International Journal of

Geo-Information

Article
Construction and Optimization of Three-Dimensional
Disaster Scenes within Mobile Virtual Reality
Ya Hu 1 , Jun Zhu 1, *, Weilian Li 1 , Yunhao Zhang 1 , Qing Zhu 1 , Hua Qi 1 , Huixin Zhang 2 ,
Zhenyu Cao 3 , Weijun Yang 4 and Pengcheng Zhang 4
1 Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031,
China; huya@swjtu.edu.cn (Y.H.); vgewilliam@163.com (W.L.); zhangyh0506@163.com (Y.Z.);
zhuq66@263.net (Q.Z.); qi-3dgis@126.com (H.Q.)
2 College of Physics and Engineering, Chengdu Normal University, Chengdu 611130, China;
wzfei_001@163.com
3 Sichuan Geomatics Center, Chengdu 610041, China; scgisczy@163.com
4 Guangzhou Urban Planning & Design Survey Research Institute, Guangzhou 510060, China;
fazeyang@gmail.com (W.Y.); guangzhou2000@126.com (P.Z.)
* Correspondence: zhujun@swjtu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-130-844-26186




Received: 14 April 2018; Accepted: 12 June 2018; Published: 14 June 2018


Abstract: Because mobile virtual reality (VR) is both mobile and immersive, three-dimensional
(3D) visualizations of disaster scenes based in mobile VR enable users to perceive and recognize
disaster environments faster and better than is possible with other methods. To achieve immersion
and prevent users from feeling dizzy, such visualizations require a high scene-rendering frame
rate. However, the existing related visualization work cannot provide a sufficient solution for this
purpose. This study focuses on the construction and optimization of a 3D disaster scene in order to
satisfy the high frame-rate requirements for the rendering of 3D disaster scenes in mobile VR. First,
the design of a plugin-free browser/server (B/S) architecture for 3D disaster scene construction and
visualization based in mobile VR is presented. Second, certain key technologies for scene optimization
are discussed, including diverse modes of scene data representation, representation optimization
of mobile scenes, and adaptive scheduling of mobile scenes. By means of these technologies,
smartphones with various performance levels can achieve higher scene-rendering frame rates and
improved visual quality. Finally, using a flood disaster as an example, a plugin-free prototype
system was developed, and experiments were conducted. The experimental results demonstrate
that a 3D disaster scene constructed via the methods addressed in this study has a sufficiently high
scene-rendering frame rate to satisfy the requirements for rendering a 3D disaster scene in mobile VR.

Keywords: 3D disaster scenes; mobile VR; diverse scene data representation; scene optimization;
adaptive scheduling

1. Introduction
Disasters often cause a large number of casualties and considerable property losses [1,2].
A three-dimensional (3D) visualization of a disaster scene can be used to represent the current,
past, and future conditions of the disaster site. Such a visualization provides an intuitive decision
analysis platform for disaster-related personnel, which is of great significance for mitigating the
potential adverse effects caused by disasters. Much work has been conducted in this field, such as
personal computer (PC)-based 3D visualizations of flood disaster scenes [3–11], earthquake disaster
scenes [12–16], and geological disaster scenes [17–19]; immersive experiences of disasters, based on PC
virtual reality (VR) systems [20–25]; and 3D disaster simulation and visualization analyses, based on
diverse computing systems (such as desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones) [26].

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215; doi:10.3390/ijgi7060215 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 2 of 16

