AC Circuit Analysis - Alexander Schure

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A-C CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS
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a publication
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A-C CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS
Edited by
Alexander Schure, Ph.D., Ed.D.
-
JOH N F. R I D ER P U BL I 5 H ER, I NC •
116 West 14th Street • New York 11, N. Y.
Copyright December 1958 by
JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC.
All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may

not be reproduced in any form or in any language
without permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 58-14216
Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE
In many design applications, alternating current offers substantial

advantages over direct current. Among the more important ad-
vantages of alternating current are ease of transmission over long
distances without considerable loss of power and its ability to be
radiated as energy into space from an antenna. For these reasons,
as well as the fact that alternating current may easily be converted
to direct current, ac has become accepted as a more suitable and
versatile power source than direct current. Although there are many
situations in which direct current is a proper choice as a fundamental
source of power (for example, in any mobile installation such as
the automobile, where a d-c storage battery represents the initial
source of power) there are correspondingly many more situations
in which it becomes essential to utilize and understand alternating
current.
The aim of this book is to provide the fundamental concepts of
alternating current analysis. As in o-c CIRCUIT ANALYSIS (another
text in this series) the mathematical treatment is simple, but the
analyses are extensive enough to allow the interested technician or
student to develop a full comprehension of the pertinent theory.
To insure the achievement of this aim, the text presents adequate
information relating to electrical laws in such form as to permit
ready use; it describes a relatively small number of selected major
topics in detail, rather than treating a major body of less important
material; the topics, once given, are related to practical situations;
carefully selected problems afford the reader more profitable in-
formation and an opportunity to apply the principles he has learned;
V
vi PREFACE
step-by-step problem analyses provide clearcut concepts of the

methodology involved in solving problems.
Specific attention is given to basic concepts: simple a-c waveforms
and terminology; complex a-c waveforms: a-c generation; two-pole
and four-pole alternators; the radian; appropriate mathematics per-
taining to the voltage and current values of a sine wave including
average, effective and peak relationships; the concepts of "pure"
resistance, inductance and capacitance; a complete treatment of the
"j" operator, including complex numbers; the polar form of complex
numbers; the effects and calculations arising from various combina-
tions of R, L and C in series circuits; the series resistance circuit; the
vectorial treatment used in analyses of parallel networks; the series-
parallel a-c network; and, alternate methods of computing im-
pedence. Thus, a strong theoretical basis is provided, upon which
more advanced concepts can be built.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the staff of the New York
Institute of Technology for its assistance in the preparation of the
manuscript of this book.
November, 1958 A. S.
New York, N. Y.
Chapter 1
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
An alternating current is one that starts from zero amplitude,

rises in a specified manner to some maximum value, then falls off
to zero again. The current next reverses its direction of flow, rises
to its maximum value in the opposite direction, then decays again
to zero. Then there is another reversal of current direction and the
cycle of variation occurs again.
1. Simple A-C Waveforms and Terminology
Figure 1 shows the changes described above, and illustrates the

definition of fundamental terms used in ac. Figure IA shows two
cycles of a type of ac called a sine wave. This particular shape is
the graph of the trigonometric function, the sine of an angle, as we
shall show in detail later. An alternating current generated by
rotating machinery is shaped this way; that's why the sine wave is
the most important waveform we shall study.
A cycle is a complete set of variations of an alternating current.
As marked off in Fig. 1, a cycle is shown from the beginning of one
positive alternation to the beginning of the next positive alterna-
tion. Any other two corresponding points on the waveform could
have been selected as well. The cycle is shown marked off into two
half cycles, one for the positive alternation and one for the negative
alternation.
The length of time consumed by one cycle is called the "period"
of the ac. Period is symbolized by "t" and it is in units of time -
seconds, microseconds, etc.
2 A-C CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
The number of cycles of ac occurring in I second is called its

"frequency." The symbol for frequency is "f" and it is in units of
cycles per second (cps). High frequencies may be stated in kilo-
cycles (1000 cycles) per second or megacycles (1,000,000 cycles) per
second. For simplicity, the phrase "per second" is often omitted,
and frequency is stated in cycles, "c," kilocycles, "kc," or mega-
cycles, "me."
Since period is the length of time for one cycle· (seconds per
cycle), and frequency is the number of cycles in 1 second (cycles
per second) , then period and frequency are evidently reciprocals.
We then have,
f = 1/t
where f is in cycles per second and
t = 1/f
t is in seconds.
Example 1. What is the period of a 60-cycle ac?
Solution. t = 1/f = 1/60 = 0.0167 sec.
Example 2. The period of an ac is 2.5 milliseconds. What is its frequency?
Solution. f = 1/t = l;.0025 = 400 cycles
Referring to Fig. IA again, note that the peak or maximum
value of the ac is indicated. For this sine wave it is evidently 5
amperes.
2. A Complex A-C Waveform
Another type of waveform more complex than the sine wave is

shown in Fig. IB. Since the vertical axis is marked off in volts,
this is an alternating voltage rather than an alternating current.
For simplicity, the term ac is used to describe both alternating
voltages and alternating currents. Actually it is an alternating
voltage that is generated and the current that flows depends on
the voltage and the characteristics of the load.
To fully appreciate the importance of ac, we must realize that
about 95% of the electrical power generated in the U.S. is a-c
power. Ac is far superior to the d-c systems once used because it is
easy to generate, can be transmitted over long distances with low
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AL TERNATING CURRENT 3
losses, and facilitates the increase or decrease of voltage with rela-

tively simple and highly efficient devices (transformers) .
3. Electromagnetic Induction - A-C Generation
Now, to better understand the nature of alternating voltages

and currents, we will discuss the generation of ac by rotating
machinery. The principles of electromagnetic induction as dis-
covered in 1831 by Michael Faraday are applied in this process.
AMPS
TIME
- - - - I CYCLE---..,
THE PERIOD, t, IN SECONOS-t
I
(Al
+20
VOLTS o+---.......:==-i-----~~--.....;::......___________
I TI~
I
I
I
I
-20 I
PERIOD ANO I CYCLE----!
(Bl
Fig. 1. A-C waveforms: (A) sine-wave alternating current; (B) a complex alternating
voltage.
The electric generator which produces ac by electromagnetic induc-

tion is called an "alternator."
Faraday demonstrated that a voltage is induced in a conductor
whenever the conductor cuts magnetic lines of force. It is imma-
terial whether the conductor or the lines of force are in motion

(even both may be moving). Relative motion between the two
resulting in a cutting of magnetic flux lines is all that is required
for the production of a voltage. Faraday showed further that the
polarity of the induced voltage depended on the direction of the
magnetic field and the direction of cutting the lines. A reversal of
either the field or the relative motion can produce a reversal of
polarity of the induced voltage.
Finally, Faraday demonstrated that the magnitude of the in-
duced voltage is in direct proportion to the rate of cutting of the
lines of force. This last statement is the basis of the definition of
a volt. If the magnetic field is uniform throughout, and the rela-
tive speed of the conductor cutting the magnetic flux is constant,
then I volt is generated when the conductor cuts 108 (100,000,000)
lines of force per second.
4. The Simple Two-Pole Alternator
These principles may be utilized in constructing a simple alter-

nator. The left side of Fig. 2 illustrates a basic two-pole (two mag-
netic poles) alternator. Conventionally, the direction of the lines
of force is shown from the north to the south pole. A single con-
ductor is shown in cross section revolving through the field at a
constant velocity. Thirteen positions of the conductor are shown
with an arrow at each position pointing to the direction of motion
at that moment. Position 13 is obviously identical with position I
and marks the end of one revolution. The conductor revolves in a
path shown by the circle in which the positions lie.
The right-hand side of Fig. 2 is a graph whose vertical (y) axis
represents induced voltage in the conductor, and whose horizontal
(x) axis represents time. However, if we consider position I as an
angle of 0°, then the other positions may also be described in terms
of the angle swept out by the conductor. The positions shown rep-
resent angular distances 30° apart. In this case, the horizontal axis
may also be marked out in degrees as is shown.
We now proceed to take .the conductor through the various posi-
tions in one revolution. The amplitude of the induced voltage
will be marked off on the graph in accordance with the principle
of rate of cutting lines of force.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AL TERNA TING CURRENT 5
In position I, the conductor is moving in a direction parallel to

the lines of force. In this case it is not cutting any force lines and
the induced voltage is zero as shown. In going from position I to
2 it is evident that the direction of motion is constantly changing
such that m,ore and more lines will be cut. The result is a slowly
rising voltage from I to 2. Position 2 represents an angular traverse
N POLE
S POLE
Fig. 2. Generation of a-c voltage by a revolving conductor in a uniform magnetic field
of 30°. From position 2 to 3 at 60° an even greater number of lines

of force will be cut in unit time; the voltage curve continues its rise.
In position 4 at 90°, the direction of motion is at right angles to
the force lines and maximum voltage is induced at this point. By
trigonometric considerations it can be shown that the number of
lines cut by the conductor (hence the magnitude of the induced
voltage) is proportional to the sine of the angle corresponding to
the position of the conductor. At 30°, the induced voltage is thus
0.5 of the maximum at 90°. At 60°, the voltage is 0.866 of the
maximum.
Positions 5 and 6 are analogous to 3 and 2 respectively, with the
difference that the voltage is now decreasing. At 7, the conductor
is once again moving parallel to the lines of force and no voltage
is induced (trigonometrically, sin 180° 0). =
As we go from 7 to 8 the situation is the same as in going from

I to 2, with one fundamental difference. From l to 2, the conductor
moved from right to left in cutting the field. From 7 to 8, the
motion of the conductor is from left to right through the field. In
accordance with the previous discussion, the polarity of the induced
Fig. 3. The definition of a

radian.
THIS ANGLE IS
I RADIAN
voltage must now reverse. As a result the voltage goes to a negative

maximum at IO and decreases to zero again at 13. At 13 one cycle
is completed and the next revolution repeats the induced voltage
waveforms.
The graph of the induced voltage is identical with the curve
y =
sin x. For this reason the output voltage of the alternator is
called a sine wave. We have already indicated this in the fact that
the number of lines cut by the conductor in unit time depends on
the sine of the angle.
5. The Radian
Up to this point, angles have been expressed in the customary

manner, in degrees. However, angles may be expressed in terms of
another unit, the radian. The radian measure of angles often leads
to a better understanding of a-c concepts.
To define a radian, we draw a circle of radius r, as in Fig. 3. On
the circumference of the circle we lay out an arc AB equal in
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT 7
length to the radius. Draw in the two radii, OA and OB. By defini-
tion, angle BOA is one radian.
By a basic geometric formula, the whole circumference of the
circle is given by,
C = 2n:r
This means that the arc, AB, which is equal to r, can be put
around the circumference 2n: times. Since each arc subtends
(forms) one radian, then there must be 2n: radians in the whole
circle.
A circle then contains 2n: radians. In ordinary measure a circle
consists of 360°. In that case,
2n: radians = 360°
and n: radians = 180°
1800
from which I radian = n:
= 57.3°
n:
and 1° = 1800
= 0.0175 radian
lxample 3. Express the following in radians. (a) 21 °, (b) 60°, (c) 240°.
Solution. (a) 21 ° = 21 X 0.0175 = 0.368 radian
(b) 60° = 60 x _!!_ = 2!.... radians

180 3
4
(c) 240° = 240 x : =
10
; radians
lxample 4, Express the following in degrees.

7
(a) 4 radians, (b) ~Jt radians, (c) : radians
Solution. (a) 4 radians = 4 x 57.3° = 229°

(b) 2.,it radians= ~ x ~ = 120°
" 3 Jt
7 1800
(c) Jt
6
radians = J..!!..
6
X
Jt
= 210°
In the basic two-pole alternator of Fig. 2, one revolution of the

conductor around the magnetic field develops one cycle of induced
alternating voltage. In the radian system of angular measurement,
a circle consists of 2n: radians. If we speak of the velocity of the
conductor in terms of angular velocity (radians per second) rather
than conventional linear velocity (such as inches per second) a use-

ful relationship can be developed.
Let ro (omega) be the angular velocity of the conductor in radians
per second. Since one cycle of induced voltage is produced for each
2lt radians, then the frequency of the voltage is
f = ro/2n
and ro = 2rcf
The angular velocity, ro, is an important and recurring concept
in ac theory; but it is important to remember that this concept
employs radians and not degrees.
6. The Four-Pole Alternator
In practice, the simple two-pole alternator is not an efficient

machine. Actual alternators are multipole types. Electromagnets
IRON
YOKE
OR
STATOR
-----+-ROTATING
MAGNETS
OR
ROTOR
fig. 4. A four-pole alternator.
are used to produce the magnetic field and a d-c voltage must be
supplied to generate the magnetic poles. Since this "field voltage"
is a low de it is best to make the poles the moving element or the
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT 9
rotor of the alternator. The d-c voltage may then be brought in

through low voltage slip rings and brushes. The conductors wherein
the voltage is generated form a winding called the armature. Since
it is the stationary part of the alternator, the armature is often
called the stator.
Figure 4 is a simplified drawing of a four-pole rotating field
alternator. For additional simplicity only four armature conductors
are shown. The iron frame labeled "yoke" is for mechanical sup-
port and also completes the magnetic circuit.
Since the lines of force go from a north pole to the adjacent south
poles, it is evident that one cycle will be completed from one north
pole under conductor I (or any conductor) to the next north pole
under that conductor. For one rotor rotation, two cycles of voltage
are induced. Had there been six poles, (the number of poles, of
course, must be even) the ratio would be three cycles for one ro-
tation.
The frequency of the induced ac is thus seen to be a function of
the number of poles and the rate of rotation of the rotor. In
equation form,
f=fxrps
where f is frequency in cycles per second, p is total number of poles,

rps is revolutions per second.
Since machine speeds are customarily expressed in revolutions
per minute, rpm, the frequency equation becomes
p rpm
f= x
2 60
and f = p (rpm)
120
Example s. An eight-pole alternator is rotating at a speed of 900 rpm. What
is the frequency of the induced voltage?
Solution. f = p (rpm) = 8 (900) = 60 cycles

120 120
Example 6. At what speed should a 20-pole alternator rotate to generate a
frequency of 400 cycles?
Solution. Solving the frequency equation for rpm,
120f (120) (400) = 2400

rpm= -p- = 20
7. Review Questions
(I) Explain the action of one cycle of ac.

