Updated Curriculum

A Practical Approach FORM

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Geography 3
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Chitengu Bothwell Mussett Mashiringwane Chengetai Mazendame Renias T.

 A Practical Approach
to

Geography

Form 3

Chitengu Bothwell Mashiringwane Chengetai Mazendame Renias

 CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Weather and Climate........................................................................................ 1

Unit 1.1 Air masses..................................................................................................................................... 1
Unit 1.2 air masses affecting Zimbabwe and Southern Africa.................................................... 7
Unit 1.3 Climate types on a global scale............................................................................................. 9
Unit 1.4 Interpretation of climatic data............................................................................................... 13
Chapter 2: Landform and Landscape Processes............................................................... 19
Unit 2.1 Continental drift theory........................................................................................................... 19
Unit 2.2 Plate tectonics theory............................................................................................................... 22
Unit 2.3 Folding and faulting.................................................................................................................. 26
Unit 2.4 Volcanoes and earthquakes................................................................................................... 32
Unit 2.5 Effects of tectonic processes.................................................................................................. 43
Unit 2.6 Mitigating measures of vulcanicity and earthquakes................................................... 46
Chapter 3: Ecosystems........................................................................................................ 51
Unit 3.1 Biogeochemical cycles............................................................................................................. 51
Unit 3.2 Wetlands........................................................................................................................................ 55
Unit 3.3 Conservation of ecosystems................................................................................................... 59
Unit 3.4 Restoration of ecosystems...................................................................................................... 62
Unit 3.5 Benefits of ecosystems............................................................................................................. 65
Chapter 4: Natural Resources............................................................................................ 73
Unit 4.1 Conservation of resources....................................................................................................... 73
Unit 4.2 Wildlife management............................................................................................................... 78
Unit 4.3 Human and wildlife conflict................................................................................................... 79
Unit 4.4 Communal Areas Management Programme For Indigenous
Resources (CAMPFIRE).............................................................................................................. 78
Examination I Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 85
Examination I Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 88
Chapter 5: Energy and Power............................................................................................. 92
Unit 5.1 Conservation of energy sources........................................................................................... 92
Unit 5.2 Energy production and conservation in the local area................................................ 97
Chapter 6: Map Work and Geographical Information Systems....................................... 107
Unit 6.1 Global positioning system and world time zones.......................................................... 107
Unit 6.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum............................................................................................. 111
Unit 6.3 Time................................................................................................................................................. 113
Chapter 7: Minerals and Mining......................................................................................... 118
Unit 7.1 Small scale mining in zimbabwe.......................................................................................... 118
Unit 7.2 Processing of minerals in Zimbabwe and Africa............................................................. 122
Unit 7.3 Beneficiation and value addition.......................................................................................... 124
Unit 7.4 Safety and health in mining................................................................................................... 124
Chapter 8: Environmental Management........................................................................... 128
Unit 8.1 Environmental management legislation in Zimbabwe................................................ 128
Examination II Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 136
Examination II Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 139
Chapter 9: Agriculture and Land reform........................................................................... 141
Unit 9.1 Land tenure.................................................................................................................................. 141
Unit 9.2 Land reform.................................................................................................................................. 144
Unit 9.3 Land reform in Zimbabwe....................................................................................................... 148
Chapter 10: lndustry............................................................................................................. 156
Unit 10.1 Small to medium enterprises ................................................................................................ 156
Unit 10.2 The role of informal industries in Zimbabwe................................................................... 161
Unit 10.3 Occupational safety and health in industry...................................................................... 162
Unit 10.4 Challenges associated with manufacturing and processing
industries in Zimbabwe.......................................................................................................... 162
Chapter 11: Settlement and Population.............................................................................. 169
Unit 11.1 Population terms........................................................................................................................ 169
Unit 11.2 Population data collection, presentation and interpretation.................................... 172
Unit 11.3 Population distribution and density in Zimbabwe, Africa and the World............. 179
Chapter 12: Transport and Trade......................................................................................... 188
Unit 12.1 Regional imbalances in trade................................................................................................. 188
Unit 12.2 Trading blocs................................................................................................................................ 191
Examination III Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 200
Examination III Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 206

Index ............................................................................................................................ 207

 Chapter
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

1
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe an air mass.
• classify air masses.
• describe types of air masses and their characteristics.
• describe weather associated with air masses affecting Zimbabwe and Southern Africa.
• describe weather conditions associated with the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone.
• describe and explain the changing position of the Inter-Tropical convergence zone with seasons.
• explain the basis for climatic classification on a global scale.
• describe the characteristics of the world’s climatic regions.
• interpret climatic graphs and tables.

Introduction
Air masses play a crucial role in regulating global temperatures as they blow from one region or area to
another in response to pressure patterns. They greatly influence global temperature and rainfall patterns
which are the basis of classification into world climatic regions. The classification helps us to understand
and interpret climatic data which is crucial in making weather forecasts. The interpretation is also of
importance in understanding the seasonal patterns of rainfall which has a direct bearing on humans’ daily
activities. The chapter gives well detailed explanation on the weather patterns associated with different air
masses on the globe together with well labelled maps and illustrations to help clarify explanations.

UNIT 1.1 AIR MASSES

An air mass is a large volume of air blowing on an extensive surface with fairly uniform or homogenous
characteristics. These characteristics include; temperature and humidity (moisture content). Air masses
help to regulate temperatures at local and global scales. When air masses are forced to rise, they result in
rainfall formation. The mechanisms in which air is forced to rise is different but the processes that operate
when air has been forced to rise are basically similar. Air is forced to rise by three mechanisms namely;
convection, convergence, and by a physical barrier or obstacle.

5
(a) Convection
Convection is the process whereby the sun heats the
Saturated cloud

ground as shortwave radiation (SWR). The ground

absorbs the heat and reflects it back as long wave
Rapid cooling and expansion

radiation (LWR). The air above the ground is heated Intense evaporation

from below and powerful convection currents are

set. The air is forced to rise, it cools and condenses
Fig. 1.1 Convectional rainfall
leading to the formation of convectional rainfall.
(b) Convergence Fro
nt

When two air masses of different characteristics

meet, they do not mix freely with each other but
form a line or boundary. A front separates the two
air masses. The boundary formed is called a front.
Warm moist air
Warm moist air is forced to rise over cold dry air
because warm, moist air is less dense. When warm
moist air rises, it cools and condenses to form clouds
and resultantly rainfall. Fig. 1.2 Frontal rainfall

(c) Physical barrier or obstacle

When warm, moist air meets a physical barrier it is
forced to rise over the mountain or hill. The warm
moist air rises, expands, cools and condenses leading
to the formation of relief or orographic rainfall.

Ra
in
sh
ad
ow
Classification and characteristics of air gw
ind Mountain
in
masses Pre
vail

Sea level
Air masses are classified according to whether they Fig. 1.3 Orographic rainfall
originate over land (continental) or over the oceans
(maritime). Continental air masses are generally
dry and warm maritime air masses are either cool NP
and warm moist. Air masses are further classified
according to the latitude from which they originate Polar front Polar High
60° N

for example the Tropical (T) air mass originates 30° N

Polar Easterlies
from the Tropics and it is hot because it maintains
H Equator
characteristics of its source region. The Polar (P) and H Westerlies
Arctic (A) air masses are cold because they originate Subtropical anticyclones

from cold regions. Five main air masses, therefore, Trade winds 30° S
ICTZ and Equatorial trough
emerge and these are; Tropical, Equatorial, Polar,
H
Arctic and Antarctic. Air masses blow in relation to H Trade winds
global pressure patterns as shown below; Westerlies 60° S

Types of air masses Subtropical anticyclones

Polar front

An air mass is a large body of air characterised by Polar Easterlies

temperature and humidity from its source region. SP

Air masses can be 1000 km wide or more. Air masses

acquire their properties from where they originated Fig. 1.4 The movement of air masses in relation to
and place these on areas they pass by. Air masses pressure patterns and wind belts over the Globe

6
are named after the region from which they originated (Tropics or Polar) and or if they originated on land
(Continent) or sea (Maritime). From these, four air masses are classified;
1. Continental polar air mass/Polar continental air mass
Like maritime polar air masses, continental polar air masses originate at high latitudes, but unlike maritime
polar air masses, continental polar air masses form over land.
Continental polar air masses bring about dry and cool to cold weather. Humidity and dew points are low,
and any precipitation that falls tends to be light, due to the high pressure that typically accompanies these
air masses. Some meteorologists recognise a subtype of continental polar air masses, which they refer
to as Arctic or continental Arctic. Basically, such air masses are colder, harsher versions of the continental
polar variety. In the U.S., continental polar and Arctic air masses most often affect the eastern two-thirds of
the country, albeit with diminishing intensity further south.
Polar continental air mass originates on land
from the polar areas and usually dry for example,
Canada,  Scandinavia  (N Europe). Polar Continental
air is associated with very low temperatures and
bitterly cold winds in winter, and wind chill can be
significant. If they pick moisture in their path, they
may produce freezing rainfall, snow or even hail.
Continental polar air masses are cold, dry, and
stable. They are cold and dry, originating from high
latitudes, typically as air flowing out of the polar
highs. This air mass often brings the rattling cold,
dry and clear weather on a perfect winter day and
also dry and warm weather on a pleasant day in
summer.
Fig. 1.5 Continental polar air masses
The weather characteristics of this air mass depend
on the length of the sea track during its passage
from Europe to the British Isles: this air is inherently
very cold and dry and if it reaches southern Britain
with a short sea track over the English Channel, the
weather is characterised by clear skies and severe
frosts. With a longer sea track over the North Sea,
the air becomes unstable and moisture is added
giving rise to showers of rain or snow, especially
near the east coast of Britain.
2. Continental tropical air mass
This type of air mass can be best described as having
dry and hot/warm conditions. The reason for this is,
because it forms over the land and also is found in
the hot tropical regions.
The best place in the United States to find this type
of air mass is the Southwest portion of the United Fig. 1.6 Continental tropical air masses
States. This type of air is associated with very dry

7
conditions that can prevail for long periods of time. It is also tropical in nature, temperature can rise well
into the 100’s.
This type of air mass is most pronounced during the summer months as it’s a warm air mass. In the winter
time this air mass is slowly removed and replaced by colder air. This air mass is strong enough that it can
extend northward into parts of Colorado in the summer and also expand eastward into portions of Texas
and Oklahoma.
These originate on land from the tropics. They are warm and dry (little/no moisture). Originate mainly from
arid regions for example, Sahara regions. They may bring the hottest and driest conditions in their wake.
3. Maritime polar
Showers

Rain
Heavy rain

Modified, dry
Pacific air
Dry

Cool moist air

Olympic Cascade Rocky

WEST Ocean Mountains Mountains Mountains EAST

Fig. 1.7 Maritime polar air masses

Maritime polar air masses typically form over bodies of water north and south of 60 degrees latitude both
in the northern and southern hemisphere. Maritime polar air masses which produce cool, damp conditions.
Considerable cloudiness, including fog, often accompanies maritime polar air masses. Precipitation is also
common. Depending on the time of year, precipitation may come in the form of rain or snow and can be
substantial. In the U.S., maritime polar air masses are usually confined to the Pacific Northwest, although
they occasionally affect New England.
This air mass is characterised by frequent showers at any time of the year. In the winter months when
instability (convection) is most vigorous over the sea, hail and thunder are common across much of the
western and northern side of the British Isles. However, eastern Britain may see fewer showers as the
surface heating is reduced. During the summer, the reverse is true, land temperatures are higher than sea
temperatures and the heaviest showers occur over eastern England.
Originate from Polar Regions for example, Canada, Greenland, and Antarctica. The air mass is cold but carry
large amounts of moisture. If these air masses move over warm waters, they may become unstable which
can produce torrential rainfalls.
4. Maritime tropical
Maritime tropical air masses originate over oceans, within 25 degrees latitude both North and South of the
equator. They are associated with warm, humid conditions and high dew points. Most of the thunderstorms

8
that occur in the U.S develop in the presence of
maritime tropical air masses. Maritime tropical air
masses influence the U.S more during summer than
during winter, and exert the greatest influence in
the South-eastern states.
Originate in oceans and seas from the tropics for
example, over Mid Atlantic and North Indian Ocean.
Are warm and therefore carry large amounts of
moisture therefore bringing rainfall in their wake
(path). A good example affecting Zimbabwe is
the  Zaire air  which migrate from the Atlantic and
picks more moisture from the surrounding rainforest
in Congo and joins with the ITCZ over Zimbabwe. Fig. 1.8 Maritime tropical air masses

Characteristics of types of air masses

Air masses maintain characteristics of their source or origin. Areas where air masses originate from are
also known as air mass source regions. Air masses originating from oceans are usually warm and moist for
example the south east trade winds which originates over the Indian Oceans. Air masses which originate
from deserts are hot, dry and dusty such as the Harmattan winds which originate from the Sahara Desert.
Air masses are modified by the surface over which they pass and their later properties will also depend on
the nature of the surface they pass over, in addition to their source region characteristics. Air masses are
named from the direction in which they blow. Air masses blow from regions of high pressure to regions of
low pressure.
Formation of fronts/boundaries
If air masses with different characteristics collide,
they do not mix but a front develops which is a
boundary line separating the two air masses. The
area along which two air masses meet is called a
frontal surface. There are different types of fronts
which include; a warm front, cold front, occluded
front and stationary front.
(a) Cold front
It is a front in which cold air is replacing warm air
at the surface. A cold front is shown on a synoptic
chart like shown in figure 1.9. When could air moves Fig. 1.9 Cold front
toward warm air a cold a cold front is formed. The
warm air rises over the cold air forming a steeper
wedge than a warm front. It is formed when cold
moves into a region of warm air. A cold front usually
brings heavy rainfall of short duration accompanied
by thunderstorms.
(b) Warm front
It is formed when warm and cold air masses meet.
The air masses do not mix but form a front. Warm Fig. 1.10 Warm front

9
moist air rises over dense cold air. Upon reaching
condensation, nimbostratus clouds are formed
resulting in light showers of long duration. It is a
front in which warm air replaces cooler air at the
surface. A warm front is associated with saturation,
cloud formation and precipitation.
(c) Stationary front Fig. 1.11 Stationary front
It is shown on a synoptic chart as shown in figure
1.11. It is a front that does not move or barely moves
forward. They develop when polar air masses are
modified greatly and lose their character. It also
results from the stalling of either a warm or cold
front and it can remain stationary for several days.
(d) Occluded front
It is shown on a synoptic chart in figure 1.12. An
occluded front is a combination of the cold and the
warm fronts. It occurs when the cold front catches
up with the warm front. The cold air forces the warm
air up. It is formed when a cold front move faster
Fig. 1.12 Occluded front
than a warm front and overtakes it.
The weather ahead of an occluded front brings cloud formation and some form of precipitation. The
weather behind an occluded front is dull. It is associated with cumulonimbus clouds which brings cold
weather and continuous rainfall.
Activity 1.1 Discussion

In groups, discuss the types and characteristics of air masses.