Due to the urgency and scientificity of disaster emergency responses [27–29], all types of
emergency personnel in different locations need to perceive and recognize disaster environments
faster and better, which will require more mobile and immersive visualizations of 3D disaster scenes.
However, with regard to these requirements, methods addressed in the existing research have the
following deficiencies: (1) these methods lack the capacity for mobility, since 3D disaster visualizations
based on PC and PC VR systems are generated indoors and cannot satisfy the requirements for
outdoor disaster visualization; (2) the methods offer only weak immersion—for instance, although
disaster visualization based on diverse computing systems can solve the mobility problem, the display
devices of these mobile terminals (such as smartphones) are physically small. Therefore, the devices’
immersion is inadequate, which hinders the sufficient perception and recognition of the disaster
environment. In other words, in the existing methods of 3D disaster scene visualization, mobility,
and immersion cannot coexist.
With the development of mobile head-mounted displays (HMDs), smartphones, and the mobile
internet, mobile VR has gradually entered people’s lives [30,31]. Mobile VR involves placing
a smartphone inside a mobile HMD, which allows a user to become immersed in a virtual environment
by wearing the mobile HMD. The emergence of mobile VR allows anyone to experience immersive VR
content anywhere [32]. Thus, mobile VR combines mobility with immersion. The combination
of mobile VR with 3D disaster visualization—that is, the 3D visualization of disaster scenes in
mobile VR—can sufficiently solve the problems associated with existing methods of 3D disaster
scene visualization, allowing users to perceive and recognize disaster environments faster and better.
A 3D visualization of a scene in mobile VR requires a high rendering frame rate, usually more
than 30 fps (ideally, approximately 60 fps), to ensure that the scene is immersive [33] and to prevent
users from feeling dizzy [32,34]. In the 3D visualization of scenes with a small amount of data,
the scene-rendering frame rate can easily satisfy the requirements for mobile VR, as described
in [34]. However, the models of 3D disaster scenes usually include large data terrain models, disaster
simulation models, etc. Therefore, the question of how to draw them efficiently in order to satisfy the
high frame-rate requirements for the rendering of 3D disaster scenes poses a technical challenge.
A 3D visualization of a disaster scene in mobile VR is essentially a high-frame-rate rendering of
a disaster scene on a smartphone. Constrained by the low performance of previous mobile phones,
few studies have been carried out on the 3D visualization of scenes similar to disaster scenes on mobile
phones. Noguera et al., based on client/server (C/S) hybrid rendering technology, implemented a
method for the 3D visualization of terrain models on mobile phones, such as the Nokia N95 and
iPhone 3 GS [35–37]. Magliocchetti et al. introduced a method for the 3D visualization of terrain
models on smart phones, such as the HTC Touch Magic and HTC Nexus One. This method follows
certain data access standards in the geospatial domain, such as the Web Map Service (WMS), and has
a relatively high scene-rendering frame rate [38]. Trujillo and Suárez implemented a method for the
3D visualization of terrain models, based on a virtual globe, on mobile devices such as the iPad 2,
the Samsung Galaxy Tab, and the iPhone 4 [39,40]. Santana et al. also implemented the 3D stereoscopic
rendering of terrain models and building block models on the iPhone 6 smartphone on the basis of a
virtual globe [41].
The work reviewed above mainly achieved the 3D visualization of terrain models based on mobile
phones. Because of the low mobile phone performance and slow network speeds at the time, some of
the reported work needed to rely on specific server- and client-side programs to perform collaborative
visualization, such as hybrid rendering based on C/S [35–37], or the real-time conversion of large-sized
tiles on servers into small-sized tiles for transmission over the network [38]. These methods are not
optimal for the performance and display environments of current smartphones, and they are also very
tedious to implement. Some other researchers [39–41] claim to have implemented the visualization of
terrain models based on the open-source technology Glob3 Mobile [42], but the related website did
not provide any source code or development documents. As a result, the 3D stereoscopic rendering
function reported by Santana et al. [41], the most important function for scene visualization in mobile
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 3 of 16

VR [43], cannot be independently reproduced on the basis of Glob3 Mobile; in addition, other functions
necessary for the 3D visualization of disaster scenes in mobile VR also cannot be implemented on the
basis of Glob3 Mobile.
Another type of work that is similar to the 3D rendering of disaster scenes in mobile VR is
the PC-based 3D visualization of disaster scenes [6,8,17,19]. However, unlike mobile-VR-based
visualization, which requires a high scene-rendering frame rate, the PC-based 3D visualization of
disaster scenes requires only a frame rate of at least 25 fps. Current smartphones are far inferior to
PC systems in terms of performance and screen size. Consequently, a 3D disaster scene visualization
method that is suitable for high-performance PC systems (for example, a method for the representation
of scene data on such systems) will not be suitable for constructing higher-frame-rate 3D disaster
scenes on lower-performance smartphones.
In general, the existing related visualization work is either for high-performance PCs or for
previous low-performance mobile phones, or alternately the 3D graphics development package used
by these work is not available, and these work therefore cannot provide a sufficient solution for the
high frame rate visualization of 3D disaster scenes in mobile VR.
At present, there are many methods for improving the scene-rendering frame rate, such as
optimizing scene data organization, optimizing scene rendering, improving hardware performance,
and reducing the amount of scene data [34,35]. The scene data organization refers to the organization
of scene models into spatial hierarchies, such as quadtrees, and its development is also mature [34].
The scene rendering optimization, such as draw call batching, is a concern for 3D rendering engines,
such as Unity3D. Better hardware can significantly improve scene rendering performance, but the
use of high-performance mobile phones is often limited in disaster emergency situations. However,
as mentioned above, the models of 3D disaster scenes usually include large-data terrain models,
disaster simulation models, etc., so it is necessary to reduce the amount of scene data in order to
improve the scene-rendering frame rate, so as to satisfy the high frame-rate requirements for the
stereoscopic rendering of 3D disaster scenes based in mobile VR. However, the existing methods for
reducing the amount of scene data are either for high-performance PCs [6,8,17,19] or for earlier
low-performance mobile phones [35–40], and are not suitable for the performance and display
environments of current smartphones. Therefore, it is necessary to explore new scene data reduction
methods, adapted for the performance and display environments of current smartphones, in order
to achieve high scene-rendering frame rates. To reduce the amount of scene data, based on existing
smartphones in common use and a popular open-source development framework, this paper discusses
the construction and optimization of 3D disaster scenes. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2
describes a method for 3D disaster scene construction and optimization in mobile VR. Using a flood
disaster as an example, Section 3 describes a plugin-free prototype system, and analyzes experiments
performed with this prototype. Section 4 presents the conclusions of this study, and discusses its
contributions and our plans for future work.

