TOPIC 5

PRE-TREATMENT OF SALINE FEED WATER

Commonly encountered foulants: in thermal or membrane desalination processes fall
into the following three basic categories:

(a) scale,
(b) suspended/colloidal matter, and
(c) biological matter.

The recovery of pure water from saline water results in increasing the concentration of brine
thus increasing the potential for fouling due to precipitation of scale forming salts/coagulation
and deposition of colloidal matter from brine. The fouling of heat exchangers and RO
membranes is a complex phenomenon involving the deposition of several different types of
foulants on the surfaces.

The development of such deposits on heat exchanger surfaces in distillation plants leads to
inferior thermal performance, decreased production, unscheduled shutdowns, poor product
quality and premature heat exchanger failure [2].

Pretreatment steps in a typical Seawater Reverse Osmosis System

1
 Figure 1. Mild fouling of a brine heater of an MSF plant

Fouled HFF membrane after conducting 3000 hours experiment

2
 The feed water may contain various concentrations of suspended solids and
dissolved matter.

Suspended solids may consist of the following:

- Inorganic particles
- Colloids
- Biological matter, which includes microorganisms and algae.

Dissolved matter
Highly soluble salts, such as chlorides, and sparingly soluble salts, such as
carbonates, sulfates, and silica.
Solubility and its Importance in the Precipitation

The solubility of a salt is defined as its maximum concentration which can exist in solution
under given solution concentration, temperature and pressure. At this condition of saturation,
the solution is said to be in equilibrium with respect to the salt. As long as the salt
concentration in the solution is equal to or below its saturation concentration, it will not
precipitate out of the solution, and no scale will form. If, however, the concentration of the salt
exceeds its saturation concentration due to any reason(s), such as change in solution
concentration, temperature, pressure, etc., the solution is said to be supersaturated. The
excess salt in the saturated solution tends to precipitate and probably deposit as scale. The
higher the degree of supersaturation, the greater is the driving force for precipitation to occur.
Therefore the basic condition required for scale formation is attainment of ‘supersaturation’ [2].
As a consequence of supersaturation, nuclei will form and lead to crystal growth and
precipitation or scale formation. Solubility of the scale-forming salts is, therefore, like a border
between the scale and no-scale regimes and its knowledge is fundamental to the prediction and
control of scale. So, the knowledge of solubility data is of vital importance for the prediction of
scaling.

3
 Fig. 1b. Schematic illustration of scale formation steps.

CaSO4 scale CaCO3 scale

4
Mechanism of Scale Formation

Scale is defined as the deposit of certain sparingly soluble salts from the brine onto the tubing
and other process surfaces. It is one of the most serious problems in any desalination process,
especially in distillation. When a sufficiently large amount of solute is maintained in contact
with a limited amount of solvent, dissolution occurs continuously till it reaches a state when the
reverse process becomes increasingly important. This is the return of dissolved species (atoms,
ions, or molecules) to the un-dissolved state, a process called precipitation. When dissolution
and precipitation occur continuously, and at the same rate, the amount of dissolved solute
present in a given amount of solvent remains constant with time. The process is one of
dynamic equilibrium and the solution in this state of equilibrium is known as a saturated
solution. The concentration of the saturated solution is referred to as the solubility of the
solute in the given solvent. Thus, solubility of a solute is defined as its maximum concentration
which can exist in solution under a given set of conditions of temperature, pressure, and
concentration of solution. A solution that contains less solute than required for saturation is
called an unsaturated solution. A solution whose concentration is higher than that of a
saturated solution due to any reason(s), such as change in solvent concentration, temperature
and so on, is said to be supersaturated. When the temperature or concentration of a solvent is
increased, the solubility may increase, decrease, or remain constant depending on the nature of
the system. For example, if the dissolution process is exothermic, the solubility decreases with
increased temperature; if endothermic, the solubility increases with temperature [6, 7]. The
degree of supersaturation can be defined in two ways. One method is to measure the absolute
supersaturation (AS) which can be represented as:

AS = C - Ceq (1)

where C is the concentration of the dissolved substances in a given supersaturated solution and
Ceq is its normal equilibrium saturation concentration. The other method of expressing the
degree of supersaturation is by defining in terms of percent supersaturation (%PS) as stated
below:

PS(%) = [(C - Ceq )/ Ceq ]*100 (2)

and supersaturation ratio as:

SR = C / Ceq (3)

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Solubility data of solutes provide a basis to establish saturation concentration. A convenient
method of discussing the solubility (S) of a solute is by means of a solubility product (Ksp).
Consider the addition of a solute MX (s) to distilled water. At the limit of solubility, there is a
dynamic equilibrium which can be represented as follows:

MX(s) M+ (aq) + X-(aq) (4)

and the equilibrium constant, Kspo, for the solubility process is given as

Kspo = [a(M+ ) [a(X- )] / a(MX) (5)

Since the activity of pure solid MX(s) is unity, the equilibrium expression simplifies to

Kspo = a(M+ ) a(X- ) (6)

Ksp is known as Solubility Product or sometimes ‘Thermodynamic Solubility Product’ and it is a

function of temperature and invariant with the ionic strength of the solution [8].

In any aqueous solution containing M+ and X- ions, as long as the activities a(M+) and a(X-) are
such that their product is greater than Kspo; then some solid MX(s) should precipitate until the
product of a(M+) and a(M-) becomes equal to Ksp.

Ionic Product (IP) of a given solution can be calculated as:

IP = [Ca++][CO3 2-] at Temp. °C and Ionic Strength (I)

IP = [Ca++][SO4 2-] at Temp. °C and Ionic Strength (I)

If ionic product IP > Ksp precipitation will occur.

Where Ksp is the solubility product at Saturation

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Solubility Table - From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The table below provides information on the variation of solubility of different substances
(mostly inorganic compounds) in water with temperature, under 1 atm pressure, units of
solubility in g/100g H2O. The substances are listed in alphabetical order.

1 atm pressure
Substance Formula 0°C 10°C 20°C 30°C

Calcium benzoate Ca(C7H5O2)2.3H2O 2.32 2.45 2.72 3.02

Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 16.1 16.6
Calcium bromate Ca(BrO3)2 230
Calcium bromide CaBr2 125 132 143
Calcium carbonate
CaCO3-Aragonite 0.0007753
(Aragonite)
Calcium carbonate
CaCO3-Calcite 0.0006170
(Calcite)
Calcium chlorate Ca(ClO3)2 209
Calcium chloride CaCl2 59.5 64.7 74.5 100
Calcium permanganate Ca(MnO4)2 338
Calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 0.002
Calcium sulfate CaSO4.2H2O 0.223 0.244 0.255 0.264
Calcium tungstate CaWO4 0.002387
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.1782
Carbon monoxide CO 0.0026
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 0.0009628
Strontium sulfate SrSO4 0.0113 0.0129 0.0132

Solubility Products of Slightly Soluble Salts (molal) at 25 C

Compound Ksp Compound Ksp Compound Ksp
AgBr 5.35 x 10-13 BaF2 1.84 x 10-7 KClO4 1.05 x 10-2
Ag2CO3 8.45 x 10-12 BaSO4 1.08 x 10-10 MgCO3 6.82 x 10-6
AgCl 1.76 x 10-10 CaCO3 4.96 x 10-9 MgF2 7.42 x 10-11
Ag2CrO4 1.12 x 10-12 CaF2 1.46 x 10-10 MgNH4PO4 2. x 10-13*
AgCN 5.97 x 10-17 CaSO4 7.10 x 10-5 Mg(OH)2 5.61 x 10-11
AgI 1.18 x 10-16 CdS 1.40 x 10-29 MnS 4.65 x 10-14
Ag3PO4 8.88 x 10-17 Ca(OH)2 4.68 x 10-6 NiS 1.07 x 10-21
Ag2SO4 1.20 x 10-5 CuC2O4 4.43 x 10-10 PbCl2 1.78 x 10-5
Ag2S 6.69 x 10-50 CuS 1.27 x 10-36 PbS 9.05 x 10-29
AgCNS 1.03 x 10-12 Fe(OH)3 2.79 x 10-39 PbSO4 1.82 x 10-8
Al(OH)3 2. x 10-32* Hg2Br2 6.42 x 10-23 SnS 3.25 x 10-28
BaCO3 2.58 x 10-9 Hg2Cl2 6.24 x 10-13 Zn(OH)2 4.13 x 10-17
BaCrO4 1.17 x 10-10 HgS 1.55 x 10-52 ZnS 2.93 x 10-25

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Calcium carbonate scaling is perhaps the most common type of problem, with the
possible exception of microbial fouling, that RO membranes experience. Fortunately,
it is fairly easy to detect and handle.