(2) What is the period of a 100-cycle ac?
(!l) The period of an a-c voltage is 150 µsec. What is its frequency?
(4) What is the relationship between voltage, lines of force, and angular
velocity?
(5) An alternator has two major components. Which one is moving? Why?
(6) The voltage output ot an alternator is equivalent to which trigonometric
function?
(7) An alternator generates a maximum of 20 volts. What is its instantaneous
voltage at !10°? At 60°?
(8) Convert !100° into n: radians.
(9) What is the equation for frequency for a multipole alternator?
(10) Define angular velocity.
Chapter 2
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF A SINE WAYE
In a d-c power system we can speak of the voltage and the current
as fixed numbers and perform Ohm's law and power calculations
with these numbers. In an a-c system, however, voltage and current
are constantly changing in sine -wave fashion. It thus becomes
necessary to define them on other bases than the simple d-c basis.
8. The A-C Sine-Wave
Figure 5 shows a sine-wave of alternating voltage. The voltage is

zero at 0°, 180° and 360°. It reaches its positive maximum at
90° and its negative maximum at 270°. Between these angles, the
voltage is evidently at intermediate values between zero and maxi-
mum.
Let us call the absolute value of the maximum voltage Em.•
This is also referred to as the peak voltage. We say the "absolute"
value so that we can eliminate the plus sign. Em is thus treated as
a positive number unless we specifically wish to refer to the volt-
age at 270°.
The voltage at any instant in time (or at any angle) is called
the "instantaneous" value of the voltage. The symbol, E1 is used
for instantaneous voltage. Comparably, an alternating current will
have Im for maximum current and I 1 for instantaneous current.
Since an a-c sine wave is the graph of the function y =
sin x,
we can relate maximum and instantaneous values by the sine of the
• E is the conventional symbol for voltage, I for current.
11
angle corresponding to the instant under consideration. The Greek

letter theta, 0, is used as a symbol for the angle. On this basis we
have the following relationships,
E1 = Em sin 0
and, Em= E1/sin 8
Correspondingly, I 1 = Im sin 8
Im = I 1/sin 0
In solving problems involving these formulas, we must remember
the properties of the sine in each of the four quadrants. They are
summarized here:
Quadrant I (0° - 90°)
a) The sine is a positive number.
b) sin 0 read directly from a trig table.•
Quadrant II (90°-180°)
a) The sine is a positive number.
b) sin 0 = sin (180° - 0)
Quadrant III (180°-270°)
a) The sine is a negative number.
b) sin 0 = sin (180° + 8)
Quadrant IV (270°-360°)
a) The sine is a negative number.
b) sin 0 = sin (360° - 0)
Example 7. The maximum value of an alternating voltage is 145 volts. What
is the instantaneous voltage at 45° of its cycle?
Solution.
= 145 sin 45° = 145 x 0.707
= 102 V
Example a. The maximum value of an ac is to be found. The instantaneous

value at 165° is 7.25 amps. Find Im.
Solution. Im = Iitsin 0 = 7.25/sin 165°
sin 165° = sin (180° - 165°) = sin 15° = 0.259
Im = 7.25/0.259 = 28.0 amperes
• A Trigonometry Table is included at the end of this volume.

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF A SINE WAVE 13
Example 9, The maximum value of an ac is 15.5 amps. At what points in the

cycle will the current be -11.0 amps?
Solution. An examination of a sine wave shows that it goes through any given
value other than zero and its maximum twice in a cycle. Two angles must
be found for this solution. Solving the relationship for sin e, we get
sin 8 = I,tlm
= -11.0/15.5 = -0.709
The angle in the table with a sine closest to the absolute value of 0.709 is
45°, whose sine is 0.707. However, since this sine is negative we must find the
equivalent third and fourth quadrant angles. The third quadrant angle is
81 = 180° + 45° = 225°
while the fourth quadrant solution is
e. = 360° - 45° = 315°
Note that in these examples the solutions are calculated to 3
significant figures. This is the standard accuracy of a 10-inch slide
rule and no more than slide-rule accuracy is generally required in
the solution of practical problems. This assumes, of course, that the
given data is correct to three figures, an assumption that will be
made throughout this volume unless otherwise specified. In gen•
eral, a calculated result should have no more significant figures
than the smallest number of significant figures in the least accurate
item of its data.
9. The Average Value of an A-C Sine-Wave
Another useful value to be considered for an a-c sine wave is

its "average" value. The average value of a full cycle of a sine wave
+ VOLTAGE Ei
E -----------
Fig. 5. A sine-wave.
is evidently zero as the negative alternation exactly cancels the

positive alternation. Therefore, when the term "average value" is
applied to an ac it is understood to mean the average of one
Eov•O.636 Em (FOR ONE ALTERNATION)
TIME OR
ANGLE
Eov •O (FOR ONE CYCLE)
Fig. 6. Average values af a sine-wave.
alternation. Since only absolute values are of concern, the average

value will be represented by a positive number.
Eav and Iav are the symbols used for average voltage and average
current, respectively. By mathematical analysis we can show that
these relationships hold true,
Eav = -2 :rt
X Em = 0.636 Em
and Em =T :rt
X Eav = 1.57 Eav
Similarly, Iav = 0.636 Im

Im = 1.57 Iav
The average value relationship of 0.636 can be shown approxi-
mately by taking enough instantaneous values in one-half cycle
and finding their average. This is done in the table below which
is based on a half cycle of a sine wave with a peak value of IO volts.
The instantaneous value is calculated for angles 5° apart up to
180°. The instantaneous value is in the column headed E1 and is
calculated by
E1 = IO sin 8
TABLE I
INSTANTANEOUS
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES
Angle E1 l12• Angle E1 l12•
(degrees) (volts) (amps) (degrees) (volts) (amps)
5 0.87 0.8 95 9.96 99.2
10 1.74 3.0 100 9.85 97.0
15 2.59 6.7 105 9.66 93.3
20 3.42 11.6 110 9.40 88.3
25 4.23 17.9 115 9.06 82.1
30 5.00 25.0 120 8.66 75.0
35 5.74 33.0 125 8.19 67.1
40 6.43 41.4 130 7.66 58.8
45 7.07 50.0 135 7.07 50.0
50 7.66 58.8 140 6.43 41.4
55 8.19 67.1 145 5.74 33.0
60 8.66 75.0 150 5.00 25.0
65 9.06 82.1 155 4.23 17.9
70 9.40 88.3 160 3.42 11.6
75 9.66 93.3 165 2.59 6.7
80 9.85 97.0 170 1.74 3.0
85 9.96 99.2 175 0.87 Q.8
90 10.00 100.0 180 0.00 0.0
If we now add the 36 values of E 1 the total turns out to be 229.06.

Dividing by 36 we get an average value of 6.36 for the IO-volt peak
wave. This checks the 0.636 relationship between Eav and Em.
Figure 6 shows the relation between Eav and Em.
Example 10. What is the average value of a voltage whose peak value is
188 volts?
Solutlon, En = 0.6ll6 Em = 0.6ll6 X 188
= 120 volts
Example 11, An alternating current has an average value of l.5ll amps. What
is the peak value of the current?
Solutlon. Im = 1.57 In = 1.57 x l.5ll
= 2.40 amps
• Column 111 is not being used until a later discussion.
10. The Effedive (rms) Value of an A-C Sine-Wave

We have now discussed the peak, instantaneous and average
values of an ac. However, in order to carry out calculations involv-
ing power and heating, it is necessary to introduce a new concept,
the "effective" value of an a-c wave. (This is also called the "root
mean square" or rms value.) The effective value is best derived
from a discussion of power in an a-c circuit.
The instantaneous power in ac is defined as the product of the
instantaneous voltage and current. Thus,
P 1 = E1I 1
The average of all the instantaneous powers in a cycle is the average
power consumed by the load. The positive and negative half cycles
contribute equally to the power consumption; as far as heat pro-
duced and power consumed are concerned, it is immaterial in which
direction the current flows through a resistor.
Let us give the average power the symbol, P. By methods of in-
tegral calculus it is possible to determine the average power in an
a-c circuit containing resistance only as
Emim
p =
2
where Em and Im are the peak values. This power equation may be
rewritten as
P = 7f X -J2"" = (0.707 Em) (0.707 Im)
Using the symbols E and I for effective voltage and current, we

define effective values from this power relationship.
E = 0.707 Em
from which Em = E/0.707 = 1.41 E
and I = 0.707 Im
from which Im = 1.41 I
The power equation for an a-c resistive circuit may now be
written simply as
P =EI= 12R
This is identical with the d-c power equations. The effective values
of voltage and current are thus equivalent to the d-c voltage and
current values that develop the same amount of power in a resistor.
11. Effective Value Relationships
The 0.707 relationship between effective and peak values may also
be approximated arithmetically. Since power is related to the
square of the current, if we average enough squares of instantaneous
currents we will get the 0.707 relationship.
Let us go back to the table that was used for the development of
average values. The third column in Table I, headed Ii2, gives the
value of the square of the instantaneous current for each of the
angles. This is based on a peak current of 10 amperes.
Adding up the 36 values of 112 gives a total of 1800.4. Dividing
this total by 36 gives the effective current (I) squared, i.e. 50.
The square root of 50 (7.07) is the effective current. This is for
a 10-amp peak current and thus bears out the 0.707 relationship.
The above derivation shows that the number 0.707 comes about
as a result of squaring currents, taking the average or mean value
of the squares and then extracting the square root. This explains
why the effective value of voltage or current is also called the "root
mean square," a name that simply describes the process of obtaining
this value. Root mean square may be abbreviated to rms. Effective
and rms values are synonymous.
Figure 7 shows a sine wave of voltage with peak, average and rms
values. The same is true for a current wave.
The effective or rms value is the one most generally used. When
we speak of so many volts or amps we mean effective voltage or cur-
rent, unless otherwise stated. Voltmeters and ammeters are nor-
mally calibrated so that they read effective values. Note, however,
that the product of rms voltage with rms current is average power.
Relations exist between average and effective values as follows,
E = 0.707 Em = 0.707 (1.57 Eav)
therefore, E = l.ll Eav

and Eav = E/1.11 = 0.9 E
I = 1.ll lav
lav = 0.9 I
TIME
OR ANGLE
fig. 7. Peak, effective (rms), and average values af a voltage sine-wave.
Example 12. In a resistive a-c circuit a voltmeter across a 250-ohm resistor

reads 120 volts. Find rms, maximum and average current, maximum and
average voltage and the power dissipated.
Solution. Since the voltmeter reads rms volts, we may find nns current directly
from Ohm's law, which states that current is proportional to voltage and
inversely proportional to resistance.
I = E/R = 120/250 = 0.480 amp
Im = 1.41 I = 1.41 X 0.480 = 0.676 amp
Iav = 0.9 I = 0.9 X 0.480 = 0.432 amp
Em = 1.41 E = 1.41 X 120 = 169 volts
E,. = 0.9 E = 0.9 x 120 = 108 volts
P = EI = 120 X 0.480 = 57.5 watts
We may check the power with this equation:
P = 12R = (0.480) • X 250
= 57.5 watts
12. Review Questions
(I) Express instantaneous voltage (E 1) in terms of maximum voltage (Em).

(2) Express Im in terms of I, in a resistive a-c circuit.
(3) A generator delivers a maximum of 200 volts. What is the instantaneous
value at 330°?
(4) Express average current (I ..) in terms of maximum current (Im) .

(5) What is the average voltage of the generator in Question 3?
(6) Express maximum voltage (Em) in terms of effective voltage (Erm•) .
(7) A generator has an output of 14.4 volts maximum. What is the power
dissipation of a 20-ohm resistor connected across its output?
(8) A 100-ohm resistor is connected across a 220-volt a-c line. Find I,m•• Im,
Iav, E., and power consumption.
(9) In which quadrants is the sine a negative number?
(IO) Express P .. in terms of Em and Im.
Chapter 3
RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE
In the study of d-c circuits, we learned that the only limit to tht
current amplitude in the steady-state condition was the resistance
of the circuit. It was only during the short periods following the
closing or the opening of the circuit that inductance or capacitance
had any effect. These periods constitute the transient condition of
the circuit.
In a-c circuits the voltage and current are constantly varying. As
a result, inductance and capacitance exert a profound effect on the
current. The combination of L, C, and R with various other de-
vices such as tubes, transistors, etc., make up the multitudinous
electrical and electronic circuits used in power work, communica-
tions, industrial controls, and so on. In this chapter we will study
the individual effects of resistance, inductance and capacitance when
an alternating voltage is applied to each.
13. "Pure" Resistance
A practical resistor inevitably contains some small amount of

inductance in its leads or in its turns of wire (if it is wire wound) .
There is also some stray capacitance inherent in its construction.
However, for analytical purposes, let us define a "pure" resistor as
a device that has no inductance or capacitance and may be repre-
sented by the letter R. We will employ this useful fiction again for
Land C.
If a pure resistance is placed across a source of alternating volt-
age, an alternating current will flow whose amplitude is determined
20
RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE 21
by Ohm's law. Using effective values of voltage and current, we

have the same relationship as exists in a d-c circuit.
I= E/R
The instantaneous currents through the resistor always follow
the instantaneous variations of the voltage as it goes through its
cycle. This may be stated in another way. In Fig. 8 the curve
marked E represents the applied voltage. The current curve I fol-
lows the voltage variations exactly. We will define such a relation-
ship by saying that E and I are "in phase." They are identical sine•
waves differing only in amplitude.
Since P = EI for a pure resistive circuit we can sketch in the
curve for P in Fig. 8. Note first that P is always positive, since the
product of two positive numbers or two negative numbers is a posi-
tive number. Physically, a positive power is power delivered from
the source and consumed by the load. In this case the power de-
velops heat in the resistor.
A second interesting conclusion drawn from the power curve is
the fact that for each cycle of E or I there are two cycles of power.
The frequency of the power variations is twice the frequency of the
voltage variations. For a 60-cycle voltage the power frequency is
120 cycles. Note that the power is zero twice in every voltage cycle,
a fact that must be reckoned with in the design of single-phase a-c
motors. This major disadvantage of single-phase a-c led to the de-
velopment of polyphase systems.
14. "Pure" Inductance
For the analysis of an inductive circuit we will again use the

fiction of a "pure" inductance containing no resistance or capaci-
tance. Such a device is physically impossible, but useful for study
purposes. The symbol "L" stands for pure inductance.
Any piece of wire, even a straight piece, contains some induc-
tance. Generally, however, we think of inductance in terms of a coil
consisting of several turns of wire around an air core or magnetic
core.
Consider the situation where an alternating current is passed·
through a coil. This current sets up a magnetic field which follows
exactly the variation of the current. The magnetic field then is an
alternating one corresponding to the alternating current. This
magnetic field, by its very nature, is constantly moving as it rises,

