LIFE SPAN

DEVELOPMENT
a six-unit lesson plan for
high school psychology teachers i

Susan Krauss Whitbourne, PhD, University of Massachusetts, Amherst

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 Life Span Development
a six-unit lesson plan for
iv high school psychology teachers
This unit is a revision of the original TOPSS Unit Lesson Plan on
Development, originally prepared by Lynne Fellers, Nancy Grayson, Michael
Sullivan, and Martha Whitacre and edited by Charles T. Blair-Broeker at
the Texas A&M-NSF Summer Institute for the Teaching of AP and Honors
Psychology in July 1992.

This unit is aligned to the following content standards of the National

Standards for High School Psychology Curricula (APA, 2011):

Standard Area: Life Span Development

Content Standards:

After concluding this unit, students understand:

1. Methods and issues in life span development
2. Theories of life span development
3. Prenatal development and the newborn
4. Infancy (i.e., the first 2 years of life)
5. Childhood
6. Adolescence
7. Adulthood and aging

The APA Committee of Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools

(TOPSS) thanks Deborah Caudell, Fred Connington, Matt Heling, Amy
Johnson, Kathy Neely, James Stancil, Laura Vrba-Carrick, Ellen Zwarensteyn,
and Will Elmhorst for their work on a previous draft revision of this unit lesson
plan, along with Laura Berk, PhD, of Illinois State University, for her review
and feedback in 2007. TOPSS also thanks James P. Buchanan, PhD, of the
University of Scranton (Scranton, PA), Michael Hamilton of Hopkinton High
School (Hopkinton, MA), and Sachi Horback, PsyD, of Colby-Sawyer College
(New London, NH) for their reviews of and contributions to this unit plan.
contents
1 Procedural Timeline v
3 Introduction

5 Content Outline

31 Activities

47 References and Resources

53 Discussion Questions

This project was supported by a grant from the American Psychological Foundation.

Copyright © 2012 American Psychological Association.

procedural timeline

Lesson 1: Methods and Issues in Life Span Development

Activity 1.1: Introductory Survey and Content Discussion
Activity 1.2: Nature and Nurture in Development

procedural outline
Lesson 2: Theories of Life Span Development

Lesson 3: Prenatal Development and the Newborn

Lesson 4: Infancy and Childhood

Activity 4: Early Motor and Verbal Development

Lesson 5: Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

Activity 5: Three Tasks of Adolescent Identity: Cognitive, Moral, and Social

Lesson 6: Adulthood and Aging

Activity 6: Bridging the Generation Gap: Interviewing a Senior Citizen
About Adolescence
introduction

Developmental psychology is increasingly becoming a psychology of the life 3

span rather than being limited to the psychology of infancy to adolescence. The
goal of this unit plan is to present ideas that will help teachers provide students
with a broad-based, contemporary view of the field that will also give them
an excellent grasp of both the conceptual issues and practical applications of
knowledge about change over the life span.

Students can easily relate to many of the topics covered in this unit. Obviously,
they can reflect on their own developmental changes from childhood through
adolescence, but they also can relate the material to changes among their
families and friends. The content in this unit could be of great help to students as
they plan their futures. Themes such as health, identity, relationships, parenting,
education, and work have universal significance.

With the growing focus on diversity in the field of human development, the topic
also provides an excellent way to incorporate insights from research on cultural,
ethnic, geographical, and socioeconomic diversity. Developmental psychology is
increasingly taking a contextual approach that places great importance on many
types of variations in human growth and change.

Finally, as students prepare for future careers, they will benefit from learning
in particular about the field of adult development and aging. Adults age 65 and
older constitute the fastest-growing segment of the population, and in many
parts of the world, the growth will continue at far more disproportionate rates
compared to other age groups in the population.

The topic of life span development also presents valuable opportunities

for instruction in the area of research methods. Because age is not a true
independent variable, it is not possible to conduct experimental studies. Learning
how researchers attempt to overcome this challenge presents interesting ways
to engage students’ critical thinking abilities. Related to this point is the fact
that the age of the individual is confounded with the historical period in which
the individual grows older. The so-called “cohort” and “time of measurement”
 effects that can appear to be changes due to age cannot be entirely ruled out
when examining any study on life span development. There are designs that
make it possible to evaluate the impact of these factors, but cohort and time
of measurement effects can never be entirely eliminated. Many studies using
the cross-sectional method (in which participants from different age groups are
compared at one point in time) fail to control for between-cohort differences.
Encouraging students to question the results of these studies provides valuable
lessons in evaluating research evidence in psychology.

You can also use the material in this unit to emphasize the role of biology in
behavior. Changes in each system of the body interact in important ways with
psychological changes in areas such as cognition, emotions, and identity. In
addition, the “nature–nurture” issue presents numerous complexities regarding
the interaction between genetic and environmental influences on development.
Research emerging in recent years is showing increasingly that it’s not just a
matter of nature and nurture as joint influences on the individual, but that nurture
can also influence nature. Discussion of these complexities can introduce
students to an important emerging area of research and at the same time
can stimulate students to think about one of the great philosophical issues in
psychology—that of free will versus determinism.

Finally, students can benefit from examining the material on later adulthood from
the point of view of stereotypical views of aging, also known as “ageism.” Once
sensitized to this issue, students can be asked to bring in situations from fiction
and everyday life that exemplify these attitudes. Encouraging them to challenge
these stereotypes will foster the development of important sensitivities that will
help them in relationships with their families and their work lives.
4
As a practical matter, you need to decide whether to cover development from the
topical or chronological perspective. This decision will most likely be determined
by the textbook your school adopts. In general, though, the topical approach has
the advantage of emphasizing continuity rather than dividing the life span into
discrete units, but students find it easier to relate to the chronological approach.
You can split the difference somewhat, however, by emphasizing continuity within
the chronological approach and by teaching about theories of development with
an emphasis not on stages but on the principles of the theories themselves. The
majority of developmental theories are not as strictly age based as many people
think. As you’ll learn, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg, perhaps the three most
influential developmental theorists, believed that the ages associated with the
stages were approximations.
content outline

LESSON 1: M
 ETHODS AND ISSUES IN 5
LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT

In this lesson, you will introduce students to the general issues that developmental

content outline
psychologists examine and how they collect their data.

See Activity 1.1—Introductory Survey and Content Discussion (In Activities

section)

I. Nature and nurture in development: Development is influenced by

both “nature,” or heredity, and “nurture,” or the environment.

A. Although each individual inherits a specific pattern of genes from his

or her parents, the expression of those genes is influenced by the
environment in which the individual grows.

B. It no longer is a case of nature versus nurture because researchers

understand that both play a role in influencing the changes throughout
life.

C. Furthermore, specific environmental factors can influence the

expression of genes.

Example—Maternal stress may alter the genetic material of her fetus.

Similarly, in later adulthood, an individual may have a genetic risk for
developing Alzheimer’s but not be afflicted by the disorder if he or she is
intellectually or physically active.

See Activity 1.2: Nature and Nurture in Development (in Activities section)

D. The nature–nurture discussion deals with the extent to which heredity

 and the environment influence our behavior. Behavioral genetics
studies the role played by inheritance in mental ability, temperament,
emotional stability, and so on. See APA’s Biological Bases of Behavior
unit lesson plan for additional information on behavioral genetics.

II. Continuity and change in development

A. For ease of studying life span development, we speak of stages from

infancy through old age, but in reality, people develop in continuous
fashion throughout life. Even periods marked by specific biological
changes, such as puberty and the climacteric (menopause in women),
occur in gradual fashion.

B. The related issue of stability versus change in development refers to the

question of whether individuals’ dispositions change as they get older.

1. Personality researchers in particular have attempted to

determine whether there are dispositions that remain consistent
over life.

 Example—Is the difficult and colicky child destined to become a

neurotic, anxious, and worrying adult?

2. Although a flurry of studies on this topic preoccupied personality

researchers throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the field seems
to have arrived at somewhat of a consensus on personality
dispositions as influences on life choices, which, in turn, further
6 influence personality (nature and nurture once again).

3. Moreover, even researchers who at one time believed, along

with William James, that personality was fixed by the age of 30,
now acknowledge that changes in traits can continue to occur
throughout old age.
content outline

III. C
 ritical periods: In early development in particular, certain factors
must be present at specific ages for growth to occur normally.

A. Critical periods can involve biological changes, such as the growth of

the nervous system, which may be affected negatively by maternal
illness early in pregnancy.

B. Critical periods can also involve the development of sensory abilities,

such as depth perception in early infancy.

Example—Early infancy, during which the attachment bond is

developed, is an example of a critical period in social/personality growth.

C. In general, as individuals grow older, the relevance of critical periods

weakens considerably. At later ages, there is evidence instead for
considerable plasticity. People may suffer injuries or illnesses which
they compensate for by recruiting other abilities.

Example—Older adults who have cerebral hemorrhage and lose

language abilities can regain almost all, if not their entire, verbal facilities.

D. Critical periods are also referred to as sensitive periods since the term
critical period implies that something has to happen in a specific time
period to develop normally (e.g., imprinting in ducks and geese).
Activity: Ask students to think about how much they’ve changed since they
were younger. Have them bring in photos or videos of themselves without
identifying them and see if the other students can guess who is who.

Activity: Have students provide examples from their own online research
of people who showed examples of plasticity. For instance, in late 2012,
Representative Gabby Giffords, who suffered a severe head wound when a
gunman attacked her, was regaining her lost abilities. Other examples include
children who lose a substantial portion of brain tissue due to injury or illness but
whose brains recruit alternate brain regions.

IV. Definitions of basic terms

It is helpful to give students these working definitions:

A. Life span: The biological limits to life’s length, determined by species-

specific hereditary factors

B. Life expectancy: The average length of time that a given

age-based cohort is expected to live

This can be counted from birth or from any point in life.