Basically, if the ion product (IP) of calcium and carbonate in the RO reject is
greater than the solubility product constant (Ksp) under reject conditions, then
calcium carbonate scale will form.

i.e.

If IP > Ksp , scaling potential exist

If IP < Ksp , scaling in unlikely to occur

The ion product at any degree of saturation is defined as:

IP = [cation]a[anion]b

where:

IP = ion product at a given concentration

[cation] = cation concentration, Ca2+

[anion] = anion concentration, CO32-

superscripts:
a = quantity of cation within the salt
b = quantity of anion within the salt

Ksp is the solubility product at Saturation [Can be obtained from literature]

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Thermal Processes
Thermal processes are mainly affected by the dissolved matter. If the
concentrations of soluble salts are high and the temperatures are
suitable; precipitation will occur and subsequently scale will form on the
heat transfer surfaces. This will adversely affect the heat transfer
process and reduce the efficiency of the desalination process.

Types of Scale
In distillation processes, the scales formed can be divided into two types:
(a) alkaline Scales – mainly calcium carbonate and/or magnesium hydroxide.
These scales are soft in nature, and

(b) Non-Alakline Scales– mainly calcium sulfate. Calcium sulfate scales are hard
and generally forms at temperatures above 121 °C when higher concentrations of
calcium and sulfate ions are prevalent.

Scale Control Methods

Desalination plants based on distillation process generally use seawater as feed water with
salinity around 35,000 – 50,000 ppm. With appropriate concentration factor, the recycle brine
concentration is around 1.2 – 1.5 times that of feed. Its various constituents can cause scaling
or corrosion and hence pre-treatment is needed to prevent frequent interruptions in plants
operation. Pretreatment comprises filtration, chlorination, dosing of antiscalants and
deaeration / decarbonation. The following paragraphs will focus mainly on scale control
methods. There are number of methods to control scale formation in desalination plants such
as softening, seeding, use of complexing agents, pH control, and threshold agents treatment.
The widely used methods for scale control are: acid treatment or additive treatment.

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ACID TREATMENT
The control of scale by acid treatment method is meant to prevent alkaline scale formation
such as CaCO3 or CaHCO3. When acid (HCl or H2SO4) is injected to the makeup of the feed
seawater, its kills the alkalinity, the very scale forming constituent (HCO3-) by neutralizing
reaction and CO2 is evolved. To remove this CO2 a decarbonator (DC) is installed before the de-
aerator in the acid treated distillation plants. In principle, if acid is injected strictly according to
stoichiometric quantities, scale will not form and thermal performance will be maintained for
indefinite period. Correct dosing of acid needs skilled operators with full understanding of the
water chemistry of scale formation and prevention. Because incorrect dosing of acid will either
lead to scale formation or corrosion, correct dosing of acid is very important and it can be done
by two methods.
The dosage of acid does not depend on top brine temperature;
Acid dosage does not control Sulfate scales (e.g. CaSO4, SrSO4 etc.)

The calcium sulfate scale is usually avoided in this case by operating the plant at temperatures
and concentration of brine below its supersaturation limit. Temperatures below 121°C and
brine blowdown concentrations of 75,000 ppm are regarded as save operating limits. In
additive dose MSF plants the additive dosage is dependent on top brine temperature. The
additive dose has to be increased sharply with increase in top brine temperature.
pH Control Method

The pH of make-up feed seawater is adjusted to a predetermined value by acid injection based
on alkalinity and pH of feed. pH is measured after feeding acid but before DC to regulate the
acid dosing pump. pH meters needs to be calibrated frequently to provide reliable readings and
avoid any malfunctioning of pH meters. pH adjustments are done in different manners:

(a) acidification based on stoichiometry to a pH of 4.4. The alkalinity is completely neutralized

and CO2 released is removed through DC, however, small amount of caustic is done to adjust pH

(b) over-acidification to a pH of 3.8 - 4.0. Acid injection is more than the stoichiometric quantity
required and caustic injection is necessary to adjust pH. This method eliminates scale forming
constituents completely, but poses danger of severe corrosion if caustic injection malfunctions,

(c) under-acidification to a pH of 5.0. Acid injection is less than the stoichiometric quantity
required leaving some alkalinity (15-20 ppm) in the make-up [31]. This method allows some
scale formation, but the residual alkalinity considered as buffer against corrosion and no caustic
injection is necessary.