falls, reverses, rises and falls. In so moving, it is constantly cutting
the conductors which make up the coil, thus (by Faraday's laws)
inducing a voltage in the coil.
By the physical laws of inertia, this induced voltage must be of
such a polarity as to oppose the changing current which is produc-
ing the magnetic field. It is evident that if this induced voltage
Fig. 8. P, E, and I In a
purely resistive circuit.
aided the changing current, the magnitude and rate of change of

the current would increase. This, in turn, would increase the size
of the induced voltage which, in turn, would further increase the
changing current. This snowballing process is analogous to a per-
petual motion situation and is physically impossible.
The direction of the induced voltage is summarized by Lenz'
law which states that the induced voltage is of such a polarity as
always to oppose the change of the current which produces it. Be-
cause of its direction this voltage is often called the countervoltage.
The amplitude of the countervoltage is proportional to the rate of
change of the current through the coil.
This property of generating a countervoltage is called inductance.
The type of inductance discussed with the coil is often called "self
inductance" since only one coil is involved, and all the effects take
place within it.
The countervoltage forms the basis of the definition of the unit
of inductance, the henry. A device has an inductance of I henry
when it generates a countervoltage of I volt when the current
through it is changing at the rate of I ampere per second.
The property of inductance in electricity is analogous to the
property of inertia in mechanics. Both inductance and inertia tend
to maintain the status quo in opposition to any change in the forces

acting upon them. For this reason, inductance is sometimes referred
to as electrical inertia.
Several interesting effects turn up in a circuit containing induc-
tance only. The power dissipated in such a circuit is zero. P 12R, =
and since R =0, then P =
0. This is true regardless of the magni-
tude of the current, and, in a-c circuits which are highly inductive,
leads to the situation where large currents flow with very little
power expenditure. This is evidently an unhappy situation for
electric companies whose business is to sell electrical power.
A second important effect of inductance in a-c is the condition of
the steady state of an a-c shown in Fig. 9. This occurs sometime
after the circuit has been energized and all transient effects have
vanished.
The curve marked I is the sine wave of current passing through
L. At 0° the current is zero, but its rate of change is maximum.
Eind
,,,-.., / ............
I / \ / ••
'\
\:
I
/ .
Fig. 9. E and I for a purely
indudive circuit.
(At zero the current is going from nothing to something, which is

certainly a great rate of change.) Since the rate of change of I is
maximum, then the countervoltage must be maximum. Further,
since the current is trying to rise in the positive direction, the
countervoltage in opposing this change must be negative. The
dashed line curve of the figure marked E 10d represents this induced
countervoltage. At 0° it is at its negative maximum.
From 0° to 90° the rate of change of I decreases and E1nd de-
creases. At the 90° point, I is at its maximum value, but its rate
of change is zero. It is at "the top of the hill," poised to come down.
The magnetic field around the inductance is at a maximum, but
it is stationary. As a result, the countervoltage is zero.
From 90° to 180° the rate of change of I increases with a corres-

ponding increase of E1nd· However, the current is decreasing and
the induced voltage must be positive to oppose the current change.
By similar analysis the rest of the curve of E10d may be drawn.
The force which is driving the current to go through the various
changes just described is the applied voltage. Thus, we have a situa-
tion where the applied voltage produces the current changes and
the countervoltage opposes the current changes. As a result, the
countervoltage and the applied voltage must be 180° out of phase
with each other.
The applied voltage, E, is thus drawn in on Fig. 9 as the dotted
line curve. It is a sine wave 180° out of phase with the counter-
voltage, E1nd·
Now let us compare the sine wave E, the voltage applied to the
inductance, with the sine wave I, the current flowing through the
inductance. E passes through its positive maximum at 0°, while I
has its positive maximum at 90°. E goes through zero at 90°,
while I reaches zero at 180°. Further comparisons show that I is
displaced from E by 90°. Since I reaches its various values 90°
later than E, I is said to lag E by 90°.
This angular difference between the voltage and current waves is
called the phase angle. For a pure inductive circuit we express the
phase angle as 90° lagging.
In Fig. I 0, E and I are redrawn using E as the reference wave. If
=
the power is drawn in from the relation P EI it will be the curve
marked P. Pis negative when either E or I is negative, and positive
when both have the same sign. Note that the P wave occurs with
twice the frequency of E and I (just as in the resistive circuit).
However this time it is an alternating wave with equal positive and
negative half cycles. As a result, the average power over a cycle is
zero. During the positive alternation the source delivers power to
the inductance, but during the negative alternation the inductance
returns the power to the source.
We are most accustomed to working with positive power which
is defined as power delivered from the source to the load. This
occurs when E and I are both positive or both negative. Negative
power is power delivered from the load to the source. This occurs
during the periods when E is positive and I negative, or E is nega-
tive and I positive. E and I must have opposite signs for a period of
negative power to occur.
As a physical interpretation, during periods of positive power,

the magnetic field around the inductance builds up. During periods
of negative power the field collapses returning the stored-up energy
to the source.
One effect of the induced or countervoltage in an inductor is the
lagging current previously described. Another important effect is
its limiting action on the amplitude of current flow. The counter-
voltage acts to cancel out most of the applied voltage and thus acts
to reduce the circuit current.
This limiting action on current amplitude is best described in
terms of ohms rather than volts to make it analogous to the limiting
action of a resistance on the current. We thus define the term
p
,...,
I I
I I
I \
I \
I I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
Fig. 10. P, E and I in a purely inductive circuit.
inductive reactance as the property of an inductor that limits the

amplitude of an alternating current. The symbol for inductive re-
actance is XL and its unit is the ohm. An inductance has a ·reactance
of I ohm when I volt of applied voltage causes a current of I am-
pere to flow. Ohm's law for an inductance may now be written as
E = IXL
The reactance of an inductor is determined by two factors. The
size of the inductance will evidently determine Xr, (a larger L will
produce a larger countervoltage). Since the countervoltage also
depends on rate of change of current, it is evident that a higher-
frequency current with its more rapid fluctuations will produce a

higher XL than a lower-frequency current. It is the angular velocity,
co (2:n:f) , that determines the rate of current change. As a result,
the following relationship holds,
XL= 2:n:fL = coL
In this equation, XL is in ohms, f in cycles per second and L is in
henries.
Example 15. A 200-millihenry coil in a 60-cycle circuit has what inductive
reactance?
Solution. XL = 2nfL
= 6.28 X 60 X 0.200
= 75.4 ohms
Example 16. At what frequency will a 250-microhenry coil have a reactance
of 2ll5 ohms?
Solution. Solving the reactance formula for f,
f = _&_ = 2ll5
2nL 6.28 X 250 X IO-•
= 0.150 X 109
= 150 kc
Example 17. In a pure inductive circuit, the applied voltage is 150 volts at
400 cycles. The current is measured at 2.6 amps. What is the inductance of
the circuit?
Solution. By Ohm's law
XL = E/1 = 150/2.6 = 57.7 ohms
Solving the reactance equation for L,
L = XL
21tf
= 57.7
6.28 X 400 = 002!10
. h
y
= 2ll millihenries
We will now examine the effect of placing inductances in series

with each other. Assume that three coils are placed in series in
such a way that there is no magnetic interaction between individual
coils (Fig. 11). Magnetic interaction between coils is called mutual
inductance. The rules developed for three series inductances may
then be extended for any number.
Each coil exerts a limiting effect on the current which we have
named inductive reactance. The effect of the three coils then, is a
total limiting effect which is the sum of the individual reactances.

Call the total inductive reactance XLT• then
XLT = XLl + XL2 + XLS
Rewriting,
wLr = wL1 + wL2 + wL3
Dividing through by w,
Lr=L1+~+La
The total inductance for inductances in series is then simply the
sum of the individual inductances, when there is no mutual induc-
tance. This is analogous to the total resistance of series resistances.
The case of inductances in parallel, as shown in Fig. 12, is differ-
ent. Again, assuming that the mutual inductance among the coils
L2 LT•L1+L2+L3
Fig. 11. Series indudances
(NO MAGNETIC INTER·
with na mutual indudance. ACTION BETWEEN COil.Si
is zero, for a three-branch parallel network, the total current is ex-

pressed as the sum of the individual branch currents.
IT = 11 + 12 + 13
If each branch is an inductance, then by Ohm's law the current
equation may be written as,
E E E E
XLT
--+--+
XLl XL2 XLS
Dividing through by E and replacing XL by wL,
I I I I
--+--+--
wLT wL1 wL2 wL3
Multiplying through by co,

1
LT
This reciprocal formula is analogous to the familiar formula for
resistances in parallel.
15. "Pure" Capacitance
For the analysis of the effect of capacitance in an a-c circuit we

also use the concept of a pure capacitor containing no inductance
or resistance.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a nonconduc-
tor called a dielectric. When a voltage is placed across a capacitor
there is an instant rush of current which charges the capacitor to
Fig. 12. Parallel inductances

with na mutual inductance.
_!_,...!_+..l.+_!_
LT L1 L2 L3
(NO MAGNETIC INTERACTION

BETWEEN COILS)
the applied voltage. The current then stops since the voltage
across the capacitor is equal and opposite to the applied voltage.
If the voltage should now tend to increase, there will be an addi-
tional current flow in the same direction building up the counter-
voltage on the capacitor until it is once more equal to the applied
voltage.
If the voltage should tend to decrease, the capacitor loses some of
its charge, causing a current flow in the opposite direction. In an
a-c circuit where there is a continual change in the applied voltage,
a capacitor is continually charging and discharging. While there
is no current flow through the capacitor, the continual charging
and discharging constitute a current flow in the rest of the circuit.
It is evident from the above discussion that the effect of capaci-
tance is to oppose a change in voltage in an a-c circuit. This con-
trasts with inductance which opposes a change in current. The

greater the rate of change of the voltage the more rapidly will the
capacitor charge or discharge to oppose the change. The voltage
and current relations that arise from this are shown in Fig. 13.
Figure 13 illustrates the steady-state condition some time after the
capacitive circuit is energized and transient effects are over. The
applied voltage E is shown as a sine wave. Any change in E is im-
mediately opposed by a corresponding change in the countervoltage
across the capacitor. As a result the countervoltage must be 180°
out of phase with E. It is shown as the <lashed-line curve marked Ee.
Now consider that the countervoltage is developed by current
flowing to charge the capacitor. The greater the rate of change of
the applied voltage the greater must be this charging current flow
to enable the charge on the capacitor to catch up with the applied
voltage.
The greatest rate of change of E occurs at 0° of its cycle. As a
result I must be at a maximum at this point. From 0° to goo the
rate of change of E decreases and the charging current correspond-
Fig. 13. E and I for a pure-

ly capacitive circuit.
ingly decreases. At goo the rate of change of E is zero and the cur-
rent flow in the circuit is also zero.
After the goo point, the applied voltage starts to fall off at an
increasing rate of change. The capacitor now discharges back into
the source causing a reversal of the direction of current flow. With
an increasing rate of change of E the current rises in amplitude
reaching a maximum at 180°. The reversal of the source voltage
now continues the current in the same direction, but with a de-
creasing rate of change of E the current decreases. At 270° the rate
of change of E becomes zero and the current is zero. With the
falling off of the source voltage the capacitor again discharges and
the current reverses direction.
The dotted line marked I in Fig. 13 shows the current wave. An
inspection of the curves for E and I shows that I goes through its
alternations goo ahead of E. Jn a pure capacitive circuit I leads E
by goo. The phase angle is thus go 0 leading.
Figure 14 shows the relationship of voltage, current and power
m the capacitive circuit. Again the power frequency is twice the
w
0
::,
t--
~Ol-~-1~....jl:..--l~.!4,---4--¥--~--T-IM_E_ Fig. 14. P, E and I in a
purely capacitive circuit.
~ OR DEGREES
applied frequency and the average power is zero, since the positive
and negative alternations are equal.
Here again we meet the concept of positive and negative power.
We first encountered this in the discussion of power in an inductive
circuit. Again positive power is considered to be power going from
the source to the load, while negative power is taken as power re-
turned from the load to the source.
Periods of positive power occur when E and I have the same sign
(both + or both -) . Periods of negative power occur when E and
I have opposite signs (one is + when the other is -) .
During the periods of positive power the capacitor is charging
and takes power from the source to build up its electric field .. Dur-
ing the periods of negative power the capacitor is discharging and
the energy in its electric field is returned to the source.
The unit of capacitance is the farad. A capacitor has a capaci-
tance of one farad when a voltage across it of one volt charges it
with one coulomb of electricity.• A farad is an enormous unit, and
• See D-C Circuit Analysis, A. Schure, (ed.), (1958: John F. Rider, Publisher, Inc.)
more practical units are the microfarad (10-6 farad) and the micro-
microfarad (10- 12 farad).
In addition to producing a lead of 90° of the current with respect
to the voltage, a capacitor also acts to limit the amplitude of the
current. Since the countervoltage is always in opposition to the
applied voltage it acts to limit the current flow. This current limit-
ing action of a capacitor is called its capacitive reactance. This is
expressed in ohms and symbolized as Xe.
Xe is analogous to the XL of an inductance and the R of a resist-
ance, and Ohm's law applies to a capacitive circuit. Expressed by
Ohm's law, the current through a purely capacitive circuit is
I= E/Xe
Just as with an inductance, there are two factors that determine
the reactance of a capacitor. The larger the value of C, the larger
will be the charging current necessary to build up the countervolt-
age at any given rate of change of applied voltage. A larger current
means a smaller Xe. Xe then is inversely proportional to C.
A higher frequency means a higher angular velocity and hence a
larger rate of change of the current. A larger rate of change of the
current implies a larger current flow to build up the countervoltage.
A larger current again means a smaller Xe. Xe then is also inversely
proportional to the angular velocity. This may be expressed in
equation form as follows,
I I
Xe=
wC 2n:fC
where Xe is in ohms, f is in cycles per second and C is in farads.
For purpose of computation, ½n: may be evaluated as 0.159, and
the formula then written as
0.159
7c
Example 18. A 0.33-microfarad capacitor is placed across a 250-volt, 400-cycle
source. What current will flow?
Solution.
0 159 0.159
Xe = -·fC- = 400 X 0.33 X IO·• = 1210 ohms
I = E/Xc = 250/1210
= 207 milliamps
Example 19. What size capacitor is required to give a reactance of 765 ohms
at a frequency of 10.4 megacycles?
Solution.
C = 0.159 = 0.159
fXc 10.4 X 106 X 765
= 20 x 10-1• farads
= 20 micromicrofarads
If three capacitors, C1, C2 and Ca were placed in series, as in Fig.
15, each would contribute a limiting effect on the current equal to
Fig. 15. Capacitors in series.
its reactance. The total limiting, or total capacitive reactance, Xc-r,

would then be the sum of the individual reactances, or
Rewriting,
1 1 I 1
roCr roC1 + roC2 + roCa
Multiplying both sides of the equation by ro,
_l_ = _I_ + _l_ + _l_

CT C1 C2 Ca
From this equation it is evident that capacitors in series add, just
as resistors in parallel. The reciprocal rule applies.
For the case of capacitors in parallel (Fig. 16), we first solve for
total current. For three capacitive branches,
IT = 11 + 12 + Ia
Replacing each current by its Ohm's law equivalent,

E
_!:_ = _!:_ + _!:_ +
XcT Xc1 Xc2 Xcs
Dividing both sides of the equation by E,
I I +-1-+ I
XcT Xc1 Xc2 Xcs
But,
I
-1-
wCT
Each of the right-hand terms may be similarly transformed to give,
wCT = wC1 + wC2 + wC 3
Dividing both sides by w, we get the desired expression,
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
Capacitors in parallel add like resistors in series. The total
capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances.
Example 20. Three capacitors of the following values, 20 microfarads, 40
microfarads and IO microfarads, are placed in series. What is the total
capacitance?
Solution.
Fig. 16. Capacitors in parallel.

