sandy outwash plains were
The Cape and Islands were formed during deposited by meltwater streams draining
the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which water and sediment from the ice terminus.
reached its maximum extent approximately These sand plains define the southern border
20,000–18,000 years ago (Figure 17.23). of both islands. Following this period of ice‐
These landmasses consist almost entirely of front stability, the ice sheet retreated 50 km
unconsolidated glacial sediments (about 90 % northward and stabilized again. In this posi-
by area). Exceptions are the beaches, barri- tion, the Sandwich and Buzzards Bay
ers, marshes and tidal flats that outline the Moraines and a number of outwash plains
present Cape and even these features were were formed that together constitute the
formed from reworked glacial sediment. southern extent of Cape Cod. The forearm of
Although some large erratics exist on the the Cape developed next after the ice sheet
Cape, there are no bedrock exposures. withdrew further northward. At this time,
To discuss the glacial origin of Cape Cod the lobate nature of the ice front left a large
and the Islands we must go back to an inter- low area between the Cape Cod Bay Lobe,
glacial period (between glaciations) when the filling much of Cape Cod Bay, and the South
climate was the same or slightly warmer Channel Lobe, which was located east of the
than it is today, about 130,000–100,000 years present Cape. This low area was filled with
ago. At this time there was no Cape Cod. stratified drift (outwash) produced by melt-
Following this period, temperatures cooled water braided streams that flowed westward
and the Laurentide Ice Sheet grew is size, from the South Channel Ice Sheet. With this
expanding outward from the Hudson Bay final stage of glacial deposition completed,
region. It reached its maximum southern the general form of Cape Cod and the Islands
extent in the Great Lakes region about was achieved.
478 Chapter 17
200
Marshfield m
20
10
0
m
0m
42°00′
Cape Cod
Bay
DS CAPE COD
Cape Cod AR BE BAY LOBE
Canal ZZ LO
BU AY SOUTH
B CHANNEL
CAPE COD 100 LOBE
m
GLACIAL
Buzzards SUB-GLACIAL LAKE
41°30′ Bay Nantucket CHANNELS
d
un Sound
SoMartha’s
yard Vineyard
e
Vin Maximum extent
of ice
Nantucket
SOUTH
BUZZARDS CAPE COD CHANNEL Spring Salling
BAY LOBE BAY LOBE LOBE Valleys
41°00′
71°00′ 70°00′ 69°00′
c. 20,000 BP c. >18,000 BP
200
m
GLACIAL LAKE TAUNTON AMORPHOUS
WELLFLEET PLAIN SAND
CAPE COD BAY BILLINGSGATE

GLACIAL SHOAL MORAINE
LAKE
MONKS HILL
MORAINE HARWICH PLAIN
100
m
SPRING
SAPPING VALLEYS PRESENT SHORELINE
DRAINAGE
DIVIDE
CONTEMPORARY
SHORELINE
MARINE
EMBAYMENT
DRAINAGE DIVIDE MARINE
EMBAYMENT
c. <18,000 BP c. 16,000 BP
PRESENT
SHORELINE
FLUVIAL
DRAINAGE
CONTEMPORARY
SHORELINE
CONTEMPORARY
SHORELINE
MARINE
EMBAYMENT 75 km
c. 12,000 BP c. 6,000 BP
Figure 17.23 Sequential diagrams depicting the formation of Cape Cod and the islands of Martha’s Vineyard
and Nantucket. They consist of sediment that was carried south and deposited by the Laurentide Ice Sheet in
the form of moraines, outwash plains, and other glacial deposits. (Source: From Uchupi et al. (1996).)
17.5.1.2 Modification
Cape Cod and the Islands have undergone Boston
many important modifications during and

after the period that ice withdrew from New
England. During the period of ice retreat, at CAPE COD
least two large glacial lakes occupied what is
now Nantucket Sound and Cape Cod Bay.
The first of these lakes to develop, Lake Cotuit
Nantucket Sound, was dammed by the gla- Bay Inlet
Inle nlet
cial deposits to the west and south including
Ee es Po Inlet
t
dI
Inle
t
n
nd
Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket and by ice
ond
t
Bo n Po
Inle
let
ond
y In
to the north and east. Meltwater discharging
at P
urn
or
e
Popponesset
lP
Gre
Ba
arb
Gre
Bay Inlet
from the ice terminus filled the lake. The
oit
hH
qu
Falmouth
out
unconsolidated, porous nature of the depos-
Wa
lm
Fa
its that make up Martha’s Vineyard and
Nantucket led to water from the glacial lake
being piped southward through these sedi-
r
rbo
ments where it eventually flowed out along
Ha
Nantucket Sound
the surface. This process gradually formed
ven
Ha
channels that ate their way northward across
rd
eya
Oak Bluffs
the sand plains as sand and fine gravel were Vin
Harbor Inlet
eroded at the heads of these channels and Vineyard
Oak
Bluffs
transported southward. These channels are Haven
called groundwater‐sapping channels and
r
rbo
can be seen on a small‐scale on a beach at
Ha
wn
lowtide where groundwater leaks out along MARTHA’S VINEYARD Cape
rto
Poge
Edgartown ga
the beachface (Figure 17.24). Along
Ed
Bay
Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard ground- Chappaquiddick

Island
water‐sapping processes have formed a series Katama
Bay
of semi‐parallel channels that have since
been inundated with seawater due to rising
sea level. Exactly the same process was Figure 17.24 Following the deglaciation of this
responsible for groundwater‐sapping chan- region, groundwater‐sapping channels developed in
nel development along the southern shore of the outwash plains of Cape Cod and Martha’s
Cape Cod when a large glacial lake occupied Vineyard. As the ice retreated northward, large lakes
Cape Cod Bay. Many of these elongated formed in what are now Nantucket Sound and, later,
Cape Cod Bay. Water from these lakes flowed
lagoons have become important harbors southward through the outwash plain sediments to
along this part of the Cape. the lower sea level. This process created sapping
The other major modification of Cape Cod channels, which elongated by headward erosion.
and the islands has been a general smoothing When sea level rose to its present position, the
of the shorelines through erosional and dep- channels were flooded, forming the highly
indented lagoons along the southern shore of Cape
ositional processes. The initial form of Cape Cod and the Islands.
Cod left by the retreating ice sheet was very
different from what it appears today.
Immediately following deglaciation, sea level
was as much as 120 m lower than the present wasn’t until eustatic sea level rose to within
position and thus the deposits comprising 7–8 m of where it is today, that the general
Cape Cod and the Islands were simply configuration of Cape Cod became recogniz-
regions of somewhat higher elevation. It able. The initial outline of the Cape was very
480 Chapter 17
17.5.2 Drumlin Coasts
N In some glaciated terrains, notably the

Eastern Shore of Nova Scotia, Clew Bay on
the central west coast of Ireland, and
Massachusetts Bay, drumlins and accretion-
ary landforms that have developed from
reworked glacial sediment dominate the
coast. In Massachusetts Bay for example,
drumlins exert a strong imprint on the entire
landscape. All of the islands, save a few bed-
rock ledges, are drumlins and the northeast
and southeast borders of Boston Harbor
consist of drumlins and reworked drumlin
deposits. D.W. Johnson, one of the first
marine geologists to study glaciated coasts,
presented an evolutionary model for this
shoreline in 1910 (Figure 17.26). Similar
to the scheme presented for the Eastern
Shore of Nova Scotia (see Chapter 15,
Section 15.8.1), the outer coastline of Boston
10 km
Harbor represents the end‐product of sand and
gravel eroded from offshore drumlins and
moved onshore where it formed beaches
Figure 17.25 The present smooth outline of Cape and barriers. Additional sediment was derived
Cod is a product of wave erosion and the from the erosion of onshore drumlins and
construction of spits in front of embayments. transported alongshore. When sediment is
(Source: From Strahler [1966]).
abundant, drumlins form pinning points for
barrier and spit development. As sediment
irregular with numerous promontories, supplies begin to wane and the shoreline
embayments and islands (Figure 17.25). recedes, perhaps in response to sea‐level
However, wave action gradually eroded rise, the drumlin anchor points erode and
headlands and small islands, liberating sedi- contribute new sediment to the system.
ment that was transported along shore, even- With continued sea‐level rise, eventually the
tually building spits across embayments. entire barrier complex may narrow and
Examples of this process are seen in Cape become low enough such that it migrates
Cod Bay, where Sandy Neck has accreted in onshore through rollover processes until
front of Barnstable Bay, and along the outer stabilizing next to landward drumlins.