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Proportional Flow Control Method

In this method, the acid injection is based on alkalinity and flow rate of make-up feed.
Alkalinity is assumed to be constant and acid dosing is regulated proportional to flow of make-
up feed so as to neutralize the total alkalinity. However, pH is measured regularly to make sure
correct acid dosing is carried out. Alkalinity also has to be measured to make sure the acid
injection is according to stoichiometry.

Case Studies
Jeddah-I

Jeddah-I is a dual purpose power and desalination plant with capacity of 2x9,500 m3/day and
2x25 Mw started operation in 1970. This plant was the first major MSF plant started in Saudi
Arabia with little experience. With respect to scaling, Maadhah and Wojcik [32] reported that it
suffered from both scaling and corrosion problems in brine heater and flash chambers. The
reason was incorrect dosing of acid due to inaccurate reading of pH and flow rates. Also the
top brine temperature (TBT) reached above design value of 120 °C occasionally which caused
formation of calcium sulfate scale in the brine heater tubes. The performance ratio was around
8.3 (designed value 9.5).

Jeddah II

Jeddah-II is also a dual-purpose power and desalination plant with a total desalination capacity
of 38,000 m3/day and power production of 80Mw and started operation in 1977. This plant
was well operated based on acid injection less than the stoichiometric quantity leaving
alkalinity of 15-20 ppm in the make-up [31]. The performance ratio was around 9.9 compared
to the design value of 9.3.

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Additive Treatment
The additive treatment or threshold treatment comprises injection of very small quantities of
additives to the seawater make up feed. Elliott [33] has extensively reviewed the early work on
threshold agents. The mode of action of these threshold agents has not yet been fully
explained but would appear to be due to adsorption of the additive on the growing crystal
nuclei which inhibits growth at the preferred nucleation sites and results in the formation of
irregular, distorted crystals. Addadi [34] noticed that the required dosages of these additives
vary from 5 wt. % in solution for the objective of habit modification up to 10 wt. % for total
inhibition. Harris [35] discussed the effect of various additives in retarding the precipitation of
alkaline scale (e.g. calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide) and sulfate scale in desalination
plants. In the water treatment industry these additives have been used successfully to control
carbonate as well as sulfate scales.

Low Temperature Additives Treatment

Among different types of additives to control scale formation in distillation plants,
polyphosphates can be used for desalination plants up to top brine temperature of about 90 ºC.
Above this temperature the thermal degradation of polyphosphates begins and the additive will
become ineffective. Proper additive dosage has to be determined to be able to utilize it
effectively, otherwise lower dosage will increase scale problem and excessive dosage will form
sludge and impair the thermal performance of the heat transfer tubes in the brine heater.
However, the polyphosphates are susceptible to hydrolysis, and the rate of hydrolysis increases
with temperature.

High Temperature Additives Treatment

The high temperature additives (HTA) are organic polyelectrolytes that are stable at higher
temperatures between 90°C to 112°C. Polymaleic acid (PMA) was found to overcome the
disadvantage of polyphosphate and has the ability to withstand high temperatures and
prevents the formation of alkaline scales. Low molecular weight polymeric carboxylic acid and
phosphorous base alkaline antiscalants were developed as high temperature additives. It has

12
become a common belief that these chemicals distort the lattice structure and when adsorbed
on a scale crystal, interfere either with the nucleation or the crystal growth process [36].
Polyphosphonate "phosphorous base alkaline group" does not hydrolyze as easily as the
polyphosphate group due to the greater stability of the c-p bond in phosphonates as compared
with the p-o bond in phosphates [37].

In a seeded crystal growth study on the evaluation of poly (acrylic acid) PAA of varying
molecular weight, Amjad and Masler [38] reported that the molecular weight of polymers plays
an important role in the inhibition of gypsum crystal growth from solution. The optimum
effectiveness, determined by the induction time, occurred with a PAA molecular weight of
2100. Amjad [39] in another study reported that the amount of gypsum scale deposited on the
heat exchanger was found to be higher in the case of high molecular weight polyacrylates
(240,000) compared to that obtained in the presence of lower molecular weight (2100) PAA.