Taking reciprocals,
CT = ~O = 5.72 microfarads
Note that the total capacitance of series capacitors must he less

than the smallest individual capacitor. This is the same as the case
with resistors in parallel.
Example 21. What is the total parallel capacitance of the three capacitors in
the previous example?
Solution.
~=C1+c.+c.
= 20 + 40 + 10 = 70 microfarads.
In a parallel connection, the total capacitance must be greater

than the greatest individual capacitance. This is the same as in the
case of resistors in series.
(1) Define the relationship existing between voltage and current in a circuit
containing
a. resistance only;
b. capacitance only;
c. inductance only.
(2) What is the reactance of a 2-henry choke at 400 cps?
(3) A capacitor has a reactance of 200 ohms at 100 kc. What is its capacitance?
(4) What determines the amplitude of the countervoltage in an inductance?
(5) What is the power consumption of a circuit with inductance only?
(6) Two inductances of 6 henries each are in parallel across a circuit. What
is their effective inductance?
(7) Two capacitors of 6 microfarads each are in parallel across a circuit.
What is their combined capacitance?
(8) Magnetic interaction between coils is known by what name?
(9) Define l henry.
(10) Define l farad.
Chapter 4
THE J OPERATOR
17. The "Imaginary" Number
In mathematics, the quantity y-T arises in the solution of num-

erous problems. There is no real number which when squared is
equal to - 1, hence there is no real number which is equal to y-1.
In mathematics this quantity is termed an "imaginary" number, and
is assigned the symbol, i.
It happens that Ff is an important and useful concept in a-c
theory and its use simplifies the handling and solution of many
problems. However, to avoid the confusion of "i" with the symbol
for current, we employ the symbol j. We then make our basic
definition,
j = y-T
In electrical work, j is employed as an "operator." We define
multiplication by j as equivalent to the operation of a goo rotation.
That this is reasonable and leads to consistent results is demon-
strated in Fig. 17. Take any positive real number such as + 4 in
the figure. Multiplying by j rotates the number by 90° to the posi-
tion marked + j4. (Note the convention of writing j before the
number.) The vertical line upward from the origin is established
as the + j axis.
Another multiplication by j rotates the number by an additional
goo, bringing it to the - 4 position. Two operations by j have
effectively multiplied the original number by (-I). This is con-
35
sistent since two multiplications by j is the same as multiplication

by j xj. But,
j X j = j2 = (Fl) 2 =- 1
A third multiplication by j produces another goo rotation. The
original number has now been rotated by 270° and is at the - j4
+j
+j4
~~
REAL AXIS
--------+--~~---
-4
7 ~
+4
+ Fig. 17. The effect of the j
operator.
IMAGINARY AXIS
-j4
-j
pos1t10n. The downward vertical line is called the - j axis. This

too is consistent since we have now multiplied by j X j X j, and
j X j X j = j3 = j2 X j = (- 1) X j =- j
Finally, a fourth multiplication by j makes a complete 360°
rotation and the number has returned to the original + 4 position.
Arithmetically,
j X j X j X j = j4 = j2 X j2 = (- I) (- 1) =+ 1
To summarize, the j operator has the following arithmetic and
geometric meanings:
j = y-T implies a goo rotation
j2 = -1 implies a 180° rotation
j3 = -j implies a 270° rotation
j4 = I implies a 360° rotation
Higher powers of j simply mean new cycles of rotation. For
example, p j, j6 = j2 I, etc. = =-
THE J OPERA TOR 37
The horizontal axis in Fig. 17, marked + to the right and - to

the left of the origin, is called the real axis. On this axis lie all the
real numbers of arithmetic from minus infinity to plus infinity.
The vertical axis, marked + j upward and - j downward from the
origin, is called the imaginary axis. All "pure" imaginary numbers,
defined as the even roots of negative numbers, lie on this axis.
18. Complex Numbers
Any number lying on any part of the plane except the axes is
called a "complex" number. Such a number has two parts or com-
ponents, a real component and an imaginary component. Figure 18
+j
+
Fig. 18. Complex numbers. -e:-s -4 6 8
I
I
I
I -4
I
-7-j6 - - - - - - - - -6
@
-j
shows an example of a complex number and the conventional way

of writing such numbers.
Point I is the complex number, 6 + j3. This implies that to
locate this number we must find a point on the complex plane + 6
to the right of the origin and + 3 up on the + j axis. Similarly,
point 2 is - l + j5. This is one unit to th'e left of the origin and 5
units upward. Point 3 is - 7 - j6, and point 4 is 3 - j3 by similar
reasoning.
This form of notation, of writing a complex number as the sum
of its real and imaginary components, is called the "rectangular
form" of the complex number. The general representation of the
rectangular form of a complex number is
a+ jb
where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part. The following
list shows the values of a and b for the four points in Fig. 18:
Point a b
1 6 3
2 -1 5
3 -7 -6
4 3 -3
19. Redangular Form of Complex Numbers
The basic operations of arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multi-

plication and division) may he performed on complex numbers in
the rectangular form. These operations can he done purely by
arithmetic without regard to the geometry involved.
To add or subtract 2 (or more) complex numbers, the real parts
are added or subtracted and then the imaginary parts are added or
subtracted.
Example 22. Add 6 + j!I and - l + j5
Solution. The addition of the real parts gives 6 - l = 5. The addition of the
=
imaginary parts gives !I + 5 8. Hence
6 + j!I + (- l + j5) =5 + j8
Example 23. Add - 7 - j6 and !I - j!I
Solution. - 7 - j6 + !I - j!I = - 4 - j9
Example 24. Subtract 4 + j7 from 6 + j!I
Solution. 6 + j!I - 4 + j7 = (6 - 4) + j (!I - 7) = 2 - j4
Example 25. Subtract - 2 - j5 from - 7 + jl
Solution.
- 7 + j l - (-2-j5)= (-7- (-2)] +j [ l - (-5))
= (- 7 + 2) + j (l + 5) = - 5 + j6
20. Geometrical Addition of Complex Numbers
The process of adding two complex numbers may he done geo-

metrically. Let us add the complex numbers of Example 22 in this
way. As shown in Fig. 19, each point is located, and a line from the
origin to each point is drawn. An arrowhead ·is shown at the end
of each line, for these lines have not only magnitude (length) , but
THE J OPERA TOR 39
also direction. A line with magnitude and direction is called a

vector. The geometric problem we are to perform is the problem
of the addition of vectors.
Vectors are added by adding their horizontal and vertical com-
ponents separately. The horizontal components of the vectors are
+ 6 and - I, adding to + 5. The vertical components are + 3 and
+ 5, totaling + 8. The sum vector is then 5 + j8, the vector to the
point P 1 •
Note that the sum vector is the diagonal of a parallelogram
formed by the original. This is always true, and vectors may be
added by "completing the parallelogram," i.e. drawing the diagonal
from the origin. The dotted lines going to P 1 are the missing parts
of the parallelogram. To complete a parallelogram, a line is drawn
from the head of each vector equal, parallel to and in the same
direction as the other vector. The diagonal is then drawn from the
origin to the point of intersection of the two drawn lines.
The addition of the two complex numbers of Example 23 is
shown in Fig. I 9. The two lines drawn in to complete the parallelo-
gram intersect at point P2 . A line from the origin to P2 is the sum
vector, and its coordinates, - 4 - j9, constitute the sum of the two
vectors.
To multiply two complex numbers in the rectangular form, the
algebraic process of the multiplication of two binomials is used.
In -this process, each term of one number is multiplied by each term
of the second number. Like terms are then combined.
Example 26, Multiply 2 + j4 by 3 + j2
Solution. 2 + j4
X 3 + j2
6 + jl2
+j4 +;ss
6 + jl6 + j'8
However, since j• =- 1, then + j28 =- 8. The product then becomes,
6 + jl6 + j•S = 6 + jl6 - 8 = - 2 + jl6
Therefore, (2 + j4) (3 + j2) = - 2 + jl6
Example 27, Multiply - 5 + jl by 2 - j3
Solution. - + jl
5
X 2 - j3
- 10 + j2 [- j'3 = - (- 1) (3) =+ 3)
+ jl5 - j'3
- 10 + jl7 + 3 =- 7 + jl7
The process of division of complex numbers in rectangular form

is somewhat more complicated. We first define the "conjugate" of a
number. The conjugate of a number is the number with the sign
of the j term changed. Thus by definition, the conjugate of a + jb
+J
10
P1 (5-t-j8l
8
I
I
I
\I
6-t-j:3
+ Fig. 19. Addition of

-10 -a 6 8 10 vectors.
/
/
/
-7-j6 / -6
/
/
// -a
-10
-j
is a - jb. The conjugate of 4 - j3 is 4 + j3. The conjugate of

- 5 - j7 is - 5 + j7. The sign of the real term is unchanged, but
the sign of the imaginary term is re\!ersed to make a conjugate.
Let us multiply the two general conjugate complex numbers.
a jb +
X a - jb
a2 + jab
-jab - j2b2
a2 + b2
= a2 + b2
The product of two conjugate complex numbers is a real number
equal to the sum of the squares of the a and b terms. To illustrate,
let us multiply 5 - j2 by its conjugate. The product is (5) 2 +
(- 2) 2 = 25 + 4 = 29.
Multiply - 3 + j2 by its conjugate. The product is (- 3) 2 +
(2) 2 = 9 + 4 = 13.
THE J OPERATOR 41
With this technique of the conjugate we are able to divide two

complex numbers. The method is broken into stepwise procedure
in the following example.
Example 28. Divide 7 + j4 by 2 - j3
Solution.
1. Set up the division as a fraction.
7 + j4
2 - j3
2. Multiply both numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator. This is a valid operation since we are merely multiplying
the fraction by 1.
7 +
_ ·4
_l_x _2 +
_l_·3
2 - j3 2 + j3
3. This leads to a new fraction, the numerator of which is the product
of the two numerators and the denominator is the product of the two con-
jugates. We have just discussed the product of two conjugates. The new
fraction is then
(7 + j4) (2 + j3) _ 2 + j29
(2 - j3) (2 + j3) - 13
4. Now divide both the real and imaginary part of the numerator by
the denominator to give the result.
2 + j29 _ _2_ j29
13 - 13 + "°"T3 = 0.154 + j2.23
Example 29, Divide - 4 - j4 by - 1 - j2
Solution.
- 4 - j4 X - I+ j2 (- 4 - j4) (- I + j2)
- I - j2 - 1 + j2 I + 4
12 4
- ;
5
= 2.40 - j0.8
21. The Polar Form of Complex Numbers
In addition to the rectangular form, another useful and important

method of writing complex numbers is the "polar" form. In the
polar form, a point in the complex plane is located by its distance
from the origin and its angular displacement.•
Consider point P in Fig. 20. In rectangular notation, P is a units
to the right and b units up from the origin, and is the number
a + jb. In polar notation, P is a distance r from the origin, and
• A table giving the signs of trigonometric functions in the four quadrants is

given on p. 92.
makes an angle 0 with the horizontal base line. In polar form, P

is written as r I.Ji. This is read as "rat an angle 8." r is called the
radius vector of the point P, and is drawn with an arrowhead as
shown, to indicate that it is a vector. Remember that a vector is a

quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
The relationship between the polar form and rectangular form
of a complex number may be derived from Fig. 20. If the number
is given as a + jb, then by trigonometry,
r = ya2 + fi2
and is always taken as positive and
tan 0 = b/a
Example 30. Write the polar form of the complex number 6 + j3. Here
a= 6, b = 3.
Solution.
r = ~ = y'36'+9'" = y45 = 6.71
tan 8 = 3/6 = 0.5
e = 26.6°
6.71 /26.6° is the polar form of the number
Example 31. Write the polar form of 3 - j3.
Solution. a = 3, b = - 3
r = y'9+9 = y'i8 = 4.24
tan 8 =- 3d = - l
THE J OPERATOR 43
Since the tangent is negative two solutions are possible, one in the second
and one in the fourth quadrant. By inspection of the rectangular form
it is evident that the fourth quadrant angle is desired.
e = 300° - 45° = 315°
When 8 is in the fourth quadrant it may also be expressed as a negative
angle, in this case - 45°. The solution is then written in either way,
4.24 ~
or 4.24 ~
If the polar form of the number is given, r LfJ, the rectangular

form may be derived with the aid of Fig. 20. Again by trigonometry,
a=rcos0
b=rsin0
Example 32. Convert 5 ~ to its rectangular form.
Solution.
r=5
e = 125°
a = 5 cos 125° = 5 cos (180° - 125°)
=5 (- cos 55°) = (5) (- 0.574) =- 2.87
125° is a second quadrant angle, and in this quadrant the cosine is negative,
while the sine is positive.
b = 5 sin 125° = 5 sin (180° - 125°) = 5 sin 55°
= 5 X 0.819
= 4.09
5~ = a + jb = - 2.87 +j 4.09
Example 33. Convert 4.5 /205° to the rectangular form.
a = 4.5 cos 205° = 4.5 cos (205° - 180°)
Solutlo•. Remembering that in the third quadrant both sine and cosine are
negative,
a = (4.5) (- cos 25°) = (4.5) (- 0.906) =- 4.08
b = (4.5) (- sin 25°) = (4.5) (- 0.423) =- l.90
4.5 ~ =- 4.08 - jl.90
Complex numbers in the polar form cannot be added or sub-

tracted directly. In order to perform addition or subtraction the
numbers must first be converted into rectangular form. The opera-
tions of multiplication and division are performed readily on polar
A-C CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
quantities. In the form r 1.£1 call r the "magnitude" and 0 the

angle.
To multiply two or more numbers in polar form, multiply the
magnitudes and add the angles. Expressed mathematically,
(r1 /01) (r2 /02) = r1r:.i /01 + 92

Example 34. Multiply the three complex numbers, 2~, 5.85 ~ .
4.62~.
Solution. r 1 r2 r8 =. 2 X 5.85 X 4.62 = 54.2
e = 60° - 22° + 18° = 56°
54.2L.2§!.
To divide numbers in polar form, write the division as a fraction.