Cape, where Nauset Spit has formed in front Alternatively, the sediment is moved onshore
of Pleasant Bay. The widespread glacial cliffs in the form of a subtidal sand sheet, feeding
that occur along Cape Cod and the Islands sediment to spit systems that build from
are evidence of the erosional process that has nearby drumlins. Intertidal and subtidal
smoothed the coast. Some of the cliffs are boulder pavements identify offshore drum-
more than 30 m high, such as those along the lins that have been exhausted of their sedi-
open‐ocean coast of northeastern Cape Cod. ment sources. These boulder accumulations
Much of the sediment that has been eroded are lag deposits and represent the sediment
from these cliffs has been transported north- that was too coarse to be transported by
ward forming the extensive spit of the storm waves. In some instances, the boulder
Provincelands. pavements may be large enough such that
Stage 1 Stage 2
Drowned
Drumlins drumlin remants
Stage 3 Stage 4
0 1 0 0.6
km miles
Figure 17.26 Evolutionary model of Nantasket Beach, Massachusetts as envisioned by D.W. Johnson (1925).
482 Chapter 17
they influence the distribution of wave and long‐axes of a clast, the gravel forms can
energy and create shadow zones landward of be separated into rollers (shaped like a rolling
the former drumlins. It is not uncommon pin), disks (the best type of “skipping stone”),
to find gravel tombolos or subtidal bars spheres, and finally blades which have three
developing in these types of regions. different dimensions and look like “bricks”
(Figure 17.28). It is common to find disks
high along the elevated portions of gravel
17.5.3 Sand and Gravel Beaches
beaches. Because of their form, they have a
Beaches along glaciated coasts come in every relatively large surface : mass ratio for their
size, shape, and composition. This diversity is size and are easily transported to the upper
unique to glaciated coasts and is attributable to beach by storm waves.
the isolated nature and highly v ariable compo-
sition of the sedimentary deposits that occur
17.5.4 Uplifted Coasts
along these coasts. The deposits left behind by
glaciers may consist of stratified sands, strati- During the maximum extent of the Wisconsin
fied gravel and sand, boulder tills, sandy tills, glaciation (late Pleistocene), the Laurentide Ice
and other types of sediment. It is customary to Sheet varied from 1 km to more than 3 km in
find glacial deposits having very different com- thickness. Remember from the discussion on
positions occurring in close proximity. When Plate Tectonics (Chapter 2) that lithospheric
waves and currents rework these deposits, plates are floating on the semi‐plastic region of
they form very different kinds of beaches. In the mantle called the asthenosphere. Thus, as
addition, because glaciated coasts are usually the ice sheet grew in size and volume, the
irregular, containing headlands and embay- weight of the ice gradually depressed the litho-
ments, there is little exchange of sediment sphere and the land surface sank. Depression
between embayments and therefore little mix- of the lithosphere was accomplished by the
ing of sediment. Thus, it is not uncommon to semi‐plastic asthenosphere flowing outward
find a pocket sandy beach or barrier within a from underneath the portion of the continent
kilometer of a boulder or cobble beach. that was covered by the ice sheet. Conversely,
Sandy‐gravel beaches are common along when the Laurentide Ice Sheet melted away
glaciated coasts, particularly where the beach and the weight of the ice was removed from
material comes from erosion of nearby till the lithosphere, the land surface rebounded.
deposits such as drumlins or moraines This re‐equilibration process that produces
(Figure 17.27). The exact make‐up of these uplift is called glacial rebound.
beaches is dependent on the composition of The effects of glacial rebound are readily
the glacial deposit. Gravel beaches often have seen along the Hudson Bay and Baltic
multiple ridges or berms, and their number Sea shorelines as both these areas were the
tends to increase with increasing supply of centers of large ice sheets during the late
gravel, tidal range and exposure to storm Pleistocene. The Laurentide ice sheet was
waves. Each ridge is related to a particular almost 3000 m thick in Hudson Bay region
magnitude of storm and tide level. The high- and since its disappearance, the shoreline rim-
est ridge is formed by the highest‐elevation ming the bay has rebounded almost 300 m.
storm wave event and usually coincides with Scientists estimate that another 100 m of uplift
spring tide conditions. Each successively is likely, with the highest rebound occurring
lower ridge corresponds to a decreasing where the ice was thickest (Figure 17.29). The
magnitude of storm and/or tide level. effect of this uplift has been the formation of
Individual clasts making up gravel beaches over a hundred raised shorelines that are
have a variety of shapes and forms; however, arranged in stair‐step fashion extending from
they can be grouped into four general form the present bay shoreline to several kilometers
classes. Using the Zingg Diagram, which is inland. These features consist of sand and
based on ratios of the short, intermediate, gravel beach ridges and intervening swales
(a)
(b)
Figure 17.27 Gravel beaches are common along glaciated coasts due to the prevalence of till deposits along
these shores. (a) Popplestone beach consisting of well‐rounded boulders in Magnolia, MA and (b) Jasper Beach
in Machiasport, Maine. The red color comes from a form of quartz called jasper, which contains iron inclusions.
with a relief of 1–3 m. The beach ridges are a Thus, it is preserved from any further modifi-
product of storm waves reworking glacial and cation by storm waves. Similar processes of
beach sediments piling up gravel and sand glacial rebound and formation of raised shore-
along the rear of the beach. Glacial rebound lines have occurred along the Scandinavian
eventually lifts the ridge displacing it vertically Baltic coast. Present rates of uplift in this
and horizontally away from the shoreline. region are on the order of 6–9 mm per year.
484 Chapter 17
(a) dS: short diameter

dI: intermediate diameter
dL: long diameter
1.0
Oblate (Disk) Equant
0.8
2
—
3
0.6 Prolate
dI Bladed (Roller)
__
dL
0.4
0.2
0
2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 —
3 0.8 1.0
dS
__
dI
(b)
Figure 17.28 Wave abrasion shapes pebbles and cobbles along gravel beaches. (a) Gravel clasts can be
divided into four major types using the Zingg (1935) classification. These classes are based on the relative
dimensions of their short, intermediate, and long axes. (b) Examples of a disk, sphere, roller, and blade.
10
0
150
150
50
10
0
15
0
0
25
0
20
CAN
15
ADA
0
UNI
TED
STAT
ES
10
0
50
0
0 Contour interval: 50 m
Outer limit of
Wisconsin Glaciation
800 km
Figure 17.29 Isostatic rebound in northeast North America resulting from retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet.
(Source: From P.B. King (1965).)
17.5.5 Drowned River Valleys

17.6 Summary
In addition to the direct effects of glaciers, the
waxing and waning of ice sheets caused the This chapter emphasized the diversity of
world’s ocean levels to fall and rise numerous glaciated coasts and the wide range of glacial
times during the Pleistocene Epoch. For processes that produce these varied coastlines.
example, during the last g laciation (Wisconsin The deep fjords of Alaska, Scandinavia, and
glaciation) sea level dropped about 120 m and many other high‐latitude regions d emonstrate
then rose back again to its present level. the ability of alpine glaciers to sculpt and exca-
When sea level falls, rivers extend their vate coastal mountain valleys. The erosional
courses across the exposed continental effects of ice sheets are more subdued than
shelves to the new, seaward shoreline. During alpine glaciers but more far‐reaching, due to
this process the original mouth of the river their size, which can extend across entire con-
deepens and widens as the channel seeks to tinents. The rocky coastlines of New England,
establish a new equilibrium with the lowered northern Europe, and elsewhere attest to the
sea level. When the ice sheets melt, water is ability of ice sheets to strip away sediment cov-
returned to the ocean basin and rising sea ers exposing the underlying bedrock. While
level floods the enlarged valleys forming glaciers are impressive eroding agents, they
drowned river valleys (Figure 17.30). Delaware also are important vehicles of sediment deliv-
and Chesapeake Bays are large‐scale exam- ery to coasts. Long Island, Cape Cod, and sev-
ples of these drowned valleys (Figure 17.31). eral regions in Alaska are examples where
486 Chapter 17
Time 1. Highstand
1 3
highstand
river
sea-level
lowstand
highstand
shoreline
time
Time 2. Sea-level fall
river
downcutting
river
former
shoreline channel
deepening valley
widening
lowstand Time 3. Highstand

shoreline
drowned
river
valley
highstand
shoreline
Figure 17.30 Model of drowned river valley formation.
glacial processes have essentially built the The growth and decay of ice sheets have
coastline. These deposits consist of end also produced changes in sea level and posi-
moraines that are composed of till, and out- tion of the shoreline. During the most recent
wash plains that are made up of stratified drift. glaciation water removed from ocean basins
Drumlins are a special type of glacial deposit and stored in huge ice sheets lowered sea
forming till headlands and intervening spits level by 120 m. Through this process of sea
such as those along the Eastern Shore of Nova level lowering and rising back again, which
Scotia and the Boston Harbor region. Beach occurred many times throughout the
and barriers along glaciated coast tend to be Pleistocene, drowned river valleys were
discontinuous with a wide range of composi- formed along many coastal plain settings of
tions due to highly variable and often isolated the world. The enlargement and retreat of ice
glacial sediment supplies. Sand and gravel
sheets were also responsible for loading and
beaches are common. unloading the Earth’s crust. In the Hudson
Figure 17.31 Examples of drowned river valleys include Delaware and Chesapeake Bays along US east coast.
Bay region of Canada and in the Scandinavian when average temperature decreased by about
Baltic Sea, which were sites of thick ice accu- 5 °C. The periodicity of glaciations during the
mulation during maximum glaciation, melt- past two million years appears to be linked to
ing of the ice sheet and rebound of these Milankovitch cycles, which are produced by
coasts have produced an extensive set of variations in the Earth’s orbital characteristics.
raised beaches, rimming the shoreline. These in turn affect the temperature contrast
Formation of ice sheets occurs only when of the seasons. Present thought is that
plate tectonics have arranged the continents Milankovitch Cycles are somehow linked to
in such way that landmasses are situated in changes in atmospheric and oceanic circula-
polar regions. The onset of the Ice Ages began tion and these broad conveyer belts of heat
after the Earth underwent long‐term cooling and cold control global climatic fluctuations
during the Cenozoic (past 65 million years) and the waxing and waning of ice sheets.
References
Broeker, W.S. and Denton, G.H. (1990). Johnson, D.W. (1925). The New England‐Acadian
Scientific American 48–56. Shoreline. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Chernicoff, S. (1995). Geology. New York: King, P.B. (1965). Tectonics of quaternary time
Woth Publishers. in middle North America. In: The
Graedel, T.E. and Crutzen, P.F. (1993). Quaternary of the United States (ed.
Atmospheric Change. San Francisco, H.E. Wright and D.G. Frey). Princeton, NJ:
New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. Princeton University Press.
488 Chapter 17
Press, F. and Siever, R. (1998). Understanding Construction of Cape Cod, Massachusetts: A

Earth. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Co. Reconsideration of the WM. Davis Model,
Strahler, A.N. (1966). Geologist’s View of Cape Special Paper 309. Geological Society of
Cod. Orleans, MA: Parnassus Imprints. America.
Tarbuck, E.J. and Lutgens, F.K. (2002). Earth. Zingg, T. (1935). Beitrage zur
New York: Prentice Hall. Schotteranalyse. Schweizerische
Uchupi, E., Giese, G.S., Aubrey, D.G., and Kim, Mineralogische und Petrographische
D.J. (1996). The Late Quaternary Mitteilungen 15: 39–140.
Suggested Readings
Bennett, M.R. and Glasser, N.F. (1997). Glacial Patterson, W.S.B. (1981). The Physics
Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms. New of Glaciers. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
York: John Wiley and Sons. Ruddiman, W.F. (2000). Earth’s Climate
Coates, D.R. (ed.) (1974). Glacial Past and Future. San Francisco:
Geomorphology. Binghamton, NY: State W.H. Freeman.
University of New York Press. Sharp, R.P. (1989). Living Ice: Understanding
Drewy, D.J. (1986). Glacial Geologic Processes. Glaciers and Glaciation. Cambridge:
London: Edward Arnold. Cambridge University Press.
FitzGerald, D.M. and Rosen, P.S. (eds.) (1986). Shepard, F.P. and Wanless, H.R. (1971). Our
Glaciated Coasts. New York: Academic Press. Changing Coastlines. New York:
Hambrey, M. and Alean, J. (1992). Glaciers. McGraw‐Hill.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sugden, D.E. and John, B.S. (1976).
208 pages. Glaciers and Landscape. New York: John
Johnson, D.W. (1919). Shore Processes and Wiley and Sons.
Shoreline Development. New York: Hafner
Publishing.
489
18
Rocky Coasts
18.1 Introduction South Africa, parts of Argentina, eastern