Exercise 1.1

1. When an air mass is forced to rise by convectional currents, it results in the formation of the following
___________.
A. relief rainfall B. frontal rainfall
C. cyclonic rainfall D. convectional rainfall
2. What type of rainfall is formed when air is forced to rise by a physical barrier?
A. convectional rainfall B. cyclonic rainfall
C. leeward rainfall D. Relief rainfall
3. All of the following are types of fronts except ___________.
A. occluded front B. stationery front
C. warm front D. stationary front
4. The characteristics of an air mass that originates from a desert are likely to be ______.
A. hot, dry and dusty B. cold and dry
C. warm and moist D. cold and moist
5. A cyclone is _______________.
A. an area of high pressure B. an area of low pressure
C. an area of intense low pressure D. an area of moderate pressure

10
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z)

Fig. 1.14 The position of the ITCZ in different seasons

The Inter-tropical Convergence Zone is a belt of low pressure where the trade winds of the Northern
hemisphere and Southern hemisphere meet. It is also called the equatorial convergence zone and it shifts
north and south seasonally with the Sun. The Inter-tropical convergence zone brings about cloudy weather,
heavy rainfall and frequent thunderstorms. It is an area or zone of low pressure within the tropics of cancer
and Capricorn where different air masses with different characteristics meet resulting in high rainfall. The
map below illustrates the different position of the ICTZ in winter and summer over the African continent.
Air masses which operate over and around in January and July.
The Inter-tropical Convergence zone (ITCZ) is part of the World-wide weather patterns between the
latitudes 30⁰N and 30⁰S. Variations in the location of the ITCZ drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial
nations resulting in the wet and dry seasons. The shifting of the ITCZ is the result of the earth’s rotation
(thermal position), axis inclination and the translation of earth around the sun. Seasons are the result of
this movement.
Weather conditions associated with the ITCZ in winter
The Northern Hemisphere experiences their winter period in January and the Southern Hemisphere
experiences their winter in July.

Activity 1.2 Field work

You are required to identify 3 possible sites for siting a weather station at your school. Name the sites A,
B and C. Proceed and choose the best site of the 3 identified sites. Justify, with reasons why you think the
chosen site is the best.

Exercise 1.2
1. Name the three air masses that meet over Zimbabwe. [3]
2. Describe the weather conditions associated with the Zaire air. [2]
3. Define the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z) [2]

12
The Koppen climate classification system is widely used for classifying the World into climatic regions
based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. Five major climatic regions
emerge from the Koppen classification and these are;
(a) Tropical moist climate – they lie about 15 to 25⁰
of latitude. The average temperatures exceed
18⁰ Celsius per month. The annual precipitation
is above 1500 mm. Examples of countries
that experience this type of climate include;
Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Nigeria and
others.
(b) Dry climates – these have a deficient precipitation
during most of the year. They lie 20-35⁰ North
and South of the equator. Countries include
parts of Botswana, parts of Namibia.
(c) Moist subtropical latitude climates – it is found
between 30 to 50⁰ North and South of the
equator. It has mild winters in which high rainfall
is experienced. Summers are usually dry for up
to 5 months.
(d) Moist continental mid latitude climates – they
have warm to cool summers and cold winters.
The average temperature for the warmest
month is above 10⁰ Celsius and the coldest is
less than -3⁰ Celsius.
(e) Polar climates – they have extremely cold
winters and summers. They experience low
temperatures throughout the year. The soil
is permanently frozen (permafrost). The
vegetation mainly consists of mosses, lichens, Fig. 1.18 The major climatic zones in Africa
dwarf trees and scattered shrubs. Examples
include Iceland. The map on fig 1.18 shows the major climatic regions in Africa.
Factors influencing the world climatic regions
There are a number of factors that influence World climatic regions and these include;
• Latitude – when the earth circles the sun, the tilt of its axis changes in the angle at which sun’s rays
heat the earth and this changes the daylight hours at different latitudes.
• Surface of the earth – the amount of sunlight absorbed or reflected by the surface of the earth
determines how much heating takes place. Darker surfaces absorb heat and light surfaces tend to
reflect heat.
• Distribution of mountain barriers – the position of a place and its distance from mountains help
determine prevailing wind patterns. Mountain ranges are natural barriers to the movement of air.
• Pattern of prevailing winds – in the Northern hemisphere there are 3 major wind patterns and in
the southern hemisphere there are 3 major wind patterns. The wind patterns shift north or south
as seasons change. The intertropical convergence zone moves back and forth across the Equator.
• Altitude – climatic conditions become colder with an increase in altitude. No trees grow on mountain
summits but the plants at the base are the same as in surrounding countryside.

15
 UNIT 1.4 INTERPRETATION OF CLIMATIC DATA

The interpretation of climatic data involves analysing temperature and rainfall patterns. On graphs,
fluctuations in temperature and rainfall can be analysed to identify seasons. In addition, climate averages
and anomalies can be recognised. The following facts have to be taken into consideration;
• The factors that control climate.
• Understanding of time series plots.
• Understanding of averages.
• A description of the effects of latitude, longitude, elevation and distance on climate.
• The study of weather is also known as meteorology, and the people who study weather and make
weather forecasts are called meteorologists. Each day, weather data is collected from all the weather
stations and sent to the National weather Bureau in Harare. Meteorologists record the observations
and use them to make weather maps and to forecast the weather. Weather maps are also known as
synoptic charts.
• In order to help us understand this vast amount of information, we use figures and symbols. Symbols
are used to show the elements of weather. The weather conditions at each weather station are
indicated using a station model. This makes it easy to show and read all the information. The same
symbols are used in countries all over the world. The following table shows the symbols commonly
used to record cloud cover, weather and wind speed.
Table 1.1 Weather symbols used to produce synoptic charts
Cloud cover Wind speed
Symbol Weather Symbol Force
(Oktas) (Knots)

Clear Mist Calm

1
8 Fog 3-7 knots

2
8 Drizzle 10 knots

3
8 Showers 49-53 knots

4
8 Rain

5
8 Hail

6
8 Snow

7
8 Thunderstorm

17
 Sky obscured
or missing

Table 1.2 Rainfall amounts and temperature experienced at station X

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp (0) 26 24 22 23 18 16 15 20 26 27 28 29
Rainfall (mm) 112 100 10 10 0 0 0 0 15 150 200 220
250

200

150
Series 1
Series 2
100

50

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
The table above can be interpreted by identifying seasons where it is clear that the area has months in
which there is no rainfall at all. There are some months which experiences high rainfall and that becomes
the summer season in the southern hemisphere. A graph can be produced to represent the information
as shown in the graph above.
Activity 1.4 Project
Produce one working weather instrument of your choice. Describe how the instrument works to record
the named weather element. Explain the measures you put in place to ensure the instrument records
accurate results.

Exercise 1.4
1. The people who study the weather and make forecasts are called _________.
A. climatologists B. meteorologists
C. demographers D. astronauts
2. What are synoptic charts?
A. Diagrams showing buildings B. Maps showing road networks
C. Weather maps D. Symbols representing atmosphere phenomena

18
3. An intense low pressure develops on tropical oceans accompanied by thunder, lightning, dense, clouds
and strong destructive winds. What is the type of weather being described?
A. Temperate depression B. I.T.C.Z
C. Tropical cyclone D. Whirlwind
4. Warm moist rises over mountains, rainfalls on the windward side and the leeward side is dry. Which
type of rainfall is described above?
A. Convectional B. Convergence
C. Cyclonic D. Relief
5. Global air masses blow in response to ________.
A. wind direction B. low pressure
C. global distribution of pressure systems D. high pressure
6. (a) Describe the characteristics of air masses which originates each of the following locations;
i. A sea in the Tropical region ii. A surface at the poles
iii. An arctic landmass
(b) Draw weather symbols to represent the following information that was recorded at a weather
station;
i. Sky 8/8 covered.
ii. Wind blowing from the South East at a speed of 20knots.
iii. Pressure is 20 millibars.
iv. Temperature is 27⁰ Celsius.
v. Heavy rainfall accompanied by thunderstorm.
(c) Fig 1 shows weather patterns experienced at station Z.

Fig. 1
Describe the weather experienced at station Z given in fig 1.

Interesting facts
1. Air masses blow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
2. Air masses maintain characteristics of their source region.
3. When temperature increases, pressure decreases and when temperature decreases, pressure increases.
4. Climate varies over space and time through natural and man-made processes.

Summary of the chapter

• Air masses blow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
• Air masses are modified by the surface areas which they pass over.
• When two air masses of different characteristics meet, they do not mix but a front is formed.
• There are different types of fronts which are the warm front, the cold front, the occluded front and
the stationary front. Air is forced to rise by convectional currents.
• There are three types of rainfall which are convectional, relief and frontal rainfall.
• There are different categories of air masses which include Polar, Tropical, continental and maritime.
• Different air masses affect Zimbabwe’s climate and these are South East trades, North East monsoons
and North West monsoon.
• The Koppen climate classification is based on annual and monthly averages of temperature and
precipitation.
• Four main groups of climates emerge and these are Tropical, Arid, Temperate and Polar.
• The analysis of temperature and rainfall patterns is necessary in order to interpret climatic data.

19
Glossary of terms
Weather – is the daily state or condition of the atmosphere at a particular
place at a given time.
Atmosphere – refers to the air that surrounds us.
Climate – is the average weather condition of over a long period of time,
usually 35-45 years.
Convection – the transfer of heat through liquids and gases.
Condensation – the change of water vapour to liquid state after cooling.
Anti-cyclonic – associated with high pressure conditions.
Cyclonic – associated with low pressure conditions.
Subtropical high or horse latitude – this is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure found
around the latitudes 30⁰ North in and South.
Doldrums low – is a belt of converging winds and rising air near the Equator.
Maritime air – an air mass originating either over tropical oceans or Polar
oceans.
Monsoon – seasonal wind.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What are the characteristics of an air mass which originates from the Atacama Desert?
A. Very cold B. Hot and dry
C. Moderately cool D. Moderately hot
2. The following correctly describes the movement of air masses in relation to pressure.
A. Air masses blow from a region of low pressure to high pressure.
B. Air masses blow from low pressure belts to high pressure belts
C. Air masses blow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
D. Air masses blow away from the doldrums low pressure belt.
3. Which of the following correctly explains the relationship between temperature and pressure?
A. When pressure falls temperature remains constant.
B. When temperature decreases temperature also decreases.
C. When temperature increases pressure decreases.
D. When temperature increases pressure increases.
5. What happens when two air masses of different characteristics meet?
A. They easily mix but they form a front.
B. They do not mix and are separated by a front.
C. The dense air rises over the less dense air leading to condensation.
D. The less dense air sinks and causes rainfall formation.
6. Which air mass is associated with ‘guti’ weather conditions over Zimbabwe?
A. The North East trade winds B. South West trade winds.
C. The North West trade winds. D. The South East trade winds.
7. The World is divided into climatic regions based mainly on two important factors which are ______
A. soil and water. B. pressure and wind patterns.
C. temperature and wind patterns. D. temperature and rainfall.
8. The main characteristics of the Tropical rainforest climate are ____________
A. high temperatures and high rainfall throughout the year.
B. high temperatures and high rainfall in summer.

20
20
 C. high temperatures and low rainfall throughout the year.
D. high temperatures and high rainfall in winter.
9. Hot-dry summers and cool-wet winters describe the ____________
A. equatorial climate. B. desert climate.
C. tropical continental climate. D. mediterranean climate.
10. Which weather condition is associated with a cumulonimbus cloud?
A. Very light rainfall. B. Occasional showers.
C. Heavy convectional rainfall. D. Continuous cyclonic rainfall.
11. The following are the main types of air masses except ___________
A. tropical maritime B. tropical continental.
C. polar continental D. harmattan.
12. The following weather hazards destroy buildings and property except __________.
A. floods B. frost
C. hail D. drought
13. The table below shows temperature and rainfall figures of a station in Southern Africa.
Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
º 22 22 21 18 16 14 13 13 14 16 19 17
mm 20 20 20 50 90 110 90 80 60 40 30 20
The climatic region being represented by these figures is__________.
A. equatorial climate B. mediterranean climate
C. monsoon D. tropical continental climate
14. The following are forms of precipitation except _____________.
A. drizzle B. snow
C. hail D. ice
15. The Harmattan winds are hot, dry and dusty because ______________.
A. they pass over a desert B. they originate from an ocean
C. they originate from the Sahara Desert D. they originate from the savanna

Structured Questions
1. (a) (i) Identify two types of fronts. [2]
(ii) Describe any three factors that influence variations in temperature. [3]
(b) (i) What are the three mechanisms in which air is forced to rise? [3]
(ii) Identify two types of rainfall. [2]
(c) (i) Define the term Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z). [2]
(ii) State the air masses that converge at the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C.Z.). [2]
(iii) Describe and explain the weather conditions associated with the Inter-tropical Convergence
Zone (I.T.C.Z.) [7]
(iv) Describe the characteristics of the tropical maritime air mass and the polar maritime air mass.
[4]
2. (a) (i) Define the Doldrums low. [2]
(ii) Name two air masses that converge at the Doldrums low. [2]
(b) (i) Explain why air masses converge at the Doldrums low. [7]
(ii) With the aid of an annotated diagram, describe the formation of Orographic rainfall. [7]
(c) (i) What advice would you give to people living on the rain shadow area. [7]

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3. (a) Study the diagram below.

Fig.2

(i) Which type of air mass is shown in the in fig. 2? [2]

(ii) Explain an air mass in your own words. [3]
(iii) Diffrentaite the maritime polar air mass and maritime tropical air mass. [6]
(b) (i) What measures would you propose to people living on the windward side which experiences
flooding? [7]
(ii) Suggest possible measures to deal with the effects of floods. [7]

22
22
 Chapter
LANDFORMS AND
LANDSCAPE PROCESSES
2
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• outline the continental drift theory.
• describe tectonic movement.
• explain implications of plate tectonic movements on climate.
• describe processes of folding and faulting and resultant landforms.
• outline the distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes.
• explain the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes.
• identify effects of volcanic activity and earthquakes.
• identify measures to reduce effects of vulcanicity and earthquakes.

Introduction
The earth’s surface is characterised by several landforms and landscapes which are of different shapes and
sizes depending on their nature of formation and their stage of development in the cycle of erosion. Such
landforms are a product of tectonic movements which are a result of convection currents that operate
within the earth’s crust. When these landforms have been exposed onto the earth’s crust, processes of
weathering and erosion begin to operate on them wearing them down. This chapter gives a detailed
description and explanation of the formation of landforms and landscapes and processes that operate to
modify them.

UNIT 2.1 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

The theory of continental drift was first developed in the early 1900s by Alfred Wegener, a German scientist.
His suggestions were, based on the evidence he had gathered. The idea was that the continents were
actually moving, and that they were at one time joined together in a single supercontinent. Continental
drift is the movement of the earth’s continents relative to each other, thus appearing to drift across the
ocean bed. The continental drift theory argues that the earth was a single sialic land mass called Pangaea.
About 100 million years ago there was Pangaea and one sea called Pantalosa.
• Pangaea broke into two forming Laurasia and Gondwanaland which were separated by a narrow
ocean called Tythys.
• Gondwanaland broke into Africa, Australia, Antarctica, South America and India subcontinent.
• Laurasia broke into Europe, Asia and North America. They drifted northwards to their present
positions.
• Africa and India drifted Southwards.