2. Methodology

2.1. General Design

The construction of a 3D disaster scene involves a large amount of information and data, far
beyond the storage and processing capabilities of mobile phones. Therefore, the data involved in
the construction of a 3D disaster scene must be stored and processed using indoor high-performance
computers, and then the visualization of and interaction with a 3D disaster scene on the mobile
phones can be implemented through the network. In other words, the mobile VR-based 3D disaster
scene visualization system adopts either the C/S or the browser/server (B/S) architecture, instead
of the architecture where the program and data are stored on the mobile phones. To use the C/S
architecture, users need to download a dedicated APP (application) program. To save users the trouble
of downloading and installing APP programs, it is desirable for users to be able to use a browser for
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 4 of 16
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

the 3D visualization
plugin-free of and interaction
browser/server with disaster
(B/S) framework scenes. Totothis
was designed end, in
satisfy thethis study, a plugin-free
requirements for the
browser/server (B/S) framework was designed to satisfy the requirements for the construction
construction and visualization of a 3D disaster scene in mobile VR. This framework is illustrated and
in
visualization
Figure 1. of a 3D disaster scene in mobile VR. This framework is illustrated in Figure 1.

Browser
HTML5+WebGL+JavaScript+Ajax

or
Mobile
VR
iOS Android

Smartphone Mobile HMD

Scene Scene roaming Disaster routing Interactive disaster

Interaction exploration simulation control information query

3D
3D terrain Disaster simulation information Buildings and roads
Scene

Adaptive Scheduling of Mobile Scenes

Server

Tile files JSON files JSON files glTF files Other files

Tile size n
LOD3
LOD3 LOD3

Tile size 1 LOD0 LOD0

LOD0

Disaster Other
Terrain model Building model Road model
simulation model model

Diverse Modes of Scene Data Representation

Disaster
Scene Disaster Building and Other
DOM data DEM data
Data simulation data road data data

Figure 1.
1. Plugin-free
Plugin-freebrowser/server
browser/server (B/S) framework
(B/S) for the
framework forconstruction and visualization
the construction of three-
and visualization of
three-dimensional (3D) disaster
dimensional (3D) disaster scenesscenes
basedbased on mobile
on mobile virtualvirtual
realityreality
(VR). (VR).

On the server side, data related to the construction of a 3D disaster scene are represented
diversely and published through the network. Models of 3D disaster scenes typically include terrain
models, disaster simulation models, house models, and road models [6,11,12,14,16]. For terrain
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 5 of 16

On the server side, data related to the construction of a 3D disaster scene are represented diversely
and published through the network. Models of 3D disaster scenes typically include terrain models,
disaster simulation models, house models, and road models [6,11,12,14,16]. For terrain models,
the original image data and the digital elevation model (DEM) data are sliced to form multiple tile-size
pyramid models, thereby making it possible for a browser to access a specific tile-size image pyramid
model or DEM pyramid model, depending on the performance and operating environment of the
user’s smartphone. For disaster simulation models, the simulated results of disaster models are
optimized to generate level-of-detail (LOD) models, in order to facilitate network transmission and
visualization. For house models, it is necessary to generate diverse representations of the houses based
on the available modeling data or models. For example, if only data that reflect the house outline
and height information are available, then a block model representation of a house may be generated,
and the contour and height information will need to be sent to the browser side as a JSON (JavaScript
object notation) file for the 3D visualization of the house; if 3D house models are available, these
models can be sent to the browser side as glTF (GL Transmission Format) files for the 3D visualization
of the houses. For road models, the processing is similar to that of house models, and thus is not
detailed here.
On the browser side, depending on the necessary frame rate or the desired visualization effect,
the appropriate models are loaded to visualize the 3D disaster scene. Then, based on this 3D scene,
through gaze-based interaction and by means of the smartphone and the mobile HMD, the immersive
and effective exploration of the 3D disaster scene can be implemented.
The browser side is implemented using HTML5, WebGL, JavaScript, and Ajax. HTML5 is the
newest version of the HTML standard. It not only has new syntactical features, but also delivers
rich multimedia content without the need for additional support or plug-ins [44]. It is supported
by many popular browsers, such as Chrome, Firefox, and Internet Explorer. The Canvas element
in HTML5 provides the ability to render WebGL content. WebGL is a JavaScript API (Application
Programming Interface) for plugin-free 3D rendering within any compatible web browser. Several
open-source Web Virtual Globe applications that are based on WebGL technology support open web
mapping service standards, such as WMS, TMS (Tile Map Service), and WMTS (Web Map Tile Service),
and offer common functions such as 3D terrain visualization and interactive roaming in 3D scenes [45].
These applications include Cesium [46], WebGLEarth [40], and OpenWebGlobe [47]. JavaScript is an
object-oriented language and can interact with HTML source code, thus enabling sites with dynamic
content. Ajax is used for efficient data communication between the server and clients. These modern
technologies enable our browser-based web application for 3D disaster scene visualization, which
works across platforms, requires no plugins, and is easy to maintain.