Life span has not increased in recent decades, but life expectancy has.

C. Life course: The term used by sociologists to refer to the normal,

expected set of events that take place over an individual’s life,
determined in many ways by the society’s norms
7
V. Research methods in life span development

A. Studies designed to investigate developmental change can be grouped

roughly into two categories: descriptive and sequential.

content outline
All research on development is, by definition, quasiexperimental. If
age or gender is used as an independent variable, the experiment
cannot be true because age and gender cannot be randomly assigned
as treatment variables. However, experimental manipulations can be
performed to test whether certain conditions have differential impact on
different age groups.

Example—Children in the 5- to 7-year-old range may benefit more,

for example, from auditory instructions in a memory task than visual
instructions; if the opposite pattern holds for children in the 9- to 11-year-
old range, the researcher can infer that children in these age groups
acquire information through different cognitive processes. Since this is an
interaction between a variable that can be randomly assigned and one
that cannot, it is a quasiexperimental design.

B. Another problem with research on aging is that samples become

increasingly less representative in increasing age ranges of samples.

Example—Adults in their 80s are a select group compared to adults

who did not live to be that age. Selection biases can operate in samples
of adults as young as 25 or 30 years old given the high rates of accidental
deaths before the age of 25.

1. People who engage in more high-risk behaviors, therefore,

may not live to be in the population studied, and it may
appear that impulsivity decreases with age when in reality, the
impulsive people can no longer be studied because they did
not survive to that age.
 2. Similarly, people who live until an advanced age are, by
definition, in better health than those who are no longer alive or
are too ill to participate in research.

VI. Three main concepts underlying research in development:

A. Age: The chronological age of the individual

B. Cohort: The historical period in which the individual was born

C. Time of measurement: The historical period in which testing takes

place

D. Because any one of these numbers is automatically determined once

the other two are known, researchers can never know whether a
particular pattern of findings is due to age itself or to historical period (of
birth or testing).

Activity: Ask students to list factors specific to their own cohort and
factors specific to the current period of time.

VII. D
 escriptive research designs. Three types of studies are
considered “descriptive” because they do not attempt to separate
personal from social aging:

A. Cross-sectional: Individuals from different cohorts are compared at

8 one point in time.

B. Longitudinal: Individuals from one cohort are followed over several

time periods.

C. T
 ime lag: Individuals of the same age who were born at different times
and are being tested in the same year are compared, e.g., such as
content outline

comparing different generations of high school students on the same

measure. Holding age constant points out generational differences.

VIII. Sequential research designs

The time-sequential design is one in which a longitudinal study is replicated on

more than one cohort. Essentially, this design attempts to replicate the findings
of one longitudinal study by repeating it on different samples born at different
times. Thus, it is much like any replication of a scientific finding, except that in this
case, the replication occurs specifically to test the impact of historical time. For
example, in the Seattle Longitudinal Study of adult intelligence, Warner Schaie and
his collaborators followed a number of cohorts over 7-year intervals. They found
different patterns of changes in intelligence among cohorts born in different years.
Had they followed only one set of individuals over time, rather than repeating the
longitudinal analysis, they would have made erroneous conclusions about aging
and intelligence.

IX. T
 win studies: Twin studies were thought to provide clear-cut
evidence on the nature–nurture issue. However, they are now
increasingly being questioned on several grounds.

A. Only a small minority of monozygotic twins (1%) are truly identical;

20-25% are dichorionic diamniotic (two placentas and two amniotic
sacs). The remainder are monochorionic diamniotic (one placenta and
two amniotic sacs). This means that most identical twins actually had
 different prenatal environments, which could differentially have affected
their growth. These differences can persist throughout life.

B. The most common twin study is that which compares identical

(monozygotic) and same-sex fraternal twins (dizygotic) with genetic
factors indicated by a higher similarity (concordance rate) for
monozygotic than dizygotic twins. This type of design is criticized
because of the assumption that monozygotic and dizygotic twins share
identical environments because they are reared at the same time.
In fact, dizygotic twins are more likely to be treated differently than
monozygotic twins.

C. P
 revious studies on identical twins reared apart exaggerated
similarities and ignored differences. The very impressive books and
documentaries showing the similarities between identical twins who
never met until adulthood tended to report the hits but not the misses
between them. These studies might be criticized because of the
degree to which monozygotics split at birth experience very different
environments.

Activity: Ask students how those (or friends) who are twins or multiples are the
same and how they are different.

Activity: Show students a video documentary in which twins reared apart

are highlighted. Ask students to list the challenges to claims that the amazing
coincidences between them reflect genetics. For example, twins may have both
married women named “Linda,” but considering how common the name is, does
this truly reflect genetics? Even if twins have rarer or more unusual similarities, 9
encourage students to think about challenges to the notion that these are
genetically based. You can also use this as a chance to stress the importance of
challenging anecdotal accounts as scientific evidence.

content outline
LESSON 2: THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
In this lesson, you will cover the major theories of cognitive, moral, and personality/
social development. These form the basis for the specific theories you will cover in
the three lessons that follow dealing with periods of life. In teaching these theories,
it is helpful to bring them to life with as many examples and activities as possible.
Fortunately, these theories lend themselves well to such an approach.

I. Cognitive theories of child development. The three major cognitive

development theories attempt to explain how we gain knowledge about the
world as we progress from infancy through adulthood. Though these theories are
complex and multifaceted, you can present them to high school students in a way
that brings them to life and gives students a sense of how the theories attempt to
explain the fascinating process of cognitive development.

A. Piaget: The theory of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget is most

commonly taught in terms of stages, from sensorimotor to formal
operations. Students will understand these stages better if you also
teach them about the processes of development that underlie the
transitions between the stages. Piaget based his approach to cognitive
development on observations he made of his own children; subsequent
researchers examined developmental changes in terms of children’s
abilities to solve problems.
 1. Piaget defined intelligence as the ability to adapt to the
environment through an equilibration process.

2. The processes of child development involve the child’s

increasing his or her adaptation to the environment in a
dynamic equilibrium between using his/her existing ideas about
the world and changing those ideas in response to his/ her
experiences.

3. The three fundamental concepts for students to understand are:

a. Schema: A concept or category about the world

b. A
 ssimilation: The tendency to interpret new
experiences in terms of existing schemas

c. Accommodation: Changes in schemas to incorporate

information from experiences

4. According to Piaget, a child’s development progresses through
four stages, resulting in increases in the child’s ability to adapt
to and understand the world. Piaget framed these stages in
terms of problems children can or cannot solve. At each stage,
children reorganize their ability to understand the world. It’s
not that they know “less” than adults do, it’s that they know
“differently.”

10 5. These stages and their approximate ages are listed below.

However, even as children and adults become better adapted
to their environment, everyone nevertheless relies on less
cognitively mature processes to solve problems throughout
their lives.

 ensorimotor (birth to 18 months): The child

a. S
content outline

understands the world in terms of actions, not words.

b. P
 reoperational period (18 months to 7-8 years):
The child is unable to use logical operations to solve
problems and does not understand concepts such
as reversibility. During this period the child can only
see problems from one perspective, a phenomenon
referred to as “egocentrism.” Due in part to the lack of
reversibility, children in this stage don’t understand the
concept of conservation (a concept in which properties
such as volume, mass, and number remain the same
despite changes in forms of objects).

c. 
Concrete operational (7-8 years to 11-15 years): The
child can solve logical problems but only in the here
and now. He or she is unable to use logical symbols,
such as those used in algebra, to solve problems,
including conservation problems.

d. F
 ormal operational (11-15 years to adulthood):
Older children, adolescents, and adults gradually
become able to solve problems using abstract symbols
and logic.

6. There may be cultural variations in the ages at which these

stages are reached.
Activity: Demonstrate Piaget’s concept of conservation with a problem such
as asking students to estimate the group of calories in a group of large pieces
of candy versus a larger number of smaller pieces of candy. Even adults will
mistakenly judge the larger number of small pieces of candy to have more
calories. Or you can do a classic conservation task by starting with two identical
large candy bars, breaking one into smaller pieces, and asking if the total amount
of the candy bar has changed. You can also ask how a young child might respond
to that question.

Activity: Bring into class a set of items in pairs that are the same or similar in
amount but are different in their configuration. For example:

• Two perfume bottles with the same amount of perfume but in different shaped
bottles
• Two boxes of pasta, 1 pound each, one of long and thin pasta (Spaghetti) and
one of wide and short pasta (Ziti)
• Two cans of fruit, which are of different weights, but the smaller one actually
weighs more.

Then ask for a volunteer to judge whether the objects in each set of two are
the same or different amounts. Chances are that the volunteer will make a few
mistakes, demonstrating that conservation is not necessarily established by the
age of 8 years, and that even adults can be fooled!

Activity: The Wason card task is another you can use to demonstrate how
adolescents gradually become able to use formal operations. See this Wason
example online: http://www.philosophyexperiments.com/wason/Default.aspx.
11
B. Vygotsky: According to the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky,
children learn through social interaction, including play with peers and
parents.

1. Vygotsky emphasized two processes in children’s cognitive

development:

content outline
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area of
a. 
knowledge just beyond a child’s abilities. According
to Vygotsky, children learn best when they encounter
information at this level and can interact with a more
skilled person.

b. Scaffolding is the kind of support adults and teachers

present when they provide progressively more difficult
problems or ask children to explain their reasoning
for learning (within the ZPD) that enables children to
work independently but with help so they can solve
problems and develop their cognitive abilities more
generally.


Activity: Demonstrate the social processes involved
in learning by asking two students to try to solve a
difficult math word problem. You can also demonstrate
scaffolding by providing gradually more complete hints.