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23
Causes of continental drift
Why the continental drift theory was rejected?
It did not give sufficient explanation as to the cause of the movement of continents are no longer moving.
This led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1930s which tried to explain the continual
formation of landforms and the sources of movement of plates.
Evidence of continental drift
1. The perfect fitting of continents/The jigsaw fit of continents
Wegener also provided evidence of continental drift by looking at the physical shape of continental
coastlines. The shape of continental coastlines visibly matched up like pieces of the puzzle. For example,
the continents of South America and Africa fit perfectly when brought together. This indicates that the
continents were once fixed together and drifted apart over time.
The coastlines of South America and West Africa seem to match up. There is evidence of the matching of
large-scale geological features on different continents for example the rock strata of the Karoo system in
South Africa matched correctly with the Santa Catarina system in Brazil.
2. Presence of fossils

Fig. 2.1 Fossil evidence

These found on separate continents indicate that these had been once joined together for example
the cynognathus, its remains are found only in South Africa and South America. When put together,
the continents of the southern hemisphere, the distribution of these four fossil types form continuous
patterns across continental boundaries.
3. Climate
Glacier grooves in continents perfectly matched up. This suggested that these continents were once
together.
Apart from fossil evidence, Wegener used climatic clues to substantiate his facts. One of the clues he
used was the glacier. Wegener, in his expedition, discovered glacier grooves in all the continents. Glacier
grooves are the gaping trenches or landmarks carved out by movement of glacier. He discovered glacier
groves in continents that were not cold enough to support snow formation in the present day. When he
brought these continents together, the glacier grooves perfectly matched up. This suggested that these
continents were once joined together and drifted away over time.

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7. State any two main ideas of the continental drift theory.
8. Describe any two points as evidence to support the continental drift theory.
9. Outline the benefits and problems of settling in a volcanic area.
Answer the following questions with either True or False.
10. Continental drift refers to the movement of the earth’s continents relative to each other.
11. Convection currents cause the movement of plates.
12. The Tythys separated Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
13. Africa and India drifted southwards during continental drift.
14. Laurasia broke into Gondwanaland and Pangea.

UNIT 2.2 PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

Plate refers to the rock that is found either below the oceans or continents as oceanic or continental plates.
The plate tectonics theory is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the
movement of a larger number of smaller plates of the earth’s lithosphere. The theory builds on the concept
of continental drift, which was developed during the first decades of the 20th century. The lithosphere (the
crust and upper mantle), is broken into tectonic plates. The relative motion of the plates determines the
type of boundary, whether convergent, divergent or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain
building and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries or faults.
• The plates move relative to each other due to convection currents in the mantle.
• When the plates move away from each other they form a constructive plate boundary.
• When they move towards each other they form a destructive plate boundary.
7 large plates are; 1. African plate, 2. Eurasian plate, 3. Antarctic plate, 4. Australian plate, 5. North American
plate, 6. South America plate and 7. Pacific plate.
Small plates: Arabian plate, Indian plate, Caribbean
plate, Somali plates, Nasca plate Scotia plate,
Philippine plate, Cocos plate and Juan De Fuca.
These plates are of two types:
(a) Continental plates – made up of silica and
aluminium. It is light and less dense with low
speed of movement.
(b) Oceanic plates – made up of silica and
magnesium. It is denser and has a greater speed.
Plates float on molten mantle layer called Fig. 2.3 The three main types of plate boundaries:
Asthenosphere. divergent, convergent, and transform

Plate margins
Types of plate boundaries
There are three kinds of plate tectonic boundaries namely; divergent, convergent and transform plate
boundaries.

26
1. Divergent or constructive plate boundary
The first way two cars can move relative to each
other is in divergent directions, like passing a car
going the other way. Plates also can pull apart from
each other. This is diverging. A divergent boundary
is a fault where the two plates are moving away
from each other.
Now, as plates pull apart, several things may occur.
First of all, volcanic activity is common in these areas
since mantle easily moves to the surface through Fig. 2.4 A divergent or constructive plate boundary
the thin, fractured rock as it separates. Volcanoes
are a sign of a divergent boundary. This happens
all along the mid-ocean ridge where magma is
constantly streaming to the surface, creating new
ocean floor as the plates separate.
If a continent happens to be a place where a
divergent boundary occurs, then the continent will
begin to be torn apart as the sides of the plates
separate, creating a rift valley.
The African Rift Valley in East Africa is an example of Fig. 2.5 Rift valleys develop when a continent is
this occurrence. Eventually, the ocean will separate broken apart by a divergent boundary
East Africa from the rest, making a large island.
It occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Plates move away from each other due to
forces of tension. Magma rises to fill up the space that is created by this movement of plates forming ridges
for example the North American plate and Eurasian plate movements.
2. Convergent or destructive plate boundary
A second way cars interact (unfortunately) is by
colliding. When cars impact each other or colliding
of another solid object, the energy is transferred to
the cars themselves, showing up as dents, ripples,
or cracks. Plates also show tell-tale signs of colliding,
too, depending on the kind of crust colliding.
Remember that at divergent boundaries, new crust
is being made, but the earth is not getting larger.
Why not? Well, at the opposite ends, crust is being
pushed into the earth’s interior by colliding plates
and being re-melted at the same rate new crust is
formed. This happens at a  convergent boundary. Fig. 2.6 Convergent or destructive plate boundary
A convergent boundary is a boundary where two
separate plates are pushing towards each other.
There are two kinds of surface features that are associated with a convergent boundary. The first is a deep
ocean trench that forms a line of the two colliding plates. One plate made of oceanic crust can slide down

27
underneath another plate, forming this narrow, deep trench. This happens because oceanic crust is denser
than continental crust, making it more likely to be pushed back into the mantle. These trenches are the
deepest places on the face of the earth, extending over 30,000 feet below the ocean surface. You could
take Mount Everest and sink it in the Mariana Trench, the deepest point in the ocean, and still have a mile
to the surface of the ocean. That is deep!
As one plate is forced under the other one, it begins to melt, and a line of volcanoes forms in a parallel
line to the trench. If the other plate is oceanic crust, the line of volcanoes will become islands, like the
Philippines, and if it is continental crust, then it will become a line of volcanic mountains, like the Cascade
Range in the western U.S. or the Andes Mountains in South America.
It occurs when two plates come together. Plates move towards each other due to forces of compression.
The denser or heavy plate is sub ducted into the mantle for example the Pacific plate and the Eurasian
plate. Landforms such as trenches are formed in this way.
When an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, the oceanic plate is sub ducted beneath the continental
plate.
• The edge of the oceanic plate bends into the mantle forming a trench.
• As the oceanic plate sinks the edges are destroyed in the mantle and the movement compressed
the sediments in the ocean and crush them to form Fold Mountains.
• Fold Mountains are formed at the edge of the continent when the sial layer is compressed.
• Sediments on the sea floor in the subduction zone are compressed to form Fold Mountains.
• Such zones are common in Japan, California and South America.
3. Transform or conservative plate boundary
A conservative plate boundary, sometimes called
Fault
a transform plate margin, occurs where plates slide
past each other in opposite directions, or in the
same direction but at different speeds.
Friction is eventually overcome and the plates
slip past in a sudden movement. The shockwaves
created produce an earthquake. This occurs at the
San Andreas Fault in California. It is formed when
plates slide past each other, for example the North
American plate and the Pacific plate. There are no
landforms formed or destroyed at the transform
boundary but they conserve or retain their original
form hence the use of the term conservative.
At a conservative plate margin (also known as a Fig. 2.7 Conservative plate boundary
transform boundary), two adjacent plates slide past
each other slowly. The plates slide past each other in
opposite directions.
Often pressure builds up between the two plates as the pressure is released it causes an earthquake which
magnitude would depend on the amount of pressure. There are no volcanic eruptions because the crusts
are neither being destroyed nor created. No new land is being created or destroyed. The San Andreas
Fault in California, USA rests on the border between the North American and Pacific plates this fault line is
an example of a conservative plate margin, the two plates are continental and oceanic. Major landforms

28
formed include rift valleys and also fault lines for example the Great East African rift valley that stretches
from Tanzania to Kenya.
Importance of plate movements
• Eruption of magma may result in the formation of valuable minerals.
• They are sources of earthquakes and vulcanicity.
• They cause the formation of landforms for example trenches and Fold Mountains.
• Landforms formed are tourist attraction.
Effects of tectonic movements on climate
Tectonic movements affect balances of incoming and outgoing radiation, atmospheric circulation, ocean
currents and the location of elevated terrain suitable for glaciers and ice sheets.
• Tectonic uplift can lead to growth of glaciers and ice sheets.
• Changes in sea level due to tectonic movements’ leads to flooding especially in low lying continental
areas due to tsunamis for example huge seismic waves in the earthquake that struck Japan.
• Convergence of continental plates formed giant supercontinents. Continentality likely produced
extreme seasonal temperature swings and aridity in the continental interior and strengthened
monsoonal circulation patterns in many coastal locations for example the forests of the Andes
Mountains were converted into deserts.
• Tectonic movement may expose limestone or cover limestone which may result in pulling or
emitting of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This will lead to an increase in the temperature levels
globally.
• Plate movements causes a change in the ocean currents and in turn generates more heat for
example by blocking or opening large oceans straits such as the Drake Passage between South
America and Antarctica.
• Shifting of tectonic plates result in the creation of volcanic eruptions thereby increasing carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere thereby leading to a rise in temperature.

Activity 2.2 Individualisation

Discuss implications of plate movements.

Exercise 2.2
1. Which mountain was formed as a result of folding?
A. Kilimanjaro B. Iron mask
C. Himalayas D. Rockies
2. Which feature is formed when two plates diverge?
A. continental shelf B. Fold Mountain
C. Plateau D. Oceanic ridge
3. The following are types of plate boundaries except_________.
A. constructive plate boundary B. convection plate boundary
C. transform plate boundary D. destructive plate boundary
4. All of the following are large plates except ___________.
A. Antarctic plate B. Pacific plate
C. Nazca plate D. Eurasian plate
5. The following mountain was formed as a result of faulting.
A. Chimanimani B. Ruwenzori
C. Atlas D. Cameroon

29
6. Name two types of plate boundaries.
7. Describe what happens at the conservative plate boundary.
8. Explain any two effects of tectonic movement on climate.

UNIT 2.3 FOLDING AND FAULTING

Folding and faulting are tectonic processes which result from compressional and tensional forces leading
to different types of folds and faults. These processes lead to the formation of different types of landforms.
Folding
The process in which crustal rocks are distorted by compressional forces by being caused to bend upwards
and downwards. Very strong lateral forces are started by currents in the mantle. It occurs on fairly young
sedimentary rocks. Folding is the bending of rocks into down folds called synclines and up folds called
anticlines due to compressional forces. The anticlines create Fold Mountains while the synclines will form
valleys. It is caused due to horizontal or lateral movements. They are generally common in sedimentary
rocks, for example the Himalayas and the Alps.
Types of folds
(a) Simple fold
The limbs in a simple fold are uniform, they are of the same height.
Anticline Crest
Limbs
Syncline
Axis

Fig. 2.8 A simple fold

(b) Overfold
In an overfold, one limb is over the other limb. The diagram below illustrates.
limb
limb

Fig. 2.9 An overfold

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(c) Overthrust
It occurs when an overfold has been fractured along the axial plane. The diagram above illustrates an over
thrust.

Fig. 2.10 Overthrust anticline folds

(d) Asymmetrical fold
In an asymmetrical fold, one limb is steeper than the other limb. It is formed by two compressional forces of
unequal magnitude in which one is stronger than the other. The diagram above illustrates an asymmetrical
fold.

Fig. 2.11 An asymmetrical fold

(e) Recumbent fold
It is formed by two compressional forces in which one is very strong.

Fig. 2.12 A recumbent fold

Landforms resulting from folding

There are quite a number of landforms that result from folding and these include; fold mountains, anticlines,
nappe folds and down folds.

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(a) Young fold mountains
These are fold mountains formed from the folding of the earth’s crust at the compressional plate margin
for example the Alps and the Huayna Picchu.

Fig 2.13 Young fold mountains

(b) Anticlines
An anticline has an arch-like shape and it has its oldest beds at the core. It is mostly convex up in which the
hinge or crest is the location where the curvature is greatest. The limbs are the sides of the fold that dip
away from the hinge.

Fig 2.14 Anticlines

(c) Nappe folds

It is the basic process of fold nappe formation in folding.

Fig. 2.15 Nappe fold

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 Fig. 2.23 (b) A rift valley

The central block subsides creating the rift valley. Compression forces results in the development of reverse
fault. The outer blocks slide up the faulting plane creating a valley at the centre. The most impressive rift
valley system in the world is the great rift valley of Africa which extend for over 7600 km from near to Beira
in Mozambique to gulf of Aquaba into Jordan.
4. Fault steps
These form when a series of parallel faults develop
in the region and land between these faults is
uplifted at different levels. The land scape forms
a series of fault scarp that looks like steps. A good
example can be seen at Kijabe west of Nairobi and
the Malawi rift.
5. Basins and plateaus Fig. 2.24 Fault steps

Fig. 2.25 Basins and plateaus

The faulting process can lead to formation of basins and plateaus. These features result from warping o the
earth’s crust. The uplifted areas due to wrapping which have high level or undulating landforms is called
plateaus while depressed areas are called basins. Examples of plateaus and basins include Lake Victoria
basin in east Africa Deccan plateau and Bolivian plateau.

35
 Activity 2.3 Drawing
In pairs, draw any two landforms that resulting from folding and faulting.

Exercise 2.3
1. Name any three types of faults.
2. Describe the occurrence of a tear fault.
3. Describe one landform produced by faulting.
4. Define folding.
5. List any two types of folds.
6. Describe one landform produced by folding.
7. Volcanoes are much better effects than earthquakes.
8. It is better for people to die from earthquakes and volcanoes than to have nowhere to live.
9. Earthquakes are not preventable, it is better to stay away from areas prone to them.
10. There is no link at all between earthquakes and climate.

UNIT 2.4 VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES

Volcanoes and earthquakes are a result of tectonic movements in the earth’s crust. A number of landforms
are formed as a result of this movement. These tectonic movements may result in positive or negative
effects to people and their communities.
Volcanoes
A volcano is a vent or an opening in the earth’s crust (surface) through which magma is ejected into or out
of the earth. Volcanoes form conical or dome-shaped structures. They are built when magma escapes to
the earth’s surface as lava through a single opening called a vent. Being kept under great pressure inside
the earth, the magma will rise to the surface through these vents, magma is ejected out of the earth
through cracks. This is most likely to happen through breaks and fractures caused by folding and faulting
that occurs at plate boundaries.
Causes
• At destructive plate boundaries-newly formed magma rises to the surface because it is lighter.
• At constructive plate boundaries-plates move away from each other and magma rises to fill the
gap.
Volcanic eruptions

Fig. 2.26 A volcanic eruption

36
Causes of volcanoes
Volcanoes occur along divergent plates only when the spreading is between two oceanic plates. As the
two plates move away, new lithosphere is being created. At the same time, the release of pressure induces
an upward movement of magma from the mantle, forming the volcanoes. If the divergence takes place
within a continental plate, rift valleys will be formed and new seas will be created (for example, Red Sea)
Volcanoes occur along convergent plate margins only when subduction occurs. When two plates move
towards each other, the denser, heavier plate is forced to dip under the lighter one (oceanic plates are
denser than continental plates).  As the sub ducted plate moves down the mantle, great heat melts the
rocks.
Classification of volcanoes
Recent activity, periodicity of eruptions, size and potential impact are considered when classifying
volcanoes. Three groups therefore emerge and these are;
(i) Active volcano – It is a volcano that has erupted recently. It is also a volcano that erupts occasionally or
periodically for example the Kilauea has been erupting since 1983. Active volcanoes have been known
to trigger tsunamis.
(ii) Dormant volcano – It is a volcano that has not erupted in recent history but erupt in the past 100 years
for example, Mauna Kea which lasted 3,500 years ago is believed it will erupt again based on scientific
evidence.
(iii) Extinct volcano – It is a volcano that does not erupt at all for example, in the Hawaii’s big Island which
last erupted 60 000 years ago.
Landforms from vulcanicity
Intrusive vulcanicity which refers to the movement of material into the earth’s crust to form interior
volcanic landforms. The magma cools and solidifies underground to form sills, dykes, batholiths, laccoliths
and lopoliths.
1. Sill

Fig. 2.28 Sills

It is an igneous intrust ion which solidifies along bedding planes. It is formed when magma forces its way
along a bedding plane.
Due to erosion, a sill can form a mountain ridge. It can also be dissected (cut across) by rivers to form an
isolated hill.