Although effective in many applications, synthetic polymers such as PAA, poly (methacrylic
acid) PMAA, poly (maleic acid) PMA like other scale control chemicals (e.g. polyphosphates and
phosphonates, etc.) have low calcium tolerance, i.e., they react with calcium ion to form the
insoluble calcium-polymer salt.

Hybrid Treatment (Acid + additive)

The hybrid scale control treatment method consists of combination of acid and additive
injection. The philosophy is to inject less than stoichiometric amount of acid to neutralize a
substantial portion of total alkalinity (e.g., 80-85 %) in the seawater make-up feed followed by
appropriate quantities of additive injection to prevent scale formation arising from residual
alkalinity as well as from sulfates depending upon the top brine temperature. The hybrid
method is considered to provide advantages of both acid treatment and additive treatment
methods. In hybrid method, under dosing of acid is employed that provides buffering action
and protects against corrosion as discussed earlier. Thus the threat of corrosion of heat
transfer tubes and other steel structures due to accidental over dose of acid is greatly
minimized, the chances of serious scale problem is avoided in case of additive injection pump
failure accidentally and the thermal performance is better than additive only plant and close to

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acid treatment plant. The hybrid method also reduces the frequency of acid cleaning and
increases the plant life. Cox [40] described the technical and economic benefits of hybrid
method.

Case Studies of Hybrid Treatment

Spanhaak et al [41, 42] presented the encouraging results of hybrid method at Texel and
Terneuzen MSF plants. They reported that, at Texel plant, hybrid treatment with acid dosing
corresponding to neutralize 80 % alkalinity and 3.5 ppm Belgard EV at Texel plant reduced iron
losses by a factor of ten. At Terneuzen plant, acid dose corresponding to neutralize 90 %
alkalinity + 2.5 ppm Belgard EV reduced the copper losses by a factor of five and iron losses by a
factor of seven and operated for 18 months without any interruption and scaling [43].

Butt and Rahman performed a systematic hybrid treatment trial on Desal Unit A of Ghazlan
Power Plant. The units (3 units produce 10,000 m3/d) were designed to operate at 112.8 °C
(235 °F) top brine temperature and use acid for control of scale. Due to non-availability of well
trained and skilled operators, the plant management believed that the use acid might pose
danger of corrosion, so the units were switched to additive treatment. However, it took some
time and effort, and after testing number of additives, a suitable additive formulation (Albrivap-
G) was identified that was successful and effective against relatively high levels of iron in the
make-up feed. The TBT temperature was brought down to 107.2 °C and the Albrivap-G would
allow operating the plant for 30 days after which acid cleaning is required. On-line acid
cleaning was carried out at a recycle brine pH of 6.2 – 6.5.

Comparative field trials of additive only and hybrid treatment were conducted on Desal Unit A
under identical conditions.

 Albrivap-G trial was initiated using 12 ppm to the makeup feed

 hydbrid trial (acid + additive) used acid injection to neutralize 80 % of alkalinity in the
make-up along with Albrivap DSB at the rate of 3.0 ppm.

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Both Albrivap G and Albrivap DSB were polyphosphate based additives. Figure 7 shows relative
effectiveness of additive-only and the hybrid treatment in terms of heater shell pressure and
fouling factors.

Figure 7: Variation in brine heater shell pressure with time during additive alone and hybrid trials

It can be observed that the scale build up during additive only trial was fast and reached the
limiting value of 37 psia in 19 days. In hybrid trial, dramatic results were observed. The heater
shell pressure barely reached design value of 28.8 psia (far below the limiting value of 37 psia)
even after 164 days.
Thermal performance of both the trials is presented in Figure 8 in terms of fouling factors. In
case of additive only trial, the brine heater fouling factor reached design value of 3.9*10-4 m2
°C/w, exceeding the design value by a factor of three in just 19 days and the fouling factor (FF)
of heat recovery section exceeded by a factor of two. In case of hybrid trial, the heater FF
increased rapidly in first 26 days and exceeded the design value. The sudden shut down on day
27 brought the FF significantly below the design value and further shut downs intermittently,
maintained the FF below design value even after 164 days. The FF of heat recovery section was
also found to be around design value after 164 days demonstrating superior performance of
hybrid trial over additive only treatment.
The hybrid trial provided adequate protection against corrosion of copper alloy tubes and other
plant internals as compared to additive only trail. Upon the inspection of brine heater tubes,
soft and non-adherent type of white to muddy-colored scale was observed which can be
removed by wiping with fingers easily when wet. Beneath the soft scale deposit, a very thin but
hard iron-rich layer was evident. However, the magnesium-based scale was predominant in
case of additive only treatment compared to hybrid trial. The unit chemical treatment cost for
hybrid treatment was about 50 % lower than that of additive only treatment besides superior
thermal performance resulting in the energy cost savings.