C. Information processing: The information processing approach to

cognitive development proposes that children develop their cognitive
abilities in an incremental manner, in some cases corresponding to the
development of the brain. Two concepts important in the information
processing approach are:
 1. 
Metacognition: Children become better at solving problems
because they develop more conscious awareness of their
cognitive activities and can use this awareness to select or
change strategies, including better knowledge about how to
direct their attention and effectively use their short-term/working
memory and long-term memory.

2. 
Development is continuous: Children do not experience
discrete changes or move from one stage to another.

II. Psychosocial theories of development

A. Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning: Psychologist Lawrence

Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s cognitive development theory by
proposing that children’s cognitive abilities influence the growth of
their ability to make moral judgments. Also, both argue that moral
reasoning develops mainly through interactions with slightly more
morally advanced peers. As their cognitive abilities mature, children
are able to see the relative (abstract) pros and cons of different moral
positions after they pass the stage of concrete operations. Compared to
Piaget’s theory, Kohlberg developed these ideas in much more detail,
and, although there are controversies associated with both the theory
and the research on which it is based, Kohlberg’s theory provides a
comprehensive framework for understanding how we develop our sense
of right and wrong.

There are six stages in Kohlberg’s theory, but they are more easily
12 taught in terms of the three categories into which they fall. Although each
stage is identified with an age period, it’s possible for adults to operate at
lower levels of reasoning, and according to Kohlberg, many do.

1. 
Preconventional (young children): Right and wrong are
thought of in terms of their immediate effects of pleasure versus
content outline

pain. No moral principles are invoked.

2. 
Conventional (middle school children): Moral decisions are
made in terms of laws or general rules about what is right and
what is wrong. In this law and order stage, for example, people
base their judgments on whether a law is broken or not.

3. 
Postconventional (adolescents and adults): Decisions about
right and wrong are based on the notion of moral relativity. A law
should be violated if that law violates basic principles of valuing
human life above all else.

Activity: Give students the “Heinz dilemma” in which they answer the question of
whether it is right for a man to steal an expensive drug to save his dying wife. Have
students rate their own responses to the question or have them rate each other’s
responses.

B. Erikson: According to Danish psychologist Erik Erikson, development

occurs through a series of changes in the abilities of the ego (rational
component of personality). Like Piaget, Erikson proposed a set of
stages, but he did not intend that the stages be understood as steps
in a ladder. Instead, he maintained that people can grapple with any
psychosocial issue at any age. To present Erikson’s theory correctly,
you should show his original matrix of ages and stages (presented on
page 14) rather than just the names of the stages alone. The diagonal
 in this matrix represents the usual, expected pattern of psychosocial
development because people are most likely to confront these issues
when they are in a particular age period. However, Erikson also
proposed that people can confront psychosocial issues in the “off
diagonal” portions of the matrix because the issues are not intrinsically
linked to age or portion of life.

The eight stages follow; you can either present all of them at once or
break them into age periods along with subsequent lessons.

1. 
Basic trust versus basic mistrust (0 –18 months): Children
must establish a sense of being able to rely on the environment
(and caregivers) to take care of them.

2. 
Autonomy versus shame and doubt (18 months –3 years):
Children learn ways to be able to act independently from their
parents without feeling afraid they will venture too far off on
their own.

3. Initiative versus guilt (3 –5 years): This is the play stage in

which children learn to express themselves creatively without
fear they will engage in activities that will get them in trouble.

4. Industry versus inferiority (5 –12 years): During this stage,

children learn to identify with the world of work and develop a
work ethic.

5. Identity versus identity diffusion (12 –21 years): 13

Adolescents establish a sense of who they are and develop
commitments in the areas of work and values.

6. Intimacy versus isolation (21 –30/40 years): Young adults

are able to experience psychologically close relationships with
others and develop long-term commitments.

content outline
Generativity versus stagnation (40–65 years): Middle-age
7. 
adults feel a sense of caring and concern for the younger
generation and determine what their legacy will be after they
are gone.

8. Ego integrity versus despair (65 years till death): In later

adulthood, individuals come to grips with mortality and with
achieving a sense of acceptance about the life they have lived.
 Erikson’s original matrix of ages and stages

Ages Stage #1 Stage #2 Stage#3 Stage #4 Stage #5 Stage #6 Stage #7 Stage#8

(approx.)
65+ Ego
Integrity vs.
Despair

30-65 Generativity
vs.
Stagnation

21-30 Intimacy vs.

Isolation

12-21 Identity
vs. Role
Diffusion

6-12 Industry vs.

Inferiority

3-6 Initiative vs.

Guilt

1½-3 Autonomy
vs. Shame
& Doubt
14
0-1½ Trust vs.
Mistrust

Activity: Mix up the stages with examples of each one and ask students to
content outline

identify the stage that seems to be associated with each example. You can also
have students imagine situations in which people must cope at various ages with
issues from psychosocial stages, such as these examples:

• A
 three-year-old is diagnosed with bone cancer. This shows Ego Integrity
versus Despair at ages 3–5 years. The child is confronted with end-of-life
issues.

• A
 n 80-year-old woman is mugged. This shows Basic Trust versus Basic
Mistrust in later adulthood. The woman must regain a sense of confidence or
faith in the safety of her environment.

• A
 divorced middle-aged man is considering remarriage. This shows Intimacy
versus Isolation in middle adulthood. The man is confronted with issues of
intimacy.

• A
 16-year-old has the keys to his car taken away by his parents. This shows
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt in adolescence. The teenager’s parents
have constrained his independence.

• A
 35-year-old woman enjoys time with her child when she and her child can
play with her child’s blocks. This shows Initiative versus Guilt in middle age.
The woman is enjoying the opportunity to explore and play.

• A
 64-year-old man is fired from his job and worries about whether he will find
another one. This shows Industry versus Inferiority in later adulthood. The man
is experiencing issues related to feelings of competence.
 C. Attachment theory: According to British psychologist John Bowlby,
children develop an inner representation of their relationship with
their primary caregivers. This inner representation, or working model,
becomes the basis for their subsequent adult relationships.

D. Bowlby’s work became the basis for the research by American

psychologist Mary Salter Ainsworth, who devised an experimental
situation to assess a child’s attachment style. In this experiment, called
the strange situation, young children play in a room with their mother.
The mother leaves the room and then returns. The experimenter rates
the child’s reaction both when she leaves the room and when she
returns. The attachment styles are as follows:

1. S
 ecurely attached: The child seems disturbed but not
distressed when the mother leaves and greets her happily
when she returns.

2. I nsecurely attached: The child may or may not become

anxious or distressed when the mother leaves the room and
may either ignore her or be ambivalent about physical contact
when she returns.

E. Harry Harlow showed the importance of maternal attachment bonds

in his work with infant monkeys. Raised with wire monkeys that fed
them or cloth monkeys that provided physical stimulation, the monkeys
preferred the cloth mothers. This research, though controversial, was
vital in establishing the importance of early bonding through contact
comfort with caregivers. 15

III. Sociocultural theories of development

A. Bronfenbrenner: According to Cornell psychologist Urie

Bronfenbrenner, social environment exerts both direct and indirect

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effects on child development. He identified five systems of influence
on development, ranging from fine-grained inputs of direct interactions
with social agents to broad-based inputs of culture. How well these
systems interact can greatly affect the development of the child. (Note.
Your textbook might not cover Bronfenbrenner, but his is an important
sociocultural theory.)

1. The five systems include:

a. Microsystem: Setting in which an individual lives—

family, peers, school, neighborhood

b. Mesosystem: Relations between microsystems,

connections between contexts, relation of family
experiences to neighborhood, school to church, family
to peers, and so on

c. Exosystem: Experiences in a social setting in which

an individual does not have an active role but which
nevertheless influences experience in an immediate
context

d. Macrosystem: Attitudes and ideologies of the culture

in which individuals live
 e. 
Chronosystem: The patterning of environmental
events and transitions over the life course; effects
created by time or critical periods in development

2. Examples of cultural diversity should be considered for this

theory; for example, for children of lower socioeconomic status
(SES), each of the five systems above might influence children
differently compared to children of higher SES.

Activity: Have students identify influences on their development from within the
five systems.

B. Baltes: Life span developmental psychologist Paul Baltes identified

three social influences on the course of development. These interact in
ways that result in the patterning of specific life events:

1. Age-graded normative influences: The expectations

associated with specific ages reflected in a given culture.

2. History-graded normative influences: The effects of living in

a given time and place that have similar influences on people
within that society.

3. Nonnormative influences: Random, unpredictable influences

that are idiosyncratic to each individual

Activity: Have students identify these three influences in their own lives and
16 those of family members.

Information on social cognitive theory and observational learning can be found in

the TOPSS Unit Lesson Plan on Learning.
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LESSON 3: P
 RENATAL DEVELOPMENT
AND THE NEWBORN
I. P
 renatal development: Students need to become familiar with the
stages of prenatal development as well as the influences that can
harm a child’s physical and psychological development.

A. The three stages are:

1. Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks

2. Embryo: 2 to 8 weeks

3. Fetus: 8 weeks to birth

B. This chart shows detailed month-by-month changes:

FIRST MONTH: Fertilization occurs
Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus ending
the zygote period
Rapid cell division occurs
Embryonic stage lasts from end of the 2nd week to end of
the 8th week
Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm,
the mesoderm, and the endoderm
Nervous system begins to develop
Embryo is 1/2 inch long
SECOND Heart and blood vessels form
MONTH: Head area develops rapidly
Eyes begin to form detail
Internal organs grow, especially the digestive system
Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished
Arms and legs form and grow
Heart begins to beat faintly
Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce
THIRD MONTH: Head growth occurs rapidly
Bones begin to form rapidly, which marks the transition
to the fetal stage
The digestive organs begin to function
Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements
Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce
FOURTH Lower parts of the body show rapid growth
MONTH: Bones are distinct in X-ray films 17
Reflex movement becomes more active
Heartbeat detected by physician
Sex organs are fully formed
Fetus is 7 inches long and weighs 5 ounces
FIFTH MONTH: Mother begins to feel reflex movements

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A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body
Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body
Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage
Fingernails and toenails begin to appear
Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking
Fetus is 12 inches long and weighs 14 ounces
SIXTH MONTH: Eyes and eyelids fully formed
Fat is developing under the skin
Fetus is 14 inches long and weighs 2 pounds
SEVENTH Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly
MONTH: Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
EIGHTH MONTH: Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use
Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips
Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 5 pounds
NINTH MONTH: Hair covering the entire body is shed
Organ systems function actively
Vernix is present over the entire body
Fetus settles into position for birth
Neonate is 21 inches long and weighs 7 pounds
 II. Genetic factors affecting the developing child

A. Phenylketonuria (PKU)

1. The absence or deficiency of an enzyme that is responsible

for processing the essential amino acid phenylalanine
characterizes PKU.