39
2. Dyke

Fig. 2.29 A dyke Fig. 2.29 (b) The Great dyke of Zimbabwe
It is a sheet of magma that lies across bedding planes. It is formed when magma forces its way into cracks
or faults forming a vertical or inclined landform. Dykes may form ridges like the Great dyke in Kadoma. An
example is the Jos plateau in Nigeria.
3. Batholith

Fig. 2.30 Cross section of a batholith (b) Domboshava hill

It is a massive hill underground. It is formed as magma cools and solidifies several metres below the
earth’s crust. Batholiths are exposed to the earth’s surface by soil erosion for example Domboshava hill in
Zimbabwe.
4. Lopolith

a lopolith

Fig. 2.31 A lopolith

It is a large saucer shaped sheet of magma that solidify near the batholiths underground.

40
5. Laccolith
laccolith

Fig. 2.32 A laccolith

It is a mushroom shaped igneous intrusion lying between bedding planes of a country rock that solidifies
near the earth’s surface when exposed by erosion it forms small hills on the surface.
6. Phacolith
phacolith

Fig. 2.33 A phacolith

It is a lens shaped igneous intrusion which forms in the crest or trough of an anticline as shown in fig 2.33.
Extrusive vulcanicity

Fig. 2.34 Extrusive volcano

It is the movement of solid, liquid and gaseous material out of the earth’s surface. The lava comes out of the
process forms landforms such as Acid lava cone, Shield volcanoes, Composite volcanoes, Ash and Cinder
cones as well as Plug domes. Magma sometimes reaches the surface through a vent.

41
 • This kind of eruption can be caused by natural events such as typhoons, which decrease rock
density, and glacial melting on the top of the volcano which alters the molten rock composition.
Glacial melting is believed to be one causes behind the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland.
Volcanoes as hazards
(a) Pyroclastic flows are mixtures of hot gas and ash they travel very quickly and are very dangerous as
they cause death in people.
(b) Lava flows can slowly run over houses, roads and other infrastructure.
(c) Much culture is lost due to natural disasters.  Some countries are tribal and have tribes living on the
land.  These people are driven off by volcanic eruptions, leaving their roots and where generations
after generations grew up.  During volcanic eruptions, shelters are destroyed. The terrain they have
farmed and used to hunt on is often dramatically altered.  Unlike things like buildings that can be
replaced, culture is one thing you cannot rebuild or repair.    
(d) Marine life is also impacted by this because during an earthquake, the sea floor moves. Therefore,
many organisms are displaced or killed. There are even volcano occurrences under the sea especially
sea floor spreading activities. These can injure animals or drastically change their habitat. Scientist
predict that one day the African plate will split in two. This will send organisms into new places that
may die from different water temperatures. 
(e) These devastating events also impact plant life. Plants cannot flee or move around.  Therefore, when
a volcanic eruption occurs, many are killed or burned beyond recognition.  In volcanic eruption,
many plants are displaced.  Furthermore, they may be uprooted killing them.  This is also linked to
man and animals.  If these plants are killed, many animals go hungry.  In Africa, there are many exotic
and beautiful plants and flowers, especially orchids.  If these are destroyed the tourism industry will
be highly impacted.
(f ) The volcanic eruptions are taking its toll on animals.  Many times, after one of these events occur, the
animals are left without shelter. Their homes cave-in or burned, eventually forcing a mass migration
of species.  Even worse, if the animal is an herbivore much of its food can be destroyed and it may
starve to death.
Benefits of volcanoes to the environment/humans
• Fertile soil – volcanoes may also produce fertile soils in the form of ash which can be used for crop
farming.
• Geothermal heating – volcanoes can provide a natural source of hot water or geyser. For example,
formation of hot water spring which has medicinal properties that cure skin cancer.
• They bring minerals closer to the surface which makes it easier to extract them.
• Tourist attractions are made from volcanoes. Tourists flock to sites with particularly spectacular
displays of volcanic activity despite the potential danger they pose. For example, the ‘Peak of the
Furnace’, this shield volcano at the south-east corner of this Indian Ocean island is one of the most
accessible and also most active of the world’s volcanoes.
• Calderas may store water for domestic and industrial use.
• Geothermal power is produced.
• Igneous rocks are used for building purposes.
• Volcano dust acts as nuclei which speed up raindrop formation over short periods of time.

43
Case study: Earthquakes in Zimbabwe
At least 50 earthquakes hit Zimbabwe in 2016, with the country likely to experience more tremors yearly,
the Meteorological Services Department (MSD) has said. Some of the earthquakes with magnitudes
between 1, 5 and 4, 6 on the Richter scale were recorded in Kariba, Karoi, Bulawayo and Chipinge. It
is believed tectonic plate movements in the East African Rift System, large-scale mining mainly in the
Midlands and changes in Kariba Dam water levels were behind the occurrences.
According to research, seismic activity usually occurs in mining areas while extra dam water pressure
created in micro-cracks and fissures in the ground also leads to earth tremors. Responding to written
questions from this paper, MSD Seismology Section (Zimbabwe National Data Centre) director Mr
Kwangwari Marimira said, “Zimbabwe is prone to earthquakes thus can experience earthquakes of bigger
magnitude at any given time. Although Zimbabwe is considered a low seismic zone, earthquakes of
magnitudes of more than 4.0 have been recorded.
“In 2016 alone, Zimbabwe recorded over 50 earthquakes ranging from magnitude 1.5 to 4.6, and some
were felt in Kariba, Karoi, Bulawayo and Chipinge. The filling of the world’s largest artificial lake at Kariba
has been accompanied and followed by considerable earthquake activity.”
He continued: “Although most of the earthquakes in our database are not recorded as felt earthquakes,
they are detected by our seismic stations. The main causes of earthquakes in Zimbabwe are largely plate
tectonics closely related to the East African Rift System. This major geological structure accounts for 90
percent moderate to large earthquakes in Africa.
“Its branches run along the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe and its western extension covers areas
around the western region of Zimbabwe, Kariba, mid-Zambezi basin and going as far as Zambia. A number
of mining related seismicity have been recorded in Matabeleland South and the Midlands; thus, most of
the earthquakes in these regions are linked to mining.
“Kariba Dam has been observed to generate small to moderate sized induced earthquakes since its
impoundment, therefore, reservoir induced seismicity is still being recorded in the region of Kariba Dam.”
Mr Marimira said the occurrence of earthquakes could not be scientifically predicted, and encouraged the
public to consult the MSD for in-depth information regarding the subject.
The United States Geological Survey, which monitors earthquakes globally, told The Sunday Mail via e-mail
that earthquakes occur without prior detection. “Neither the USGS nor any other scientists have ever
predicted a major earthquake. They do not know how, and they do not expect to know how any time in
the foreseeable future.”
Last Monday, many parts of Zimbabwe, including the capital city, Harare, and major cities like Bulawayo,
experienced tremors from a 6.5 magnitude earthquake that had occurred in Botswana. No damage or
injuries were reported. Government has since set up a task-force to assess the country’s preparedness for
earthquakes and the MSD’s capacity to execute its mandate. In January 2016, a 4.6 magnitude earthquake
hit the Kariba area and parts of Zambia, while another of magnitude 4.1 was felt north of Karoi in August of
the same year. Yet another measuring 5.6 on the Richter scale shook Chipinge and its environs in September
2016. The largest earthquake recorded in Zimbabwe occurred at Kariba Dam in 1963, at a magnitude of
6.3. – The Sunday Mail
1. Where did the earthquake occur?
2. What are the effects of earthquakes?

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Measurement of earthquakes
An earthquake can be measured in two ways;
(a) by magnitude and
(b) by intensity.
The magnitude of an earthquake is measured using the Richter scale and it depends on the amplitude and
period of the seismic waves in the earthquake. The Richter scale ranges from 0-7.9.
The intensity of an earthquake depends on the observable severity of the earthquake. The most common
method used is the 12-step Modified Mercalli scale. The intensity of an earthquake is the degree of shaking
in the earthquake based on the amount of damage the earthquake has caused. The damage can be split
into zones, with the greatest damage occurring closest to the epicentre.
Effects of earthquakes
• Liquefaction is defined as the transformation of water saturated granular material from solid to a
liquid state. During earthquakes, this may result from an increase in pore – water pressure caused
by compaction during intense shaking. Liquefaction of near – surface water – saturated silts and
sand causes the materials to lose their shear strength and flow. As a result, buildings may tilt or sink
into the liquefied sediments; tanks or pipelines buried in the ground may float to the surface. Also,
the pressure generate by the shaking, forces the sand to lose its cohesive strength and to work
more like a dense liquid. This leads to buildings collapsing and for sand to explode onto the surface
to create ‘sand volcanoes’ and boils.
• Earthquake shaking commonly triggers many landslides (a comprehensive term for several types
of hill slope failure) in hilly and mountainous areas. Landslides can be extremely destructive and
cause great loss of life. Fire is a major secondary hazard associated with earthquakes. Shaking of
the ground and surface displacements can break electrical power and gas lines and ignite fires. The
threat from fire is doubled because fire-fighting equipment may be damage and water mains may
be broken.
• The major cause of death form earthquakes is due to the collapse of buildings. The number of
buildings destroyed by the Kobe earthquake exceeds 100,000, or approximately one in five
buildings in the strongly shaken area. An additional 80,000 buildings were badly damaged. The
large numbers of damaged traditional-style Japanese residences and small, traditional commercial
buildings of three stories or less account for a great deal of the damage. In sections where these
buildings were concentrated in the outlying areas of Kobe, entire blocks of collapsed buildings
were common. The fires following the earthquake also destroyed several thousand buildings.
• Contamination of water bodies leading to diseases - volcanoes and earthquakes may lead to burst
sewer pipes and sewage and industrial effluent may flow into water sources.
• Fire outbreaks – earthquakes and volcanoes may damage electric cables leading to fires which
maybe uncontrollable.
• Bursting of water pipes – vibrations may cause water pipes to burst leading to shortage of water.
• Destruction of infrastructure – earthquake vibrations may result in the destruction of roads, bridges
and buildings.
Activity 2.5 ICT
Using a scanned map of the World and QGIS, draw a buffer zone of 0.5cm around all areas affected by
earthquakes and volcanoes.

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Exercise 2.4
1. Name 2 causes of earthquakes.
2. Distinguish between vulcanicity and earthquakes.
3. What is the difference between active and dormant volcanoes?
4. Identify any three landforms from vulcanicity.
5. What is the difference between a composite cone and a shield volcano?
6. Describe the occurrence of an ash and cinder cone.
7. A mushroom shaped igneous intrusion is a _________________.
8. An earthquake originates at the ______________and the point where the greatest damage occurs is
the ____________________.
9. A_______________ is a volcano made of alternating layers of lava, pyroclasts and conelets.
10. A large saucer shaped intrusion is called___________________.
11. ___________ is the process where liquid, solid and gaseous materials are forced into the earth’s crust
or onto the surface of the earth.

UNIT 2.5 EFFECTS OF TECTONIC PROCESSES

Earthquakes and volcanoes produce quite a number of effects which can be positive or negative.
Effects of volcanic activity and earthquakes
How earthquakes affect humans, buildings, and bridges depends on many factors. The most imp ortant
factors are earthquake magnitude, the distance from the earthquake centre (called the epicentre), and the
geologic conditions at a site.
• Primary effects of earthquakes are caused directly by the earthquake and can include violent
ground shaking motion accompanied by surface rupture and permanent displacement.
• The most significant societal impact of the Kobe earthquake was the tremendous loss of human
life. In addition, for more than 300,000 survivors in the heavily impacted cities of Kobe, Ashiya, and
Nishinomiya who were displaced from their homes, there were the hardships of finding shelter;
securing food and water; locating friends and family members; and acquiring warm clothing for the
cold, damp winter weather. Although relatives and friends took some of the displaced people in,
and others possessed the means to relocate to hotels, those requiring emergency shelter reached a
peak of 235,443 on the evening of January 17. Many camped in public parks or assembled makeshift
shelters from materials salvaged from the wreckage of their homes. The 1,100 shelters included
community centres, schools, and other available and undamaged public buildings. Facilities
were too few to avoid severe crowding in some shelters, however, causing sanitation problems
and increased risk of communicable disease. Indeed, two weeks after the earthquake, reports of
influenza and pneumonia were common.
• Food, water for drinking and sanitation, blankets, and warm clothing were in short supply for at
least the first few days after the earthquake, and many people from the hardest-hit wards made the
long walk to the Nishinomiya Railway Station, journeyed to Osaka for necessities, then returned via
rail with whatever they were able to transport by hand.
• Short-term secondary effects of earthquakes include liquefaction, landslides, fires, seismic sea
waves (tsunami), and floods (following collapse of dams). Long-term secondary effects include
regional subsidence or emergence of landmasses and regional changes in groundwater levels.
• Liquefaction is defined as the transformation of water saturated granular material from solid to a
liquid state. During earthquakes, this may result from an increase in pore – water pressure caused
by compaction during intense shaking. Liquefaction of near – surface water – saturated silts and

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 •
These devastating events also impact plant life. Plants cannot flee or move around.  Therefore, when
a volcanic eruption occurs, many are killed or burned beyond recognition.  They cannot avoid it or
survive it.
In an earthquake, many plants are displaced.  Furthermore, trees may also be uprooted. This is also
linked to man and animals.  If these plants are killed, many animals go hungry.  In Africa, there are
many exotic and beautiful plants and flowers, especially orchids.  If these are destroyed the tourism
industry will be highly impacted.  
• The volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are taking its toll on animals.  Many times, after one of
these events occur, the animals are left without shelter. Their homes cave-in or burnt, eventually
forcing a mass migration of species.  Even worse, if the animal is an herbivore much of its food can
be destroyed and it may starve to death.
• Africa is a magical landscape with remarkable
sights.   However, it is being threatened by
earthquakes and volcanoes. Earthquakes
and volcanoes destroy the environment at
a rapid rate because they are both caused
by tectonic activity.  The crust is broken up
into plates, and when these plates collide,
these disasters occur.  However, the type
of destruction is different.  Volcanoes erupt
lava and ash, burning and scarring the
environment.  Earthquakes shake the land,
causing cliffs, and destroying towns.      
Fig. 2.41 The “Peak of the Furnace” in France
Positive effects  
• Fertile soil – volcanoes may also produce fertile soils which can be used for crop production.
• Geothermal heating – volcanoes can provide a natural source of hot water or geyser. For example,
formation of hot water spring.
• They bring minerals closer to the surface which makes it easier to extract them.
• Tourist attractions are made from volcanoes. Tourists flock to sites with particularly spectacular
displays of volcanic activity despite the potential danger they pose. For example, The “Peak of the
Furnace”, this shield volcano at the south-east corner of this Indian Ocean island is one of the most
accessible and also most active of the world’s volcanoes.
Activity 2.6 Discussion
Discuss the effects of volcanic activity and earthquake.