Canada, southern Australia, and sections of
Rocky coasts offer some of the most striking northwest Europe.
ocean vistas in the world due to the exquisite Rocky coasts display a wide range of
beauty produced by waves crashing against morphologies because they are composed

their jagged shores (Figure 18.1). These coasts of different types of rocks and have formed in
are typically associated with cliffs and other a variety of geologic settings. For example,
erosional landforms such as stacks, arches, the Bahamian coast consists mostly of
and caves. Along many active continental limestone shorelines that are derived from
margins, rocky coasts are bordered by majes- coral, shells and coralline algae. In southern
tic mountainous hinterlands. In contrast, low California and Victoria, Australia, cliff coasts
plains or hilly regions border the rocky shores have developed from the recession of rela-
of some mid‐ocean islands. Despite the high tively weak sedimentary rocks including
wave energy and apparent harsh environment sandstones, siltstone and mudstones. Marine
of rocky coasts, their intertidal zones com- erosion of volcanic rocks along the south
monly teem with life and are far more pro- coast of the island of Hawaii has produced
ductive biologically than sandy shorelines. dramatic cliffs. Differential weathering of
Most people are unaware of the extent of folded metamorphic rocks intruded by gra-
rocky shorelines because many coastal cities, nitic batholiths form the indented/island
major coastal population centers, and even coast of central Maine. Tectonic processes
vacation sites are located in coastal plain set- control the rugged mountainous coasts of
tings, at the mouths of estuaries, and in other Alaska and Chile. Although erosional pro-
lowland areas. It is estimated that 75 % of the cesses dominate most rocky coasts, deposi-
world’s shorelines are rocky, which includes tional landforms, including pocket beaches
beaches that are backed by bedrock cliffs or situated between bedrock headlands and
rocky uplands. Although rocky coasts are not even barrier spits downdrift of river mouths
confined to a single type of geological setting, and estuaries are common in these regions.
they are more common along tectonically This chapter will explore the extent and vari-
active coasts than they are on passive margins. ability of rocky coasts around the world. It will
For example, rocky coasts comprise much of be shown that the morphology of these coasts
the west coasts of North and South America, is a function of the structure and type of
whereas beaches and barriers characterize bedrock as well as the physical, chemical and
most of the non‐glaciated east coast of North biological processes operating on the coast.
America. Still, there are many sites through- The many different erosional features com-
out the world where rocky and rugged coasts mon to these coasts will be discussed in terms
are found along passive margins such as of the processes by which they have formed.
490 Chapter 18
continental plates produces high‐relief, con-

tinental borderlands such as the Andes
mountains along Peru and Chile or the North
America Cordillera.1 The rocky and rugged
landscape of these mountains usually extends
to the sea, giving the coast a rugged appear-
ance as well (Figure 18.2). In addition, the
mountain chains of these continental mar-
gins act as dams that prevent rivers from
delivering sediment from continental interi-
ors to the coast. The rivers draining moun-
tains along collision margins are typically
short and usually transport coarse‐grained
sediment to the coast. Further, due to their
small drainage areas these rivers discharge
relatively small quantities of sand and mud,
particularly in comparison to rivers along
trailing‐edge coasts. Waves tend to be large
along collision coasts because the steep con-
tinental shelves of these margins dampen
little of the deepwater wave energy. During
storms, high‐energy waves remove large
quantities of sand from beaches and trans-
port it along shore and offshore. Along the
Figure 18.1 The Indian Ocean coast of South Africa,
where wave heights are frequently in excess of 3 m. California coast beach sands are permanently
lost to the deep ocean basin due to the prox-
imity of submarine canyons to the shoreline
18.2 Types and Distribution (<1 km) resulting from the narrow continen-
tal shelf. These canyons capture the long-
Three‐quarters of the world’s coasts are shore transport of sand at their heads and
rocky and have a lack of sediment accumulat- carry it to the deep ocean out of the coastal
ing on them. They also occur where the orig- system. For all these reasons, collision coasts
inal sediment cover has been eroded away or tend to be rocky, containing few depositional
where the sediment has been turned to rock features. Because of their relative youth, neo‐
through cementation. The most extensive trailing edge coasts such as the Arabian coast
rocky coasts are associated with mountain- along the Red Sea are also rugged and mostly
ous regions and glaciated areas. Other rocky. There has been insufficient time to
shorter and/or discontinuous sections of develop a mature continental margin with a
rocky coasts occur in volcanic regions and in wide shallow shelf to dissipate waves.
a variety of other geological settings.
18.2.2 Glaciated Regions
18.2.1 Tectonic Settings
During the Pleistocene Epoch, continental
The tectonic setting of the continental mar- ice sheets covered approximately 30 % of
gin has an overriding influence on whether a the world’s land surface. This means that the
coast is rocky or if it contains beaches, barri-
ers, tidal flats, river deltas, or other types of 1 The North American Cordillera is a mountain system
sediment accumulation forms. As we learned comprising the west coast of the United States, Canada
in Chapter 2, the convergence of oceanic and and Alaska.
Rocky Coasts 491
Figure 18.2 Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath North America has produced the rugged mountainous
coastline of Alaska, where earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common geologic processes.
morphology of much of the world’s coastline bedrock ledges (Figure 18.3b). Beaches and
has been strongly imprinted by glacial pro- barriers along these coasts are usually scarce
cesses. Although there are large sections of and where they do exist, they are adjacent
coastline that consist entirely of glacial sedi- to rivers, estuaries, or nearby isolated glacial
ment or reworked glacial deposits, such as deposits.
Cape Cod, Massachusetts, Long Island, New
York, extensive areas along the Great Lakes,
18.2.3 Other Bedrock Coasts
and portions of the eastern shore of Nova
Scotia (see Chapter 17), most glaciated Volcanic coasts occur where hot spot activity
coasts have widespread bedrock exposures. in the mantle has produced island chains
In mountainous regions, coastlines take the such as those found in the Pacific Ocean,
form of bedrock headlands with intervening, including the Hawaiian and Marshall Islands
deep, flooded valleys. The fjords of (Figure 18.4). Outpourings of lava and welded
Scandinavia, Iceland, Chile and Western tuff have also formed portions of rocky coasts
Canada, are examples of where alpine gla- along island arcs in the Caribbean, and the
ciers carved and deepened existing moun- northern and western Pacific. In tropical
tain valleys (Figure 18.3a). At the head of regions, the seaward extension of these
fjords in the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska and volcanic coasts forms the platforms upon

along much of Greenland, vestiges of the which luxuriant coral reefs have developed.
valley glaciers that formed these twisting, In some places, sinking volcanic islands have
water‐filled valleys are still present. Repeated become coral atolls.
advance and retreat of great ice sheets Another variety of rocky coast is formed
stripped away the sediment cover from the from the shells of dead marine organisms.
land, exposing the underlying bedrock along This type of coast is most common in low‐
many other glaciated coasts. These coast- latitude regions including the Caribbean
lines are commonly embayed to deeply and Mediterranean Seas, where calcium
indented and contain numerous islands and carbonate skeletal material is produced in
492 Chapter 18
(a)
(b)
Figure 18.3 Glaciated coasts exhibit a wide diversity, but are dominated by a rocky landscape. (a) View of a
fjord on the coast of Norway. (b) Repeated Pleistocene glaciations have stripped much of the sediment from
the Maine coast leaving it rocky and irregular with numerous bedrock islands but few beaches.
high abundance in coastal waters. High sediment is absent. Many of these rocky

rates of shell production may also occur in carbonate coasts were created during the
cooler, higher‐latitude regions such as the Pleistocene when sea level fell and onshore
south coast of Australia and South Africa, winds blew carbonate sand onshore, build-
where input of other types of land‐derived ing dunes and beaches. This sediment was
Rocky Coasts 493
modern day trash, including such articles

such as cans and bottles.
18.3 Erosional Processes
Unlike sandy shorelines, where the effects of
a winter storm or passage of a hurricane are
readily visible, changes along a rocky coast
occur very slowly and may be imperceptible
over human life‐spans. The present‐day
appearance of rocky coasts is the product of
Figure 18.4 Volcanic island chains such as physical, chemical, and biological processes
the Hawaiian Islands form extensive rocky that have been operating over thousands of
coasts in the Pacific Ocean and other parts of years. The rate at which these processes act
the world. Rapid physical and chemical breakdown to weather the shoreline is a function of rock
of volcanic rock produces sediment that forms type and its structure, wave intensity, vegeta-
pocket beaches.
tion, climate and numerous other factors.
In most cases, physical processes operate
turned to rock by a process called lithifica- over a larger scale and at faster rate than do
tion. Individual grains of sand are welded either chemical or biological agents.
together when ocean spray, rainwater and
groundwater percolate through the sand
18.3.1 Physical Processes
partially dissolving calcium carbonate and
precipitating it as cement. The high tem- Wave‐Induced Erosion
peratures of these coasts produce rapid The processes involved in eroding bedrock
evaporation of wetted surfaces, which accel- shorelines are numerous but the most visible
erates the lithification process. Dunes that and important agent is wave action. Breaking
are converted to rock are called eolianites. and shoaling waves are responsible for sev-
Wide exposures of this rock with well‐devel- eral interactive processes including wave
oped dune layering can be seen throughout hammer, air compression, quarrying and
Bermuda (Figure 18.5), several Caribbean abrasion. The first of these, wave or water
islands, along the Yucatan coast of Mexico, hammer, occurs when a wave directly
and southeastern Australia. impacts a cliff face or sloping rock exposure
Similar chemical processes in tropical set- exerting a tremendous hydraulic force
tings produce rocky outcrops along the against the rock, particularly if the waves are
shore called beachrock (Figure 18.6). In large. As reported in numerous storm
regions with high evaporation rates concen- accounts, waves have been responsible for
trations of various salts increase in the sea- tearing the tops of seawalls and throwing
water. Salt spray and tidal inundation huge five‐ton granite blocks tens of meters
constantly bathe the beach with this high‐ across roadways. However, in most cases it is
saline water and partial evaporation of the not a single wave that finally causes a rock
water and interaction with groundwater face to fail, but the accumulated effects of
cause the precipitation of calcium carbon- tens to hundreds or even thousands of years
ate. This process cements sand grains pro- of wave action.
ducing beachrock. The rapidity at which it In some instances, breaking waves trap air
operates often c reates beachrock containing between the water and the cliff face. As the
494 Chapter 18
Figure 18.5 Differential weathering of carbonate rock along sections of the Bermuda coast results in the
formation of caves and embayments.
Figure 18.6 View of beachrock that has formed along the shoreline of Kubbar, an island off the coast of
Kuwait in Arabian Gulf. In this region both terrigenous and biogenic sands are welded together by
carbonate cement.
wave collapses, extremely high pressures of rocks, leading to the enlargement of the
are instantaneously produced as the air is crack and ultimately to a shattering of the
compressed on the rock surface (Figure 18.7). rock. Quarrying is the removal of pieces of
This process is particularly important when rock ranging from small grains to large blocks
air pockets are compressed into the crevices from a cliff face or bedrock exposure that
Rocky Coasts 495
Air pocket up pebbles, cobbles, and boulders and

Cliff face propelling them against the rock surface.