2. With normal enzymatic activity, phenylalanine is converted

to another amino acid (tyrosine), which is then utilized by the
body. However, when the phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme
is absent or deficient, phenylalanine abnormally accumulates in
the blood and is toxic to brain tissue.

3. This condition is detectable during the first days of life with

appropriate screening through a simple blood test.

4. Without treatment, most infants with PKU develop mental

retardation and may also develop additional neurologic
symptoms.

B. Sickle-cell anemia (SCA). The following information is from

the National Center for Biotechnology Information
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22238/):

1. SCA is the most common inherited blood disorder in the United

States, affecting about 72,000 Americans and 1 in 500 African
18 Americans.

2. SCA is characterized by episodes of pain, chronic hemolytic

anemia, and severe infections, usually beginning in early
childhood.

3. SCA is an autosomal recessive disease caused by a point

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mutation in the hemoglobin beta gene (HBB) found on

chromosome 11p15.4. Carrier frequency of HBB varies
significantly around the world, with high rates associated with
zones of high malaria incidence, since carriers are somewhat
protected against malaria.

4. About 8% of African Americans are carriers.

5. A mutation in HBB results in the production of a structurally

abnormal hemoglobin (Hb) called HbS. Hb is an oxygen-
carrying protein that gives red blood cells (RBCs) their
characteristic color.

6. Under certain conditions, like low oxygen levels or high

hemoglobin concentrations in individuals who are homozygous
for HbS, the abnormal HbS clusters together, distorting the
RBCs into sickle shapes. These deformed and rigid RBCs
become trapped within small blood vessels and block them,
producing pain and eventually damaging organs.

7. Although, as yet, there is no cure for SCA, a combination of

fluids, painkillers, antibiotics, and transfusions are used to treat
symptoms and complications.

8. Hydroxyurea, an antitumor drug, has been shown to be

effective in preventing painful crises. Hydroxyurea induces
 the formation of fetal Hb (HbF)—aHb, normally found in the
fetus or newborn, when present in individuals with SCA,
prevents sickling.

9. A mouse model of SCA has been developed and is being used

to evaluate the effectiveness of potential new therapies for
SCA.

C. Tay-Sachs disease (TSD)

1. The disease is named for Warren Tay (1843–1927), a British

ophthalmologist who in 1881 described a patient with a
cherry-red spot on the retina of the eye, and Bernard Sachs
(1858–1944), a New York neurologist whose work several years
later provided the first description of the cellular changes in Tay-
Sachs disease. Sachs also recognized the familial nature of
the disorder, and, by observing numerous cases, he noted that
most babies with Tay-Sachs disease were of Eastern European
Jewish origin.

2. Tay-Sachs disease is caused by the absence of a vital

enzyme called hexosaminidase A (Hex-A). Without Hex-A, a
fatty substance or lipid called GM2 ganglioside accumulates
abnormally in cells, especially in the nerve cells of the brain.
This ongoing accumulation causes progressive damage to
the cells.

3. The destructive process begins in the fetus early in pregnancy, 19

although the disease is not clinically apparent until the child
is several months old. By the time a child with TSD is 3 or 4
years old, the nervous system is so badly affected that life itself
cannot be supported. Even with the best of care, all children
with classical TSD die early in childhood, usually by the age
of 5.

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4. A baby with Tay-Sachs disease appears normal at birth and
seems to develop normally until about 6 months of age. The
first signs of TSD can vary and are evident at different ages in
affected children.

5. Initially, development slows, there is a loss of peripheral vision,

and the child exhibits an abnormal startle response.

6. By about 2 years of age, most children experience recurrent

seizures and diminishing mental function. The infant gradually
regresses, losing skills one by one, and is eventually unable
to crawl, turn over, sit, or reach out. Other symptoms include
increasing loss of coordination, progressive inability to swallow,
and breathing difficulties. Eventually, the child becomes blind,
mentally retarded, paralyzed, and nonresponsive to
his or her environment.

D. Down syndrome

1. Named after John Langdon Down, the first physician to identify

the syndrome, Down syndrome is the most frequent genetic
cause of mild to moderate mental retardation and associated
medical problems and occurs in 1 out of 800 live births, in all
races and economic groups.
 2. Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder caused by an error
in cell division that results in the presence of an
additional third chromosome 21, or trisomy 21.
(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/downsyndrome.html).

III. Environmental factors (also called teratogens)

A. Rubella: About 25% of babies whose mothers contract rubella during

the first trimester of pregnancy are born with one or more birth defects,
which, together, are referred to as congenital rubella syndrome.

1. These birth defects include eye defects (resulting in vision loss

or blindness), hearing loss, heart defects, mental retardation,
and, less frequently, cerebral palsy.

2. Many children with congenital rubella syndrome are slow in

learning to walk and do simple tasks, although some eventually
catch up and do well.

3. The infection frequently causes miscarriage and stillbirth.

4. The risk of congenital rubella syndrome drops to around

1% after maternal infection in the early weeks of the second
trimester, and there is rarely any risk of birth defects when
maternal rubella occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy.

5. Some infected babies have health problems that aren’t lasting.

20 They may be born with low birth weight (less than 5.5 pounds)
or have feeding problems, diarrhea, pneumonia, meningitis
(inflammation around the brain), or anemia. Red-purple spots
may show up on their faces and bodies because of temporary
blood abnormalities that can result in a tendency to bleed
easily. The liver and spleen may be enlarged.
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6. Some infected babies appear normal at birth and during

infancy. However, all babies whose mothers had rubella during
pregnancy should be monitored carefully because problems
with vision, hearing, learning and behavior may first become
noticeable during childhood.

B. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy—when

it results in fetal alcohol syndrome—has emerged as one of the leading
causes of mental retardation.

IV. Reflexes, temperaments, and abilities of newborns

A. Motor development milestones or stages (provided in respective

average ages):

1. 1 month: Rolls over

2. 1 month: Grasps rattle

3. 6 months: Sits without support

4. 7 months: Stands holding on

5. 8 months: Grasps with thumb and finger

 6. 11 months: Stands well alone

7. 12 months: Walks well alone

8. 15 months: Builds tower of two cubes

9. 17 months: Walks up steps

10. 24 months: Jumps in place

B. Reflexes present at birth (mediated by the hindbrain and spinal cord):

1. Grasping reflex: Holds a finger or other object firmly

2. Rooting reflex: Turns head when touched on cheek

3. Gag reflex: Clears the throat

4. Startle reflex: Flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and arches
the back in response to a sudden noise

5. Sucking reflex: Sucks objects placed in mouth

6. Babinski reflex: Curls toes when outer edge of sole of foot is

stroked

V. Cultural influences
21
A. Various cultural differences regarding care for infants demonstrate a
rich display of the important influence culture plays on development
soon after birth. Some examples are cultural differences in
breastfeeding versus bottle feeding, parents’ sleeping in the same bed
as their infant (called co-sleeping) or having the infant sleep in a crib

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or bassinet, and when a child first eats solid food. See Arnett (2012)
for examples.

B. Worldwide infant mortality rates also exhibit stark differences;

see https://cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
rankorder/2091rank.html for example.

LESSON 4: INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

I. Perceptual abilities and intelligence

A. Habituation, the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after the

same stimulus is repeatedly presented, is used to measure an infant’s
awareness. If the stimulus is changed enough, dishabituation occurs,
and the infant shows an awareness of the change. The processes of
habituation and dishabituation can be used to study attention, sensory
and perceptual discrimination, and memory in infants.

B. Within a few days of birth, infants can recognize their own mother’s
voice, can distinguish between their own and foreign languages, and
can discriminate between closely related sounds.

C. By 7 months, infants can discriminate all sounds relevant to language

production.
 D. Newborns show a preference for sweet tastes.

E. Visual perception proceeds rapidly:

1. 1 month: color perception

2. 4 months: focus on near or far objects

3. 4-5 months: recognition of two- and three-dimensional objects

4. 7
 months: different responses to different facial expressions,
such as smiles or frowns

II. Communication and language

Theories of language acquisition in childhood

A. According to the nativist theory of Noam Chomsky, children are

born with innate abilities to acquire a universal grammar; the specific
language they acquire depends on the language to which they are
exposed.

B. Learning theory proposes, alternatively, that language acquisition

depends entirely on processes of imitation and selective reinforcement
of a specific language.

III. Stages of language acquisition

22
A. 3 months–1 year: Babbling, in which children produce meaningless
sounds; during this time, children may go through a critical period in
which they are particularly sensitive to language cues. Note that there
are cultural differences in how often and in what manner adults talk to
young children (e.g., in some cultures, adults engage in frequent baby
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talk with young children; in other cultures, adults speak less often to
children).

B. 1 year: Children start to produce simple short words that begin with a
consonant sound; however, they understand more than they can speak.

C. 18 months: Children put together short phrases, called telegraphic

speech because the children leave out words not critical to the
message such as the articles “a” and “the” and instead focus on verbs
and nouns (in today’s parlance, perhaps this might be called texting
speech!).