2.2. Diverse Modes of Scene Data Representation

Models of 3D disaster scenes typically include terrain models, disaster simulation models, house
models, and road models [6,11,12,14,16]. Tasks similar to the 3D rendering of disaster scenes in
mobile VR are the PC-based 3D visualization of disaster scenes [6,8,17,19] and the 3D visualization
of terrain on mobile phones [35–40]. In PC-based 3D disaster scene visualization, because of the
high performance and relatively uniform screen sizes and screen resolutions of PCs, a single scene
data representation is typically adopted. For example, a terrain model may be represented in the
form of a pyramid model with a single tile size, while for a disaster simulation model, a single
visual representation mode may be adopted based on the original simulated results. In 3D terrain
visualization on mobile phones, because of the lower performance, smaller screen sizes, and lower
screen resolutions of the existing mobile phones at the time of the cited studies, the 3D terrain
scenes are usually represented with smaller-sized terrain tiles. For example, the tile sizes of a DEM
pyramid model may be 8 × 8 pixels [35,37,38] or 12 ×12 pixels [39,40], and the tile size of an image
pyramid may be 64 × 64 pixels [35,37]. That is to say, the existing scene representations used in similar
previous works are either single representations for use on high-performance PCs or small-tile-size
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 6 of 16

representations for use on low-performance mobile phones. However, the performance, screen sizes,
and screen resolutions of current smartphones are neither the same as those of PCs, nor the same
as those of previous low-performance phones; consequently, the existing scene data representations
are not suitable for the performance and display environments of current smartphones. Therefore,
it is necessary to explore diverse scene data representation methods adapted for the performance and
diverse display environments of current smartphones, in order to achieve the effective 3D stereoscopic
rendering of disaster scenes in mobile VR.
A terrain model is an important part of a 3D disaster scene. To allow users to efficiently
roam modeled terrain, a tile-based LOD representation is typically used for a terrain scene [39].
The chosen tile size is affected primarily by the hardware performance, screen size, and screen
resolution [40]. A larger tile size results in a greater number of triangles and a larger amount of
textural data to be processed for scene rendering, which increases the requirements for hardware
performance and results in a more detailed visual scene. As described in the previous paragraph,
the existing terrain tile pyramid models are either single-tile-size pyramid models for use on PCs
(the tile size of a DEM pyramid model is typically 64 × 64 pixels, and the tile size of an image pyramid
is typically 256 × 256 pixels) or small-tile-size pyramid models for low-performance phones. Since
the performance and screen sizes of current smartphones are between those of PCs and previous
low-performance phones, the existing terrain tile pyramid models are not suitable for the performance
and display environments of current smartphones. Therefore, this paper proposes a terrain pyramid
model representation scheme based on various tile sizes (e.g., image pyramid models with tile sizes of
32 × 32 pixels, 64 × 64 pixels, and 128 × 128 pixels) to achieve a variety of terrain model representations,
thereby making it possible for different users to achieve high scene-rendering frame rates and an
improved visualization effect.
As mentioned above, the existing representations of disaster simulation models are applicable
on PCs and consist of single visual representations based on the original simulated results. However,
the performance and screen sizes of current smartphones are not comparable to those of PCs. Therefore,
for use on smartphones, disaster simulation models should not be represented by single models, but
should instead be represented by LOD models, in order to allow smartphones to achieve higher
scene-rendering frame rates and an enhanced scene-visualization effect. Similarly, house models and
road models also should not be represented by single models, but should instead be represented by
LOD models. The diverse scene data representations used in the proposed framework are shown in
Figure 1.

2.3. Optimization of Mobile Scene Representation

Based on the diverse modes of scene data representation proposed above, the optimization of
mobile scene representation can be realized. Because of the relatively poor performance of smartphones,
it is necessary to reduce the amount of data used to model 3D disaster scenes to maintain a high
scene-rendering frame rate. Due to the small screen sizes of smartphones, an appropriate reduction of
the scene data can also achieve a satisfactory visualization effect. A common method of scene data
reduction is to load a simplified LOD model into a 3D scene. In the case of discrete LOD models,
it is relatively simple to reduce the scene data by directly loading a simplified LOD model. The case of
a continuous terrain model is slightly more complex; here, scene data reduction can be realized by
reducing the maximum tile level that can be loaded into the 3D scene and loading only tiles of smaller
sizes. These two approaches to scene optimization are detailed as follows.

1. Reducing the maximum tile level that can be loaded for a specific tile-size image or DEM pyramid
model: if the maximum tile level that can currently be loaded is Lmax (e.g., 17), then the maximum
tile level can be reset to L = Lmax − i (i = 1, 2, . . . , i ≤ Lmax − Lmin ), where Lmin denotes the
lowest level of the tile pyramid model.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 7 of 16

The relationship between tile level i and the number of tiles per row or per column is shown in
Equation (1). To aid in description, tile partitioning is performed using the Mercator-based schema
with only one tile at level 0 (see [48]).
Ri = 2i , Ci = 2i (1)

In the above formula, Ri denotes the number of tiles in a row at tile level i, and Ci denotes the
number of tiles in a column at tile level i; thus, the total number of tiles at tile level i is 22i . When
the viewpoint is close to the scene in a certain area, we must load 256 tiles at level 4. If we reduce
the maximum tile level from 4 to 2, we then need to load only 16 tiles at level 2 for the same area.
This example shows that this method is greatly effective in reducing the number of tiles in a scene,
thus considerably reducing the number of triangles or textures to be rendered.