The widespread cliffs along the British Isles
and along the Alaska Peninsula are believed
to have formed due to abrasion by gravel
(Figure 18.8). However, there are numerous
other coastal sites around the world, includ-
ing parts of New Zealand, much of Tasmania
in Australia, and the Bay of Fundy in Eastern
Canada, where cliff shorelines are fronted by
sandy beaches. Thus, we can conclude that
sea cliffs can be produced when the rock face
is abraded by sand or any other available hard
particles in conjunction with other wave
Figure 18.7 Air is instantaneously compressed processes.
against a cliff when waves break. This compression The rate at which abrasion takes place is
of air can lead to the enlargement of cracks and related to wave energy, composition of the
failure of the rock face.
rock, and the type and abundance of abrad-
ing agents (gravel, sand, or other particles).
have been loosened or separated from the The process of abrasion tends to produce a
parent rock by biological, chemical, or other smoother rock surface than does quarrying.
physical processes. Exceptions occur when there are variable
One of the most important mechanisms of weaknesses in the bedrock caused by non‐
physical erosion takes place when sand, gran- uniform rock type (such as mafic dike cutting
ules, and larger‐sized gravel are entrained by through a metamorphic rock) or structure
waves and washed, rolled, and scraped across (presence of cracks or joints) resulting in
the rock surface. Abrasion also includes the differential abrasion rates. In these settings,
more violent process of large waves picking abrasion locally produces grooves, ridges,
Figure 18.8 Vertical sea cliffs along the southwestern coast of Victoria, Australia.
496 Chapter 18
Figure 18.10 Frost wedging occurs when water

freezes in the cracks and joints of rocks.
The expansion caused by ice formation dislodges
rock from the cliff face.
ice formation can exert great pressures in

confined spaces (Figure 18.10). In high lati-
tudes, freeze and thaw cycles can occur on a
daily basis especially in the intertidal zone
Figure 18.9 Potholes are the result of wave action where temperatures are governed by the rise
swirling gravel in a depression. The hole deepens
and fall of the tide. In addition to melting ice
and widens as the rock is preferentially abraded.
and snow, water can come from rain and
groundwater. Although seawater may also
and other surface irregularities (Figure 18.9). freeze, the ice that forms from seawater is
Under special circumstances potholes meas- relatively soft and therefore is less capable of
uring tens of centimeters deep and wide are causing frost‐wedging than freshwater ice. It
formed. These rounded depressions are the should be emphasized that it is the repeated
result of pebbles and cobbles being swirled in cycles of expanding ice applying force on the
the slight concavities of the rock by passing walls of the rock followed by the release of
waves. With time, the gravel tools abrade and this pressure when the ice melts that eventu-
enlarge some of the depressions to become ally causes the rock to fail and break. The
potholes. effectiveness of freeze and thaw on the ero-
sion process is dependent on how well the
Effect of Freeze and Thaw rock is fractured (number and size of cracks)
There is another less visible physical process and its porosity. Rocks that are thinly layered,
that contributes to erosion along rocky coasts such as schists, or highly porous, such as
in northern latitudes. This process involves sandstones, are much more susceptible to
the expansion and contraction of water as it freeze and thaw weathering than are massive
changes from a liquid to a solid state. During rocks such as granite or basalt. Another
moderate winter days melting snow may flow important weathering process contributing
into the cracks, crevices, and joints of rocks to rock failure is the growth of other sub-
only to freeze that night as temperatures fall. stances in the cracks of rocks, including
Because water expands by 9 % when it freezes, calcite, halite (rock salt), and clays. Calcite
Rocky Coasts 497
and halite expand and contract due to tem- of the rock, causing individual grains to
perature changes and some clay minerals do wash away by wave action. Other rock bor-
likewise when exposed to water. That latter ers include certain sponges, worms, bivalves
process can be particularly effective in the and echinoderms.
upper‐intertidal zone where these minerals The presence of algae as well as fungi and
are continuously being wetted and dried dur- lichens in the intertidal and supratidal zones
ing the tidal cycle. promotes additional erosion by larger graz-
ing organisms, which seek out algae, bacteria
and other encrusting organisms as sources of
18.3.2 Biological Processes
food. Marine invertebrates including snails,
Bioerosion is a more subtle process than the limpets, sea urchins, and chitons abrade the
mechanical wearing‐away of rocks, but in rock surface as they feed on microflora. This
tropical regions where carbonate rocks process is not restricted to carbonate envi-
commonly dominate it is an important ronments alone; the Channel Islands off the
means of sculpturing the coastal landscape. southern California coast are a good exam-
There are numerous plants and animals that ple. Along the shores of San Nicholas Island,
remove the substrate in search of food or located 160 km west of Los Angeles, mud-
shelter or both. The most effective bio‐ stones and sandstones are home to a large
eroder of calcium carbonate rock is the community of sea urchins and abalone
microscopic blue‐green algae that penetrate (Figure 18.11). These organisms have fash-
into the rock by as much as 1 mm. A micro- ioned homes by boring into the intertidal
scope reveals that as many as million algae sedimentary rocks accelerating the physical
may colonize a square centimeter of rock and chemical erosion of this rocky coast. The
surface. These organisms are able to bore end‐result of the bioerosion is a honey-
into the rock by dissolving away the calcium combed outcrop consisting of hollows and
carbonate. They break down the structure ridges.
Figure 18.11 Sandstone and siltstone outcrops along the shore of San Nicholas Island off the California coast
are home to sea urchins, abalone and other intertidal fauna. These organisms bore into the rock, finding
shelter from the high wave energy and protection from predators.
498 Chapter 18
18.3.3 Chemical Processes as rock type and degree of fracturing, expo-

sure to wave energy, tidal range, climate, rela-
The chemical breakdown of rock in the
tive sea‐level changes, and other factors
coastal zone is a very slow process due to the
affect the rate of erosion and ultimately, the
slow rate at which rocks react chemically
morphology of the coast.
with water. The effects are difficult to notice
over human life‐spans. However, it is a per-
Rock type
vasive process that affects all rocky coasts
The influence of rock type and structure is
from the subtidal to supratidal zone. Climate
particularly well illustrated by comparing
and rock type are the primary factors con-
parts of the west and east coasts of the United
trolling the rate of chemical weathering.
States. In southern California waves have cut
Because chemical reactions involve water
into relatively soft sandstones, mudstones
and usually proceed more rapidly as temper-
and other flat‐lying sedimentary rocks pro-
ature increases, hot and humid tropical cli-
ducing sea cliffs along much of the coast.
mates experience much greater chemical
In contrast, the metamorphic rocks and
weathering than arid temperate coasts or hot
igneous intrusives (granites) of the central
desert regions. Similarly, limestone is rela-
Maine coast are tough rocks that have
tively soluble and so those coasts may erode
resisted erosion. Here, the coastline reflects
at a rate of 1 mm year−1, whereas coasts com-
the structure of the rocks and patterns of dif-
posed of quartzite are essentially stable
ferential erosion. The folded metamorphic
because quartz is almost inert under surface
rocks are turned on end, producing a jagged,
conditions.
indented shoreline. Interrupting this coastal
Chemical weathering of rocks encom-
landscape are granite outcrops that, due to
passes many different chemical reactions
their size and resistance to erosion, have
including solution, which is the dissolution
formed headlands and islands (Figure 18.12).
of different minerals into water, and hydroly-
Likewise, less resistant portions of the sand-
sis, an important reaction that converts feld-
stone cliffs along the coast of Victoria near
spars to clays. Because feldspar is a major
Port Campbell, Australia have produced
constituent of many igneous (granite), meta-
large reentrants with spectacular interior
morphic (gneiss), and sedimentary (sand-
pocket beaches (Figure 18.13).
stone) rocks, hydrolysis is a significant
chemical weathering process that accounts
Degree of fracturing
for much of the world’s mud. Oxidation is a
Fractures include the cracks, joints and faults
chemical reaction between iron and the oxy-
of a rock outcrop. Their number and trend
gen in water whereby “rust” is formed. These
are significant because erosion is usually
reactions take from tens of thousands of
concentrated at these sites. Fractures increase
years for limestone to be dissolved to mil-
the area exposed to various weathering
lions of years for feldspar to be transformed
agents. Joints and faults can be indirectly
to clay. Because of these slow rates, physical
responsible for the dissection of some rocky
erosion processes usually obscure the effects
coasts and the formation of stacks, arches,
of chemical weathering.
and other features. Preferential weathering at
joints and faults may also produce deep
crevasses and the development of narrow