D. 3 years: Children are starting to use grammar and develop larger

vocabularies, but they make errors, called overgeneralization, in which
they might use incorrect grammar such as saying “runned” for the past
tense of “run” instead of “ran.”

E. 5 years: Children begin to use the basic rules of language but not a full
vocabulary; they do not have the ability to understand and use subtle
grammatical rules.

IV. Childhood

A. Physical and motor development

1. In the first 12 months, children triple their birth weight and
double their height.
 2. From age 3 to age 13, children gain about 5 pounds and 3
inches’ height per year. However, the proportions of the body
also change such that the head grows at a slower rate than the
rest of the body.

See Activity 4.1: Early Motor and Verbal Development (in Activities section)

B. Memory and thinking: Children become better able to organize and

use information in tasks involving memory and problem solving as they
age. They become much faster at processing new information, can pay
attention to stimuli for longer periods, can distinguish between different
stimuli, and are less easily distracted.

1. A preschooler can remember two to three chunks of information

in short-term memory.

2. A 5-year-old can remember four chunks of information in short-

term memory.

3. A 7-year-old can remember five chunks of information in short-

term memory (which is close to the number that adults can
remember (seven)).

4. The amount of information in a chunk also grows with age.

Children also gain awareness of their own cognitive processes
(i.e., metacognition), which accelerates in
middle childhood. 23

C. Social, cultural, and emotional development

1. By the age of 2 years, children begin to become more

independent from family and more likely to play with friends;
although they begin playing primarily with toys and not each

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other, as they get older, they begin to play more interactively.

2. By the preschool-and school-age years, children play more

elaborate games with each other. They also learn to be more
polite, regulate their emotional displays, and modify one
another’s behavior.

D. Parenting styles also seem to affect the child’s development. According

to research by Diana Baumrind, there are four categories of
childrearing; the most positive outcomes are observed among children
raised by authoritative parents.

1. 
Authoritarian: Parents who expect their children to obey them
and give low emotional support

2. Permissive: Parents who give their children little direction but

provide a lot of emotional support

3. 
Authoritative: Parents who are firm and set limits but allow
flexibility and provide a lot of emotional support

4. U
 ninvolved: Parents who show little interest in their children
either in regulating their behavior or providing emotional support

E. However, there are cultural variations in parenting. For example, in

the United States, the value of independence is stressed more than in
 countries such as Japan, which places a higher value on cooperation
and life in the community. The authority of parents, particularly fathers,
is important as well as it is in Latin American cultures. It is important to
note that the parenting-styles model is a culturally based model that
best applies to the American majority culture. See Arnett (2012) for
more information.

LESSON 5: A
 DOLESCENCE AND
EMERGING ADULTHOOD
Because students are in this phase of life, you can bring this material to life by
having them talk about their own experiences. Theories of moral, cognitive,
and social development provide many jumping-off points for discussions using
examples from their own lives and those of their friends and family.

During this lecture, you can also ask students to comment on whether they agree
with characterizing adolescence as a time of “sturm und drung” (storm and stress).

I. Physical development

A. The changes associated with puberty include development of primary

and secondary sex characteristics. You can easily obtain charts
showing the sequence of stages; in fact, here is an excellent set of
24 lesson plans:

 ttp://www.discoveryeducation.com/teachers/free-lesson-plans/
h
changes-of-puberty.cfm

Rather than focus exclusively on physical changes, however, use the

opportunity to discuss the differences between early and late-maturing
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boys and girls. Engage students in a discussion of why the differences

in the timing of puberty have psychological and social effects.

B. If you have already presented Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s theories in their
entirety, there is no need to cover them again. But if you have not yet
done so, you can use the material presented in Lesson 2 as the basis
for didactic instruction and examples.

Activity: Ask students to give examples of television shows or movies that show
the physical, cognitive, and social changes of adolescence. You can assign teams
to focus on development in one particular area of influence, such as influence of
peers, family, school, or socialization.

Activity: Have students find examples of music (or music videos) that best
depict concerns of adolescents.

II. Identity development

If you have covered Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, you can focus
in this class on the concept of identity statuses.

A. According to Erikson, identity is the major psychosocial issue of

adolescence. Based on Erikson’s theory, James Marcia proposed four
identity statuses to characterize a person’s search for identity. In the
identity diffusion status, for example, adolescents haven’t committed
to an identity and are not yet attempting to define their sense of self
 and discover their priorities, values, and commitments. The opposite
is true for the identity achievement status. Marcia proposed that many
adolescents achieve an identity without going through a crisis. He
referred to this as “foreclosed.” Another possibility is that adolescents
remained in a prolonged state of crisis, called “moratorium.”

B. M
 arcia’s four identity statuses with examples of students’ behavior in
each status

1. Identity achievement: Students have a college major and

considered alternatives before deciding on that major.

2. Identity diffusion: Students have no major and are not

particularly concerned about finding one.

3. Foreclosure: Students decided on a college major without

exploring or going through a period of questioning.

 4. Moratorium: Students are in crisis as they actively try to decide

what to major in.

Example—You can ask students these questions, which will give them
an idea of which type they are. These are sample questions concerning
careers, but you can also adapt these questions to cover values and
gender role (role of men and women in society). A new area of research
that may be particularly relevant to students in areas of mixed immigrant
status is that of “American identity.” You can ask students to describe their
own process of adopting an identity as an American and to discuss how 25
their development of a national identity presents conflict (or not) with the
identities in terms of national origins.

1. Have you decided on a career?

2. What led you to that decision?
3. Did you consider any alternatives?

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4. If you have not chosen a career, what are you doing to help you decide?

C. Sexual identity and adolescence: Adolescence is usually when teens

start to explore their sexual identity. See the TOPSS unit lesson plan
on the Psychology of Sexual Orientation for ways to incorporate sexual
identity and sexual orientation into the high school psychology course.

III. Role of the family and peers in adolescent development

A. Family has a major formative influence on the adolescent.

B. Peers are the second major influence on adolescent development.

Present different types of peer relationships and the impact of friends
on personality and social development. Discuss differences among
close versus peripheral friendships, the role of reciprocity in friendship,
and the role of bullying.

Activity: Ask students to categorize their Facebook friends in terms of

closeness, positive or negative impact, and frequency of contact. Have students
compare Facebook friends with family members on Facebook to see how their
updates and messages differ from each other.

See Activity 5: Three Tasks of Adolescent Identity: Cognitive, Moral, and Social (in
Activities section)
 IV. Emerging adulthood

A. Toward the end of the traditional adolescence years, individual may

enter a prolonged period of extended adolescence. This period includes
the college years and beyond.

B. With increases in the age of first marriage and delays in having

children, emerging adulthood is becoming more of a reality, particularly
in some socioeconomic groups that can afford a college education.
However, in some cultures, young adults reach adulthood earlier than in
other cultures.

Activity: Ask students to compare themselves with older siblings, family friends,
or neighbors in terms of the stresses they experience in their day-to-day lives. How
do students feel about entering adulthood in a time of economic uncertainty? How
will they make decisions about whether or not to pursue college or enter the work
force right away? How will they make decisions about when to start a family?

LESSON 6: ADULTHOOD AND AGING

This lesson covers the span of years from the 20s to the 90s (and perhaps
beyond). During this lesson, you can provide students with knowledge about the
aging process that will help them separate fact from fiction and become better able
to make plans about their own future. This lesson can also help students develop
26 ways of better understanding their own family members, particularly their older
relatives.

I. Major physical changes

A. Although there are predictable changes in the body associated with

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adulthood and aging, many changes are in fact preventable. Normal

age-related changes should be differentiated from diseases; the major
chronic diseases in later adulthood include arthritis, cardiovascular
disease, and diabetes. These are also preventable, particularly with
control of diet and proper exercise.

B. Here is a brief summary of the changes that occur gradually throughout

adulthood:

1. Skin: Changes in elastin and collagen lead to wrinkling and

sagging. (“Photoaging” refers to sun damage due to sun
exposure.)

2. Body build: Body experiences loss of bone mineral content,

increase in subcutaneous fat around the torso, loss of height.

3. Muscle mass: Body experiences loss of muscle mass (called

“sarcopenia”).

4. Joints: There can be an increase in cartilage outgrowths and

loss of articular cartilage thickness.

5. Aerobic capacity: The maximum cardiac output may

decrease.

6. 
Hormone changes: Climacteric involves the diminution of
sex hormones; the complete loss of fertility in women is called
menopause.
 7. Nervous system: Changes in circadian rhythms lead to
increase in early rising. There are also decreases in numbers of
neurons and synapses.

8. Vision changes: Presbyopia (far sightedness) and cataracts

may occur.

9. Hearing changes: Presbycusis (loss of ability to hear

high-pitched tones) is another change.

10. Balance: Loss of balance can increase the risk of falling.

C. However, virtually all of these changes can be compensated for or

prevented through the following measures:

1. Physical exercise: Participating in aerobic exercise stimulates

heart rate, and resistance training maintains muscle mass and
bone density.

2. Mental activity: Keeping mentally active can maintain brain

plasticity; people with higher levels of intellectual engagement
show fewer negative changes in mental activity.

3. Regulation of diet: Minimizing the intake of sugar reduces the

chances of developing metabolic syndrome and, hence, the risk
of diabetes.

4. Avoidance of “bad habits”: Using sunscreen, wearing 27

sunglasses, not listening to loud music, not smoking, not
drinking can delay changes.

II. Major cognitive changes

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A. Throughout adulthood, individuals gradually increase their response
times, are less adept at solving fluid intelligence problems, and have
poorer episodic memory. However, many cognitive functions are
preserved, including semantic memory, verbal (crystallized) intelligence,
and procedural or implicit memory. Moreover, older adults show
increases in the quality called wisdom, or practical knowledge about
interpersonal problems. Changes in driving ability occur due to changes
in the ability to make complex decisions, but many older adults regulate
their driving habits to compensate for these changes.