2. Loading tiles of smaller sizes: if the tile size of the currently loaded image or DEM pyramid
model is N and the maximum tile level that can be loaded is M, we can consider loading tiles
with a tile size of S, where S = N/2i (i = 1, 2, 3, . . . ), while simultaneously limiting the maximum
tile level that can be loaded to M.

When loading smaller-sized tiles, the number of tiles loaded in the scene does not change as long as
the maximum tile level that can be loaded and the user’s viewpoint and orientation remain unchanged.
If the tiles are image tiles, then the number of texture pixels used for texture mapping can be
greatly reduced by reducing the tile size. The total number of texture pixels in the scene is related to
the number of tiles in the scene and the tile size, as shown in Formula (2):

Npixel = Ktile × TileWidth2 (2)

In the above formula, Npixel denotes the total number of texture pixels in the scene, Ktile denotes
the number of tiles in the scene, and TileWidth denotes the tile size. When loading smaller-sized tiles,
as long as the number of tiles in the scene remains unchanged, the total number of texture pixels in the
scene decreases in proportion to the square of the tile size.
If the tiles are DEM tiles, then the number of triangles to be rendered in the scene can be greatly
reduced by reducing the tile size. The number of triangles to be drawn per tile depends on the tile size,
as shown in Equation (3) (the method of [40] is used to eliminate gaps between tiles):

Ndelta = 2 × TileWidth2 + 8 × TileWidth (3)

In this formula, Ndelta denotes the number of triangles to be drawn per tile, and TileWidth denotes
the tile size (i.e., each side of the tile contains TileWidth + 1 elevation points). For example, when the
DEM tile size is changed from TileWidth to TileWidth/2, the total number of triangles is reduced to
1/4 × Ndelta + 2 × TileWidth, which is approximately 1/4 of the original number. Therefore, reducing
the DEM tile size can greatly reduce the number of triangles to be drawn per tile, thus considerably
reducing the number of triangles to be rendered in the scene.

2.4. Adaptive Scheduling of Mobile Scenes

When a scene is rendered on a smartphone, adaptive scene scheduling can be achieved by
monitoring the scene-rendering frame rate. When the scene-rendering frame rate is high, a more
detailed LOD model can be loaded to improve the scene-visualization effect. When the scene-rendering
frame rate is low, a more simplified LOD model can be automatically loaded to improve the
scene-rendering efficiency. In this way, a balance is achieved between the scene-visualization efficiency
and the visualization effect. Strategies for adaptive scene scheduling are listed in Table 1. In Table 1,
the selection of the representation form of the road models is to illustrate that when a user selects
a certain level models of LOD models to represent the roads, the user can further schedule the scene
by adjusting the number of models to be loaded.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 8 of 16

Table 1. Strategies for adaptive scene scheduling.

Strategies for Adaptive Scene

Scene Model Type Representation Form
Scheduling
image/digital elevation model 1. raising/lowering the maximum tile
terrain models (DEM) pyramid models with level that can be loaded in the scene
multiple tile sizes 2. loading tiles of larger/smaller sizes
a group of TIN (Triangulated
loading a more detailed/simplified
disaster simulation models Irregular Network) models with a
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW LOD model 8 of 16
level-of-detail (LOD) structure
loading
loading aa more
more detailed/simplified
detailed/simplified
house house
modelsmodels LOD models
LOD models LOD model
LOD model
road models
road models road centerlines
road centerlines loading
loading all/main road centerlines
all/main road centerlines

3. System Implementation and Experimental Analysis

Floods are the most common disasters. Therefore, this paper uses a flood disaster as an example
to illustrate the construction and optimization of 3D disaster scenes in
in mobile
mobile VR.
VR.

3.1. Implementation
3.1. Implementation of
of the
the Prototype
Prototype System
System
Node.js v6.11.2
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was used
used to
to build
build the
the network
network server
server in
in the
the prototype
prototype system.
system. This
This server
server stores
stores
terrain data
terrain data of
of multiple
multiple tile
tile sizes,
sizes, LOD
LOD models
models ofof flood
flood simulation
simulation data,
data, and
and house
house data.
data. The
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browser
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implemented using
using HTML5,
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and Cesium.
Cesium. Cesium,
Cesium, aa leading
leading open-source
open-source library
library
for 3D virtual globes, was adopted because it provides adequate support for stereoscopic
for 3D virtual globes, was adopted because it provides adequate support for stereoscopic rendering rendering
and for cross-platform and cross-device dynamic visualization without plugins [49]. A dam-failure
flood area [8] was chosen for the experiments.
experiments. The
The prototype
prototype system can run on on browsers
browsers that support
support
HTML5 and WebGL, such as Chrome and Firefox. Figure 2 shows the visual effect achieved when
running the prototype system on a smartphone using Chrome. Chrome.

Figure 2. Screenshot of the prototype system on a smartphone.

Figure 2. Screenshot of the prototype system on a smartphone.

When run on a common smartphone, the prototype system can satisfy the high rendering-frame-
When run on a common smartphone, the prototype system can satisfy the high
rate requirements for rendering a 3D flood scene in mobile VR. The prototype system also provides
rendering-frame-rate requirements for rendering a 3D flood scene in mobile VR. The prototype system
multiple gaze-based scene interaction methods, including scene roaming exploration, flood routing
also provides multiple gaze-based scene interaction methods, including scene roaming exploration,
simulation control, and interactive flood information querying. Through these methods of
flood routing simulation control, and interactive flood information querying. Through these methods
interaction, users can effectively explore and control 3D flood scenes based in mobile VR, thus
making the system user-friendly.