Exercise 2.5

1. What is the movement of plates caused by?

2. Explain the main types of landforms that result from folding and faulting.
3. How does earthquakes endanger people and the environment?
4. Name four features of volcanoes.
5. Give reasons why people like to stay in volcanic areas.

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UNIT 2.6 MITIGATING MEASURES OF VULCANICITY AND EARTHQUAKES
There are ways in which volcanoes and earthquakes are managed. The following are the mitigating
measures of vulcanicity and earthquakes.
Mitigating measures of vulcanicity and earthquakes
• Evacuation – Involves the moving of people to safer places to reduce deaths. This may involve the
use of helicopters and other means of transport. It needs financial resources.
• Education and training – regular drills need to be conducted to prepare for the occurrence of
volcanoes and earthquakes. This equips people with knowledge and if properly conducted, may
greatly contribute to low death rates.
• Early warning systems – this is done when prediction of the future occurrence of a hazard is done
and it creates awareness. People are forewarned and they get prepared for the hazard before it
strikes.
• Build earthquake proof buildings – these help to reduce the effects of earthquakes as they can
withstand the waves and do not easily collapse. Damaged are greatly minimised and thereby
reducing death rates. Earthquake proof buildings have been quite effective in Japan.
• Emergency food supply – disaster response is very crucial in reducing the effects of hazardous
events. There is need for countries to have response teams which are well equipped to handle
emergency situations.
• Practise drills – this helps to make sure all the necessary equipment is in place in the event of a real
hazard. These have proven to be very effective in most More Economically Developed Countries
(MEDC’s) for example in Japan.
• Earth tremors, pressure and release of gas – the measurement of these is quite crucial as they help
in predicting the occurrence of earthquakes. When prediction has been done, teams can prepare
for the disaster and evacuation programmes planned in advance.
• Use maps and facts to find pattern in location and classify areas into zones – this helps to classify
areas into different zones and discouraging people from settling in hazard prone areas for example
zonation has been successfully done in the USA and has significantly reduced death rates.

Activity 2.7 Observations

You are provided with the following materials; a seismograph and a pencil.
(a) Describe how you would use the materials to measure the intensity of an earthquake.
(b) Explain how you would record your findings.
(c) What is the importance of studying information from seismographs in predicting the occurrence of
earthquakes?

Activity 2.8 Project

Outline practical skills you will employ to trace and monitor the development of an earthquake.
1. Give steps you would use to assist people in an area affected by earthquakes.
2. Assess the successes of measures taken to reduce the impacts of volcanoes in any one country of
your choice.

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Exercise 2.6
1. List any two negative effects of earthquakes.
2. Describe any two positive effects of volcanoes.
3. Explain any two mitigating measures of earthquakes.
Answer the following questions with True or False.
4. Tsunamis are giant sea waves which are not linked at all to earthquakes.
5. Landslides can be caused by volcanoes and earthquakes.
6. The point of origin of an earthquake is called an epicentre.
7. Earthquake proof buildings can help to reduce the effects of earthquakes.
8. Maps and facts can be used to divide the land into different zones.

Interesting facts
1. The earth was a single land mass called Pangaea and one sea called Pantalosa.
2. The earth broke into Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
3. When an oceanic plate meets another or it meets a continental plate the sediments under the sea are
compressed to form Fold Mountains.
4. Earthquakes are measured by their intensity and magnitude using a seismograph.

Summary of the chapter

• The continental drift theory and the plate tectonics theory explain the movement of plates.
• There are three types of plate boundaries namely, constructive plate boundary, destructive plate
boundary and conservative plate boundary.
• The 7 large plates are Pacific plate, Eurasian plate, Australian plate, Antarctic plate, African plate,
North American plate and South American plate.
• There are 9 small plates.
• Folding and faulting lead to the formation of different landforms such as Fold Mountains, valleys,
ridges, plateaus and others.
• Vulcanicity results in many different landforms such as sills, dykes, batholiths, volcanoes and others.
• Earthquakes and volcanoes mostly occur along the Pacific ring of fire.
• Tectonic processes have different effects such as deaths, destruction of buildings, fire outbreaks
and others.
• Different mitigating measures can be implemented to reduce the impacts of earthquakes and
volcanoes such as education and training, evacuation and others.

Glossary of terms

Continental crust – thin layer forming the outer layer which is made up of sial.
Oceanic crust – thin layer forming the outer layer which is made up of sima.
Earthquakes – is the shaking, trembling and vibrating of the earth’s surface.
Collision – occurs when two continental plates move towards each other.
Vulcanicity – is the process through which gases and molten rock are either
extruded on the earth’s surface or intruded into the earth’s crust.
Volcanism – is the phenomenon of eruption of magma onto the surface of the
earth.

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Gondwanaland – a supercontinent that existed in the past formed by the accretion of
several cratons.
Pangea – a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early
Mesozoic eras.
Axial plane or transverse plane – is an imaginary plane that divides the fold in a symmetrical manner.
It may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Tectonic – movement.
Tectonic movement – is the shifting of the plates that make up the earth’s crust.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Plate margins represent ______________.
A. the boundary between two plates B. the spread of rocks to the outwards
C. the spread of rocks towards the centre D. Break up of continents
2. What is a fold?
A. Tectonic movement of the earth. B. Bending of rock layers in the earth’s crust.
C. Down fold caused by strata bends. D. Compressional force exerted on the overfold.
3. Which landform results from folding?
A. Anticlinal mountains B. Volcanoes
C. Block mountain D. Rift valley
4. Faulting involves _____________.
A. Bending of rock layers
B. An upward and downward movement of rocks along a fault line.
C. Vertical displacement of rocks.
D. Compressional forces.
5. Tensional forces result in _____________.
A. Normal faults B. Vertical displacements of the rock
C. Reverse faults D. Lateral displacements of the rock
6. Thrust faults result from __________.
A. compressional forces B. normal faults
C. tensional forces D. down-warping
7. A tear fault is a ____________.
A. Sideward or lateral displacement B. Vertical displacement
C. Horizontal displacement D. Oblique fault
8. Which one is a landform resulting from faulting?
A. Block mountain B. Earthquake
C. Tear fault D. Basin
9. What is the name of the feature shown in fig 2.42?

Fig 2.42

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 A. Volcano B. Ash and cinder cone
C. Rift valley D. Mountain
10. Dykes are formed in which type of a volcano?
A. Acid volcanoes B. Composite volcanoes
C. Calderas D. Ash and cider cone
11. Active volcanoes erupt ____________.
A. any time B. recent times
C. in historic times D. overtime
12. Volcanic activities cause ____________.
A. tsunamis B. heavy rains
C. mud flows D. earthquake
13. What are you supposed to do during a volcanic eruption?
A. Close all windows and doors. B. Go near a stream.
C. Stay outdoors. D. Make a plan for where to meet with others.
14. How do we measure earthquakes?
A. Magnitude B. Seismometer
C. Thermometer D. Wind vane
15. Volcanoes result in ____________.
A. the superheated water used to produce geothermal power.
B. violence
C. eruption of rocks
D. formation of risk valleys

Structured Questions
1. (a) (i) Identify three types of plate boundaries. [3]
(ii) List two causes of earthquakes. [2]
(b) (i) What are the three positive effects of vulcanicity? [3]
(ii) List two mitigating measures of volcanoes. [2]
(iii) What are the three measures to reduce the effects of earthquakes? [3]
(c) (i) How does volcanoes benefit people? [7]
(ii) Outline solutions to problems of volcanoes. [5]
2. (a) (i) Define folding. [2]
(ii) Name any two types of folds. [2]
(b) (i) Describe the characteristics of shield volcanoes. [4]

Fig 2

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 (ii) Describe and explain how the landform in fig. 2 above was formed. [6]
(c) (i) What measures would you propose to people living in area that is prone to volcanoes? [7]
(ii) Which area experiences massive destruction between the point of focus and an epicentre?
Give reasons. [4]
3. (a) (i) Define vulcanicity. [2]
(ii) Name any two causes of vulcanicity. [2]
(b) (i) Describe any three negative effects of faulting. [6]
(ii) Describe the characteristics of composite volcanoes. [4]
(c) (i) With the aid of annotated diagrams, describe the formation of a normal fault and a reverse
fault. [6]
(ii) Propose measures to reduce the impacts of earthquakes. [5]
4. (a) (i) State three types of folds. [3]
ii. Describe one landform produced by folding. [4]
(b) (i) Give three pieces of evidence of continental drift. [3]
(ii) An earthquake measures 7.0 on the Richter scale. Describe the effect of the earthquake
of such a magnitude. [3]
(c) (i) Suggest the benefits of folding to people. [7]
(ii) What practical measures can you suggest to reduce the impacts of volcanoes? [5]

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 Chapter
ECOSYSTEMS

3
Chapter objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• explain the biogeochemical cycles.
• outline the importance of biogeochemical cycles in the ecosystem.
• explain the importance of wetlands.
• outline the benefits of wetlands.
• identify methods of conservation.
• explain the different methods of restoring ecosystems.
• outline benefits of restoring ecosystems.
• explain the importance of ecosystems.
Introduction
Ecosystems are quite crucial in the sense that abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) organisms interact
and depend on each other. The management of these ecosystems in a sustainable manner is very
crucial. If damaged, these ecosystems have to be restored to a level that maintains the interaction and
inter-dependence of these biotic and abiotic organisms. This chapter gives a detailed description of how
these ecosystems can be sustainably utilised, managed and restored. This chapter gives a description of
ecosystems and their different components. It goes further to explain biogeochemical cycles and their
importance to ecosystems. The chapter also explains the importance and benefits of wetland areas.
An explanation of the different methods of restoring ecosystems is done and an outline of the benefits
of restoring ecosystems is also given. At the end of the chapter an explanation of the importance of
ecosystems is also given.

UNIT 3.1 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Biogeochemical cycles are pathways for the transport and transformation of matter within four categorical
areas that make earth planet (biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere). It is a pathway by which
a chemical substance moves through biotic and abiotic compartments of earth. Elements transported in
the biogeochemical cycles are categorised as;
1. Micro elements – these are elements required by living organisms in smaller amounts for example
boron and copper, for use by green plants.
2. Macro elements – these are elements required by living organisms in larger amounts for example
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

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Section B
Answer any one question in this section.
3. (a) (i) List any four statutory instruments in the Environmental Management Act (2002). [4]
(ii) Name other environmental management legislation in Zimbabwe. [3]
(b) Photograph B shows a degraded environment in Zimbabwe.

Photograph B
(i) Identify forms of environmental degradation shown. [5]
(ii) Outline the causes of environmental degradation shown. [6]
(c) Plan a project on how you would rehabilitate such an environment in the community. [7]
4. (a) (i) Define the term ‘Inter-tropical Convergence Zone’ as used in the study of weather. [2]
(ii) Explain why air masses maintain characteristics of their source regions. [2]
(iii) Name one activity and explain how it is affected by weather forecasting. [2]
(b) Figure 2.2 shows the position of the ITCZ in different seasons.

(i) Describe and explain the changes shown on the position of I.T.C.Z. [6]
(ii) Describe and explain the weather conditions associated with the development of I.T.C.Z. [6]
(c) Suggest the advice you would give to people so as to minimise the effects of floods in your area.
[7]

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 Chapter
ENERGY AND POWER

5
Chapter objectives
By end of this chapter, you should able to:
• explain how energy sources can be conserved.
• analyse types of energy used and conservation measures undertaken in your local area.

Introduction
In the present-day world, energy or power plays a vital role in all developmental issues of any country
or society. Every one of us uses one form of energy or another especially for cooking purposes and to
warm our homes. Sometimes the type of energy one uses is determined by one’s standard of living (as
determined by one’s income) hence, some use wood fuel, others coal, natural gas and yet others electricity.
There is no part of a nation’s economy which is not affected by energy. Energy is an important indicator of
the high standard of living enjoyed by a large majority of people especially in the industrialised parts of the
world. Energy has various forms which comes from a variety of sources and has several types. Wars have
been fought over energy and environmental campaigns done by the different organisations, government
in the use and conservation of energy resources.

UNIT 5.1 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY SOURCES

Energy refers to the form of power required to make different systems function and operate in our daily
functions such as in production, lighting and preserving. Energy, in all its forms: heat, kinetic, potential,
light, sound or chemical is critical for all developmental activities, more so in economic endeavours such as
agriculture, mining and manufacturing which are key economic drivers or enablers for development in any
country, but the energy sources need to be used sustainably for the benefit of future generations, hence
conservation of these sources is critical, needing a close examination in this context.
Energy sources
Energy sources are divided into two broad categories; the traditional and the modern commercial sources.
The basic difference is that traditional energy sources are common resources that naturally occur in the
environment whilst commercial energy sources refer mostly to commercially produced energy sources
from fossil minerals that produce fossil fuels, used often commercially, for modern production particularly
in industry.

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us with the energy that modern life requires. It should be one of the energy conservation techniques that
are most valued as it is what holds the promise for leading to a solution to the world’s energy crisis.
Activity 5.1 Individualisation
Do a comparison of different types of energy consumption by the various sectors of the Zimbabwean
economy. How does it compare with rural consumption?
Activity 5.2 Discussion
Discuss ways in which people will be affected by the continued depletion of energy sources and show why
non-renewable resources need more conservation.
Exercise 5.1

Fig. 5.2
1. Which type of energy is shown on fig. 5.2?
2. Identify any 3 renewable sources of energy and 3 non-renewable sources of energy.
3. Which source of energy do you recommend as the most affordable?
4. List different types of fuels used in producing fuel in Zimbabwe.
5. Describe 5 ways of conserving energy.

UNIT 5.2 ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSERVATION IN THE LOCAL AREA

Different areas use different sources of energy that include; hydro-electric energy, solar, wind, natural gas,
thermal power and oil. The availability of these sources of energy entails that there are different types of
energy production in Zimbabwe. Conservation measures are also undertaken to maintain and reduce over
use of energy.
Production of energy in the local area – Zimbabwe
These are the sources of energy produced in different areas in Zimbabwe.
1. Hydro-electric power
It is electrical energy generated by the force of running water turning the turbines, which in turn, turn the
electricity generating dynamo turbo engines. It is a renewable source of energy and very clean source of
energy. Industrialisation enhanced and development, it is cheap to maintain, as water is readily available
and transporting itself. In Kariba, there is a hydro-electric that can be used for multipurpose, for example,
tourism, irrigation, fishing, recreation, transport and even sports. Apart from the Kariba hydropower
station, the potential for hydropower exists in other parts of the country.

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 (f ) Lack of management commitment.
(g) Most of the top management in industries are less concerned over environmental issues and
reluctant to allocate adequate financial, technological and human resources to practices.
(h) Lack of employee commitment.
(i) Most of the companies do not have proper incentives for the employees to motivate them to be
held responsible for protecting the environment.
(j) Lack of education and awarenesss regarding environment among politicians, and citizens.
Regulations at all levels are severely limited by lack of adequate and useable information. At times
workers are generally not aware of occupational health problems.
Solutions of the challenges faced when implementing environmental management legislation
• Education - it is a fact that even in areas where refuse is collected regularly some people will always
just dump their household litter down the road simply because they are used to it. A concerted
approach by all authorities and public awareness campaigns educating people on good basic
hygiene and living responsibly in urban areas is needed.
• Provisions of funding but the government towards environmental management.
• Developing advanced and improved technology that is environmentally friendly.
• Strict legislation.
• Heavy fining to offenders.
• Increased commitments by governments.
Activity 8.1 Educational tour I
Visit the (ZINWA) offices in your area, write a report on how the organization ensure access and safety of
water to the users.