B. Cognitive changes are also linked to overall physical health. There are
steeper declines in memory for individuals who are prone to diabetes,
who do not exercise, and who do not participate in intellectually
stimulating activities. People’s beliefs about their memory can also
influence their performance, as can the amount of psychological stress
they experience.

C. Although considerable media attention is given to the increasing

prevalence of dementia, specifically Alzheimer’s disease, among older
adults, the large majority of people 65 and older do not suffer from
significant cognitive deficits.

D. Older adults show cognitive “plasticity,” the ability to improve their

functioning with practice, in many areas. Most recently, researchers
are showing that playing videogames can help maximize reaction time
and visual search. Cognitive intervention studies also show significant
transfer effects from exposure to training in memory, reasoning, and
spatial relations to activities of daily living.
 Activity: Instruct students to approach an older relative with questions that tap
into “wisdom,” such as how to handle an interpersonal conflict. Have the students
rate the degree of wisdom in the responses and then have students compare this
wisdom across the ages of the individuals they interviewed.

III. Social, cultural, and emotional issues

A. The U.S. population is aging at a rapid rate with the growth of the over-
65 population due to the aging of the Baby Boomer generation (born
between 1946 and 1962).

B. Changes in the U.S. population will occur disproportionately by ethnic/

minority group, with the largest increases between 2010 and 2050
expected in the Hispanic population.

C. Around the world, the largest increase will occur for older adults living in
the developing, agrarian-based countries.

Example—You can find ample documentation of population trends by

going to this website: http://www.agingstats.gov/agingstatsdotnet/main_
site/default.aspx

D. Social issues relevant to adult development and aging include age-

related changes in family and work life. You likely won’t have much time
to cover these topics, so you can select from these topics which are
likely to appeal to students:

28 1. Intimacy and long-term relationships: The median age of

first marriage is rising. The divorce rate, after hitting an all-time
high in 1980 is declining, in part due to an increase in age at
first marriage. Definitions of marriage are also changing along
with changes in legalization of same-sex marriage in the
United States.
content outline

2. Families: Changes in families are occurring along with a

decline in the percentage of families consisting of a married
couple living with their biological children. As life expectancy
increases, so do the number of three- and four-generation
families. Reconstituted or blended families are also increasing
in prevalence. Major turning points in families include the
transition to parenthood when a couple has their first child and
the transition to the empty nest when grown children move out
of the home. However, with the economic downturn of the late
2000s, more adult children are moving back home to live with
their parents. There are also increasingly large numbers of “skip
generation” households in which grandparents take primary
responsibility for the care of children. Cultures vary in their
emphasis on family relationships, with some ethnic and racial
minorities placing greater value on extended families.

3. Jobs and career development: The most popular vocational

development theory, that of John Holland, proposes that
people are most satisfied in their jobs when there is a fit or
match between their personalities and the characteristics of the
job. Changes in career patterns are occurring as the economy
continues to shift, with increases in the unemployment rate,
particularly for young ethnic and racial minorities. At the other
end of the age spectrum, retirees are concerned about the
stability of their pension or retirement payments and pressures
on the Social Security system. Women and men are also facing
the challenges of balancing work and family life, especially
when there are young children in the home.
 4. Cultural aspects of aging: In many societies, older adults
are highly valued, but Western industrialized nations typically
hold more negative views. For example, older actresses are
not regarded as being attractive and have a more difficult
time being cast in starring roles. However, attitudes seem to
be shifting, and there is greater cultural acceptance of older
people in general, including older leading ladies and other
performers.

Activities: Depending on which areas you emphasize, you can give students
assignments in which they focus on family, work life, or cultural issues in general.
For an activity specifically related to grandparenting, ask students to talk about
what they’ve learned from their grandparents, whether it’s a skill, a language, or a
connection to their cultural heritage. An activity that can be used in the area of jobs
is to have students describe their ideal jobs and see how well the ideal jobs match
their personalities using the O*NET website (http://www.onetonline.org/).

See Activity 6: Bridging the Generation Gap: Interviewing a Senior Citizen About
Adolescence (in Activities section)

IV. Personality and aging

If you have not already covered Erikson’s theory, you should cover it here—
particularly his views about generativity and ego integrity.

A. The midlife crisis is a concept that is constantly being discussed in the

media, but researchers do not find that it is a widespread phenomenon 29
at all. Most people develop gradually through adulthood without
undergoing a distinct transition in their 40s. The debate about whether
personality is stable versus whether it can change in adulthood seems
to have subsided as researchers investigating long-term patterns of
personality find that shifts can occur even into the decades of the 80s

content outline
and beyond.

B. Socioemotional selectivity theory proposes that as endings occur,

people try to focus on their relationships that are most positively
fulfilling; consequently, as a theory of aging, the theory proposes that
older people prefer to spend time with people who enhance their well-
being.

C. Other personality theories of aging propose that as people get older,

they are better able to manage their emotions, cope more effectively
with stress, and engage in fewer self-defeating and acting-out
behaviors.

Activity: Ask students to provide examples of movies, TV shows, or magazine

articles that depict the midlife crisis. The examples can also be drawn from
relatives or friends. Then, ask the students to discuss the examples critically from
the standpoint of alternative explanations.

Activity: Ask students to project their personalities into the future by completing
a “life drawing.” They can indicate the major age periods of their lives and give a
brief description of what they think they’ll be like at those ages.

V. Other issues on adulthood and aging

A. Death and dying: If you choose to cover the topic of death and dying,
it would be valuable to emphasize not only the work of Elisabeth
 Kubler-Ross, who is identified with the five stages of dying (denial,
anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance). Instead, focus on
recent work on end-of-life issues, including the topics of advance
directives, palliative care, hospices, and assisted suicide. Advance
directives are legal documents that allow you to convey your
decisions about end-of-life care ahead of time (for example, see
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/advancedirectives.html).

Activity: Ask students to reflect on cultural differences in perspectives toward

death and dying; for example, how might one’s culture or religious beliefs about the
afterlife affect the way a person views the death of a loved one?

B. Successful aging: As a positive and upbeat way to end this unit, cover
the topic of successful aging, defined as maintaining physical health,
cognitive vitality, freedom from illness, and vital engagement with
others. Many productive and creative individuals have maintained their
contributions throughout their later years. You can also emphasize the
fact that the majority of older adults have high levels of subjective well-
being and have optimistic views about their lives.

Activity: Ask students to bring in examples of people who illustrate productivity

and creativity in later adulthood, including contemporary writers, artists, scientists,
and musicians.

30
 activities

activity 1.1
introductory survey and content discussion
Developed by
Michael Sullivan
Hopkinton High School, Hopkinton, MA

CONCEPT 31
One valuable instructional tool involves identifying and building upon what the
students already know. Introductory surveys like the following can serve that
purpose, while also helping you anticipate likely areas of confusion in the
unit to come.

The distinction between assimilation and accommodation can be a trouble spot

activties
for students. Their responses to items #12 and #13 might serve as a starting
point for examination of those two Piagetian concepts. Such preliminary floating
of difficult concepts is not by any means a foolproof teaching method, and you
almost surely have to re-teach the terms later in the unit. But this early exposure
may help your students down the road.

Some possible talking points are included for all the items after the survey. It
may seem like too big an investment of time to spend an entire class session on
this survey, but your content discussion, in which you use the student responses
to identify many themes and concepts in development, can actually save time in
the end.

MATERIALS 
The Introductory Survey (See next page.)

(activity 1.1 continued on next page)

 (activity 1.1 continued from previous page)

INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
Label each of the items using the following scale:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 
Strongly
Agree
Strongly
Disagree Agree

1. __ Our physical development is mostly a matter of nature—that is, physical

development will unfold largely because of things that are inborn.

2.__Our cognitive development (remembering, thinking, planning, decision making,

etc.) is mostly a matter of nature—that is, cognitive development will mostly
unfold because of what is inborn.

3. __Our social development (attachment to others, interacting appropriately

and positively with others, etc.) is mostly a matter of nature—that is, social
development is largely based on things that we’re born with.

4.__Most physical development unfolds continuously—that is, the development is

so slow and gradual that it is not readily apparent to the naked eye.

32 5.__Most physical development unfolds discontinuously—that is, we develop in

stages, with clear breaks between the stages.

6.__If a child’s parents are authoritarian (expecting obedience to orders, not

seeking or welcoming the child’s input, resistant to changing their minds or
practices, etc.), the child will be less happy and less well adjusted as an adult.
activities

7.__Children are born with a basic sense of right and wrong.

8.__For most adolescents, the teenage years are a time of stress, anxiety, and
confusion about the present and future.

9.__For most older people, the major crisis they face is looking back at how well,
or badly, they have lived their life.

10.__ Your brain keeps developing until the day you die.

11.__There are some things (like language, for example) a child must learn early in
life, or it will be too late to ever learn them well.

12.__Preschool-aged children are constantly trying to fit new information into what
they already know.

13.__Preschool-aged children require direct parental intervention to help them

understand new things they encounter in their world.

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(activity 1.1 continued from previous page)

DISCUSSION
After students take the survey, you can lead a content-based discussion that
foreshadows the following:
 
Item #1 and Item #2: Revisit whether the so-called nature/nurture debate is
actually a false dichotomy; review the concept of genetic predispositions; introduce
maturation and socialization.

Item #3: Revisit nature/nurture; revisit longitudinal studies; introduce attachment

and parenting styles; discuss cross-cultural differences in development.

Item #4 and Item #5: Introduce continuity versus discontinuity theories.

Item #6: Revisit longitudinal studies; introduce parenting styles.

Item #7: Introduce Kohlberg on moral reasoning.