Divide the numerator magnitude by the denominator magnitude,
and subtract the denominator angle from the numerator angle.
r1 /01 = 21.... /81 - 02

r2 & r2
Example 35. Divide 7.24 /295° by 11.2 /140°
Solution.
_7_.2_4_..;;{aaa29aaa5=• = 7.24 /295• - 140• = 0.646 Lilli:..

11.2 /140° 11.2
Example 36. Evaluate the following expression.
( 1.62 1:=...11.°) (4 .35 ~)
2.98 ~
Solution. Multiplying the numerator magnitudes and dividing by the de-

nominator,
1.62 X 4.35 = 2 36
2.98 .
Adding the numerator angles and subtracting the denominator angle,
- 74° + 189° - (- 16°) = - 74° + 189° + 16° = 131 °
2.36 1131 °
22. Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers
Powers and roots of complex numbers may be easily found when

the numbers are in polar form. The power of a complex number
is expressed by the following equation.
(r L.f1.) n = rn me
THE J OPERATOR 45
The magnitude is taken to the power, but the angle is multiplied

by the power.
Example 37. Find (2.77 ~ ) •
Solution. (2.77 /JJ..°) • = 2.772 /2 X 97° = 7.67 /194•
Example 38. Find (4.05 /- 50°) •
Solution. (4.05 /- 50°) • = 4.058 /3 X - 50° = 66.2 /- 150°
=
66.2 ; 210°
Similarly for roots,
nyr &= oyr /~
The root 1s taken of the magnitude, but the angle is divided by
the root.
Example 39. v200 ;m •
Solution.
\!W) /171° = \!W) /.!!f_ = 6.38 /57°
23. Summary of Complex Numbers
Summarizing the operations on complex numbers, addition and
subtraction are possible only with the rectangular form. Powers
and roots are possible only with the polar form. Multiplication and
division may be done on both forms, but is almost always easier on
the polar form. As a result of these facts, in our practical electrical
problems where complex numbers are used, conversions from one
form to the other are constantly necessary.

(I) In electrical work the "j" operator is used to indicate what operation?
(2) What are the components of a complex number?
(3) How do we add or subtract complex numbers?
(4) Define the conjugate of a complex number?
(5) What information does the polar form contain?
(6) Given two complex numbers in polar form: 25/60°, 5~,
a. multiply both;
b. divide the second into the first;
c. take the square root of the first;
d. square the second one.
(7) Express the answers to Question 6 in rectangular form.
(8) Given 2 numbers in rectangular form: +6 -j5, -12 +jl0, use these num•
bers for the same four operations listed in Question 6. Express the an•
swers in polar form.
(9) Find (3.54 ~ ) •.
(10) Add geometrically -5 +j5 and +5 +j5; complete the parallelogram.
Chapter 5
SERIES CIRCUITS
In Chapter 3, we studied the individual effects of resistance, in-

ductance and capacitance in an a-c circuit. We saw that all three
acted as current limiters and that the last two introduced phase
shifts in the current with respect to the applied voltage. In Chapter
4, we studied the j operator and vectors. We performed arithmetic
manipulations and conversions with complex numbers in both rec-
tangular and polar forms.
25. The Properties of the Series Circuit
In this chapter we shall study the effect of combining various

combinations of R, L, and C in series circuits. The following basic
properties of a series circuit are listed as a review:
1. The current in any part of a series circuit is the same as in
any other part. There is only one current in the circuit, and we will
label it simply I.
2. By Kirchhoff's first law, the applied voltage is the sum of the
individual voltage drops around the circuit. Here, the word "sum"
indicates a vector sum and not a scalar or linea:t addition.
3. The voltage drop for any circuit element may be found by
Ohm's law, the product of the current with the ohms of resistance
or reactance.
26. A Series R-L Circuit
Let us first take a series circuit consisting only of resistance and

inductance - R and L (Fig. 21). If an alternating voltage is ap-
46
SERIES CIRCUITS 47
plied to this series network, both R and L will exert individual in-
fluences upon the current which will result in a combined effect -
predictable from what we have already discussed.
Assuming the voltage, E, to be at a fixed frequency, the induct•
ance will have a fixed reactance, XL, and is so marked in the figure.
The current I is, of course, an alternating current, but for simplicity
I
EL
I
Fig. 21.
circuit.
An R-L series
E f\J
l I
R
I
ER
I
it is shown conventionally with a single arrow. As a result of the
current flow, there is a voltage drop across XL marked EL, and a
drop across R marked ER.
The voltage relationships that exist in an R-L circuit are shown
in Fig. 22. Since I is the same throughout a series circuit, it is used
as a reference vector and is placed on the 0° line. As R does not
introduce any phase displacement in the current, then ER must be
in phase with I and is shown as a vector on the 0° line.
An inductance, however, introduces a current lag of 90°. EL then
must lie on the 90° or + j axis, since it is 90° ahead of I. By
Kirchhoff's law, the source voltage is the sum of EL and ER. The
sum of the two vectors is found by completing the parallelogram
and the vector E is the resultant.
E is thus seen to he a complex number. Its polar form is E 1J1
while in rectangular form it is written ER + jEL. The two forms
are, of course equivalent, and we may write,
E & =ER+ jEL
where E = yER2 + EL2
and tan 8 = EL/ER
where 8 is called the phase angle of the circuit.
Example 40. In a series R-L circuit, the voltage drops across R and L are,
respectively, 30 volts and 40 volts. Find E and e.
Solution.
E = yER• + EL• "' y"3o2° + 40• = y2500
= 50 volts.
tan 0 = EL / ER = 40/30 = 1.33
e = 53.1•
Writing the solution as a vector,
E = 50 /53.l O volts.
Therefore, the current in the circuit lags the voltage applied by 53.1 °.
+j (90°)
SOURCE\
EL _______ E ( VOLTAGE)
I (O"l Fig. 22. Voltage vectors for

t the series R-L circuit.
0
-j
In Fig. 21, both XL and R contribute limiting effects on the cur-

rent I. Let us define the total current-limiting effect of the circuit as
the "impedance" of the circuit, and assign the symbol, Z, to the im-
pedance. By Ohm's law,
I= E/Z
and E = IZ
Z, R and XL may now be related as indicated in the impedance
drawing of Fig. 23. Once again I may be used as a reference vector
and placed on the 0° line. By Ohm's law, the vector R is
R=ERt.Jr..=ER~
I~ I
By this analysis, R has a phase angle of 0° and is shown so.
SERIES CIRCUITS 49
By Ohm's law, the vector XL may also be found.
X = EL ~ = .§:_ /900
L I~ I
XL is then at 90° with respect to I, or at the + j position.
By completing the parallelogram for R and XL, we find the com-
plex number. In the polar form it is Z 1.£)_. In the rectangular form
it is R + jXL. We may then write,
z& = R + jXL
where Z = y'R2 + XL2
and tan 8 =XL/ R
In a series circuit, the phase angle 0 in both the voltage and im-
pedance diagrams must be the same since voltage drops are propor-
tional to ohms.
27. Power Fador
"Power factor" is defined as the ratio of total circuit resistance to

total circuit impedance. This is R/Z in the impedance drawing.
+j (90°)
I +
-j
Fig. 23. Impedance vectors for the series R-L circuit.

An inspection of the figure shows that R/Z is the cosine of e.

These relations are written as
Power factor = cos e = R/Z = ER/E
The concept of power factor is extremely important, especially
to the power company. Since it is only the resistance of a circuit
that consumes power, the power factor becomes a measure of actual
power used up. Recall that inductance and capacitance take power
from the source during one-half cycle (positive power) , but return
this power to the source during the next half cycle (negative
power).
Since the power company is paid only for power used, it is natur-
ally interested in high power factors. Circuits with low power fac-
tors may have heavy currents with small power expenditure. These
Xe Ee
l
I
E 'u I
ER
Fig. 24.
cult.
An R-C series cir-
I
:._J
heavy currents fl.ow through the electric power company's lines,
producing voltage drops, power losses, heating, etc. To avoid this
unprofitable situation, the power company requires industrial users
of electricity to maintain high power factors by means of various
power factor correcting devices. Power factor correction of highly
inductive machinery is often accomplished by the use of capacitors.
We may now derive a formula for the power consumed in an a-c
circuit. Since only resistance consumes power, then
P =PR= IX IX R
but I = E/Z
then p = EX IX R EI X R/Z
z
and p = EI cos 0
SERIES CIRCUITS 51
This power is often called "true power" to distinguish it from

"apparent power," which is simply E X I and does not take into
account the phase angle between the current and voltage. True
power is measured in watts, while apparent power is measured in
volt-amperes. The ratio of the two powers is the power factor.
cos 0 = P/Pa
where P. is apparent power.
Example 41. In a series circuit, R is !IO ohms and XL is 50 ohms. The applied
voltage is 115 volts. Find Z, I, 0, the power factor, P and P •.
Solution.
Z = ..jR• + XL• = y'!,O' + 50' = y!l400 = 58.'!, ohms
I = E/Z = 115/58.'!, = l.98 amps
tan 0 = XL/R = 50 /!IO = l.67
e = 59.1•
Power factor = cos 0 = cos 59.1 • = 0.514
P = EI cos 0 = 115 X l.98 X 0.514 = 117 watts
P. = EI = 115 x l.98 = 228-volt-amperes
The correctness of the calculations can be checked by finding Ea and EL
and verifying that their vector sum is equal to E.
Ea = IR = l.98 X !IO = 59.5 volts
Et = IXL = l.98 X 50 = 99.0 volts
E = yEa' + Et' = y59.5 1 + 99.0" = y13,340 = 115 v
which checks with the given data.
28. Series R-C Circuit
A series R-C circuit presents a different set of vector relations than

the R-L circuit. Figure 24 shows an R-C series circuit with the same
system of labeling used in Fig. 21. Since a constant frequency is
assumed, the capacitance is labeled as a fixed reactance, Xe· The
voltage drops across Xe and R are marked.
Figure 25 shows the voltage vectors that exist in this circuit.
Again I is taken as a reference and it lies on the 0° line. ER is in
phase with I and is also shown on the 0° line.
For the capacitance, I leads Ee by 90°. To maintain this relation-
ship, Ee must be drawn on the - j axis, 90° behind I.
+j
+ Fig. 25. Voltage vedors for

the series R-C circuit.
(-90°)
-j
The vector sum of ER and Ee, as constructed by completing the

parallelogram is the applied voltage E. The polar form of the
complex number E is E I.fl, while the rectangular form is ER - jEe.
We can then write
E fJ;l = ER - jEe
where E = yER2 + Ee2
and tan e =- Ee/ER
where 8 is the phase angle of the circuit.
The impedance vectors of the series R-C circuit are shown in
Fig. 26. With I as the reference, R must lie on the 0° axis, while
+j
R I + Fig. 26. Impedance vedors

for the series R-C circuit.
z
-j (-900)
SERIES CIRCUITS 53
Xe is displaced by 90° to the - j axis. The impedance Z is the vec-

tor sum of R and Xe. In the polar form the impedance is Z f.Ii.
In the rectangular form it is R - jXe- Therefore,
Z @_ =R - jXe
where Z = yR2 + X02
and tan 0 = - Xe/R
The concepts of power factor, true and apparent power are the
same as in the R-L circuit.
Example 42. In a series R-C circuit, a current of 2 amps is measured. A
voltage drop of 60 volts is read across the resistor while 45 volts is measured
across the capacitor. The frequency of the generator is 800 cycles. Calculate
E, Z, 0, power factor, P, P., C, and R.
Solution.
E = VEa• + E.• = V602 + 45 = 75 1
volts
Z = E/1 = 75 / 2 = 37.5 ohms
tan 0 = - Ee/R = - 45/60 = - 0.750
e = 36.9•
power factor = cos 0 = cos (- 36.9°) = 0.800
P. = EI = 75 x 2 = 150 volt-amps
P = Pa cos 0 = 150 X 0.800 = 120 watts

Xe = Ee/I = 45/2 = 22.5 ohms
C = o.1fXe59 -- 800o.1X5922.5 = 0.00000885 farad
= 8.85 microfarads
R = Ea/I = 60/2 = 30 ohms
The calculations may be checked by verifying that Z is the vector sum of
Rand Xe.
Z = VR• + Xe• = y30 + 22.5 1 1
= 37.5 ohms
which checks the previously established value for Z.
29. The General Series Circuit
The general series circuit (Fig. 27) contains all three elements,
R, L and C. The same convention of labeling is used as in the pre-
vious series circuits. Three possible conditions exist in such a cir-

cuit. They are
I. XL > Xe- This makes EL > Ee and the circuit is inductive.•
2. Xe > XL. This makes Ee > EL and the circuit is capacitive.
3. XL = Xe, In this case, Ee =
EL, and the circuit is a "series
resonant" circuit.
The series resonant circuit is discussed later in the chapter. The
voltage vectors for cases I and 2 are sketched in Fig. 28. Let us
define a voltage vector, Ex (total reactive voltage), as
Ex EL - Ee when EL > Ee
and Ex
Figure 28A shows the voltage vectors for E1, > Ee. Ex is located
accordingly, and E is the vector sum of ER and Ex, Figure 28B
E 'v Fig. 27. The general series cir•

R cult, containing R, L and C.
I
EeI
shows the vectors for Ee > EL. E is again the vector sum of ER and
Ex, The general equations of the circuit are,
E& ER+ jEx when EL > Ee

E&_ = ER - jEx when Ee > EL
where E yER2 + Ex2
and tan 9 Ex/ER when EL > Ee
or tan 9 = - Ex/ER when Ee > EL
• The symbol > is read "greater than."