Activity 8.2 Educational tour II

Visit the forestry commission in your local area and write a report on how the commission ensure the
safety and protection of biodiversity.

Exercise 8.1
1. What is the role of EMA?
2. Explain the meaning of environment in your own words.
3. Describe the environmental assessment impact.
4. Why is environmental assessment impact necessary?
5. Identify problems and solutions of implementing environmental management legislation.

Interesting fact
1. 27,000 trees are cut down each day so that we can have toilet paper.
2. Aluminium can be recycled continuously as in forever.
3. A glass bottle can take 4 000 years to decompose.
4. Rainforests are being cut down at a rate of 100 acres per minute.
5. Approximately five million tonnes of oil produced in the world each year ends up in the ocean.
Summary of the chapter
• Environmental management is a systematic way of finding practical means to protect, conserve
and preserve water energy and materials and reducing negative environmental impacts.
• Environmental management can be practiced by governments, groups and individuals.

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2. Water Act in Zimbabwe is responsible for _________.
A. driving afforestation projects
B. regulates and control car trading
C. recreational opportunities
D. ensuring equitable access to water safe supply of water and efficient use
3. Which of the following Acts is responsible for conservation and management of biodiversity including
flora and fauna?
A. Wildlife Management Act B. Water Act
C. Forest Act D. Mines and Minerals Act
4. The Mines and Minerals Act requires ___________
A. those that cut down trees to be prosecuted.
B. one to have an exploration permit before mining.
C. control of pollution to reduce global warming.
D. legislation to be put in place to safely trade the minerals.
5. What advice would you give to game park officials to rehabilitate a national park overcrowded with
browsers?
A. Kill all browsers
B. Embark on an afforestation programme
C. Introduce carnivores
D. Introduce a trans frontier park
6. It is estimated that for every tone of maize produced in the save catchment area in Zimbabwe, at least
fifty tones of soil are swept into the river. What would be the most effective way to help solve this
problem?
A. Dam the river B. Introduce irrigation farming
C. Plant more ground cover D. Scoop out the silt
7. As an environmental officer, which of the following human activities would you discharge to take place
in a river channel to prevent the problem of siltation?
A. Canoeing B. Fishing
C. Herding D. Panning
8. What is the practice of growing trees in an area that once was covered by woodland?
A. Afforestation B. Deforestation
C. Reforestation D. Regeneration
9. What must a famer do to make a swampy area suitable for cultivation?
A. Add lime to the soils B. Dig drainage ditches
C. Make contour ridges D. Terrace the land
10. How can overgrazing be addressed?
A. Vaccinating B. Dipping
C. Destocking D. Cross breeding
11. An important measure that may be taken to conserve fisheries in Southern Africa is to __________.
A. reduce the sizes of net holes B. increase the fishing season
C. introducing licensing systems D. increasing fishing by foreign trawls
12. The following energy resources requires an environmental impact assessment before its exploitation
except for __________.
A. HEP B. nuclear energy
C. oil drilling D. solar energy
13. Most countries are now using environmentally friendly energy sources for the following except
_________.
A. conserve the non-renewable resources B. reduces environmental degradation
C. reduce rapid climate changes D. protect renewable resources

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14. Which is the best way to deal with plastic litter?
A. Composting B. Recycling
C. Reusing D. Burying
15. The following are measures to reduce air pollution except _______.
A. legislation B. relocation
C. use of environmentally friendly fuels D. use of polluter pays principle

Structured Questions
1. (a) Define the following terms as used in environmental management;
(i) Environmental legislation. [2]
(ii) Compliance. [2]
(iii) Sustainable management. [2]
(b) Describe the roles of the following environmental legislations;
(i) Environmental Management Act. [4]
(ii) Water Act. [4]
(iii) The Mines and Minerals Act. [4]
(c) Explain the environmental assessment impact. [7]
2. (a) Define the terms Environmental degradation and pollution. [2]
(b) Describe the roles of the following environmental legislation.
(i) Forest Act [3]
(ii) Mines and minerals Act [3]
(iii) Wildlife management Act [2]
(c) The photograph below shows litter dumbed in a particular site in an urban area in Zimbabwe.

(i) Describe the scene in the photograph. [4]

(ii) Describe the problems that may arise from the scene above. [3]
(iii) Suggest the solutions to the problems. [3]
(iv) Describe challenges faced in an attempt to deal with environmental degradation. Suggest
solutions to the problems. [5]

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EXAMINATION II
Paper 1: Multiple Choice Questions
Answer all the questions in this section.
1. What does GPS stand for?
A. Geographic positioning system B. Geographic point system
C. Geographic pin point system D. Geographic part system
2. Which of the following is not a use of a GPS?
A. Timing B. Tracking
C. Sound accounting D. Locating traffic accidents
3. A device that receives signals from the space satellites to give the location of a feature is called a
____________.
A. GPS hand held receiver B. car tracker
C. troiker system D. plates
4. How many GPS satellites are currently in orbit around the earth?
A. 10 B. 12
C. 20 D. At least 24
5. The system of using three satellites to give the correct position of a feature is called ______.
A. triangle B. three cells
C. trilateration D. segmentation
6. Which of the following has the longest wave length?
A. Radio waves B. Ultraviolet rays
C. Gamma rays D. X-rays
7. Figure A below shows the structure of a wave.

U
W

X
Fig A

U is _____________________.
A. Wavelength B. Crest
C. Amplitude D. Wave length
8. V is ________________.
A. crest B. trough
C. amplitude D. wavelength
9. W is _____________.
A. wavelength B. amplitude
C. crest D. trough
10. X is ________________.
A. amplitude B. crest
C. trough D. wavelength

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 UNIT 1.2 THE ROLE OF INFORMAL INDUSTRIES IN ZIMBABWE

Informal industries are those industries whose operations are not monitored by any government arm,
hence are not subject to government regulations. They are hence not taxed nor do they comply to any tax
laws, for they are not registered, hence they do not contribute to the gross national product (GNP) or gross
domestic product (GDP) of a country. This is why in some circles it is called the informal economy or grey
economy. They are not regularised, hence not legalised to operate as business, regardless of the fact that
some of them good business.
In Zimbabwe, they now dominate due to the skewed economic situation, where in order to survive the
jobless majority, have to engage in these informal activities. Informality means, they are not controlled by
any law, hence they do operate anywhere, in the open and undesignated areas, backyards or roadsides.
Most of these informal industries use rudimentary equipment and basic appropriate technology; inclusive
of even scrap material in making their items.
Their start-up usually requires minimum initial capital outlay and are usually manned by unskilled and
semiskilled manpower, making up sole traders and small cooperatives or consortiums. They are also
characterised by irregular working hours. To some extent, the businesses under the informal sector all
fall under the small and medium size enterprises but since there are no hard and fast rules classifying
these businesses, this depends upon the degree of informality of the industry, but sound and legalised
SMEs that are regularized and go through quality controls of their products do not thereby fall under the
informal sector.
They are heterogeneous in nature and comprise of activities ranging from sole trader proprietorship, to
selling and commodity broking to being distribution agents. These include furniture making, car repairs
and spray painting. It also includes soldering and metal work inclusive of wire making, window and door
frame manufacturing, shoe making, carving and crotchety, import and export of basic goods, hawking and
vending in streets selling all manner and sundry, even commuter transport operations. The nature of some
of these businesses; makes it inevitable for such activities to conflict with local authorities as they infringe
on council by laws and regulations, particularly regarding places of operation.
However, with all the assumed negatives associated with informal sector, informal industries play a pivotal
and significant role in the Zimbabwean economy.
Below are some of the benefits of the informal industries in Zimbabwe:
(a) Creating employment for the about, 70 to 80 percent unemployed but very employable people
roaming the land of Zimbabwe, thus also absorbing the fluid and never-ending stream of school
leavers, who seem to be destined nowhere, in this current jobless environment.
(b) Creating an enabling environment by providing cheap and affordable goods and services to the
general poor, cushioning them against economic hardship.
(c) Provides opportunity for self-reliance through self-employment and self-management, than being
limited to a fixed salary.
(d) Contributing to economic recovery and growth hence significantly contributing to national fiscus
and gross domestic product (GDP).
(e) Great role of filing in the gap deserted by large corporations that have abandoned the
Zimbabwean market due to hostile economic conditions and ennobling environment.
(f ) Enables variety of products on the market that fit all along the social ladder, as it produces
commensurate goods for both poor and the rich, hence provide buyers with an alternative.

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 (g) Provides clandestinely the formal sector with alternative goods, such as furniture provided to
downtown shops from informal industries in Gazaland, Glen View Traders or Magaba in Mbare,
Harare.
(h) Helps in the efficient use of discarded materials as raw materials or resources; such as the reuse of
scrap metal and wood.
(i) Helps in improvisation and creation of appropriate technologies that are user friendly and easily
adaptable to our environment.
Activity 10.2 Drawing
Many formal industries have closed shop in Zimbabwe.
Draw a table showing some specific names of closed industries and give a reason for their closure.
Exercise 10.2
1. What are small and medium enterprise?
2. Describe the role of informal industries in Zimbabwe.
3. Describe the location of any two SMEs you have studied in Zimbabwe.
4. Identify any 5 benefits of SMEs.
5. What are the reasons for the establishment of SMEs in Zimbabwe?

UNIT 10.3 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH IN INDUSTRY

The Zimbabwean government just like its counterparts and the international world, has also put laws
in place to regulate companies so that they safeguard the safety and health of their workforce in the
workplace. Occupations or jobs must not be a threat to life, but rather means to long and livelihood.
Occupational Safety and Health Practice entails the actions taken to recognize, evaluate and control
hazards or dangers arising in or from the workplace that could pose detrimental safety, health and pose
deformity threats to workers in the workplace. There are usually life-threatening conditions at most
workplaces, particularly industries, because of the machinery, instruments and chemicals they use and
negligence on their parts will definitely lead to the loss of many lives, directly or indirectly.
Maximum care needs to be taken in ensuring that workers are protected and trained to properly handle
these so as to avoid or at least minimise possible fatal accidents, injuries and even deaths arising from
wrong and accidental use of these things. Wellness in all respects needs to be emphasized in the work
place and ensure that working conditions are in sound order.
Safety and health regulations are many but very fragmented and most industries are advocating for them
to be harmonised, since they related most often to similar operational situations. Various measures have
been adopted in an attempt to reduce workplace hazards
Measures adopted to promote Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)
These measures are laws put in place to control health and safety standards that must be implemented by
companies. These laws can be looked at, at three levels, namely: the primary or general level, the secondary
level and lastly, the sector specific level. The following comprise some of the measures which have been
adopted to ensure safety and health at workplaces:
1. General level laws
These are occupational safety and health (OSH) laws that meant to apply to all employers and employees
across the occupational sectors or all workplaces in the country. Two major ones are of this nature, namely;

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(a) The Labour Act Chapter 28.01
(b) The NSSA Accident Prevention Workers’ Compensation Scheme Notice no. 68 of 1990
These laws are meant to safeguard all workers from unfair labour practices and also guarantee their
commensurate compensation in the event of mishaps at work and also the after-work effects.
2. Laws at the secondary level
At this level, these labour aims to protect the generality of workers from being affected by individual
harmful common practices that adversely affect others such as smoking and also protect those affected
unfortunate diseases such as HIV, from unfair discrimination and stigmatisation. These are laws such as;
(a) The protection from smoking (Public Heath) (Control Tobacco Use) Regulations S.I. 264 of 2002. This
controls and prohibits smoking in enclosed public places including workplaces.
(b) The Labour Relations (HIV and AIDS) Regulations S.I. 202 of 1998. This prohibits any form of
discrimination of the grounds of a persons’ HIV status.
3. Laws at the sector level
These are laws specific to a particular sector whose objective is to supplement the general laws above.
They cover the mining, manufacturing and processing industries and the agricultural sectors.
(a) The mining sectors
Two major laws governing OSH in the mining sector, namely:
• The Mining Management and Safety Regulations SI 109 of 1990 entailing the responsible
management of all mining areas and environments.
The Mining Healthy and Sanitation Regulations SI 185 of 1995 ensuring the provision safety
conditions and tools in the mines.
(b) The industrial sector
Laws of this sector cover protection of workers against all forms of harm and cushion them against being
disadvantaged, in the event of negative eventualities. Two main laws are operational here, with a myriad of
other sub laws relating to various sub areas in industry. The main two overarching laws are namely;
• The Pneumoconiosis Act Chapter 15.08, addressing the danger associated all gaseous substances
endangering the health of the worker.
• The Factory and Works Acts Chapter 14.08 with six about regulations under it, all aimed at aimed at
addressing workers’ safety and health in the factory workplace.
(c) The agricultural sector
The laws that govern this sector are those promulgated under the Environmental Management Act
Chapter 20.27 that provides that every worker has a right to work in a conducive environment that does
not endanger their health and safety. The regulations under this Act; controls the correct and proper usage,
storage, labelling and disposal of hazardous substances and articles. For example, Collective Bargaining
Agreement SI 1323 of 1993, of the agricultural industry, requires employers to provide their employees
with appropriate protective clothing and ensure that they have safe devices to protect them from harmful
substances.
Activity 10.3 Research
With the aid of your teacher, visit two different major industrial companies and find out the measures they
have for occupational safety and health.

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Exercise 10.3
1. Find out more legislation and measures put in place by the Zimbabwean government to promote OSH
at the work place.
2. Discuss why occupational health and safety is important in the work place.
3. What does Occupational Safety and Health Practice entails?
4. Explain the laws at the sector level.
5. These are occupational safety and health (OSH) laws that meant to apply to all employers and employees
across the occupational sectors or all workplaces in the country. Name any two laws that are found in
this category.

UNIT 10.4 C
 HALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH MANUFACTURING AND PROCESSING
INDUSTRIES IN ZIMBABWE

Manufacturing and processing industries are the backbone to any economy hence, it is worthwhile to
study any obstacles which they may face and offer possible solutions to these challenges.
Challenges faced by Zimbabwean industries:
1. Shortage of capital – Capital shortage by both state and industrial companies to do effective
business operation. In 2018, the use of bond notes resulted in the decline of many companies due
to the failure to raise capital (foreign currency such as US dollar) to purchase for their equipment
that are needed to run their businesses and pay salaries. To get the US dollar, people have to pay a
very huge percentage which was unfair and unreasonable.
On the other hand, banks did not have the capacity to give out loans to businesses, I case where
it was given there was a high percentage rate. In February this year, the Chamber of Mines has
reported that the mining sector required as much as $7 billion in new capital from 2018 to 2022
to boost production. For example, in Zimbabwe, mineral producers continue to face challenges in
accessing long term capital to sustain output growth or undertake new projects. Most business
operations need to replace antiquated equipment that has become inefficient and costly.
2. Lack of skills – Lack of industrial and diverse other expertise, and lack of skills by the indigenous
population in managerial skills. Workers may be unable to operate the equipment and machinery.
3. Shortage of foreign currency – Shortage of foreign currency to import raw materials desperately
needed in industry.
4. Mismanagement of funds and corruption – Corruption and inefficiency that often bring companies
to their knees and even closure. Mismanagement of funds and resources and corruption in
companies cause problem in that the companies fail to operate well.
5. Difficulties in importing and exporting critically needed raw materials, because Zimbabwe is a
landlocked country making it difficult to bring in and take out things.
6. Lack of raw materials for essential industries – Lack of vital raw materials for essential industries
for example, fuel, lubricating oils, chemicals and soda for glass, most of which are supposed to be
imported.
7. The problem of ever rising costs to industrialists particularly of fuel, electricity, oils amidst acute
shortage of foreign currency.
8. Shortages of water supply due to breakdown of antiquated and dilapidated equipment.