Item #8 and Item #9: Introduce Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

over the life span.

Item #10: Revisit neurogenesis, brain plasticity; introduce Alzheimer’s disease,

dementia.

Item #11: Introduce critical period theory.

33
Item #12 and Item #13: Introduce assimilation and accommodation; introduce Lev
Vygotsky’s perspective on development.

REFERENCE
This activity originally appeared in:
Sullivan, M. (2011). Teacher’s manual for the AP psychology examination (3rd ed.).
Brooklyn, NY: D&S Marketing Systems, Inc.

Reprinted with permission.

 activity 1.2
nature and nurture in development
Developed by
Michael Sullivan
Hopkinton High School, Hopkinton, MA

CONCEPT 35
The value of this survey lies in your debriefing of it.

MATERIALS
Nature and Nurture in Development Survey (See next page.)

activities
REFERENCE
This activity originally appeared in:
Sullivan, M. (2011). Teacher’s manual for the AP psychology examination (3rd ed.).
Brooklyn, NY: D&S Marketing Systems, Inc.

Reprinted with permission.

(activity 1.2 worksheet continued on next page)

 (activity 1.2 worksheet continued from previous page)

NATURE AND NURTURE IN DEVELOPMENT SURVEY

Rate each item, using the following scale:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
no moderate maximum
influence influence influence

I. What role does biology (inborn) play in

a. patterns of aggressive behavior__

b. alcoholism or other addictions__
c. extroversion and introversion__
d. intelligence__
e. memory__
f. common sense__
g. depression__
h. anxiety__
i. helping behavior__
j. conscientious work ethic__

II. What role does learning/environment/nurture play in

a. patterns of aggressive behavior__

36 b. alcoholism and other addictions__
c. extroversion and introversion__
d. intelligence__
e. memory__
f. common sense__
g. depression__
h. anxiety__
activities

i. helping behavior__
j. conscientious work ethic__
 activity 4
early motor and verbal development
Developed by
Peter S. Fernald
University of New Hampshire
and
L. Dodge Fernald
Harvard University

CONCEPT 37
This activity is appropriate for classes in introductory psychology, child
psychology, or any course that treats developmental sequence in infancy and
childhood. It can be used in a class of any size and requires about 30 minutes,
although it can go longer with more discussion. This in-class activity is a good
lead-in to a discussion about the developmental sequence, the distinction
between abilities that are acquired through training and those that are acquired

activities
through maturation, and early intelligence testing.

Several principles of human development, especially the cephalocaudal

and proximodistal sequences and the role of maturation, are illustrated.
Cephalocaudal development describes motor development and growth that
occurs from the head to the feet/tail. For example, an infant can turn his or
her head before achieving control of lower parts of the body. Proximodistal
development describes motor development and growth that occurs from the
middle of the body out to the periphery. For example, gross motor skills are
achieved before fine motor skills (e.g., gaining control of arm movements before
finger movements).

MATERIALS
Write the list of motor and verbal abilities (see next page) on the chalkboard,
show them on a PowerPoint slide, or give a copy of the list to each student in the
class.

(activity 4 worksheet continued on next page)

 (activity 4 continued from previous page)

LIST OF MOTOR AND VERBAL ABILITIES

Order of
Development Motor and Verbal Abilities

__ Walks alone; says several words

__ Describes the difference between a bird and a dog
__ Turns head to follow moving object
__ Names penny, nickel, and dime
__ Climbs stairs; says many words
__ Laces shoes
__ Sits alone for one minute; says “da-da”
__ Tells how a baseball and an orange or an airplane and a kite are alike
__ Puts on shoes
__ Tells time to quarter-hour
__ Runs; uses simple word combinations
__ Walks while holding onto something

INSTRUCTIONS
Ask the students to rank the various abilities according to their developmental
sequence, beginning with 1, which indicates the first ability to develop, and
ending with 12, the last ability to develop. After the students have completed this
task, tell them the proper sequence, which is 3, 7, 12, 1, 5, 11, 9, 6, 4, 2, 10, 8
(the order here refers to their original ranking as displayed in the original list).
38 Then, to help students understand the sequence more clearly, put the list in its
rearranged but correct order from first ability to develop (top) to last ability to
develop. The list, with approximate ages, should appear as follows.

2 months Turns head to follow moving object

9 months Sits alone for one minute; says “da-da”
1 year Walks while holding onto something
activities

1 year 3 months Walks alone; says several words

1 year 6 months Climbs stairs; says many words
2 years Runs; uses simple word combinations
3 years Puts on shoes
4 years Laces shoes
5 years Names penny, nickel, and dime
6 years Describes the difference between a bird and a dog
7 years Tells time to quarter-hour
8 years Tells how a baseball and an orange or an airplane and a kite are alike

DISCUSSION
Ask the students the following question: In what ways are the cephalocaudal
and the proximodistal development indicated in the sequence just described?
Coax out of the students some examples illustrated in the sequence. An example
of cephalocaudal development is that a baby turns his or her head to follow a
moving object before he or she walks. A sequence that suggests proximodistal
development is a child puts on his or her shoes before he or she learns to
lace them.

Next, tell the students to put the letter M beside those abilities they believe are
acquired chiefly through maturation and a T beside those that clearly involve
training. Then ask them a second question: Is there any trend or pattern with
regard to the abilities that develop primarily through maturation and those for

(activity 4 worksheet continued on next page)

(activity 4 continued from previous page)

which training is also required? Elicit through discussion the following points: The
first three abilities develop chiefly through maturation with regard to the motor
task, but training is involved with each of the verbal tasks; the last six abilities
all involve some training. Thus, it would appear that training (learning) assumes
greater importance for abilities occurring later in the developmental sequence.

Finally, invite students to construct an intelligence test for infants and young
children, birth through 8 years, and ask them a third question: Would it be
appropriate to use some of these items in such a test? Again, through discussion,
elicit the following ideas. Intelligence, defined in general terms, is the ability to
adjust to one’s environment. Placed in the correct order, the items represent a
progressive increase in capacity to adapt to and deal with the environment. In
fact, several of the tasks are included in standard intelligence tests. Note also
the changing nature of intelligence as one ascends the age scale, from a largely
motor ability early in life to greater verbal emphasis later on. Adult intelligence
tests involve mostly verbal abilities.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Papalia, D. E. (2006). A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence (10th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.

Shaffer, D., & Kipp, K. (2007). Developmental psychology: Childhood and

adolescence (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

39

Copyright © 2008 by the American Psychological Association. The official citation

that should be used in referencing this material is:
Fernald, P. S., & Fernald, L. D. (2008). Early motor and verbal development.
In L. T. Benjamin (Ed.), Favorite activities for the teaching of psychology.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission

from the American Psychological Association.
 activity 5
three tasks of adolescent identity: cognitive,
moral, and social
Developed by
Mary Moore Vandendorpe
Lewis University

CONCEPT 41
This three-part discussion is designed to bring abstract theories concerning
adolescent development to life and is suitable as an in-class activity for
introductory and developmental psychology. It can be modified to fit available
time; allow 20 minutes if it is an instructor-directed discussion emphasizing
Piaget and Erikson. No materials are needed, and any size class can participate.
Large classes may be broken into small discussion groups to facilitate student

activities
participation.

The cognitive theory of Jean Piaget, the moral theories of Lawrence Kohlberg,
and the concept of social age-graded norms are key constructs for the study of
adolescence. According to Erik Erikson (1954), the formation of identity is aided
by development in these areas. More recent discussions of these theories often
use the concept of schema, a customary way of thinking about things, rather than
the concept of stage (Gibbs, 2003).

Piaget (1972) postulated that formal operational thought requires an ability to

think hypothetically and to generate logical rules for abstract problems. Kohlberg
(1986) proposed that adolescents become capable of moral reasoning and
look beyond simple rewards and punishments. Kohlberg‘s theory is based on
considerations of justice and equity. In our society, age-graded norms are not
highly visible because there is no single universally recognized rite of passage.
Adolescents are frequently caught between the norms for children and the norms
for adults. As societies become more fragmented, conflicting norms and ideals
complicate the formation of identity.

These developments make the adolescent’s search for his or her own identity
a difficult struggle. Cognitive changes allow the teenager to generate several
potential identities and to evaluate them in a reasonably logical manner. The
adolescent can question beliefs and roles handed down by the family and society
while still remaining sensitive to expectations about what his or her appropriate

(activity 5 continued on next page)

 (activity 5 continued from previous page)

behavior should be. A successful resolution of identity depends on the ability to

coordinate all of these elements.

INSTRUCTIONS
The activity is composed of three applications of the theories and a conclusion:

1. After presenting the definition of the formal operations stage, introduce

what I call the “One Leg Scenario.” Ask the students, “Suppose that from
this moment on, every human baby is born with only one leg. What would
have to change?” Elaborate on the situation according to class questions;
for example, state that one-legged babies are normal in every other way.
Then ask for ideas about what would have to change. The students quickly
suggest changes in clothing, as well as in architecture. They often decide,
for example, that stairs would disappear; the discussion would also include
ideas of what cars and sports would be like. How would people travel—
using crutches, riding on scooters, or just hopping on the one leg? Have the
class consider how such an event might change our ideas of normality and
might introduce new targets of discrimination. In conclusion, point out the
characteristics of formal operations that usually become evident from the
students’ contributions: hypothetico-deductive reasoning and consideration
of every aspect of the problem. This can also be a lead-in to discussions
about divergent thinking and problem solving.

2. Kohlberg’s (1986) moral dilemma concerning Heinz and the druggist is cited
42 in almost every text, but in my classes, two other moral dilemmas have been
more realistic and interesting to undergraduates. They are: exceeding the
speed limit and cheating in school.