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 Figure 8: Variation in fouling factor with time during additive only and hybrid trials

Sponge Ball Cleaning.

This technique is used in MSF plants where the prime method is scale control
by “Acid additions” or “additive addition”. Sponge ball cleaning system
consists of flexible sponge balls of slightly larger diameter than the tubes.
These balls “scour” any deposits formed on the tube surface. The technique is
commonly known as Taprogge System (Manufacturer).

This technique cannot be applied to untreated MSF plants, because the action of
the balls is not sufficient to remove hard adherent deposits successfully.

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RO Process - Pretreatment
Reduction in the feed water volume during the RO process results in increase of
the concentration of suspended particles and dissolved ions in reject brine.
Settling of the suspended particles or scale formation from the sparingly soluble
salts would result in the following:

- Blocking of the flow channels that would increase the pressure drop in the
feed channels in the membrane module. This would require increasing the
pumping power, which is limited by the original design value that takes into
account clean operation in addition to some finite level of blockage.

- Reducing the permeation rate across the membrane and increase in the
amount of salt passage through the membrane. This is caused by scale
formation on the membrane surface.

In addition to physical masking of the membrane surface area and blockage of

the membrane module, membrane damage can be caused by system operation at
excessively low pH values, high chlorine concentration, or presence of other
aggressive chemical compounds that would react and destruct the membrane
material.

Pretreatment Process may consist of all or some of the following

treatment steps:
- Removal of large particles using a coarse strainer.
- Water disinfection with chlorine or other biocides.
- Media filtration
- Reduction of alkalinity by pH adjustment (acid treatment).
- Addition of scale inhibitor
- Reduction of free chlorine using sodium bisulfite or activated carbon filters.
- Final removal of suspended particles using cartridge filters.

Determination of Scaling Potential:

Using analysis of reject brine that gives ionic composition and solubility data,
scaling potential of possible compounds present in the feed can be estimated as
discussed above.

17
18
 Variation in product water flow with time

Variation in salt rejection with time at constant product recovery

19
Variation product quality (TDS) with time

20
DETERMINING THE LEVEL OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES

The suspended solids (SS) and colloids (dust, clays, AI(OH)3, etc.) can plug the
fine pores of the membrane. These are removed by coagulation-flocculation and
then passing the feed water through multi-media filter(s).

The RO operators use the Silt Density Index (SDI) test as measure of the
feed quality regarding suspended particles. The guidelines for RO operation
using the SDI test is as follows:

It measures the time required to filter a fixed volume of water through a

standard 0.45µm pore size microfiltration membrane with a constant given
pressure of 30 psi (2.0 bar). The difference between the initial time and the
time of a second measurement after normally 15 minutes (after silt-built up)
represents the SDI value.

The Silt Density Index (SDI) Apparatus

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Manual SDI test kit contents
 Silt Density Index Test Assembly
 47mm Filter Holder
 0.45µm 47mm filter papers
 Pressure Gauge
 Pressure Regulator
 Ball Valve
 500ml Graduated Cylinder
 Stop Watch
 Dull Tweezers