18.4 Factors Affecting embayments.
Rates of Erosion
Wave energy
Rocky coasts look pretty much the same visit Wave energy is important because it controls
after visit because the processes that change the intensity of physical erosion and the
them work very slowly. Characteristics such removal of debris that is produced during
Rocky Coasts 499
Waves and their attendant processes will

continue to erode a rocky shore as long as the
sediment that is produced during the weath-
ering process is removed. For example, if a
cliff erodes and produces enough sediment
to form a wide beach, then the cliff effectively
becomes protected from further wave action
and erosion (Figure 18.14). Also, if the rocky
coast is barren of sediment, there is no mate-
rial to provide for abrading the rock surface.
Tidal range
Rocky coasts are found in a wide range of
tidal settings from the microtidal coasts in
the Mediterranean (TR ~ 1 m) to some of the
highest tidal range coasts of the world
(TR > 10 m) including the Bay of Fundy and
the eastern coast of the Bay of Saint‐Malo in
France. Along most rocky shores the direct
influence of tidal forces is minimal. However,
tides do control the amount of time that
waves erode different elevations along a
rocky coast. Along steep or vertical cliffs
wave action is focused in a relatively narrow
Figure 18.12 False‐color infrared photograph of zone, particularly along microtidal coasts. In
the central peninsula coast of Maine. The highly
indented nature of this coast is a product of
contrast, along macrotidal settings the large
differential erosion. The ridge and valley excursion of the tide disperses wave energy
morphology has been accentuated by several over a relatively wide zone.
episodes of Pleistocene glaciation.
Climate
Climate influences the rate and type of weath-
the weathering and abrasion processes. ering processes. Tropical areas tend to undergo
Researchers have shown that waves exert greater chemical weathering whereas tem-
their greatest force at a position just above perate and polar regions experience more
mean high water. This is because water levels frost weathering. Climate also controls the
have a maximum duration at mean high tide patterns of storms and prevailing winds and
and waves break for an extended period at therefore the deepwater wave energy along
this elevation. Secondly, waves are larger at a coast. Generally, temperate regions have
high tide than mid‐ or low tide due to the greater wave energy and physical processes
deeper water and lower frictional resistance operate more energetically than in tropical
generated by the rocky intertidal zone. This areas, where average wave energies are lower.
condition is apparent when looking at sea-
walls and noting that the greatest abrasion to Relative sea level
the wall occurs near the high‐tide line. This This factor has an obvious effect on the devel-
level is also where chemical weathering pro- opment of marine terraces as they are a prod-
cesses are at a maximum. Although waves uct of relative sea‐level changes. They form
are even larger and reach higher elevations when a coast rises tectonically and marine
during storms, they have less effect due to platforms are lifted from the water. They may
their infrequent nature. also develop when eustatic sea level drops.
500 Chapter 18
Figure 18.13 Formation of large reentrants along the coast of Victoria in Australia is the result of wave‐
induced preferential erosion of less resistant portions of the sandstone cliff. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Port_Campbell_National_Park#/media/File:A191,_Port_Campbell_National_Park,_Australia,_cove_
from_helicopter,_2007.JPG © Brian W. Schaller / Licensed under FAL 1.3.
Figure 18.14 Photo of 300-m high cliffs in Resurrection Bay near Seward, Alaska. Note the talus slope at right
side of photo that protects the onshore cliff.
18.5 Morphology scarcity of sediment. Thus, they are associ-

ated with tectonically active coasts and are
Rocky coasts exhibit a wide variety of mor- also common in former glaciated settings
phologies because there are so many factors where the sediment cover was removed by
that have influenced their development. One the ice. In addition, low rocky coasts occur in
characteristic that they share is an overall tropical areas where sediment has become
Rocky Coasts 501
lithified by chemical processes. There are too surface provide conditions where wave
many types of rocky coasts to fully treat their attack can produce preferential erosion. An
range of morphologies. Instead, the major examples occurs along Giant’s Causeway in
classes of rocky coasts are presented below as Northern Ireland, where the coast is com-
well as some of their striking features. posed of large vertical columns of polygo-
nally jointed rock that formed by cooling
of shallow intrusive basalt (Figure 18.18).
18.5.1 Sea Cliffs
Fractures between the columns provide
Cliffs have many different profiles and locations where waves cause individual
heights, reflecting their composition, struc- columns to separate and fail.
ture and weathering processes. There are the In some regions, cliffs are not vertical:
spectacular vertical cliffs at the entrance to sections of southern California, portions

Resurrection Bay leading to the deepwater of southwestern Wales, and much of the
port of Seward, Alaska (Figure 18.15). These Alaskan Peninsula. Regional geology and
rise 200 m vertically from a deep glacially‐ intensity of various weathering processes
cut through before ascending more gradu- control the steepness and profile of cliffs.
ally into mountains with elevations in excess When sea cliffs consist of relatively unfrac-
of a kilometer. Other substantial vertical tured, massive rocks such as basalt, granite
cliffs (height > 100 m) include the White or quartzite (metamorphosed sandstone),
Cliffs of Dover in England (Figure 18.16) the erosion proceeds in a uniform manner.
Cliffs of Moher (Figure 18.17), and the However, when sea cliffs are formed through
extensive cliffs along the Nullarbor Plain of the erosion of horizontally‐layered sedimen-
South Australia. The fact that these cliffs tary rocks, there are commonly large
have similar morphologies despite differing differences in how individual layers react to
compositions and structure indicates that weathering and abrasion processes. Under
their development has been dominated by these conditions the cliff erodes unevenly
the same efficacy of erosional processes. producing steps, notches, and other irregu-
In other cases, weaknesses in the bedrock larities. Various patterns of joints, faults and
Figure 18.15 The vertical sheeted dike complex in Resurrection Bay near Seward, Alaska has produced a face
which, in places, rises over 800 m above the water surface. These rocks (gabbro, a type of igneous rock) were
formed at a mid‐ocean ridge system during production of oceanic crust. The ocean crust was subsequently
raised to the surface by tectonism – the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath North America.
Figure 18.16 The White Cliffs of Dover, England are composed chiefly of coccolithophores, a planktonic alga
with a calcium carbonate exoskeleton.
Figure 18.17 The Cliffs of Moher in southwestern Ireland rise more than 200 m above the sea.
Figure 18.18 Giant’s Causeway in

Northern Ireland is known as one
the most spectacular coastal
outcrops of columnar‐jointed
basalt in the world.
Rocky Coasts 503
folds may also result in jagged slopes. The height of sea cliffs appears to be con-
Vertical sea cliffs and very steep slopes are trolled by wave energy. On a worldwide basis
created when the rocks are homogeneous there is a correspondence between cliff
and marine weathering processes clearly height and latitude. Most high‐relief cliffs
dominate subaerial erosion. In these situa- occur in mid‐latitudes where waves are rela-
tions marine agents cut the slope back at a tively large. Modest and low cliffs are found
faster rate than the upland can be eroded to in low and high latitude regions where waves
form an incline. When wave abrasion under- tend to be small. In polar regions, coasts are
cuts the base of a sea cliff causing eventual protected by sea ice during part of the year.
failure of the upper slope, a steep or vertical Because wave energy is proportional to the
face is usually produced. Conversely, as ero- square of wave height, large waves exert a
sion of the surface of the slope increases much greater force on the face of a cliff than
relative to marine erosion, sea cliffs become do small waves. Abrasion rates are also
more gently inclined. greater in regimes of high wave energy due to
Surface processes coupled with marine the large amounts of sediment entrained by
erosion have created a spectacular coastal large waves. The greatest rates of abrasion
landscape along the southern shore of the coincide with regions of high waves and the
island of Hawaii. Here, surface and ground- presence of pebble, cobble, and small boulder
water flows have cut large V‐shaped chan- abrading agents. In low latitudes, rock cliffs
nels into lava flows. Deep chasms have are limited in height because they have
developed where large amounts of water eroded into beach rock and lithified dunes.
have flowed to the coast. Along other sec- The complexities of coastal geology around
tions of these sea cliffs, smaller drainage the world, and the highly varied marine ero-
systems have formed dramatic hanging sional processes that operate along coasts
valleys, some with 300 m‐high waterfalls
have produced many exceptions to the gen-
(Figure 18.19). eralized trends presented here.
Figure 18.19 Hanging valleys along the coast of Hawaii are the sites of waterfalls more than 200 m high. The
cliffs are probably the result of a huge landslide in which a massive block of volcanic rock slid into the abyss.
The valleys were cut by groundwater sapping processes.
504 Chapter 18
18.5.2 Horizontal Erosional the dominant erosion process, a correlation

Landforms exists between tidal range and gradient of the
Platforms and Benches platform, with increasing tidal range produc-
Wave erosion along rocky coasts not only ing steeper slopes. Tidal range controls the
creates vertical to steeply inclined landforms; distribution of wave energy over the platform
horizontal features such as platforms (also and to some extent, the wave erosional pro-
called benches by early researchers) also form cesses. Throughout the tidal cycle waves
during the process (Figure 18.20). Shore plat- shoal and break along the seaward edge of
forms are the flat bedrock ledges that border the platform. However, only at near high tide
the base of sea cliffs. They vary in width from levels do waves directly affect the landward,
a few meters to more than a kilometer. Where highest portion of the platform. Thus, the
platforms have formed on flat‐lying sedi- greatest rates of vertical erosion occur at
mentary rocks their surfaces are relatively high tide, when wave processes are most
smooth. When they develop in regions of effective.
variable geology, such as highly jointed igne- Slightly elevated platforms are created in
ous rocks or on dipping metamorphic or weak sections of rock cliff that erode at a
sedimentary rocks, they commonly exhibit faster rate than the rock below it. These
irregular surfaces with relief up to meter. benches are most common in areas of hori-
Differences in resistance to weathering zontally layered sedimentary rock, such as
processes produce grooves, gullies, knobs
bedded limestone, sandstone and mudstone,
and other features. and occur at elevations above mean high
Platforms may be almost horizontal to water. They are usually fairly narrow and are
seaward, dipping with slopes ranging from connected to platforms by a step.
a few degrees to more than 30 degrees. There are platforms in southern California
In some areas, particularly where abrasion is and elsewhere in the world that extend to
(a)
(b)
Figure 18.20 (a) This shore platform extends for several kilometers along the shore in Alinchak Bay on the
Alaskan Peninsula. Platforms develop through wave abrasion and other erosion processes, producing an
intertidal, sub‐horizontal bedrock surface that widens as the abutting cliff retreats. (b) Close‐up view of the
retreating cliff illustrating that the upper beach contains thin beach deposits. Note the brown bear for scale.
Rocky Coasts 505
depths greater than 10 m. Because it has Marine Terraces