3.2. Experimental Data and Environment

3.2.1. Experimental Data

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 9 of 16

of interaction, users can effectively explore and control 3D flood scenes based in mobile VR, thus
making the system user-friendly.

3.2. Experimental Data and Environment

3.2.1. Experimental Data

The resolution of the original image data from the experimental area is 1 m, and the resolution of
the original DEM data from the experimental area is 10 m. For these raw data, a geographic-based
schema (i.e., there are two tiles at level 0, as described in [48]) was used for tile partitioning, in order to
produce hierarchical and block data. The specifications of the tile data used in the experiments are
shown in Table 2. Since the Cesium open-source framework currently supports only one DEM tile size
(i.e., 64), a DEM pyramid model with only a tile size of 64 was provided in this study.

Table 2. Specifications of the tile data used in the experiment.

Tile Type Tile Size (Pixel) Minimum Tile Level Maximum Tile Level
64 10 19
128 10 18
image tiles 256 10 17
512 10 16
1024 10 15
DEM tiles 64 10 15

Four different LOD flood simulation datasets, denoted by LOD0, LOD1, LOD2, and LOD3, were
used in the experiments. LOD0 contains the most detailed data, whereas LOD3 contains the most
simplified data. For details, see [26]. The house data included the most simplified house block models
as well as the 3D house models expressed in the glTF format, and the size of each glTF file was
about 3 M.

3.2.2. Experimental Environment

The mobile HMD selected for the experiments was the Baofeng Mojing CC (Beijing, China),
and the experiments were performed in a wireless Wi-Fi network environment with a bandwidth of
10 Mbps. The prototype system was run using the Chrome browser on Android and iOS smartphones.
The specifications of the two mobile phones used for testing are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Specifications of the two smartphones used for testing.

Smartphone CPU GPU Memory Size Operating System

MI 5s Snapdragon MSM8996SG-AB Adreno 530 3G Android 8.5.4
iPhone 7 Apple A10 Fusion PowerVR GT7600 2G iOS 10

3.3. Scene Construction and Optimization Experiments

3.3.1. Experimental Method

To verify the scene construction and optimization methods, the prototype system was run on the
two smartphones specified above and used to roam through the modeled scene along a certain path
to test the influence of the proposed methods on the scene-rendering frame rate. The scene roaming
direction was the same as the direction of the flood routing. The elevation of the roaming flight path
was 800 m, and the height of the path from the ground was between 50 m and 200 m, to ensure that
the tile level of the scene tiles loaded during flight would reach the maximum tile level allowed to be
loaded. The flight time was 120 s.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 10 of 16

3.3.2. Experimental Results

In the experiments, the influence of the loading of different flood routing models and house
models on the scene-rendering frame rate was tested. In addition, the effect of reducing the maximum
tile level allowed to be loaded, and the influence of loading different-sized tiles on the scene-rendering
frame rate were tested. The results of the experiments are shown in Figures 3–5. The x axis (Time (s))
in Figures
ISPRS 3–5 indicates
Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, x the
FORtime
PEER of flight along the roaming path.
REVIEW 10 of 16

Flight Tests on Android Smartphone

60

50

40
FPS

30

20

A
10
B
C
0 30 60 90 120
Time (s)
(a)

Flight Tests on iOS Smartphone

60

50

40
FPS

30

A
20 B
C

10
0 30 60 90 120
Time (s)
(b)
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Tests
Tests of
of the
the influence
influence of
of the
the loading
loading different
different house
house models
models and
and flood
flood routing
routing models
models on
on the
the
rendering frame rate: (a) flight tests on the Android smartphone; (b) flight tests on the iOS
rendering frame rate: (a) flight tests on the Android smartphone; (b) flight tests on the iOS smartphone.
smartphone.

In Figure 3, curve B represents a case in which the 3D house models, the most detailed flood
In Figure 3, curve B represents a case in which the 3D house models, the most detailed flood
routing model (LOD0), and the terrain model were loaded in the scene. Curve A represents a case in
routing model (LOD0), and the terrain model were loaded in the scene. Curve A represents a case in
which the most simplified house block models, the most detailed flood routing model (LOD0) and
which the most simplified house block models, the most detailed flood routing model (LOD0) and
the terrain model were loaded in the 3D flood scene. Curve C represents a case in which the most
the terrain model were loaded in the 3D flood scene. Curve C represents a case in which the most
simplified house block models, the most simplified flood routing model (LOD3), and the terrain model
simplified house block models, the most simplified flood routing model (LOD3), and the terrain
were loaded in the scene.
model were loaded in the scene.
On both the Android and Apple smartphones, the frame rate represented by curve A is higher
than that of curve B, which indicates that loading more simplified house models can improve the
scene-rendering frame rate. The frame rate represented by curve C is higher than that of curve A,
particularly in the second half of the roaming test, which indicates that loading a more simplified
flood routing model can improve the scene-rendering frame rate. The reason for the more prominent
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 11 of 16