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Exercise 4.2
1. Discuss why it has been difficult to resuscitate industry in Zimbabwe in the last 10 years. In your
discussion, look at the role of sanctions.
2. Discuss the efforts made by the Zimbabwean government to help industry to survive these economic
storms.
3. Explain and describe the meaning, value and role of the GDP of a country.
4. List 4 challenges faced by Zimbabwean manufacturing and processing industries.
5. Give 5 solutions to the problems being faced by the manufacturing and processing industries in
Zimbabwe.
Interesting facts
If a country fails to develop its formal industry properly, its economy inevitably turns to be very informal
with much fewer jobs in the formal sector, hence most of its citizens establishing own informal small
businesses for livelihood survival.
Summary of the chapter

• Small to medium enterprises are important in complementing the big companies in providing
alternatives goods and services which may be cheaper for poor.
• Informal industries are a result of big industries not being able to absorb all the unemployed and
also meet the demands of the market at every level.
• In order to ensure safety and health at the workplace, governments force industries to adopt special
measures that protect employees and provide compensation in the event of hazards occurring.
• Economic problems facing Zimbabwe have caused manufacturing and processing industries to
face insurmountable challenges that have caused particularly the informal to rise, as a solution to
the problem.
• The informal sector now comprises a percentage of 70 to 80 of Zimbabwean business, particularly
industry.
• Merits of the informal sector are that of creating alternative employment and means of livelihood
for majority of jobless men and women.
• The problem of the informal sector is not helping the government national fiscus because they do
not officially contribute to taxed income.
• Despite the manufacturing and processing industry being the backbone of any economy, in
Zimbabwe. This has been heavily affected by an unfavourable and harsh economic environment
that is not enabling.
• Government tried put in measures to counter the effects of particularly economic sanctions such as
the Look East Policy with moderate results particularly for the common person.
• SEDCO has played a significant role in lifting up small enterprises in Zimbabwe.
• Financial institutions have failed to meaningfully contribute to the resuscitation of the Zimbabwean
economy due to harsh economic environment.

Glossary terms
Enterprise – a business or company operating to provide goods or services for payment, on a
profit basis.
Threshold – level, rate at which a certain figure reaches and determines the norm for that
particular activity.
Fiscus – the treasury revenue or money in a government economy.

170
Fiscal – relating to the fiscus, denoting to government’s monetary affairs, especially taxes
and revenue collection systems and thresholds.
Informal industries – having a causal, unofficial style, manner and nature in their operations.
Occupational – means things job-related or relating to employment issues.
OSH – occupational health and safety.
SEDCO – Small Enterprises Development Corporation.
Informal Sector – the unofficial part of the operating economy that is not regularized in terms of
contributing to the national fiscus, yet being very important to the livelihoods
survival of the common people.
Look East Policy – the policy of the Zimbabwean government of the promoting of investment from
the Eastern countries of the world, such as China and Russia; that arose as result our
souring of relations with the western countries such as Britain and the United States.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Small to medium enterprises refer to ______________.
A. industrial location B. small factory shells
C. small to medium size businesses D. inputs and outputs in industry
2. All below are causes of small to medium enterprises, except ___________.
A. absorbing and creating employment for the unemployed of the country
B. get high taxes from these rich industries
C. creating self-reliance among the nationals
D. breaking the monopoly of the big companies over the economy
3. Small to medium enterprises are located in all of the following, except __________.
A. urban periphery of cities B. downtown of urban areas
C. central business district D. rural growth points
4. Informal industries are __________.
A. transnational companies
B. small to medium businesses
C. illegal business sector whose activities are not regulated
D. light and heavy industries
5. All of the following are true of the nature of informal businesses, except __________.
A. they are not registered, hence illegal
B. they carry out activities in undesignated areas
C. no strict business rules and regulations
D. they faithfully pay their taxes to the government
6. The role of the informal sector are all the following, except ___________.
A. providing alternative employment for the jobless
B. providing cheap affordable goods
C. helps in the efficient use of idle resources
D. operating legally and officially
7. Occupational Health and Safety is ____________.
A. the actions and laws put in place to govern safety and health in the work place
B. the ways people are occupied in their leisure time
C. laws governing those in the healthy sector
D. laws governing safety on the road

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 Chapter
SETTLEMENT AND
POPULATION
11
Chapter objectives
By end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe population terms.
• apply population terms at local or national levels.
• collect population data within the school or local community.
• analyse population data.
• present population data.
• interpret population data.
• describe population distribution in Zimbabwe, Africa and the world.
• explain differences in population density in Zimbabwe, Africa and the world.
Introduction
For planning purposes, countries are concerned with knowing the aggregate of their population versus
the resources at hand. For this reason, a great effort is put in finding out their fertility rate, mortality rate,
birth rate, death rate and infant mortality rate. Pupils should be able to identify and describe ways used to
collect, present, analyse and interpret population data. They should also be able to describe population
distribution and density at various levels, analysing why there are differences.

UNIT 11.1 POPULATION TERMS

Population refers to the number of people residing in a defined geographic unit area at any point in time.
A number of variables characterise any given population of people at any given time and place. This is so
in terms of the vital interrelationship between a population’s birth rate, its death rate, growth rate hence
its structure. These variables entail the fertility and mortality of the population. The figures arrived at, in
the calculations on population cannot be exact given the difficulties of getting the exact statistics of any
population, but rather are raw figures signifying the closest approximations of those variables, hence are
said to be crude or unprocessed figures. These crude figures are calculated to give the planners closest
information to work with.
(a) Crude birth rate (CBR)
This refers to the number of live births in a year per thousand people of the total population.
Crude Birth Rate formula = number of live births in a year × 1000
Total population 1

174
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very high compared to that of developed countries that are in the range of 0.09 figures. Infant mortality
rate was at 32, 7 deaths per 1000 live births whilst general life expectancy was about 60.4 years. The
general total fertility was at 3, 98 children born. Hence both fertility and mortality are high in Zimbabwe.
This generally represents the population status and dynamics of developing countries, in terms of fertility
and mortality.
A comparative analysis at the international level, between developing and developed countries would
conversely show that both fertility and mortality are low in developed nations and in some cases very low
the more they scale up the modern development ladder. Comparing for instance population pyramids of
Sweden and Zimbabwe, would show the Swedish pyramid, a developed country has a leaner and thinner
base, indicating low fertility (low birth rate) and thicker top, indicating low mortality rate. Zimbabwe, a
developing country, has however a wide base indicative of a high fertility rate whilst it has a very thin
top. The thin top indicates a high mortality of the old. These facts also indicate hence that Sweden has a
higher life expectancy whilst Zimbabwe has lower life expectancy and also characterising countries on
their groupings, as indicated above.
Activity 11.1 Discussion
Both fertility and mortality are very high in developing countries, whilst both are also low in developed
countries. Discuss why generally this situation is like that.
Exercise 11.1
1. What is population?
2. Define the following terms;
(a) Birth rate
(b) Death rate
(c) Fertility rate
(d) Life expectancy
3. Give the formula for crude birth rate.

UNIT 11.2 POPULATION DATA COLLECTION, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

All sectors of the economy are interested in population statistics for varying reasons and it is important
for the government to have this information for planning purposes. To have this information, data must
be collected first. Data means unprocessed raw information usually collected from the field or a targeted
surrounding.
There are two types of data, namely primary data, which is data collected from a primary source, such
as the field area of study. Then there is secondary data, referring to gathered data from sources already
published by others. These are sources such as books, newspapers or the internet. Data is gathered usually
after a hypothesis or statement of expected relationships with expected outcomes has been put forward
first and this data is used to test this hypothesis. Data collection hence is the process of identifying and
obtaining raw data from the field in order to meet the needs of a specific investigation.
When studying population data, geographers mainly focus on the following four areas, namely: data
collection, data presentation and data analysis and data interpretation. The collection, analysis and
presentation of data can be done by sampling data from a micro environment such as a small community
for example, your school, national and international communities.

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Population data collection techniques
There are three main sources of collecting population data namely population census, registration of
vital statics and sample surveys. Governments, planners, environmentalists, demographers and many
others take an interest in population statics for various purposes. The three main sources of population
information include:
(a) Population census
This is a periodic population enumeration or counting of people, done in a given or stipulated area,
usually at national level, conducted at a specified time and at specific intervals. In Zimbabwe for instance,
population censuses are conducted at ten-year intervals, meaning after every ten years. The country is
divided into small units called enumeration areas and thousands of enumerators are recruited nationwide
to conduct the exercise on the ground.
The questionnaire and interview method are the key techniques most used in conducting censuses. The
questionnaire is a standardised form derived from the United Nations census formula. Its major categories
are such as some of the following; the main demographic characteristics of the population, its fertility
and mortality rates, and also information of specific age groups, housing characteristics and the type of
services people get and use as shown in Fig 11.1.
Advantages of population census
• It is more accurate.
• It has a wider coverage of a country’s population and other demographic characteristics
for example, fertility and mortality and also information of specific age groups and housing
characteristics.
Disadvantages of population census
• It is less reliable especially in areas where there are illiterate people.
• It is expensive – paying enumerators and materials used.
(b) Vital registration systems
This is the obtaining and registration of vital events and living people’s information, such as births, deaths,
adoptions, marriages, divorces and other issues that affect people’s lives daily. So, this encompasses
hospitals and clinics records, records of births and deaths, registrar general records, court judicial records
of marriages and other related issues, school registers and even church registers. All these provide a useful
population data base.
(c) Sample surveys
Data can be collected from a population subset called a sample. A sample is a representation of the whole,
which is selected to meet the requirements of a particular study. Sampling means taking a small portion,
representative of the whole and making examinations and observations and then drawing conclusions
depicting the whole. This covers a certain percentage of the population. Sample surveys particularly, are
usually inter censual, meaning that they are usually carried out in between censuses to assess population
changes and trends. They hence validate and complement census results.
In Zimbabwe sample surveys are generally conducted by the Zimbabwe Statistical Agency (Zimstat),
formerly the Central Statistical Office (CSO) government department, in between censuses.

177
 (d) Draw the horizontal bars on both sides of the vertical axis to represent the actual number or
percentage of people in each age group. The length of the bar should be proportional to the
population size it represents.
(e) Shade the bars appropriately, in uniform style to enhance visual impression to the onlooker.
(f ) Label the sides of the pyramid, indicating males on the left side and females on the right side.
A population pyramid, or age structure graph, is a simple graph that conveys the complex social narrative
of a population through its shape. Demographers use these simple graphs to evaluate the extent of
development for a given population usually an individual nation and to make predictions about the types
of services that population will need for example, schools, hospitals, homes. And while every population
pyramid is unique, most can be categorized into three shapes: expansive (young and growing), constrictive
(elderly and shrinking), and stationary (little or no population growth).
The three basic shapes of population pyramids
(i) Expansive Age Male Female
Expansive population pyramids are used to describe 80+
populations that are young and growing. They are 75–79
often characterized by their typical ‘pyramid’ shape, 70–74
which has a broad base and narrow top. Expansive
65–69
population pyramids show a larger percentage of
60–64
the population in the younger age cohorts, usually
55–59
with each age cohort smaller in size than the one
below it. These types of populations are typically 50–54
representative of developing nations, whose 45–49
populations often have high fertility rates and lower 40–44
than average life expectancies. 35–39
30–34
This type of graph has a triangular shape, with a
very wide base and pointed apex. Each age group 25–29
shows a bar less wide than that of the age group 20–24
before it, indicating that more people die at each 15–19
higher group. The large base shows a high birth rate, 10–14
which is probably due to factors like a developing 5–9
economy, poverty, low levels of female education, 0–4
and less awareness of birth control measures.
The tapering top of the graph indicates a high Percent of population
death rate, meaning that the life expectancy in such Fig. 11.3 Expansive pyramid
a country is less.
Factors like poor living conditions and the lack of proper medical facilities may be responsible for the
high mortality among the elderly. Such countries have a higher population of children as compared to
people of working age or older people. This results in a strain on the working-age population to support
the large younger population, making them work in stressful conditions. Such a population pyramid is a
characteristic of newly developing countries such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Kenya, and some countries
of Latin America.

179
more deaths occurring among the elderly. Such ZIMBABWE POPULATION

16.3 16.5
countries have a high life expectancy, where more 15.78
16.15
16
people live to a ripe old age, due to better living 15.41 15.5
conditions, medical facilities, and geriatric care. 15.05
15

million
14.71
14.39 14.5
They also have a stable birth rate, as there is more 14.09
14
awareness and incentives to use birth control 13.56
13.81
13.5
measures, along with the empowerment of 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018

women. Such a pyramid shows a stable increase

in the country’s population with time. Examples of Fig. 11.6 A bar graph
countries are highly-developed countries such as
USA, Sweden, and Netherlands, which have well-
established economies, come under this type.
(b) The bar graphs
Bar graphs are drawn to show data or processes involving figures, thus portraying information where
one variable has a quantitative value and the other one does not. Quantities and amounts given in figures
are transformed into bar graphs, with trends and amounts being clearly shown in bars. These bars are
drawn vertically or horizontally, proportional to totals they represent. They are thus drawn proportional
to; in height or length to the value they are representing. Interestingly, they can be drawn on the map or
outside the map.
There are different types of bar graphs, ranging from the simple bar graphs, the compound bar graphs,
proportional divided bar graphs and multiple bar graphs.
Bar graphs can be used to illustrate amounts which vary with time or places, for example; industrial
production in tonnes, food production in tonnes, relative amounts spent by tourists in dollars, trends in
population growth, age-sex pyramids showing the structure of a country’s population and the many more
variables. They hence show information where one variable has a quantitative value and the other does
not. Scores on a basic Math Test
Constructing bar graphs 7

(i) Analyse the given data and choose a suitable 6

scale.
5
(ii) Draw the X and Y axis and label them.
Students

(iii) Draw the bars vertically or horizontally. 4

(iv) Make sure the bars are equally spaced, they
3
should not merge and should be of the
same width. 2
(v) Proceed to shade the bars uniformly on
1
a simple bar graph and differently on a
compound bar graph.
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(vi) Then, provide a title and scale as well as a
key. Scores

Reading and interpreting the data on the pyramid

Population structure is depicted by pyramids with different shapes, depending on the variables of that
particular population. Population pyramids change significantly in shape as a country progresses through
demographic transition stages. Population pyramids of world countries usually show two major shapes; a
wide base with a thin apex or thin base with a wide apex.

181
A wide base pyramid with narrow top indicates a high proportion of young people and a low population
of elderly or aged people, whose life expectancy or average length of time people in that particular setting
are expected to live is very low. Such a population is said to be a youthful population as is the case with
many developing countries. A narrow base with a bulging middle and a wide top however indicates a high
proportion of middle aged and elderly people, whose life expectancy is relatively high, of which such a
population is said to be an ageing population. This is the case with most developed countries.
The dependency load is mainly in the upper age groups of 65+, unlike the youthful population where
the dependency load is heavily premised on the numbers of the young people of the population, usually
below 14 years. Both the below 14 and the above 65 are dependent on the workload (15-64 years) or
working class, who are in between these two dependent groups.
Comparison of population pyramids between developing and developed countries (for instance, Zimbabwe
and United Kingdom).
Interpretation of the Zimbabwe and United Kingdom population pyramids

Fig. 11.7 Population pyramid for Zimbabwe Fig. 11.8 Population pyramid for UK

Zimbabwe has a wide base and thin top, showing that it is still a youthful population, whilst United
Kingdom has a narrow base with a bulging upper middle and wide top, indicating all the already stated
characteristics and reasons for this kind of structure given above.
The two different pyramid structures are indicative that good education, better living conditions, high
standards of healthy systems in developed countries, lead to low birth rates, hence lesser young people
and death rates. There are also many elderly people because of the favourable conditions promoting higher
life expectancy. This is typified by the wider top, whilst the opposite of all these is true for developing
countries.
Developing countries have a very low life expectancy, as the prevailing condition s are not conducive to
people living longer, hence there are many young people but most of whom do not live beyond middle
age.