been shown that wave erosion is essentially Marine terraces are platforms that have been
inactive below 10 m, the deeper portions of displaced from their original position by tec-
these platforms are viewed as relict and tonic forces, sea‐level changes, or both. They
likely were drowned by rising sea‐level. Cliff are located above sea level where the land is
retreat is slow and rates are measured in rising and below sea level where it is sinking
terms of centimeters per year along most (Figure 18.21). Along the coast of Southern
rocky coasts, meaning that platforms were California there are at least six marine ter-
created very slowly as well. This suggests races in the Palos Verdes region and as many
that platform development requires a stable as ten on the islands of San Clemente and
or near stable sea‐level position over an Santa Cruz. Extensive terrace development
extended period of time. The widest shore also exists along the tectonic coasts of New
platforms occur in regions of moderate to Zealand, New Guinea, the Alaska Peninsula
high wave energy where rock cliffs are highly and along the Pacific side of Central and
susceptible to erosion, such as those that are South America. Steep slopes separate indi-
composed of weakly cemented sedimentary vidual terraces. Elevation difference between
rocks. Resistant rocks, such as quartzite, are successive terraces is a function of the uplift
commonly associated with narrow, steep rate along the coast. Marine terraces are best
platforms. developed in areas of moderate to high wave
The formation of platforms involves wave energy along rising coasts that are composed
processes and a type of chemical weathering of easily eroded, horizontally stratified, sedi-
called water‐layer weathering. Wave‐eroded mentary rocks. It should be noted that
platforms are closely related to sites of cliff marine terraces also form along unconsoli-
retreat and encompass wave abrasion and dated sediment coasts.
quarrying. These processes are most ener- The formation of marine terraces requires
getic in areas of moderate to high wave energy periods of sea level stability in an overall
where abrading tools are abundant. Wave regime of tectonic activity (Figure 18.22).
energy must be sufficient to remove the Most scientists now agree that terraces repre-
debris that is produced during the erosion sent platforms raised from the water during
process, otherwise the platform becomes the Pleistocene Epoch. Remember from
insulated from further weathering processes. Chapter 15, that during the Pleistocene the
Water‐layer weathering includes all pro- advance and retreat of continental ice sheets
cesses resulting from the wetting and drying produced coincident changes in sea level by
of the bedrock including salt crystallization. as much as 120 m. It is believed that most
The process is most operative in areas of platforms were formed while sea level stood
horizontally bedded, highly permeable rocks at a highstand position (approximately pre-
in tropical regions with low tidal ranges such sent‐day sea level) that lasted perhaps thou-
as Hawaii, Australia, the Caribbean or the sands of years. They were raised during the
Mediterranean coasts. High temperatures interval of time after the highstand when sea
favor evaporation and chemical weathering. level fell to a lowstand position and then rose
This type of platform is common along car- back to approximately the present sea level.
bonate coasts and can be identified by small This process was repeated during each period
shallow‐water pools that occur near mean of glaciation producing a series of increas-
high water. Granitic rocks along the coast of ingly higher marine terraces that record the
Maine may exhibit these same shallow pools times of Pleistocene highstands. Knowing the
of water at elevations from one to several elevation difference between successive ter-
meters above mean high water. These pools races and determining their age of formation
contain granules of quartz and feldspar that using various dating techniques, provides a
have weathered directly from the granite means of calculating the rate of tectonic uplift
during the water‐layer erosion process. for that particular coast.
506 Chapter 18
(a)
(b)
Figure 18.21 (a) Marine terrace development along the southwestern coast of Victoria, Australia, and (b) in
Bodega Bay along the central California coast. Note that the marine stacks in Bodega Bay are morphologically
similar to the rock outcrops atop the marine terrace. Indeed, the rock outcrops were marine stacks when the
shore platform was developing. Source: 123RF/ bennymarty. Reproduced with permission of 123RF.
18.5.3 Sea Stacks, Arches, and

of bedrock, landforms such as sea stacks and
Erosional Features
arches are left sitting atop shore platforms. In
One of the striking features of rocky coasts is other regions preferential erosion along cliffs
the erosional remnants that are left behind as produces notches and caves. The 12 Apostles
cliffs retreat. Through differential w
eathering along southwestern Victoria, Australia are
Rocky Coasts 507
Time 1 Highstand
1 3
Highstand
Cliff
Sea-level retreat Active
cliff
2 Sea stack Slow

uplift
Wave
Lowstand abrasion
Time
Marine
platform formation
Time 2 Sea-level fall
Mass
wasting
Inactive Time 3 Highstand

Exposed cliff
sea stack
Slow
uplift
Shoreline Exposed Fossil

farther marine platform cliff Subaerial
offshore erosion
Marine terrace
Uplifted
sea stack
Cliff
retreat Active
cliff Slow
uplift
Wave
abrasion Marine
platform formation
Figure 18.22 Marine terraces form along coasts undergoing uplift. Time 1. terrace development begins during
a sea level highstand with the formation of a marine platform produced by wave abrasion. Time 2. The marine
platform is subsequently abandoned when sea level falls at the onset of a global glaciation event. Time 3.
During the period of time in which sea level falls to a lowstand and then rises back to a highstand position, the
marine platform is uplifted above the highstand position, becoming a marine terrace. Idealized sea‐level curve
shows timing of marine terrace development.
one of the most famous set of stacks in the generally lower in elevation than the adjacent
world and are used widely to depict rocky cliffs. Arches are equally impressive due to
coasts (Figure 18.23). Some stacks, such as their unusual likeness to bridges that go
those along the Bay of Fundy shoreline of nowhere.
New Brunswick, Canada, are large and tall Formation of these features is the result of
enough to have trees growing on top of them. differential marine erosion superimposed on
Stacks exhibit many different forms but com- specific types of bedrock geology. The devel-
monly are taller than they are wide and are opment of a single stack is illustrated well
508 Chapter 18
Figure 18.23 The Twelve Apostles are sea stacks that have formed from flat‐lying limestone rock (Miocene
age) in Port Campbell National Park along the coast of Victoria, Australia. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Apostles_3_GOR.JPG. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0.
where waves have eroded ash, welded tuff, zontally layered sedimentary rocks. They
and other rocks comprising the exterior of a develop after the cliff rock has been dissected
volcano while its neck remains as a pinnacle. and narrow headlands or elongated stacks
This is because the neck is composed of rela- have formed. The next stage in development
tively strong basalt that resists erosion. occurs when wave action preferentially
Multiple stacks are generally related to hori- erodes the middle or lower section of the
zontally layered sedimentary rocks, such as headland or stack. The “tunnel” that devel-
sandstones, limestones and conglomerates ops is a product of wave abrasion and other
that are highly jointed. These giant cracks are processes that concentrate their erosion at
weaknesses in the rock that promote erosion the high water line and attack at both sides of
due to increased surface area and greater the landform. As the tunnel widens, a sea
exposure to marine weathering processes. As arch is created. Eventually, continued erosion
erosion proceeds, joints become indenta- causes the bridge to collapse into the sea and
tions, then deep chasms, and with further two stacks are produced. London Bridge was
wave attack finally, embayments. Eventually, the name given to well‐known sea arch
the headland is detached from the mainland located along the southwestern coast of
and a stack is formed. Thus, stacks can be Victoria, Australia (Figure 18.24). In February
created if they are composed of rock that is 1989 the arch suddenly collapsed while two
more resistant than the cliff rock. tourists were investigating its seaward end.
Alternatively, stacks can form due to struc- Lucky for them they were not in the middle
tural weaknesses of the cliff rock, which when the rocks gave way; they were later res-
makes them more susceptible to differential cued by a helicopter and taken to shore. All
erosion and retreat. in all they had a memorable day.
Arches are commonly found near sea Along many rocky coasts the pounding of
stacks and are usually associated with hori- waves at the base of sea cliffs undercuts the
Rocky Coasts 509
(a)
(b)
Figure 18.24 (a) London Bridge was a famous sea arch along the southwestern coast of Victoria, Australia.
(b) It collapsed suddenly in 1989, stranding two tourists who were later rescued by helicopter.
Source: Courtesy of Andrew Short.
rock producing a notch (Figure 18.25). In crystal formation and other chemical and
addition to abrasion and other wave pro- biological processes in tropical regions.
cesses, erosion is also attributed to freeze and Notches occur predominantly just below the
thaw cycles in northern latitudes and salt mean high water line but may be found at
510 Chapter 18
Figure 18.25 Notches usually develop near the high‐tide line because wave energy is concentrated in
this zone.
lower elevations, particularly along coasts

with large tidal ranges such as in the Bay of
Fundy. Notches rarely extend more than sev-
eral meters deep into the cliff face because as
the overhang increases, support of the over-
lying rock diminishes. Eventually, this leads
to failure of the cliff and the production of
debris on the shore platform. Stacks can also
become notched giving them a mushroom
appearance.
Notches can be transformed into caves
under special geological conditions. This
usually occurs where the bedrock is locally
weak and susceptible to erosion. One of the
authors will not forget walking along the
shoreline of Puale Bay on the Alaska
Peninsula and coming to a small headland
that jutted into the bay preventing further
travel. We climbed several meters up the
rock face finding a 5 m‐wide cave that had
been excavated into a conglomerate. The
stronger, more resistant sandstones and
mudstones formed the boundaries of the
opening. The cave, which extended about
15 m into the cliff, broadened toward the rear
and seemed to be lit by sunlight. Sure enough Figure 18.26 Waterfalls are common features along
there was second passageway to the cave tectonic coasts where the rate of uplift is greater
that opened to the other side of the headland. than the rate at which the stream can downcut.
Rocky Coasts 511
Figure 18.27 Sea arch created in layered rocks due to jointing patterns and slight difference in rock type.
As we approached this opening a waterfall imperceptibly. They are slowly modified by a

that rained down from the overhead cliff top combination of physical, chemical, and bio-
obscured our view of the bay (Figure 18.26). logical processes. In areas of moderate to
In fact, this was one of many spectacular high wave energy where gravel and/or other
landforms along this rocky coast which fea- sediment are present, wave abrasion is the
tured shore platforms and marine terraces, dominant eroding agent. High‐latitude
numerous waterfalls cascading to beaches coasts are affected by freeze and thaw
below, and a wide variety of stacks, arches and whereas in tropical areas chemical weather-
notches (Figure 18.27). The stacks of this ing and bioerosion tend to be important ero-
coast are favorite nesting sites of bald eagles sional processes.
due the protection afforded by the isolation of Cliffs are common features of retreating
the stacks and the proximity to food sources. coasts and are often fronted by shore plat-
forms. These are best developed in regions
where the bedrock consists of horizontally‐
18.6 Summary layered, easily‐eroded sedimentary rocks.
Along tectonic coasts undergoing uplift,
Rocky coasts exist in a wide variety of set- shore platforms have been raised forming
tings, but are most common along collision marine terraces. Downwarped coasts may
coasts due to the high relief and low sedi- have subtidal terraces. Erosional remnants,
ment supplies. They also occur in glaciated including stacks and arches, as well as
regions where sediment has been stripped notches and caves, are found along coasts
from the bedrock. In tropical regions, rocky that experience differential erosion of the
shores are found where sand has been lithi- retreating cliffs. This can be a product of
fied by calcium carbonate cement. Rocky differences in bedrock composition or