SERIES CIRCUITS 55
Example 43. In the circuit of Fig. 27, XL is 70 ohms, R is 8.5 ohms and Xe
is 100 ohms. The current is measured at 1.25 amps. Find the individual
voltage drops, E, 0, power factor, P. and P.
Solution.
EL = IXL = 1.25 X 70 = 87.5 volts
Ea = IR = 1.25 X 8.5 = 10.6 volts
Ee = IXe = 1.25 X 100 = 125 volts
Ex =Ee - EL = 125 - 87.5 = 37.5 volts
E = vEa' + Ex• = y'I0.6 1 + 57.51 = 39.0 volts.
tan 0 = - Ex/Ea = - 37.5/10.6 = - 3.54
0 =- 74.2°
P. = EI = 39.0 x 1.25 = 48.8 volt-amps
P = P. cos 0 = 48.8 x 0.272 = 13.3 watts
In the previous example, note that the individual voltage drops

across the capacitance and the inductance were greater than the
+j +j
EL
E
EL
I ER I
EL> Ee
Ee Ex• EL -Ee E
-j Ee Ee> EL
(A) -j Ex•Ee-EL
(B)
Fig. 28. Voltage vectors for the serlu R-L·C circuit.
applied voltage. This is perfectly valid, and violates no principles.

The reason for this will become clear as we study resonance.
The applied voltage will always be greater than the net reactive
voltage, Ex, and the resistive voltage, ER, but it may be smaller,
equal to or larger than the individual reactive voltages depending

entirely on circuit conditions.
The impedance vectors for the series R-L-C circuit are developed
in a similar manner. as before. We will define the total reactance
as a vector, X.
Xe for XL> Xe
and XL for Xe > XL
Figure 29A shows the vectors for XL > Xe. Z is the vector sum
of R and X and 0 is a positive angle. When Xe > XL, as in Fig.
X
z
Xe XL> Xe
X
X=XL-xe z
-j Xe> XL
(A)
Xe X•Xe-xL
-j
(Bl
Fig. 29. Impedance vectors or the series R-L-C circuit.
29B, 8 is a negative angle. From the drawings the following rela-

tions are established,
Z & =R + jX for XL > Xe
Z @__ =R - jX for Xe > XL
where Z = yR2 + X2
and tan 0 X/R for XL > Xe
or tan 0 =- X/R for Xe > XL
Example 44. Solve Example 43 using impedance vectors, Find Z, E, 0 and
power factor.
SERIES CIRCUITS 57
Solution.
X= Xe - XL = 100 - 70 = 30 ohms
Z = yR• + x• = '-/8.5' + 30' = 31.2 ohms
tan 0 = - X/R = - 30/8.5 = - 3.54
0 = - 74.2°
True and apparent power of course are the same as in the previous solution.
Example 45. In a series R-L-C circuit, the following values are known.
E = 15.5 volts, f =
550 Kc, L =
20 microhenries, R 20 ohms, =
C = .01 microfarad. Find Z, I, 0, power factor, and P.
Solution. It is necessary first to solve for XL and Xe so that the circuit values
will be in ohms.
XL = 21tfL = 6.28 X 0.550 X 106 X 20 X IO-•
= 69.0 ohms
Note the conversion of kc to me in order to make possible the cancellation
of the powers of IO.
X _ 0.159 = 0.159
e - fC 0.550 X 106 X 0.01 X 10-•
Xe = 29.0 ohms
= XL - Xe = 69 - 29 = 40 ohms
X
Z = -.jR• + x• = '-/20' + 402 = 44.7 ohms
I = E/Z = 15.5/44.7 = 0.347 amps = 347 milliamps
tan 0 = X/R = 40/20 = 2
0 = 63.4°
power factor = R/Z = 20/44.7 = 0.448 (= cos 63.4°)
P = EI cos 0 = 15.5 x 0.347 x 0.448 = 2.41 watts
It is interesting to note in this problem that Z was smaller than

XL, but larger than Xe and R. This is similar to the voltage situa-
tion in Example 43. We can make the statement that Z must always
be greater than R and X, but may be smaller, equal to, or greater
than XL and X 0 •
30. The Series-Resonant Circuit
We will now take up the case of the third possible condition

that can exist in a series R-L-C circuit. This is the resonant situa-
tion where XL = Xe, and therefore EL = Ee. The circuit is then
called a series-resonant circuit and develops certain special proper-

ties.
Figure 30 illustrates the voltage vectors that exist at resonance.
Since Ee and EL are equal and opposite then Ex is zero. In that
case,
E yER2 + Ex2 = -./Ea2'
or E = ER
Similarly, tan 0 = Ex/ER = 0
and 0 = 0°
The applied voltage is equal to the drop across the circuit re-
sistance and is in phase with the current. The voltage drops
+j
E
~
~
E Fig. 30. Voltoge vectors ot
0 series resonance.
across L and C exist (and are indeed high, as will he shown), but
they cancel each other out and the net reactive voltage is zero.
Figure 31, the impedance vector drawing, shows the correspond-
ing cancellation of XL and Xe to give a zero X.
Z = y'R2 + x2 = yR2"
or Z=R
and e = 0°
The impedance of a series circuit at resonance is simply the
value of its resistance. This is evidently the smallest impedance
possible for the circuit. Any value of X greater than zero must in-
SERIES CIRCUITS 59
z
Fig. 31. Impedance vectan at ser-
ies resonance. R
Xe
-j
crease the magnitude of Z. Ohm's law at resonance becomes,

I= E/R
This is the maximum value of current possible for the circuit.
In Fig. 32, Z and I are plotted against frequency. Starting from
some frequency well below the resonant frequency, the horizontal
axis represents increasing frequency through f0 , the resonant fre-
quency and then on to well above resonant frequency. On the
vertical axis, Z is in ohms and I in amperes.
Z goes from a large value at the lower frequencies, tapers off to
a minimum at f0 , then rises once more. I, on the other hand, goes
from small values before resonance to a maximum at resonance,
then drops to low values as the frequency is increased.
I•E/R
,,,..,...,
/ / ' '\
II '\
/ \
I
/
/
/
___ ,,,. /
__
I ..... _....,,,.
BELOW fo
Xe> XL
81S-
Fig. 32. Impedance and current as a function of frequency.
Below its resonant frequency, a given R-L-C circuit is capacitive

since Xe > XL and 0 is a negative angle. Above its resonant fre-
quency the circuit becomes inductive. XL > Xe and 0 is a positive
angle. However, at resonance the circuit acts as a pure resistance
and 0 =0°.•
We have already established the necessary conditions of series
resonance as
1
or 2:n:fL = 2:n:fC
I
Solving for f, 2:n:f2L = 2:n:C
I
f2
(2:n:) 2 LC
I 0.159
and f = 2:n: \,/LC - \,/LC
The frequency at which resonance occurs for a given R-L-C cir-
cuit is thus seen to be dependent on Land C.
Another interesting phenomenon occurs at resonance. Equating
EL and Ee, and applying Ohm's law, we write
But at resonance I= E/R

then Ee = EL = EXL/R
The ratio XLfR is called the "Q" of a coil and is a figure of merit
which describes its usefulness in electronic and electric circuits. In
general, the higher the Q of a coil the better it will function. Sub-
stituting Q for XL/R in the above equation, gives
·Ee= EL= QE
The voltage drop across each reactance at resonance is Q times
the applied voltage. This effect is called the resonant rise of volt-
age of a series circuit. The rise in voltage becomes apparent on
either side of the resonant frequency and reaches its maximum of
• See Resonant Circuits, A. Schure (ed.) , (1957: John F. Rider Publisher, Inc.)
SERIES CIRCUITS 61
QE at resonance. This is the explanation of the situation observed

in some previous problems where reactive voltages were larger
than the applied voltage.
With high-Q circuits and a sizeable source voltage, quite high
(and dangerous) voltages are present across the reactances, at or
near resonance. For example, with a Q of 20 (a relatively low
figure) and a supply voltage of 15 volts, a voltage of 300 volts will
exist across both L and C at resonance. If the capacitor is not rated
for this voltage it will break down.
Example 46. In a series R-L-C circuit, L is 150 microhenries, C is 250 micro-
microfarads and R is IO ohms. At what frequency will the circuit resonate?
What current will flow at resonance and what will the individual voltage
drops be, if the applied voltage is 2 volts?
Solution. Solving for the resonant frequency,
f _ 0.159 _ 0.159
- vtr" - Vl50 X lo-• X 250 X 10-12
0.159 X 109 0.159 X 109
y37,500 194
= 0.000820 X 109
= 820 kc
For the current at resonance,
I = E/R = 2/10 = 0.2 amp
For the drop across the resistor,
Ea = E = 2 volts
For the reactive voltage drops we first must find Q.
Q = XL / R = 2nfL
R
Q = 6.28 X 0.820 X 109 X 150 X IO-• = 77
IO
E0 = EL = QE = 77 X 2 = 154 volts
(l) State Kirchhoff's first law, applied to a-c circuits.

(2) What relationship exists between voltage and current in a series circuit
containing L and R?
(3) Define reactance and impedance.
(4) Define the power factor of a circuit.
(5) What is apparent power?
(6) In a series circuit containing capacitance, Ee is shown on which axis?

(7) What do we call a series circuit in which:
a. XL= Xe
b. Xe> XL
c. XL> Xe
List the properties of each circuit.
(8) What is the phase angle between E and I in a series resonant circuit?
(9) Given L and C, what is the formula for finding the resonance frequency
in a series resonant R-L-C circuit?
(10) Why should industrial machinery have a high power factor?
Chapter 6
PARALLEL CIRCUITS AND SERIES-PARALLEL NETWORKS
The basic R-L parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 33. In order to

study this circuit and other network combinations, let's review the
properties of a parallel circuit:
1. The voltage across each branch of a parallel network is the
same. (Therefore, we can use it as the reference vector.)
2. By Kirchhoff's second law, the total current is the sum of the
individual branch currents.
3. The current in each branch is given by Ohm's law as the volt-
age divided by the ohms of resistance or reactance.
32. The R-L Parallel Circuit
In Fig. 33, the applied voltage E is across each branch. The

branch currents are marked IR and IL, while line current or total
current is I.
E 'v R
Fig. 33. The R-L parallel
circuit.
--Id)
63
The vectors used to analyze parallel networks are called current

vectors. Figure 34 shows the current vectors for the simple R-L
circuit. Since E is common it is used as the reference and is drawn
on the 0° line. The current through R is in phase with E and also
lies on the 0° line. The current through L lags E by 90°, and IL
is drawn 90° behind E or on the - j axis. The line current I is
the sum of the two currents and lags E by the angle 0. Thus
I&= IR - jIL
where I = y'IR2 + IL2
and tan 0 = - IL/IR
power factor = cos 0 = IR/I
Z = E/1
Example 47. In a circuit such as Fig. 33, R is 20 ohms and XL is 30 ohms.
If the applied voltage is 60 volts, find I, 0, Z, power factor, P and P •.
Solution, Solving for the branch currents,

IR = E/R = 60/20 = 3 amps
IL = E/XL = 60/30 =2 amps
I = Ia - jIL = 3 - j2
I= yla' + I L • = ~ = 3.60 amps
tan 0 = - IL / Ia =- 2/3 = - 0.667
e =- 33.7•
In polar form,
I= 3.60 /- 33.7° and lags E.
Power factor = cos 0 = cos (- 33.7°) = 0.832
P. = EI = 60 x 3.60 = 216 volt-amps
P = P. cos 0 = 216 X 0.832 = 180 watts
z = _!_ = E .&:,
I I~
- 60 &..
- 3.60 /-33.7°
= 16.7 /33.7• ohms
The impedance in this problem (Fig. 35) can be found directly
from the given data. In d-c theory, the total resistance of two re-
PARALLEL CIRCUITS AND SERIES- PARALLEL NETWORKS 65
sistors in parallel is governed by the "product over the sum" rule.

In an analogous manner, the total impedance of a two-branch
parallel network is
Using this equation in Example 47, and remembering that inductive react-
ance is + jXL, we get
(R) (+ jXL) - (R) (XL ~ )
Z=
R + jXL - R + jXL
= (20) (30) Llli!'.') 600 ~
20 + j30 20 + j30
In order to perform the indicated division of the vectors, we convert the
denominator into the polar form.
20 + j30 = y'202 + 30' = 36.0 for the magnitude
tan 0 = 30/20 = 1.50
0 = 56.3° for the angle
therefore, 20 + j30 = 36.0 /56.3°
Rewriting, Z= 600~
36.0 /56.3°
and z = 16.7 /33.7°
which checks with the previous solution.
33. Parallel R-L Circuit with R in Both Branches
A more complex type of parallel R-L circuit is shown in Fig. 35.

This contains R as well as XL in the inductive branch. The method
+i
E
E '\J
R
(1
-j
Fig. 34. The current vectors for Fig. 35. A parallel R-L circuit with
the R-L parallel circuit. R in both branches.
for solving this type of network is indicated by Fig. 36. The induc-
tive branch, which is itself a series circuit,is solved for its impedance,
ZL & Note that the vectors for this solution in Fig. 36A use IL
as the reference since that is the common current for the inductive
branch.
Once ZL /8L is known, then by Ohm's law we can find IL L::..!!i.·
Fig. 36B shows the current-vector solution of the parallel branches
+j
I
-j -j
(A) (B)
fig. 36. Vectors for the solution of fig. 35: (A) solution of the series bronch;
(B) solution of the porollel branches.
that results. In and IL are added vectorially to give the line current,
I !Jt. The total impedance, Z, can be found by Ohm's law or by
the "product over the sum" formula.
Example 48. In a circuit such as in Fig. ll5, R =
18.5 ohms; RL 6.25 ohms; =
XL = 22 ohms; E = 12 volts. Find the branch currents, the line current, Z,
power factor, and power used.
Solution. Solving first for the series RLXL branch,
ZL = yRL• + XL• = y6.25 1 + 221 = 22.9 ohms
tan eL = XL / RL = 22/6.25 = ll.52
0L = 74.1•
In polar form, ZL = 22.9 /74.1° ohms
Finding the branch currents,
12 &._
IL = E/ZL = _ .l = 0.525 /- 74.l O amp
22 9 174 O
12 &._
IR = E/R = 18 _ ~ = 0.648 ~ amp
5
PARALLEL CIRCUITS AND SERIES-PARALLEL NETWORKS 67
The line current is the vector sum of Ill and IL. Since the branch currents
are in polar form they cannot be added. Conversion to rectangular form
must be performed first. Converting,
Ill = 0.648 ~ = 0.648
IL = 0.525 /- 74.l O = 0.525 cos (- 74.l 0 )
+ j0.525 sin (- 74.l 0 )
= 0.525 X 0.274 + j0.525 X (- 0.962)
= 0.144 - j0.505
Solving for I, I = Ill + IL (vector sum)
I = 0.648 + 0.144 - j0.505
= 0.792 - j0.505
Now converting this value for I to polar form,
I = y0.7922 + 0.505 = 2
0.940 amp
tan 0 = - 0.505/0.792 = - 0.638
e = - 32.5·
In vector form, I = 0.940 /- 32.5° amp
By Ohm's law,
12 &.
Z = E/I = 0.940 /-32.5°
= 12.8 /32.5° ohms
The impedance could have been found by product over sum.
z= RZL
R + ZL
Using the polar forms for the product and the rectangular forms for the
sum,
Z = (18.5 &) (22.9 ~ )
18.5 + j0 + 6.25 + j22
z- 424 ~
- 24.8 + j22
Converting the denominator vector into polar form by the usual method
it becomes 33.2 /41.6°. Putting this in for the denominator
424~
Z = 33.2 /41.6· = 12.8 /32.5°
This checks with the solution obtained by means of currents.