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 Activity 11.2 Individualisation
Zimbabwe carries out a population census every ten year,
(a) Define population census.
(b) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of conducting a population census.
(c) Fig. 11.1 shows an instrument used in carrying out a population census in Zimbabwe in 2012.
Activity 11.3 Research
Do a comparison and interpretation of the population, pyramid of Zimbabwe and Sweden, giving reasons
for the differences in form and structure of these pyramids.

Exercise 11.2
1. What is a population pyramid?
2. What is a population structure?
3. Draw a stationary pyramid and explain where it is normally found.
4. Identify the three types of pyramids.
5. Describe the techniques used for collecting population information.

UNIT 11.3 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY IN ZIMBABWE AND AFRICA

Population distribution refers to the pattern of how people are spread out in a given area whereas
population density refers to the number of people living in a unit area, usually per square kilometre.
Population distribution

Fig. 11.9 Population density in Harare

This is an uneven component of population and hence changes considerably through time and from place
to place. People are generally unevenly spread across the earth’s surface; hence there are some areas with
denser populations whilst some have sparse populations. This distribution is generally shown by means

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of maps, where dots or proportional circles represent a certain number of people. The size determines the
density of the population.
The general main patterns of distribution fall under three main categories, namely;
• the uniform or even pattern,
• uneven categories, the nucleated or clustered, and
• the random or haphazard pattern.
Population distribution in Zimbabwe

Fig. 11.10 Population density map of Zimbabwe

Population is unevenly distributed in any locality, nation or continent, but varies from place to place due
to varying reasons. Some areas are more densely population than others, despite being smaller or bigger
in land size.
(a) Densely populated areas in Zimbabwe
Areas to the East, North East, Central High Veld, stretching from Bulawayo, Gweru, Kwekwe, Kadoma, to
Harare, to Mutare and Southern parts of northern Masvingo, rural and urban, have more people than
rest. This is attributable to several factors. The given areas generally receive moderate to high rainfall
and experiences moderate to low comfortable temperatures. This promotes favourable agriculture and
habitation. Areas such Mashonaland province have loamy soils, whilst Midlands province has got gently
sloping areas with fertile soils that make it possible to rear animals and grow crops, hence making people
them densely populated.
(b) Sparsely populated
Areas comprising the Zambezi Valley, covering Binga, Kariba, Chirindu, the Dande Valley up to Kotwa –
Nyamapanda areas and the South East Lowveld (Chiredzi – Beitbridge areas) have fewer people because of
hostile and harsh climatic conditions. They are very hot and dry, that is, they experience high temperatures
and low rainfall, only able to sustain a few dry resistant crops. These areas are also mosquito and tsetse
infested, hence diseases such as malaria are rampant in these areas, hindering people habitation.

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Population distribution in Africa
Africa is an expansive land mass, which varies in
both population distribution and density. A diverse
and uneven population distribution characterise the
African continent, all this due to climatic and other
factors.
Densely populated regions and countries
In North Africa, countries such as Egypt, Tunisia,
Morocco and Algeria have the highest population
concentrations on the northern tip. This is because
these areas receive moderate rainfall, partly influenced
by the Mediterranean Sea, giving hope to otherwise
dry regions, with greatly desert conditions. Egypt has
gently sloping slopes and fertile soils along the great
Nile River, that are conducive to perennial agriculture,
attracting many to settle.
In West Africa, all countries along the west coast
such as Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia and the rest have
high population densities. These areas have high
rainfall and fertile soils that are favourable to farming
Fig. 11.11 Africa population distribution
activities. In the southern parts of Nigeria, oil fields
greatly influence the high population densities
thereby found, hence Nigeria is a very populous
nation.
In Central African countries such as the DRC, Burundi,
Rwanda; the availability of variety of minerals such
as gold, diamonds and valuable minerals, combined
with the rich natural vegetation caused by high
rainfalls attract many would be dwellers, whilst in
East Africa, in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania
and others, availability of water supply in lakes in
the Great Rift Valley enabling people to practise
agriculture. Southern African countries such as gold
and diamonds, fertile soils and high rainfall led to high
Fig.11.12 Densely populated country
population density. This is due to mining activities
being carried out.
The sparsely populated areas such as the Sahara desert (Chad, Libya, Sudan) and the Kalahari desert
(Namibia and Botswana) are sparsely populated because of harsh conditions forming desert conditions,
characteristics of little rainfall and high temperature, poor soils without hinders agriculture.
World population distribution
Throughout the world, areas with higher population densities, have more towns. There tends to be more
concentrations in industrialised areas than the country side. World population distribution can only best
be described as sporadic, but there are now known established world patterns.

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5. The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a permanent intergovernmental organization
of oil-exporting developing nations that coordinates and unifies the petroleum policies of its Member
Countries. OPEC seeks to ensure the stabilisation of oil prices in the international oil markets, with a view
to eliminating harmful and unnecessary fluctuations, due regard being given at all times to the interests
of oil-producing nations and to the necessity of securing a steady income for them. Equally important is
OPEC’s role in securing an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations and
a fair return on capital to those investing in the petroleum industry.
OPEC was founded on September 14, 1960, the result of a meeting that took place in the Iraqi capital
of Baghdad, attended by the five Founder Members of the Organization: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
and Venezuela. Once the original agreement for establishing OPEC was signed, it was registered with the
United Nations Secretariat on November 6, 1962, following UN Resolution No. 6363.
Currently, the Organization comprises 15 Member Countries – namely Algeria, Angola, Congo, Ecuador,
Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, IR Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates
and Venezuela.
Activity 12.3 Discussion
Discuss any trading bloc showing how it has improved trade between states in that region.

Exercise 12.2
1. Describe a trading bloc.
2. Identify types of trading blocs.
3. What are the differences between Free Trade Area and Preferential Trade Area?
4. Describe the aims of trading blocs.
5. List problems of trading blocs.
6. Describe any one economic grouping in developing countries and one in a developed country. Give
the aims.

Interesting facts
1. Due to every nation wanting vantage in trade, trade wars often erupt between trading partners,
accusing each other usually of unfair trade, such as happening between contending world powers
in the mould of America and China.
2. There will always be trade imbalance between developing and developed nations as long as
developing countries continue to export primary and unfinished products to the developed world.
Summary of the chapter
• Differences in resource endowment, productions levels, political decisions and a host of other
factors cause trade imbalances within countries, regions and the international community.
• There are different economic groups in different regions of the world, whose aims are all to ease
trade and make flow of goods among them much easier.
• Trading blocs are formed when particularly neighbouring countries realise impediments in the
exchange of goods and services between and among them.
• Trading blocs in developed countries are more advanced in their harmonisation of trading
regulations and terms than their counterparts in the developing world.
• World’s trade is generally dominated by a few large market economies and trade is very high
amongst developed countries than developing nations.

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 • The diverse resource base of economic blocs allows for integration of resources so that none lack
essentials.
• The main aim of economic groupings is to achieve economic independence through collective self-
reliance.
• The key target of almost all trading blocs is to ultimately create a free trading area.
• SADC is an example of a trading bloc in the third world whilst EU is an example of a trading bloc in
the developed world and hence the differences in manner of operations.
• The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is the umbrella organisation to bring together all countries
that belong to various customs unions, facilitating them the opportunity to take decisions on
multilateral trade agreements.
Glossary of terms
Trading Bloc – a group of member countries, usually adjacent to each other, who are participating
in a common interest or activity that is aimed at improving their economic well-
being.
Trade Imbalance – is a state of affairs where there is uneven or unequal balance of trade among the
members.
Trade Monopoly – the state of affairs of being the only one who enjoys a trade privilege or service whilst
others are disadvantaged with regard to that trading.
Tariff and custom duties– a tax charge put on all goods being imported into a country.
Sustainable – that which can continue being used and useful for a long foreseeable future.
EU – the European Union, an economic grouping of European countries.
SADC – the Southern African Development Community- an economic grouping of Southern
African countries.
COMESA – the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa- an economic grouping aimed
at creating a free trading area in Southern Africa.
WTO – the World Trade Organisation – world body forming the umbrella body for
coordinating all the formalised trading among all countries of the world.
Euro – the form of single common currency used as trading currency within the European
bloc.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The term trade means __________.
A. the selling of agricultural products
B. the selling and exchange of goods, money and services
C. the paying of money to small miners and vendors
D. the movement of people from one country to the other
2. The situation where some countries benefit more from trade against the loss of some is called
__________.
A. international trade B. national trade
C. trade imbalance D. balance of payments
3. The reflection of what a country spends minus what it produces _________.
A. trade deficit B. imports
C. exports D. balance of trade
4. Trade surplus is _____________.
A. where is country’s income from exports exceeds their spending from imports

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Structured Questions
1. (a) (i) Define the term trade. [2]
(ii) Name and describe the general types of trade. [6]
(b) (i) What is trade imbalance? [2]
(ii) Explain the causes of trade imbalance. [4]
(c) Give meaning of each of the following terms:
(i) Balance of payment [2]
(ii) Trade surplus [2]
(iii) Trade deficit [2]
(iv) Tariff [2]
(d) Differentiate between customs duty and exports. [3]
2. (a) Explain the meaning of trading bloc and give 2 examples. [4]
(b) Give three differences between trading blocs of developed countries to those of the developing
countries. [6]
(c) Identify and describe each of the types of trading blocs operating in the different regions of the
world:
(i) NAFTA [3]
(ii) ECOWAS [3]
(iii) CARICOM [3]
(d) Differentiate between EU and SADC. [6]
3. (a) Explain why countries form economic groupings and give any problems of these trading blocs,
making some countries to leave them such as the recent BREXIT. [7]
(b) Describe the imbalance of trade between developing and developed nations. [7]
(c) Give and explain two reasons for Britain’s exit from the European Union. [5]
(d) Suggest possible advantages of a country being a member of an economic group. [6]
4. (a) Describe any two characteristics of SADC as a trading bloc. [4]
(b) Name the country responsible for each of the following areas in SADC and briefly describe what
they are responsible for:
(i) Mining and the region’s development fund. [2]
(ii) Agricultural research and animal disease control. [2]
(iii) Transport and communications improvements. [2]
(iv) Energy development and conservation. [2]
(v) Land utilization, soil and water conservation. [2]
(vi) Inland fisheries, wildlife and forestry. [2]
(vii) Human resource development and trade improvement. [2]
(viii) Finance and investment development. [2]
(c) State and describe any five problems faced by SADC as an economic bloc. [5]

203
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9. The settlement pattern in grid square 710000 7746000 is _______.
A. circular B. clustered
C. linear D. radial
10. The dominant drain pattern in the area shown is _____________.
77 717 720
38 77 38

77 000 77
34 34
7 7
17000 20
A. dendtritic B. radial
C. rectangular D. trellis
11. The main reason why the Umzingwani river is unnavigable between Easting 718000 and 723000 is
___________.
A. presence of rapids. B. presence of cataracts.
C. presence of waterfalls. D. Existence of oxbow lakes.
12. Considering population which site is most suitable for locating a school?
A. 720000 7737000. B. 718000 7744000.
C. 711000 7742000. D. 710000 7735000
13. Which weather condition is the cloud type shown associated with?
A. Occasional showers B. Heavy convectional rainfall
C. Very light rainfall D. Continuous cyclonic rainfall
14. Which of the following is a river depositional feature?
A. Levee B. Pothole
C. Waterfall D. Cliff
15. Study the diagram below.

The fault resulting from the movement shown is called a __________________.

A. Normal fault B. Reverse fault
C. Simple fault D. Tear fault

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22. Which of the following resources is non-renewable?
A. Fish B. Petroleum
C. Timber D. Water
23. The graph bellows shows the relationship between population growth and resources of a country.

At which of the points A, B, C or D is population described as optimum?

24. A description of a farming type is given below?
(i) Large capital investment to buy inputs.
(ii) Small piece of land.
(iii) Outputs are mainly perishables.
Which of the following types does the above description refer to?
A. Cattle ranching B. Market gardening
C. Plantation farming D. Wheat production
25. In a farming system, which of the following is a physical input?
A. Knowledge B. Capital
C. Labour D. Rainfall
26. The graph below shows the relationship between the rent of land and distance from the city centre.
(nb draw a rent versus distance graph – with a 3 lines showing retail, housing and industry)
A. 0 – 3 km B. 1,5 – 3 km
C. 3 – 5 km D. 3,5 – 8 km
27. An extensive built up area formed by the joining together of once separate urban settlements is referred
to as _______________.
A. capital city B. conurbation
C. primate City D. metropolis
28. A port where goods in transit are brought for temporary storage and re-exported is referred to as
_________________.
A. a harbor B. a seaport
C. air entreport D. a roadport

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207
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 Agricultural labour – 160 percent
Farmers – 80 percent
Small scale miners – 30 percent
Crafts – 25 percent
Professionals – 20 percent
Unemployed – 35 percent
(i) What are the economic effects of such a structure? [3]
(ii) If you are the Minister of Youth, Gender and Employment Creation, what measures would you
take to change the employment structure shown in the figure above the benefit the local
community. [4]
(iii) State any two possible problems you are likely to face in implementing your measures. [2]

SECTION C: POPULATION, SETTLEMENT, TRANSPORT AND TRADE

Answer any one question from this section.
7. The table below shows the number of vehicles passing through a point on a particular day for successive
ten days.

Day Number of vehicles

1 50
2 75
3 80
4 92
5 60
6 70
7 63
8 42
9 75
10 82
(a) Using the data above, calculate the mean, median and mode of the data. [7]
(b) The table below shows the ages, in completed years, of women who gave birth to a child at a
particular hospital in a developing country:
Age Number of births
15 20 000
20 25 470
25 30 535
30 35 280
35 40 115
45 and above 0
(i) State the mode of the group. [1]
(ii) Estimate the mean age. [3]
(iii) Outline the problems arising from the statistics shown. [7]
(c) Describe the measures which have been put in place by the Ministry of Health and Child Care to
reduce the rate of infant mortality in Zimbabwe. [7]

212
212
212
EXAMINATION III
MAP WORK - Question 1- 12 refer to the 1: 50 000 Mbalabala map, Zimbabwe.

214
 Updated Curriculum A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1–4

A Practical Approach

Updated Curriculum
FORM A Practical Approach FORM
to to

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

nderstanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features: Geography 1 Geography 2
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1

• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.

A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of geographical instruments and apparatus
including techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

9 78079 74 60621

Kafikira Wiseman Ncube Nkosilomusa Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Doro Crecens Chimanikire Soccicah Muzvidzani Melody

A Practical Approach
Updated Curriculum

Updated Curriculum

FORM A Practical Approach FORM

to
to

Geography 3 Geography 4
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

understanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:
• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.
• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of scientific instruments and apparatus including
techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

9 78079 74 60645

Chitengu Bothwell Mussett Mashiringwane Chengetai Mazendame Renias T.

Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Pikirai Tinashe Shenjere Trymore