coasts are resistant to erosion and retreat structural weaknesses.
512 Chapter 18
Suggested Reading
Bird, E.C.F. (1993). Submerging Coasts. Griggs, G.B. and Savoy, L.E. (1985). Living with
Chichester, UK: Wiley. the California Coast. Durham, NC: Duke
Bradley, W.C. and Griggs, G.B. (1976). Form, University Press.
genesis, and deformation of some Central Inman, D.L. and Nordstrom, C.E. (1971).
California wave‐cut platforms. Bull. Geol. On the tectonic and morphologic
Soc. Am. 87: 433–449. classification of coasts. J. Geol. 79: 1–21.
Carter, R.W.G. and Woodroffe, C.D. (eds.) Johnson, D.W. (1919). Shore Processes and
(1994). Coastal Evolution. Cambridge: Shoreline Development. New York: Hafner
Cambridge University Press. Publishing.
Davies, J.L. (1980). Geographical Variation in Shepard, F.P. and Wanless, H.R. (1971).
Coastal Development, 212 pp. Harlow, UK: Our Changing Coastlines. New York:
Longman. McGraw‐Hill.
Easterbrook, D.J. (1999). Surface Processes and Trenhaile, A.S. (1987). The Geomorphology of
Landforms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Rock Coasts. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Prentice Hall. Press.
513
Index
a offshore bar theory 377–9 barrier spits 367–74

abrasion 467, 484, 495–510 spit accretion theory cuspate 370–1
active margin 34, 44–52 377–8 cuspate foreland 374–5
Agassiz, Louis 464, 471 submergence theory flying 370–2
air compression and erosion 377–9 initiation 369
493–5 barrier islands 2, 366–7, recurved 367–9
Alaska 15, 16, 25, 33, 36, 370, 376–80, 394–6, 405, tombolos 370–4
38–41 409, 415 basal slip 457–8
Algal mats 238, 245, 252 drumstick 446–7 bay(s) 370–82
Amazon Cone 34 barriers 16, 44, 47, 52, funnel shaped 116,
amphidromic systems 163–8 359–403 130, 153, 168–70, 173,
Anchorage, Alaska earthquake aggrading 380–90 175, 396
70, 72 backbarrier 360 Bay of Fundy 153, 170–6,
Ancient civilizations 3 beach 362 273, 275, 276, 282, 396,
Anclote Key, Florida 450–1 breaching 377–9 442, 495, 499, 507, 510
Antarctic ice sheet 459, 461 chains 359–65 Bay of St. Malo 273
antidunes 318 climatic controls on Beach Erosion Board 10
arches 489, 498, 506–11 distribution 363–8 beachface 479
Arenicola 253 distribution 363–6 beach nourishment
Ash Wednesday Storm downdrift bulbous 397–8 334, 335
107–8 evolution of 399–403 beach sediments 324
asthenosphere 20–2, 31, 482 Hayes model of morphology bedforms 254
Atlantic margin 35–6 394–6 berm 161, 383–4
atmospheric circulation 97, humpbacked 397 Bermuda High 101
100–1 interior 362 bioerosion 497, 511
Australia 6 islands see barrier islands Bjerknes, J., 105
landward margin Blizzard of 1978, New
b 361–2, 385 England 96, 108–9,
backbeach 322 morphology 384–404 161, 163
Bacon, Sir Francis 15 prograding 374–92 Boyd, Ron 400
Baffin Bay, Texas 244 retrograding 380–92 bidirectional strata 269
Bahamas 64 spits see barrier spits bimodal 59, 61
bar and trough 304 stratigraphy 390–3 bimodal beach 322
bar complexes 426, 428–32, tectonic controls on bioturbation 254
446, 448, 450 distribution 362–4 boulder beach 321
barrier island origin 377–80 welded see welded barriers breaking waves 138
514 Index
c cyanobacteria 237 end moraine 454, 473–4,

California 7 cyclones 96–7, 101–3, 477, 486
California Current 97 105–10, 112, 113, 125 engineers, coastal 423, 426
Cape Cod 454, 472–4 formation of 105–6 eolianites 493
formation 476–80 cyclonic systems 101, 125 erratics 471, 477
modification 479–80 estuarine hydrology 306
capillary waves 133 d estuary 5
carbonate mud 235, 245 Dalrymple, Robert A. 66 definition 207
carbonates 3 Davis, Robert 108 types 208
causeways 447, 449 Daytona Beach, Florida 111,
centrifugal force 154–7, 175 336, 337 f
channel margin linear bars Dean, Robert G. 66 Fairweather fault 40
413, 415, 428–9 de Beaumont, Elie 377 feldspars 20, 360, 498, 505
cliffs 469, 480, 496–511 delta classification 190, 191 fencing 384, 394, 395
Chesapeake Bay 211 delta front 86 Ferrel cell 100
clay minerals 61, 216 delta marshes 196 Field Research Facility 138,
climate change 76, 78, 69 delta plain 184, 185, 199, 200 139
coastal construction 333 deltas 4, 5 Figure Eight Island, North
coastal invasion 10 depositional coasts 47, 96, 394 Carolina 359
coastal marsh 281 desert 498 Fisher, John 379
coastal sediment supply 47–50 dikes 398, 495, 501 Fisk, H. N. 178
coastal tourism 10 desiccation features 255, 268 fjords 16, 38, 42, 174, 203, 204,
collision coasts 2, 36–9, 42, distributaries 184 453, 468–70, 485, 491–2
45, 47, 51, 72, 360, 364–5, distributary mouth bar 402 flaser bedding 260–3
490, 511 Dolan, Robert 108 flood channel 410, 412–13,
continental 36–7, 39 dredge and fill 304 427–8
island arc 36, 39, 42 drowned river valleys 46, flood ramp 410, 412–13
Columbia River 180 377, 417–19, 485–7 flood plain 186
continental drainage drumlins 391, 401, 418, Florida Bay 300
45–9, 363 473–82, 485 Florida Keys 110, 119
continental drift 16–17 Duck Pier 138, 139 foreshore zone 312
continental margins 31–4 dune dynamics 349 frontal systems 96–108
rises 32–3 dune erosion 350
shelves 32–9 dune migration 347 g
slopes 32–6 dune ridge 344, 345 Galapagos Islands 302
continent–continent plate dune walkovers 353, 355 Galveston Sea Wall 9
convergence 27–8 Galveston, Texas 95, 111,
convection cells 30, 98, 100 e 127, 359
Coorong, Australia 243 earthquakes 15, 21–2, 25–6, Ganges–Brahmaputra 95
Copper River Delta 181 28–31, 34, 36, 38–42, Georgia Bight 396, 400
coppice mounds 344 44–5, 47, 50, 52, 469, 491 ghost crab 326, 329
Coriolis effect 75, 98, east coast of the United States ghost shrimp 319
100–2, 110, 112, 162–3, 35, 45–6, 107, 167, 363–4, Gilbert, G. K. 177, 377
165, 168, 175 380–1, 415, 418, 427 glacial cycles 83
Corps of Engineers 295 East Friesian Islands 383, glaciated coast 2, 170, 359,
CRAB 139 395, 397, 439, 441–2, 446 374, 391, 399, 400, 419, 421,
crevasse splay 185, 187, 286 ebb shield 410, 412–13 439, 453, 469, 472–3, 477,
crustal movement 15 ebb spit 410, 412–13 480, 482–3, 485–6, 491–2
cumulative curve 58 El Nino 69 alpine 458–9, 468–9
Index 515
deposition 462–3, 467–78 Camille 115, 119–21, 127 l

effects on coastlines 467–77 categories of 122 ladderback rippoles 315
erosion 467–71 coastal impact 128–32 lagoons 5, 370–1,
formation 456–7 Elena 96 374–80, 386
ice sheets 454–86 formation 113–15 definition 339
movement 457–8 Frederick 116–18, 420 organisms 232
outlet 459 Hugo 290 salinity 231
in the Pleistocene 462–6 Katrina 125–31 precipitates 233
global warming 77, 87, 132, low latitude 109–10 sediments 235
460–1, 466 naming of 115 laguna Madre, Texas 235,
Gondwanaland 17–18 passes 419, 420 236, 239, 240
gravitational force 153–7 pathways 112–13 Lake Michigan 340
grain flow 351 Sandy 122–30 Lake Reeve, Australia 240,
grain shape 61 242, 243
grain size 56 i La Perouse, Jean François 40
gravity waves 133 ice ages 366, 454, 460, Laurasia 16
Greece 10 462–4, 466, 487 Laurentide ice sheet 455,
Greenland 84 carbon dioxide 464 466, 477–8, 482, 485
ground‐penetrating radar causes 464 law of conservation of
379–80 Milankovitch cycles momentum 114
groundwater‐sapping channels 464–7, 487 law of gravitation 153–5
478–9 plate tectonics 464, linear seas 35, 43, 51
Gulf Coast 89 482, 487 limestone 55
Gulf Stream 97, 162, 374 ice sheets 453–87 lithification 492–3
ice shelves 459, 461–2 Little Ice Age 90
h igneous rocks 55 Lituya Bay, Alaska 40–2
Hadley cell 100 Inman, Douglas L. 10, 36 longshore current 142,
halite 496–7 intertropical convergence 148, 149
Hawaii 72, 81, 146 zone 101 low marsh 288
plate tectonics 72 island arc 25–6 Luck, Gunter 397
Hayes, Miles O. 8 isobars 97–8 Lyell, Charles 463
Headland coast 6 IPCC (international panel on
heavy minerals 312, 317, 323 climate change) 76 m
Herodotus 77 isostatic adjustment 69 mangroves 197
high marsh 288 isostatic rebound 85 species 299
Himalayan Mountains 17, isostatic sea level change marsh classification 287
18, 34, 49 69, 74 marsh sediment 290
Homeier, Hahns 397 Iwo Jima 11 maelstrom 175
Hoyt, John 379 magma 22–3, 25–9, 31, 37,
Hudson Bay 74 j 43, 49, 51
human impact on coastal Jade Bay, Germany 281 main ebb channel 412–14,
zone 447 Johnson, Douglas W. 8, 427–31, 442
human impact on marsh 293 377, 379 mantle 18–31
human influence on dunes Juncus 286, 287, 383 mantle plume 30–1, 35, 43,
352–4 49–50
hurricanes 95–131 k marginal‐flood channel
Andrew 95, 114, 115, 122, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska 16, 412–13, 427–8
126, 301 39, 453, 469–70, 491 marginal sea coasts 36, 46,
anatomy 113–5 Krumbain, W. C. 57 48, 50, 52, 364, 366
516 Index
marine terraces 499, ocean–continent plate plucking 467