On both the Android and Apple smartphones, the frame rate represented by curve A is higher
than that of curve B, which indicates that loading more simplified house models can improve the
scene-rendering frame rate. The frame rate represented by curve C is higher than that of curve A,
particularly in the second half of the roaming test, which indicates that loading a more simplified
flood routing model can improve the scene-rendering frame rate. The reason for the more prominent
increase in the frame rate in the second half of the test may be that the second half of the roaming path
passed
ISPRS Int.through
J. Geo-Inf. a2018,
larger flood-inundated
7, x FOR PEER REVIEW area. 11 of 16

Flight Tests on Android Smartphone

60

50

40
FPS

30
A
B
C
20
0 30 60 90 120
Time (s)
(a)

Flight Tests on iOS Smartphone

60

50

40
FPS

30
A
B
C
20
0 30 60 90 120
Time (s)
(b)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Tests
Tests of
of the
theinfluence
influence of
of reducing
reducing the
the maximum
maximum tile
tile level
level that
that can
can be
be loaded
loaded on
on the
therendering
rendering
frame rate: (a) flight tests on the Android smartphone; (b) flight tests on the iOS smartphone.
frame rate: (a) flight tests on the Android smartphone; (b) flight tests on the iOS smartphone.

In Figure 4, curve A represents a case in which the maximum loadable image tile level (with a
In Figure 4, curve A represents a case in which the maximum loadable image tile level (with a tile
tile size of 256 × 256 pixels) in the scene was 17, and the maximum loadable DEM tile level was 15.
size of 256 × 256 pixels) in the scene was 17, and the maximum loadable DEM tile level was 15. Curve
Curve B represents a case in which the maximum loadable image tile level (with a tile size of 256 ×
B represents a case in which the maximum loadable image tile level (with a tile size of 256 × 256 pixels)
256 pixels) was 15, and the maximum loadable DEM tile level was 15. Finally, curve C represents the
was 15, and the maximum loadable DEM tile level was 15. Finally, curve C represents the case in which
case in which the maximum loadable image tile level (with a tile size of 256 × 256 pixels) was 17, and
the maximum loadable image tile level (with a tile size of 256 × 256 pixels) was 17, and the maximum
the maximum loadable DEM tile level was 13.
loadable DEM tile level was 13.
For both the Android and Apple smartphones, the frame rates represented by curves B and C
are both higher than that of curve A, indicating that reducing the maximum tile level that can be
loaded is useful for enhancing the scene-rendering frame rate. The frame rate represented by curve
B is slightly higher than that of curve C, which shows that the effect of reducing the maximum
loadable image tile level is greater than the effect of reducing the maximum loadable DEM tile level.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 12 of 16

For both the Android and Apple smartphones, the frame rates represented by curves B and C are
both higher than that of curve A, indicating that reducing the maximum tile level that can be loaded is
useful for enhancing the scene-rendering frame rate. The frame rate represented by curve B is slightly
higher than that of curve C, which shows that the effect of reducing the maximum loadable image tile
level Int.
ISPRS is greater
J. Geo-Inf.than
2018,the
7, x effect of reducing
FOR PEER REVIEW the maximum loadable DEM tile level. 12 of 16

Flight Tests on Android Smartphone

90
64 x 64 pixels
80 128 x 128 pixels
256 x 256 pixels
70 512 x 512 pixels
1024 x 1024 pixels
60

50
FPS

40

30

20

10

0
0 30 60 90 120
Time (s)
(a)

Flight Tests on iOS Smartphone

60

50

40
FPS

30
64 x 64 pixels
128 x 128 pixels
256 x 256 pixels
20 512 x 512 pixels
1024 x 1024 pixels

0 30 60 90 120
Time (s)
(b)
Figure
Figure 5.5. Tests
Tests of
of the
the influence
influence of
of the
the loading
loading image
image tiles
tiles of
of various
various tile
tile sizes
sizes on
on the
the rendering
rendering frame
frame
rate: (a) flight tests on the Android smartphone; (b) flight tests on the iOS smartphone.
rate: (a) flight tests on the Android smartphone; (b) flight tests on the iOS smartphone.

In Figure 5, the five curves represent the cases in which the sizes of the image tiles loaded in the
In Figure 5, the five curves represent the cases in which the sizes of the image tiles loaded in the scene
scene were 64 × 64 pixels, 128 × 128 pixels, 256 × 256 pixels, 512 × 512 pixels, and 1024 × 1024 pixels.
were 64 × 64 pixels, 128 × 128 pixels, 256 × 256 pixels, 512 × 512 pixels, and 1024 × 1024 pixels. On both
On both the Android and Apple smartphones, the scene-rendering frame rate corresponding to the
the Android and Apple smartphones, the scene-rendering frame rate corresponding to the conventional
conventional image tile size of 256 was generally above 30 fps, meaning that it satisfied the basic
image tile size of 256 was generally above 30 fps, meaning that it satisfied the basic frame-rate requirement
frame-rate requirement for rendering a 3D flood scene in mobile VR; however, the frame rate
for rendering a 3D flood scene in mobile VR; however, the frame rate fluctuated sharply. Loading tiles at
fluctuated sharply. Loading tiles at a tile size of 128 or 64 dramatically increased the scene-rendering
a tile size of 128 or 64 dramatically increased the scene-rendering frame rate and resulted in lower frame
frame rate and resulted in lower frame rate fluctuations, demonstrating that the frame rate can be
rate fluctuations, demonstrating that the frame rate can be significantly improved by loading smaller tiles.
significantly improved by loading smaller tiles. Conversely, when larger tiles with a size of 512 or
1024 were loaded, the frame rate was low. This was particularly true for the Android devices, for
which most of the frame rates were below 30 fps.
The experiments described above show that loading simplified house models and flood routing
simulation models, reducing the maximum tile level that can be loaded in the scene, and loading
smaller-sized tiles can all effectively improve the scene-rendering frame rate to satisfy the high frame-
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 13 of 16