Power factor = cos 0 = cos (- 32.5°)
= 0.843
P = EI cos 0 = 12 X 0.940 X 0.843
= 9.51 watts
34. A Parallel R-L Circuit with R and L in Each Branch
A still more complex circuit would have R and L in each branch

as in Fig. 37. To solve such a network, each branch would have to
be treated as a separate series circuit in the manner of Fig. 36A.
+j
E f\,
Il 11 - - -
I
\ I
I
I
I
I
- ....... - ....... \I
IL ---------- I
'----I:!J -j
Fig. 37. R and L in each branch Fig. 38. Current vectors far the
af a parallel R-l circuit. parallel R-l current of Fig. 37.
The branch currents, 11 and 12 , can then be determined and added

vectorially as in Fig. 38. An example will illustrate the technique.
Example 49. In Fig. 37, the following values exist. R 1 3.45 ohms; Xu = =
11.6 ohms R, = 15.3 ohms; Xt, = 2.75 ohms. The applied voltage is 20
volts. Find branch and line currents, circuit impedance, power factor and
power used.
Solution. Solving branch I,
Z1 = yR + Xu• = y3.45' + 11.6 = 12.1 ohms
1•
2
tan 0 1 = Xt1/R1 = 11.6/3.45 = 3.36

01 = 73.4°
In polar form,
Z1 = 12.1 /73.4°
For current,
l1 = E/Z1 = 1220
.1
&_
173
.4• = 1.65 /- 73.4° amps
Converting the current to the rectangular form,

l1 =l 1 cos 0 + j l 1 sin 0
= 1.65 cos (- 73.4°) + j 1.65 sin (- 73.4°)
= 1.65 X 0.286 - j 1.65 X 0.958
= 0.473 - jl.58
Branch 2 is solved similarly for Z2 and both vector forms of 12 •

Z2 = yR.2 + XL.2 = yl5.3 2 + 2.75 2 = 15.6 ohms
tan e. ·= XL2/R2 = 2.75/15.3 = 0.180

e. = 10.2°
In polar form,
Z2 = 15.6 /10.2° ohms
For the current,
20 &...
I, = E/Z, = _ _•
15 6 110 2
= 1.28 /- 10.2° amps
Converting the current to the rectangular form,

12 = 1.28 cos (- 10.2°) + jl.28 sin (-10.2°)
= 1.28 X 0.984 - jl.28 X 0.177
= 1.26 - j0.226
The line current is found as the vector sum of the rectangular forms of the
branch currents.
I =l +l
1 2
= 0.473 - jl.58 + 1.26 - j0.226

= 1.73 - j 1.81
The interpretation of this value for I is interesting. It means that

the line current in the circuit has a resistive component of I.73
amps and an inductive component of l.81 amps. The resistive com-
ponent is shown in Fig. 38 as IR, and is the sum of the resistive com-
ponents of 11 and 12 . In similar fashion, the inductive component,
IL, is the sum of the inductive components of 11 and 12 .
The line current is now converted into its polar form for its magnitude and
angle of lag.
I = yl.732 + 1.812 = 2.48 amps
1.81
tan e =- I.73 =- 1.045
e =- 46.3•
In polar form,
I = 2.48 /- 46.3° amps
The impedance is now found by Ohm's law:
20 ~
Z = E/1 = _ /- _ •
2 48 46 3
= 8.07 /46.3
0
+j
le
E 'v R Xe;
,_____I:U -j
E
Fig. 39. The basic R-C parallel Fig. 40. Current vectors far the
netwark. basic R-C parallel network.
As before, the total impedance may also be found by product over sum.
z. z.,
Z= Z1+Z..
Using the polar forms of the branch impedances for the multiplication in
the numerator, and the rectangular forms for the addition in the denomi-
nator,
Z = _1_2_.l _,/==73==.4==•-x_l_5._6--=/==Io==.2==·--
3.45 + jll.6 + 15.3 + j2.75
189 /83.6°
=----=--=----,-
18.8 + j14.4
The denominator is converted to polar form so that the division may be
performed,
18.8 + jl4.4 = 23.6 /37.5°
z= 189 ~
23.6 /37.5°
= 8.02 /46.1°
This checks the Ohm's law calculation for Z within slide rule accuracy. We
now complete the solution.
Power factor = cos 0 = cos (- 46.3°) = 0.691
P• = EI = 20 X 2.48 = 49.6 volt-amps
P = P. cos 0 = 49.6 X 0.691 = 34.2 watts
35. The Parallel R-C Circuit
The parallel R-C circuit is completely analogous to the parallel

R-L circuit with the one exception that the current in a capacitive
branch leads the voltage by the phase angle of the branch. Figure
39 illustrates the simplest form of the R-C network and the current
vectors are shown in Fig. 40.
Since capacitive current le leads E by 90°, it is shown on the +j

axis. The equations are,
I = yln2 + 1 2 0
tan e = le/IR
The general R-C parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 41. This has R
and C in each branch and involves the type of solution encountered
in the similar R-L network. As shown in Fig. 42, the branch cur-
rents, 11 /E)l and 12 /82, are determined separately. The line cur-
rent I & is the vector sum of the branch currents.
Example so. In the circuit of Fig. 41, the following values exist for the circuit
elements. R 1 = 22.4 ohms, Xe, = 60.5 ohms, R 2 = 110 ohms, Xe2 = 75.8
ohms. E = 150 volts. Find branch currents, line current, impedance, power
factor, apparent and true power. C. measures 5.25 microfarads. Find the
line frequency and C,.
Solution. We proceed first to find the branch impedances. In rectangular form,
Z,. =R 1 - jXe1 = 22.4 - j60.5
Z, =R 1 - jXc, = 110 - j75.8

Converting both to polar form,
Z,.= "I/R + Xe,• = "1/22.4' + 60.5• = 64.4 ohms

1•
tan 0 = -Xe,/R, = - 60.5/22.4 = - 2.70

1
e, = - 69.7•
and,
Z,. = 64.4 /- 69.7°
Similarly,
Z. = "1/R,• + Xe.' = "1/llO' + 75.8" = 134 ohms
tan 0 = - Xcz/R, = - 75.8/110 = - 0.690
2
e. = - 34.6•
and
Z. = 134 /- 34.6°
fig. 41. A parallel R-C circuit with R

and C in each branch.
E l'\J
fl
._____I!)
The branch currents are now found by Ohm's law:
I, = ~ &_ = 150 &_

z, !fi 64.4 /- 69.7 0
= 2.33 /69.7° amps
E ~ 150 &_
I, = Z. & = 134 /- 34.6• = 1.12 /34.6• amps
The currents are now converted to rectangular form so that they may be
added to give line current.
11 = 1 cos 0i + jl, sin 0,
1
= 2.33 cos 69.7° + j2.33 sin 69.7°

= 2.33 X 0.347 + j2.33 X 0.938
= 0.810 + j2.18
12 =1 2 cos 0 2 + jl 2 sin 0 2
= 1.12 cos 34.6° + j 1.12 sin 34.6°
= 1.12 >< 0.823 + jl.12 X 0.568
= 0.921 + j0.636
Finding the line current,
I = 1 + 1 = 0.810 + j2.18 + 0.921 + j0.636
1 2
= 1.73 + j2.82 amps

Converting I to polar form,
I = yl.73 + 2.82° = 3.31
2
amps
tan 0 = 2.82/1.73 = 1.63
0 = 58.5°
I = 3.31 /58.5° amps
+i
Fig. 42. Current vecton for

a parallel R-C circuit with R
and C in each branch.
-j
The interpretation of the two forms of I is this. The line current has a
resistive component of 1.73 amps and a capacitive component of 2.82 amps.
Its magnitude (the value an ammeter would read) is 3.31 amps and it
leads the applied voltage by 58.5°.
The impedance is found by Ohm's law:
E &._ 150 &_
Z = I &_ = _ ~ = 45.4 /- 58.5°
3 31
Calculating Z by product over sum, and using the polar forms of Z1 and
z. in the numerator and the rectangular forms in the denominator,
z = 64.4 ~ X 134 ~
22.4 - j60.5 + I IO - j75.8
The denominator adds to 132 - jl36. This is converted to polar form.
132 - jl36 = 189 /- 45.9°
Rewriting the denominator in the expression for Z,
z = 64.4 ~ X 134 ~
189 /-45.9°
= 45.5 /- 58.4° ohms.
Thus checking the other result.
Finding power factor, P. and P,
power factor = cos e = cos (- 58.5°) = 0.523
P. = EI = 150 X 3.31 = 496 volt-amps
P = P • cos 0 = 496 X 0.523 = 260 watts
We find the line frequency by using the data for C2 and Xc,-
f = 0.159 = 0.159
Xc,C, 75.8 X 5.25 X IO·• = 400 cycles
0 159 0.159
C1 = - ·-
fXc 1
=- - --
400 X 60.5
= 6.58 microfarads
36. The Parallel R-L-C Circuit
The simplest kind of parallel R-L-C circuit has pure R, L, and C

in each branch. This is the circuit of Fig. 43. The corresponding
current vectors are shown in Fig. 44. For simplicity, we may define
a total reactive current, Ix,
le when IL > le
or IL when le > IL
The line current in rectangular form becomes

I = IR + jlx
For the polar form,
I = y1R2 + Ix2
tan 0 = Ix/IR
An example will illustrate the method of solution.
Example 51. In the parallel R-L-C network of Fig. 43, E is 2.5 volts at a
frequency of 250 kc. If R = 12 ohms, L = 5.25 microhenries and C =
0.045 microfarads, find line current, circuit impedance and power dissipated.
Solution. XL and Xe are first determined.
XL = 6.28fL = 6.28 x 0.250 x l()• X 5.25 X 10-•
= 8.25 ohms
Xe = 0.159 = 0.159
fC 0.250 X 10" X 0.045 X 10-6
= 14.1 ohms
Branch currents are found.
E &_ 2.5 &_
Ill= R /S}:._ = 12 f.!l:...
= 0.208 f.!l:.__ amp

2.5 &_
= -=-:c-c--~-
8.25 /90°
= 0.303 /- 90° amp
I _ E &_ 2.5 &_
0
- Xe /- 90° 14.1 /- 90°
= 0.178 /90° amp
The total current may now be determined by first finding the net reactive
current.
Ix = IL - 10 = - j0.303 + j0.l 78 = - j0.125 = 0.125 /- 90° amp
I = -../Ill• + lx 1
= -../0.208' + 0.125' = 0.243 amp
tan 9 = - Ix / Ill = - 0.125/0.208 = - 0.601
9 = - 31.0°
In polar form,
I = 0.243 /- 31.0° amp
An interesting point is illustrated by this solution. In series cir-

cuits, the larger reactance determines the nature of the circuit. In
Fig. 43. The simplest R-L-C E l'\J R Xe

circuit.
I~
Example 45 of the previous chapter, XL was greater than Xo and

the result was an inductive circuit. In Example 43, the circuit was
capacitive as the capacitive reactance was the greater one. This is
true for series circuits because the larger reactance has the larger
voltage drop and controls the circuit.
In a parallel R-L-C circuit the reverse is true. The smaller reac-
tance determines the nature of the circuit. In the problem we are
now doing, XL is smaller than X 0 , but the line current is lagging
by 31.0° and the circuit is inductive. The explanation is readily
available. The smaller reactance has the larger branch current and
thus controls the overall nature of the network.
+j +j
le le
I
Ix
IR E E
IR
Ix I
IL IL
-j -j
(A) (B)
fig. ""· Vectors for Fig. 43.

E 'v Fig. 45. The general R-L-C

circuit.
- - I ~
Continuing the solution, we next find Z.

~ ~
Z = E
1
&.. = 0 _2432.5L=11Q.: = 10.3 /31.0° ohms
To find the power we first find power factor.

P = El cos 9 = 2.5 X 0.243 X 0.857
= 0.521 watt
37. The General R-L-C Circuit
The general R-L-C circuit contains R in both the L branch and

the C branch. Figure 45 is the network, while Fig. 46 is the vector
solution of the circuit.
The solution of the circuit may be outlined in four steps:
1. The branch impedances, ZL and Ze are calculated from the
branch resistances and reactances, treating each branch as a series
circuit.
2. The branch currents, IL /8L, le /8e and IR LQ.'.'.. are deter-
mined by Ohm's law. These currents are shown as vectors in
Fig. 46.
3. The net reactive current, Ix /0x, is found by adding le
and IL. IL and le must be in the rectangular vector form for the
addition.
4. I, in its rectangular form, is found by the addition of Ix
and IR. It is then converted to the polar form, I &·
Example 52. In Fig. 45, the circuit has the following constants: RL 190 =
ohms; XL =
285 ohms; Re =
80 ohms; Xe =
215 ohms; R 275 ohms; =
E = 45 volts. Find line current, circuit impedance and power consumed.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS AND SERIES-PARALLEL NETWORKS n
Solution. Following the outlined procedure, we proceed to find ZL and Ze.
zL = yRL• + xL• = ..j1w + 285 1
. = 342 ohms
XL/RL = 285/190 = 1.50
tan 56.3° = 1.50
In polar form,
ZL = 342 ~ ohms
Ze = v'Re' + Xe' = y802 + 215' = 230 ohms
- Xe/Re =- 215/80 =- 2.69
tan (- 69.6°) =- 2.69
In polar form,
Ze = 230 /-69.6° ohms
Now, the three branch currents may be calculated:
IR = E~
R ~ =~
275 ~ = 0.164 ~ amp
In rectangular form,
IR = 0.164 + j0
45 ~_ • -- 0.132 /- 56.3 0 amp
342 156 3
Converting this to rectangular form,
IL = 0.132 cos (- 56.3°) + j0.132 sin (- 56.3°)
= 0.132 X 0.555 + j0.132 X (- 0.832)
= 0.0731 - j0.110 amp
+j
le
fig. 46. Vectors for fig. 45.