505–7, 511 convergence 26–7 plunging breakers 140, 141
mesosphere 20 ocean–ocean plate polar cell 100–6
McGee, W. D. 377 convergence 24–6 post glacial sea‐level rise 85
mean 57, 59 Oregon 309 Pritchard, Donald 207
median 57, 59 Outer Banks, North Carolina prop roots 298
Mediterranean 177 46, 108, 113, 125, 128, Provincetown dune field,
metamorphic rocks 55 379, 395–6, 399, 410, 415, Massachusetts 362
Miami 75 420, 425
Milankovitch 83, 88 outwash plain 454, 473–5, q
Milankovitch cycles 464–7, 477–9, 486 Quaternary Period 82
487 see also ice ages Oxbow lakes 85
Miller, Don J. 40, 42 oxygen isotopes 83 r
mineralogy 60 oyster reefs 212, 219, 252, 303 reactivation surfaces 256, 257
Mississippi Delta 81, 93, 292, ridge migration 316
293, 295, 296 p Rio Tinto, Spain 226
Mississippi River 197, 294 Pacific margin 33, 36, 48 rip channels 310
Mobile Bay, Alabama 320 Padre Island, Texas 236, 346, rip current 149–51, 311
mode 57, 59 376, 390 rip tide 149
morphodynamics 2 Pamlico Sound 222, 223 ripples 311, 348
Mount Saint Helens 15, 26 human impact on estuaries river dominated delta 192
mud 195 222, 224–227 rivers 5
Muller, Robert 110 Pangaea 16–17, 464–5 rock types 55
Panthalassa 16–17 rocky coasts 489–511
n passive margin 35, 45, 51, bioerosion 497
Namibia 341–3 359, 489 carbonate 492–4, 497,
natural levees 185–7, 295 peat 190 502, 511
Nauset Spit, Massachusetts Penland, Shea 400 chemical erosion 498
432, 434–7, 451, 480 Peru–Chile Trench 25–6, 34 erosion rates 495–505
nearshore environment Physalia 320 formation 500
307, 308 plastic flow 457 freeze & thaw 496–7, 511
New England 8 plate boundaries 19–22, 24, glaciated regions 489–91
New Inlet, Massachusetts 28, 34 morphology 500–11
434, 437–8 convergent 21–6, 37 Dover England 502
Newton, Isaac 153 divergent 8–11, 30 tectonic settings 490–1
Nile Delta 77, 78 transform 21–2, 28–30, volcanic 489–93
Nordstrom, Carl 36 35–6 wave‐induced erosion 493
northeasters 107–9, 125, plate movement 15–21, 34, 38 roundness 59
127, 359 gravitational sliding
Normandy invasion 11 18–19, 30–1 s
North Carolina 7 slab pull 18, 31 sabkhas 2
North Sea 8 plate tectonics 15–20, 52–3 Saffir–Simpson Scale 122, 124
Nova Scotia barrier coast platforms 69, 179, 363, Saint Malo, Bay of 154,
383, 391, 396, 399–401 367–9, 403 168, 175
Pleasant Bay, Massachusetts Salicornia 266, 267, 284
o 435–8 San Andreas fault 27–30
O’Brien, Morrough 423 Pleistocene 64 sand 64
O’Brien relationship Pleistocene Epoch 463, sand bars 309
423–5, 439 466, 485 Sargassum 356, 357
Index 517
schizohaline lagoon 232 t mixed energy 410–14,

sea floor spreading 72, 73 Tahiti 64 441–50
sea level 3, 69, 86 tectonic coastline classification sand dispersal 427
sea‐level change 36–47 sediment trap 440–1
continental rebound tectonic plates throat area–tidal prism
482–7 African 21 relationship 423–4
sea level rise 182, 292 Arabian 21, 24 tide‐dominated 414
prediction 86 Eurasian 21, 24–5, 48–9 wave‐dominated
seasonal changes 74 Gorda 26–7 410, 414
sea stacks 506–11 Juan de Fuca 20–1, tidal prism 408–9, 416–32
sea waves 140 26–8, 37 tide‐dominated delta
sedimentary rocks 55 Nazca 21, 24–6, 34 192, 193
sediment composition 77, North American 21, tide‐dominated estuaries
79, 80 25–31 209, 214, 215, 220, 221
sediments 55 Pacific 20–1, 24–42, 48 tide‐generating force
sediment texture 56 South American 21, 22–6 153–7
seiche 148 terminal lobe 412–14 tides 153–76
setup 36 Tethys Sea 17 continental shelf 163,
shells 55, 60, 64, 65, 325 texture 64 167–8
Shepard, Francis P. 10 tidal bedding 258, 259, 262, Coriolis effect 162–4,
significant wave height 135 266, 276 168–9
Sinai Peninsula 44 tidal bundles 259, 265 diurnal 163–5
slewness 57, 59 tidal channels 288 equatorial 159
sorting 58, 61 tidal creek 291 equilibrium 157–9
South Africa 17, 45, 489–92 tidal estuaries 1–3 mixed 166–7, 175
Spartina 283, 287, 288 tidal flat grain size 250 ocean partitioning
sphericity 59, 61 tidal flat morphology 247 162–4
spilling breakers 141 tidal flat organisms 249, 251 semi‐diurnal 159, 162,
spillover lobe 410–12 tidal flats 289 166–7
spit building 367–9 tidal flat sediment 248 tidal bore 153, 169–74
standard deviation 58 tidal flux 203 tidal flats 154
standing wave 147, 148 tidal inlets 405–51 tidal range 159–76
storms 92–132 defined 405–7 tidal resonance 170–2
extratropical 97, 102–9 deltas 409–414 tropic 165
mid‐latitude 102–9 delta volume–tidal prism tornadoes 101
tropical 96–7, 109–25 relationship 425–6 trailing edge coasts 42–6
Strandplain coasts 2 ebb‐tidal deltas 413–14, Afro‐ 36, 44–5
striations 467–8 425–6, 439–45 Amero‐ 45–52
subduction 22, 25–36 ephemeral 415, 419–21 Neo‐ 36–7, 42–4
submarine canyons 32–6 flood‐tidal deltas 407, transform boundaries 22,
Sun 153–62 409–22 28–30
interaction with Moon formation 415–18 ocean trenches 18, 21,
159–61 human influences 415, 25–6, 33
surf zone 138, 308 424, 446–7 turbidity current 29
surging breakers 142 inlet sediment bypassing typhoons 109
suspended sediment 212 426–32 time‐velocity curve 217
swales 362, 369 inlet throat 409, 413–19, trailing edge coasts 3
swash processes 312 423–8, 443 trimming mangroves 303
swell waves 140 migration 419–23, 428–33 tsunamis 146, 147
518 Index
Turkey 10 w wave length 133, 146, 147

turtles 330–2 Wadden Sea 267, 270, 278, wave period 137
290, 291 wave propagation 136
u Walton and Adams wave reflection 145, 146
undertow 136, 149 relationship wave refraction 143
United States sea‐level 425–6 weathering 50
data 90 Walton, Todd 425 Wegener, Alfred 16–17
University of Delaware 66 The Wash 266, 272 welded barriers 366,
University of Florida 66 washover fans 234 374–6, 400
uplifted coasts 38–9 wave base 137 Wentworth Scale 57
upwelling 75 wave diffraction 143 wetlands 203
Ural Mountains 28 wave dominated delta 193 wind shadows 348
wave dominated estuary wind tidal flat 235
v 220–2 wind tide 234
Venice Italy 92 wave energy 143, 144 World War II 9
Vikings 3 wave frequency 133, 134 wrack lines 383

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What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some coastal landforms and processes discussed in the book?

What are some coastal landforms and processes discussed in the book?

Beaches and

Richard A. Davis, Jr.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 10/12pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

1 Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment 1

2 The Earth’s Mobile Crust 15

3 Sediments and Rocks: Materials of Coastal Environments 55

4 Sea‐Level Change and Coastal Environments 69

5 Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes 95

6 Waves and the Coast 133

7 Tides of the Ocean 153

8 River Deltas: The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments 177

10 Coastal Lagoons 229

11 Tidal Flats 247

12 Coastal Wetlands 281

13 Beach and Nearshore Environment 307

14 Coastal Dunes 339

15 Barrier Systems 359

16 Tidal Inlets 405

17 Glaciated Coasts 453

18 Rocky Coasts 489

1 Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment 1

2 The Earth’s Mobile Crust 15

3 Sediments and Rocks: Materials of Coastal Environments 55

4 Sea‐Level Change and Coastal Environments 69

5 Weather Systems, Extratropical Storms, and Hurricanes 95

6 Waves and the Coast 133

6.4 ­Other Types of Waves 146

7 Tides of the Ocean 153

8 River Deltas: The Source of Most of our Coastal Sediments 177

9.1.4 Model Estuary 214

10 Coastal Lagoons 229

11 Tidal Flats 247

12 Coastal Wetlands 281

12.3.2 Sea Level and Marsh Development 292

13 Beach and Nearshore Environment 307

14 Coastal Dunes 339

15 Barrier Systems 359

15.9 ­Barrier Coasts: Morphology and Evolution 399

16 Tidal Inlets 405

17 Glaciated Coasts 453

17.4 ­Glacial Effects on Coastlines 467

18 Rocky Coasts 489

Coastline Variability and Functions in the Global Environment

The surface of the earth is covered by two 1.1 ­Coastal Settings

1.2.1 History of Coastal

Figure 1.2 Photograph of a depositional coast on the Texas coast.

across the shallow continental shelf and the

Figure 1.8 Cliff on erosional coast in Oregon with a narrow beach.

(Figure 1.12), supplies and equipment,

Box 1.1 Why is the Coast so Important?

The Earth’s Mobile Crust

2.1 ­Introduction continents and ocean basins, including the

20° SOUTH 20°

6.4 Other Types of Waves 146

15.9 Barrier Coasts: Morphology and Evolution 399

17.4 Glacial Effects on Coastlines 467

The surface of the earth is covered by two 1.1 Coastal Settings

2.1 Introduction continents and ocean basins, including the

2.3 Plate Boundaries another (Transform Boundary). It should be

the Indus draining into the Arabian Sea (

basins and thus cause sea level to change 4.1 Changing the Size