Test procedure
1. Connect the test kit less filter paper for pretest flush.
2. Flush the test kit and supply line (not supplied) for 3 to 5 minutes to remove any possible
contaminants.
3. Measure the temperature of the water.
4. Make sure the O-ring on the filter is in good condition and properly placed. Set the pressure
regulator to 30 psig. The set screw on the regulator should be adjusted while there is a small flow.
Supply pressure to the regulator should be > 40psig.
5. Open the membrane filter holder and carefully place a 0.45µ membrane filter in to the filter holder
using the dull tweezers to avoid damage and touching the filter paper. Screw loosely together.
6. Open the feed valve slightly and adjust the filter housing to overflow, displacing any trapped air.
Tighten the filter housing, open the feed valve completely and make final adjustments to the
pressure regulator as required. Close the feed valve.
7. Prepare to take measurements. Open the ball valve and simultaneously, using the stop watch
begin measuring the time required to fill the 500 ml measuring cylinder. Record the time (ti).
Leave the valve open for continued flow.
8. Measure and record the times to collect additional 500 ml volumes of sample, starting the
collection at 5, 10, 15 minutes of total elapsed flow time. This value is recorded as (tf) with f being
the time used. Measure the water temperature and check the pressure as each sample is
collected. The pressure must remain constant at 30 psig (± 1 psig) and the temperature must
remain constant to 1oC.
9. After completion of the test the membrane filter may be retained for future reference. Record the
Date, Sample Location, Time, Operator, SDI Value and Comments with the filter pad.

22
Test calculation

Calculate the Silt Density Index (SDI) as follows:

SDIT = [1 - (ti / tf)] * 100 T

Where : T = Total elapsed time flow time, minutes (e.g. 15 minutes for an SDI-15)
Where : ti = Initial time required to collect 500 ml of sample
Where : tf = Time required to collect 500 ml of sample after test time T (15 minutes for
an SDI-15)

Note : The expression [ 1 - ti / tf ] should not exceed 75%. If it does exceed this value, use a
shorter time for ; that is 5 or 10 minute measurements. If times shorter than 15 minutes are
required, the SDI values are too high for the membrane.

Comments on Variability
The procedure outlined must be followed exactly for the information to have meaning
and be reproducible. Test variability (50 - 100%) has been a recognized problem with
this method and operator training in procedural details is a critical factor in obtaining
precision and accuracy.

SDI < 5 No pre filtration is required

SDI 5 - 10 A media (sand type) filter is required
SDI >10 A 2 stage media filtration is required

 Iron compounds (Fe2O3, Fe3O4, Fe(OH)3) are a common source of membrane

fouling. Generally, Fe2+ iron in the saline feed is oxidized to the insoluble Fe3+
form and then removed by passing the feed water through multi-media filter(s).

 Scales

o Carbonate scales: (CaCO3) - Acid injection is an effective way of preventing

the CaCO3 scale.

o Sulfate scales: (CaSO4, SrSO4, CaF2): Acid injection will not control sulfate
scale. These type of scales can be prevented from depositing on the
membranes by injecting minute amounts of anti-scalant chemicals such as
polyphosphates, phosphonates, acrylates.
23
 Bacteria: Seawater always has bacteria. Ground waters generally are free of
bacteria. But during pumping and storage, bacteria can grow even in ground
waters. These bacteria stick to the surface of the membrane and badly affect the
performance of the process. Bacteria are destroyed by injecting a biocide (such
as C12) to the feed water. Most membranes are attacked by Cl2. Therefore, after
the bacteria have been destroyed, the feed water has to be de-chlorinated before
it is allowed to enter the permeators. This is done by injecting sodium bisulfite
(NaHSO3) to the feed.

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POST-TREATMENT OF PRODUCT WATER
The treatment processes used in desalination may produce byproducts
that are of concern to health such as brominated organic byproducts and
chlorinated byproducts; both of these have carcinogenic risks. Water that
has been through the reverse osmosis process is more acidic and can
corrode the distribution system, leaching iron and other toxic metals
from the pipes. Post-treatment of the desalinated water, before it goes
into the distribution system, can reduce the risk of corrosion (Cooley et
al., 2006).

o If the saline feed water to the RO plant is acidified in the pre-treatment

step, then pH of product water is around 6 - 6.5. Its pH has to be
increased to make it non-corrosive to metals and for it to meet the
W.H.O. standard of pH for drinking water. This is usually done
i. either by passing the product water through a de-carbonating
tower which removes the CO2 gas and the pH goes up to
around 7, or
ii. by injecting enough NaOH solution to the product water to
adjust its pH to around 7.
o The product water is treated with a biocide (usually sodium
hypochlorite) before storage and distribution to prevent bacteria from
growing.

Can desalinated water be too pure?

Magnesium and calcium usually get removed in the desalination
process. These are essential minerals for our bodies and if we ingest
water with low mineral content, the water can leach these minerals
from our bodies. However, post-treatment processes can replace some
of these minerals (Cooley et al., 2006).

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