Conversely, when larger tiles with a size of 512 or 1024 were loaded, the frame rate was low. This was
particularly true for the Android devices, for which most of the frame rates were below 30 fps.
The experiments described above show that loading simplified house models and flood routing
simulation models, reducing the maximum tile level that can be loaded in the scene, and loading
smaller-sized tiles can all effectively improve the scene-rendering frame rate to satisfy the high
frame-rate requirements for the rendering of a 3D flood scene in mobile VR. The scene-rendering
frame rate is affected by many factors, such as mobile phone performance, operating systems,
browsers, network conditions, 3D rendering programs, scene data organization methods, roaming
paths, and scene data volume. However, for the scene-rendering frame rate curves in the experiment
result graphs, such as the five scene-rendering frame rate curves in Figure 5a, when rendering them,
the corresponding mobile phone, operating system, browser, network condition, 3D rendering program,
scene data organization method, and roaming path are the same, and the only difference is the amount
of scene data. It can be seen that it is precisely because the amount of data in the scene is different that
it leads to different frame rate curves; in addition, it is precisely because of the adoption of the diverse
representations of scene data, the optimization of mobile scene representation, and the scheduling of
mobile scenes proposed in this paper that the scene has different scene data amounts, which provide
ways for the high-frame-rate visualization of 3D disaster scenes in mobile VR. These findings prove
that the method proposed here is feasible for the construction and optimization of a 3D disaster scene
based in mobile VR.

4. Conclusions and Future Work

We described the construction and optimization of 3D disaster scenes based in mobile VR.
A plugin-free B/S framework was designed that makes full use of the capabilities of indoor
high-performance computers to process and publish the information necessary for the construction of
3D disaster scenes, and uses a smartphone and a mobile HMD to enable the immersive exploration
of and interaction with a scene. Certain key technologies for scene optimization were discussed,
including diverse modes of scene data representation, representation optimization of mobile scenes,
and adaptive scheduling of mobile scenes. Using a flood disaster as an example, a prototype system
was developed and used to conduct various experimental analyses. The experimental results show
that the proposed scene construction and optimization method can effectively satisfy high frame-rate
requirements for the rendering 3D disaster scenes in mobile VR. The contributions of this study are
summarized as follows.
First, diverse modes of scene data representation were proposed. For terrain models,
the organization of the scene data into terrain pyramid models of multiple tile sizes was proposed.
For disaster simulation models, a LOD-based representation was proposed. These diverse
representation modes for the scene data provide a basis for the efficient visualization of 3D disaster
scenes based in mobile VR.
Second, strategies for optimizing the representation of mobile scenes and for adaptive scene
scheduling were proposed. Loading simplified disaster simulation models, reducing the maximum
tile level that can be loaded in the scene, and loading smaller-sized tiles are all approaches that can
effectively improve the scene-rendering frame rate to satisfy the high frame-rate requirements for the
rendering of 3D disaster scenes in mobile VR.
Finally, using a flood disaster as an example, a prototype system was developed based on the
Cesium open-source framework. The prototype system can run on commonly used smartphones.
Using a mobile HMD, the immersive exploration of and interaction with a 3D flood scene was
implemented. The work described in this study can serve as a reference for the construction and
optimization of other geographic scenes in mobile VR.
Despite the achievements described above, this paper has some shortcomings. For example,
since the Cesium open-source framework currently supports only one DEM tile size (i.e., 64), a DEM
pyramid model with only a tile size of 64 was provided in this study, so this paper only tested the
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 215 14 of 16

influence of the loading image tiles of various sizes on the scene-rendering frame rate. The influence
of the loading DEM tiles of various sizes on the scene-rendering frame rate should be studied in
the future.

Author Contributions: Y.H. and J.Z. conceived of the initial idea for this study, designed the experiments, and
wrote the paper; Y.H., W.L., Y.Z., and H.Z. performed the experiments and analyzed the results; Q.Z. and H.Q.
contributed the experimental data and supplied the infrastructure for the experiments; and Z.C., W.Y., and P.Z.
provided important suggestions and reviews.
Funding: This paper was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant
No. 2016YFC0803105), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2682018CX35), the National
High Technology Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2015AA123901), and the Smart
Guangzhou Spatio-temporal Information Cloud Platform Construction (Grant No. GZIT2016-A5-147).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments
and suggestions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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