Instruct the class to generate every reason they can imagine for and against
these behaviors. It is useful to ask them to suggest what other students
might say, rather than give their own reasoning. Divide the class into
activities

small groups and have each group classify each reason according to its
level of morality for Kohlberg’s (1986) theory. Each group can describe an
appropriate approach to encourage moral growth in an adolescent. I often
do the speeding example as a large group exercise and then have the small
groups discuss the second “dilemma.” Discuss the difference between moral
reasoning and moral behavior.

3. S
 tudents may not realize the impact of norms on our lives. Age-graded
norms can be demonstrated by asking the students how a high school
freshman is expected to act and how a college senior is expected to act.
Students usually volunteer descriptions in terms of driving, relationships, and
classroom behavior. The major point, that norms are often age graded and
that they have a strong, often unrecognized effect on our lives, needs little
elaboration. Point out that norms make it easier to know how to behave; they
can be efficient and comfortable.

DISCUSSION
The discussion should point out how the ability to negotiate cognitive, moral,
and social tasks influences the development of identity. To emphasize themes
of change and consistency, ask the students to write 10 answers to the item “I
am ...” in two sets—one for themselves currently and one for when they were
12 years old. Ask the students to describe the changes in their identity—such
as viewpoint, sense of moral responsibility, and perception of self—that have

(activity 5 continued on next page)

(activity 5 continued from previous page)

occurred over time and also to note the similarities that have remained. Have
them apply the theories discussed in this activity to their own development.

Make the point that highly industrialized Western cultures typically prize
individuality, whereas traditional cultures more often value interdependence and
cooperation (Hoover, 2004).

A second area of discussion relates to the strong attraction many adolescents

feel for ideologies. My classes have analyzed the ways in which growing
analytical ability, a stronger moral sense, and the comfort of norms can make
young people vulnerable to ideological groups: political and religious extremists,
cults, gangs, and social and military organizations.

Students can write responses to these exercises, discussing an example of their

own thinking, how norms have influenced them, or how identity may change over
time.

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Erikson, L. (1954). Childhood and society. New York: W. W. Norton.

Gibbs, J. C. (2003). Moral development and reality: Beyond the theories of

Kohlberg and Hoffman. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s

development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 43

Hoover, K. R. (Ed.). (2004). The future of identity: Centennial reflections on the

legacy of Erik Erikson. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Kohlberg, L. (1986). The stages of ethical development from childhood through

old age. San Francisco: Harper & Row.

Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human

Development, 15, 1-12.

Thomas, R. (2004). Comparing theories of child development (6th ed.). Belmont,

CA: Wadsworth.

Copyright © 2008 by the American Psychological Association. The official citation

that should be used in referencing this material is:
Vandendorpe, M. M. (2008). Three tasks of adolescent identity: Cognitive, moral,
and social. In L. T. Benjamin (Ed.), Favorite activities for the teaching of
psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission

from the American Psychological Association.
 activity 6
bridging the generation gap:
interviewing a senior citizen
about adolescence
Developed by
Charles Blair-Broeker
Cedar Falls High School, Cedar Falls, IA

CONCEPT 45
Students will learn about adolescence by interviewing senior citizens about
adolescence. This assignment meets several objectives, including:

• Developing research skills (interview, case study)

• Applying life span principles to personal experience

activities
INSTRUCTIONS FOR STUDENTS
• Arrange to conduct an informal interview (more like a conversation, really)
with someone who is at least 65 years old. You may interview a relative,
neighbor, or member of your house of worship. You may also call a nursing
home to arrange to interview a resident. If you’re having trouble finding
someone to interview, contact me (the teacher). Be sure to get consent, in
writing, from the interviewee before conducting the interview. The consent
form should acknowledge that the person being interviewed agrees to speak
with you and is aware that you will be writing a report from the interview.

• Schedule at least 30 minutes to conduct the interview. Do not tape record

the conversation (it makes people nervous), but do jot a few notes as you
proceed. Have some topics for questions in mind before you go in, but be
flexible and allow the conversation to follow its own course.

• The interview should be about adolescence as it was experienced by your

interview subject. You may ask about school, friendship and dating activities,
family, part-time jobs, historical events (e.g., the impact of World War II or
the Great Depression). You may also ask about your subject’s opinions of
today’s teenagers and share your opinions as the conversation develops.
The communication should be a two-way street.

(activity 6 continued on next page)

 (activity 6 continued from previous page)

• Prepare a two-page report about your interview. Rather than trying to sum-
marize the whole conversation, restrict your paper to two to four topics that
you found especially interesting or informative. Make sure you include your
own well-reasoned opinions about each of the topics you highlight.

46
activities
 references and
resources

References 47
American Psychological Association. (2011). National standards for high school
psychology curricula. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/education/k12/
national-standards.aspx

Arnett, J. J. (2012). Human development: A cultural approach. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Pearson.

references and resources

Articles and Books
American Psychological Association. (2004). Guidelines for psychological
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Arnett, J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens
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Benjamin, L. T. (Ed.) (2008). Favorite activities for the teaching of psychology.

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Benjamin, L. T., Nodine, B. F., Ernst, R. M., & Broeker, C. B. (Eds.). (1999).
Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology, Vol. 4. Washington, DC:
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Biggs, S., Phillipson, C., & Kingston, P. (1995). Elder abuse in perspective.
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Bruer, J. T. (1999). The myth of the first three years: A new understanding of
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Freiberg, K. (2006). Annual editions: Human development 07/08. New York, NY:
McGraw Hill.
 Fried, S. B., & Mehrotra, C. M. (1998). Aging and diversity: An active learning
experience. Washington, DC: Taylor and Francis.

Fried, S., Van Booven, D., & MacQuarrie, C. (1993). Older adulthood: Learning
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Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. 

Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
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Kantrowitz, B., & Springen, K. (2005). A peaceful adolescence. Newsweek,

145(17), 58.

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PBS. (Producer). (2002). Make up your mind [Video]. Available from http://www.
pbs.org/saf/1302/video/watchonline.htm

PBS. (Producer). (2001). Growing up different [Video]. Available from http://

www.pbs.org/saf/1205/video/watchonline.htm

Talking Eyes Media. (Producer). (2003). Aging in America: The years ahead
[DVD]. Available from (http://talkingeyesmedia.org/aging-in-america

Wenman, A., & Bailey, A. (Producers). (2005). Apache girl’s rite of passage
[Video]. Available from http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/places/
countries-places/united-states/us-apachegirl-pp/

WGBH Boston & American Psychological Association. (Producers). (2001).

Discovering psychology: The developing child [Video]. Available from http://
www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=1502
 Websites
APA Website
The APA website presents a wealth of information on psychology, psychological
research, and related news.
http://www.apa.org

APA Website: Topics—Aging

The APA website features a compilation of resources related to the topic of aging.
http://www.apa.org/topics/aging/index.aspx

APA Office on Aging

The Office on Aging is a coordination point for APA activities pertaining to aging
and geropsychology. The Office on Aging also supports the work of the APA
Committee on Aging. 
www.apa.org/pi/aging

APA Divisions
APA’s 54 divisions are interest groups organized by members. Some represent
subdisciplines of psychology (e.g., experimental, social, or clinical), while others
focus on topical areas such as aging, ethnic minorities, or trauma. Each division
has its own officers, website, publications, electronic lists, awards, convention
activities, and meetings.
http://www.apa.org/about/division/index.aspx

50 -- APA Division 2: The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP)

The Society for the Teaching of Psychology promotes excellence in the
teaching and learning of psychology. The society provides resources
and services, access to a collaborative community, and opportunities
for professional development. The Society for the Teaching of
Psychology develops and distributes teaching and advising resources
through the Office of Teaching Resources in Psychology.
references and resources

www.teachpsych.org
http://teachpsych.org/otrp/index.php

-- APA Division 7: Developmental Psychology

Division 7 is composed of psychologists and other members of APA
from a variety of disciplines who study or work in the area of human
development.
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div7.aspx

-- APA Division 12 – Section II: Society of Clinical Geropsychology

The Society of Clinical Geropsychology is devoted to research, training,
and the provision of psychological services for older adults (i.e.,
geropsychology).
http://www.geropsychology.org/

-- APA Division 20: Adult Development and Aging

Division 20 works to advance the study of psychological development
and change throughout the adult years. The website includes many
resources for educators.
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div20.aspx
Jean Piaget Society
Established in 1970, the society has an international, interdisciplinary
membership of scholars, teachers, and researchers interested in exploring the
nature of the developmental construction of human knowledge. The society was
named in honor of Swiss developmentalist Jean Piaget.
http://www.piaget.org

TED Talks
This is a useful set of presentations of 20 or fewer minutes by noted researchers
in technology, entertainment, and design. Many relate to psychology, and some
concern general topics related to developmental psychology.
www.TED.com

51

resources
 discussion
questions

1. C
 ompare and contrast longitudinal and cross-sectional research models. 53

2. Select a research model to study the difference in egocentrism between

groups of 5- and 10-year-olds. Justify your choice.

3.  valuate the practice of using habituation to infer cognitive processes in

E
infants.

discussion questions
4.  re there critical periods (as Lorenz argues in discussing imprinting
A
goslings) in human development?

5.  hat are teratogens? Explain the short-term and long-term negative

W
effects of malnutrition and unbalanced diets on babies.

6.  xplain how a child might use accommodation and how a child might use
E
assimilation when looking at animals in the zoo (example: Comparing a
horse and a zebra versus a horse and a giraffe).

7. Compare and contrast the views of Piaget and Vygotsky.

8.  escribe a civilization wherein all people lived at Kohlberg’s highest stage

D
of moral development. What would be the positive and negative aspects of
such a civilization?

9.  escribe how different parenting styles might apply to preparing children

D
for different roles in the world of work.

10.  escribe an environment designed specifically for an aged population.

D
Explain how such an environment would be different from the world of
today.

11. Explain why the period of adolescence lengthens in advanced societies.