E 10° _ 451(}0
I -
e -
e:..
Ze
..,.,,.,......-~....,,.~
- 230 /- 69.6°
= 0.195 /69.6°
Converting le to rectangular form,

le = 0.195 cos 69.6° + jO.195 sin 69.6°
= 0.195 X 0.349 + jO.195 X 0.937
= 0.0681 + jO.183 amp
The net reactive current, Ix, is found as the sum of the two reactive cur-
rents. The rectangular forms are used for the addition.
Ix = IL+ le
= 0.0731 - jO.l 10 + 0.0681 + jO.183
= 0.141 + jO.O73 amp
The net reactive current is a capacitive current since the capacitive reactance
was the smaller reactance. It has a resistive component of 0.141 amps and
a capacitive component of 0.073 amps.
The line current is found as the sum of the net reactive current and
resistive current.
I= Ia+ Ix
= 0.164 + jO. + 0.141 + jO.O73
= 0.305 + jO.O73 amp
Converting to polar form,
I = y'O.3O5 1 + 0.073• = 0.314 amp
tan 0 = 0.073/0.305 = 0.239
0 = 13.5°
and
I = 0.314 /13.5°
Finding the circuit impedance,
z = E LQ:
I ~
= 45 LQ;,
0.314 /13.50 = 143 /- 13_50 ohms
The power is calculated by determining first the power factor:

Power. factor = cos 0 = cos 13.5° = 0.972
P = EI cos 0 = 45 X 0.314 X 0.972
=
13.7 watts
38. The Series-Parallel A-C Network
The series-parallel a-c network can range from a relatively simple

network, which will be considered first, to one of many extremely
complicated networks. However, in spite of the complexity of the

whole circuit, any series-parallel circuit can be solved by the same
basic method which consists of two fundamental steps:
I. Work on each parallel network until its total impedance is
expressed in rectangular form. In this way each parallel section is
converted into an equivalent series section.
2. The whole circuit is now a series R-L-C network and is solved
by the methods developed and illustrated in Chapter 5.
Individual problems will require more or less effort in each of
the steps, but all will fall into the same pattern of solution. The
first example below will illustrate the method as used to solve a
relatively simple network.
Example 53. In Fig. 47 the values of the various circuit elements and the
applied voltages are as shown. Find the total impedance, the line current,
the power factor, true power and apparent power.
Solution. The first step is to find the impedance of the parallel network and
to express it in rectangular form. This impedance, which we will call z,,
may be determined in several ways. Two means of finding z, will be shown.
The first is the familiar product over the sum formula. To use this formula
we must first find the impedance of the RLXL branch. Calling this branch
impedance ZL, we get,
In polar form, this becomes
ZL = 155 /75.1 ° ohms
The parallel network impedance, z,, by product over sum is
z _ ZLXc1
•-zL+Xc1
Using polar forms in the numerator and rectangular forms in the de-
nominator,
(155 /75.1 °) (205 /- 90°)

z. = 40 + jl50 - j205
= 31800 ~
40 - j55
Converting the denominator into polar form the equation becomes,
Z _ 31800 ~
• - 68.0 /- 53.9°
and in polar form,
z, = 468 /39.0° ohms
This expression is now converted to rectangular form in the usual sine

and cosine manner, giving
z, = 363 + j294 ohms
This has fulfilled the first step in our plan of attack. In effect, we have
changed the circuit of Fig. 47A into that of Fig. 47B. The z, portion is
shown in the dashed lines as equivalent to a resistor of 363 ohms in series
with an inductive reactance of 294 ohms. The series-parallel network is now
E•90V '\J
(Al
yzp
I Rp•363fl
1
I
I
l XLp•294fl
E•90V '\J
~
(Cl
(Bl
Fig. 47. The series-parallel network of Example 53 (A); its series R-L-C equivalent (B);
its final equivalent circuit (C).
a series R-L-C circuit and the rest of the solution is straightforward. The
total impedance, Z, is the sum of the individual resistances and reactances.
We now write,
Z = 363 + j294 + 50 - j600
= 413 - j306 ohms

Figure 47C shows this impedance as the final impedance of the original net-
work. The entire circuit of Fig. 47A is equivalent to a resistance of 413
ohms in series with a capacitive reactance of 306 ohms.
To continue with the solution, the polar form of the impedance is now
determined as
Z =
514 /- 36.6° ohms
The rest of the solution follows readily. Knowing E and Z, I follows by
Ohm's law.
I= E/Z
= 90 LQ;
514 /- 36.6°
= 0.l 75 /36.6° amp
The current has a magnitude of 0.l 75 amps and leads the applied voltage
by 36.6°, the phase angle of the current. By means of the phase angle the
power factor is found.
Power factor = cos 36.6° = 0.803
Real power and apparent power are found by their conventional formulas.
P=Elcos0
= 90 X 0.175 X 0.803
= 12.6 watts
P• = EI = 90 X 0.l 75 = 15.7 volt-amps
It was stated at the beginning of the example that two methods of
finding the impedance of the parallel network would be shown.
The first is the product over the sum as used in the actual solution.
With only two branches in parallel this approach is probably as
simple as any. However, with three or more parallel branches the
resultant formula becomes very difficult and laborious to apply. In
that case, a second method of finding the impedance of the parallel
branch, which will now be given, is simpler and better.
39. Another Method of Finding the Impedance of a

Parallel Branch
This method we will call the "assumed-voltage" method. To

understand it we must recognize the fact that the impedance of a
network depends only on the resistances and reactances which com-

pose the network. The voltage across the network, and the branch
currents.have no effect on the impedance. (Of course, if any element
were to be damaged by the voltage or the current the impedance
would change. However, this has nothing to do with our dis-
cussion.)
In the "assumed-voltage" method of determining impedance, we
do just what the name implies. We assume any convenient voltage
across our parallel circuit. This voltage has nothing to do with the
applied voltage or any other voltage that may be given as part
of the problem. We will use it only to calculate the impedance and
then we will discard it. Any other information derived from this
voltage, such as branch currents, is also discarded. Only the imped-
ance is kept, because it is completely independent of the voltage.
Regardless of the voltage assumed, the impedance will always come
out the same.
By convenient voltage is meant a voltage that will simplify the
arithmetic or facilitate the determination of decimal point loca-
tions. This is simply a matter of judgment.
Let us return to Example 53 and let us find ZP by the assumed
voltage method. Referring to Fig. 47A, let us assume a voltage of
205 volts across the parallel circuit. This choice eliminates one
current calculation and simplifies the location of the decimal point
in the other. On the basis of this assumed voltage we will find the
current through Xe 1 , call it le, and the current through the RLXL
branch, IL. It must be emphasized that these currents have no real
existence and are only tools to help us find ZP. They are discarded
when Zp is found. le and IL are,
205 E _ 205 E
Xe 1 205 /- 90°
I /90° amp = jl amp
205 ~ _ 205 ~
ZL 155 /75.1°
1.32 /- 75.I O amps
IL is converted to rectangular form, giving
IL = 0.339 - j 1.27
Let us call the assumed total current through the parallel network
produced by the assumed voltage las. This will be the sum of the
two assumed branch currents found above. We then write,
las IL + le = 0.339 - jl.27 + jl
0.339 - j0.270 amp
This current is converted to polar form and is
las = 0.433 /- 38.6° amp
The impedance of the parallel network is now found by Ohm's law,
using the assumed voltage and the current that results from that
assumption.
205 /0°
0.4 33 /- 38 _60 = 466 /38.6° ohms
This is within slide-rule accuracy of the value for ZP obtained by

the previous method.
Let us apply these techniques to a problem of greater complexity,
such as in the circuit of Fig. 48A. Here a three-branch parallel
network is in series with resistance and inductive reactance.
Example 54. Find Z, I, power factor, true and apparent power in the circuit
of Fig. 48A.
Solution. First, we find the branch impedances in the capacitive and inductive
branches of the parallel network.
Zc = Re - jXc = 5.85 - j27.8 ohms
Converting to polar form,
Zc = 28.4 /- 78.1 ° ohms
Similarly for ZL,

ZL = RL + jX1, = 24.2 + j60.8 ohms
= 65.3 /68.3° ohms
With the branch impedances found, we now assume a voltage across the
parallel network and proceed to calculate branch currents based on this
voltage. A convenient voltage to assume is usually one equal numerically
to the highest branch impedance (not including the purely resistive
branch) . In this case then let us assume a voltage of 65.3 volts. Solving for
the branch currents,
65.3 L.Q:
65.3 /68.3°
1 /- 68.3° amp
Xc•27.8.n
R2• I0.6.Cl
(A)
-y--Zp
I
:Rp•24.0n
I
Jxcp•30.a.n
'v E•50V E•50V 'v
xc'•l4.4n
(Cl
(Bl
Fig. 48. The series-parallel circuit af Example 54 (A); its series R-L-C equivalent
(B); its final equivalent circuit (C),
In rectangular form this becomes,

IL = 0.370 - j0.929 amp
In the same way,
I _ 65.3 L.Q.: _ 65.3 LQ:.
c - Zc - 28.4 /- 78.1 °
= 2.30 /78.1 ° amps
Expressed in rectangular form,

le = 0.474 + j2.25 amps
The current through R, is found,
IR, = 65.3
350
= 0.187 amp
The total (assumed) ) current is now the sum of the branch currents in
their rectangular form. Calling this current I.. we get
I., = IL + le + IR,
= 0.370 - j0.929 + 0.474 + j2.25 + 0.187
= 1.03 + jl.32 amps
Since the numbers in the vector expression of I .. are small simple numbers
we may solve for Z without going through the polar form. This involves
a division in rectangular form and is performed by the use of conjugates.
This method is explained in detail in Chapter 4; the reader can refer to that
explanation should he have any doubt about the procedure.
Setting up Ohm's law for z. as the assumed voltage divided by I .. we get,
65.3
z. = 1.03 + jl.32
This division is performed by multiplying both numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator. When conjugates are multiplied the
result is the sum of the squares of the denominator. Doing this we get,
65.3 1.03 - jl.32
z. = -----
1.03 + j 1.32
X -----"---
1.03 - j 1.32
= 67 .3 - j86.l _ 67 .3 - j86.l
1.06 + 1.74 - 2.80
= 24.0 - j30.8 ohms
This gives ils z. directly in the useable rectangular form. The circuit is
now a series circuit as shown in Fig. 48B. We can arrive at the total im-
pedance by summation:
Z = 24.0 - j30.8 + 10.6 + jl6.4
= 34.6 - jl4.4 ohms
In polar form this becomes,
Z = 37.4 /- 22.6° ohms
The final equivalent circuit of the original series-parallel com-

bination is illustrated in Fig. 48C. It is an R-C circuit with the
values shown.
Finding the line current is next.
E 50 IQ..0
I = Z = 37.4 /- 22.6°
= 1.34 /22.6° amps
Now calculate power factor, true power and apparent power:

Power factor = cos 0 = cos 22.6° = 0.923
P. = EI = 50 x 1.34 = 67.0 volt-amps
P = EI cos 0 = 67.0 x 0.923 = 61.9 watts
When two or more parallel sections are present in the circuit,
each is independently solved for its impedance. This is done in the
next example which involves the circuit of Fig. 49A.
Example 55. In the circuit of Fig. 49A, find the impedance, the applied volt-
age, the power factor, true power and apparent power.
Solution. We first determine the parallel impedance, z,1 of the top parallel
network, labelled "Section I." The branch impedances, Zc1 and ZLt, are
calculated to start.
Zc1 = R01 - jXc1
= 10.8 - j71.5 ohms
ZL1 = RL1 + jXL1
= 104 + j55.7 ohms
Instead of converting Z01 and ZLt into polar form as in past problems, we
will keep them in rectangular form and use the method of conjugates as
illustrated in the previous example. To simplify the calculations we will
assume_ a voltage of 100 volts across Section 1. Using this voltage we find
the assumed branch currents. Call the branch currents 101 , IL1 and IBl.
l01 =~ = 100 X 10.8 + j71.5

Zc 1 10.8 - j71.5 10.8 + j71.5
= 1080 + j7150 = 1080 + j7150
10.8• + 71.5• 5230
= 0.207 + jl.!17 amps
Also, IL1 = 100 100 104 - j55.7
ZL1 = 104 + j55.7 X 104 - j55.7
_ 10,400 - j5570 _ 10,400 - j5570
- 1041 + 55.71 - 13,900
= 0.750 - j0.401 amp
For the current in the resistive branch,
100 100
IBl = Rt = 1000 = 0.100 amp
Let us call the total assumed section-I current 11 • It is now determined as

the sum of the branch currents.
11 = le, + lt1 + Ia1
= 0.207 + jl.!17 + 0.750 - j0.401 + 0.100
= 1.06 + j0.969 amps
/SECTION I
.------1i---....::;.---,
'v E
I
l •,5 AMPS
SECTION 2
(A)
yZ1
IR1eq•51.5.n
I
:Jxc,eq•47.1.n
Req•79.4.Cl
'v E I
l•.50
'v E
l
l•.50 XLeq•l34.Cl
Xc 4 •21.5.Cl
7
I (C)
I R2eq • 17.9.Cl
I
I
i XL 2eq•22.31l.
...__ _ _ _ __, ~Z2
(8)
Fig. 49. The series-parallel circuit of Example 55 (A); Its series equivalent (B);
Its final equivalent circuit (C),
We now find the impedance of Section I using the assumed voltage and the
above current. Again we employ the conjugate method.
Calling the impedance of Section l Z,. we proceed as follows,

100 100 1.06 - j0.969
21
= I. = l.06 + j0.969 X l.06 - j0.969
_ 106 - j96.9 _ 106 - j96.9
- l.062 + 0.969 2 - 2.06
= 51.5 - j47.l ohms
Section l is seen to be the equivalent of a resistance of 51.5 ohms in series
with a capacitive reactance of 47.l ohms. We will hold this result aside
and proceed to a similar evaluation of Section 2. We again first find the
individual branch impedances.
Ze, = Re, - jXco = ll0 - j25.8 ohms

and
ZL2 = Ru + jXu = 33.3 + j95.8 ohms
Calling the impedance of the third branch z., it is written as

z. = Ra + jXr.a - jXea = 20.0 + jl70 - jl30
= 20 + j40 ohms
Let us assume a voltage of 100 volts across Section 2 and calculate the
assumed branch currents. Call the branch currents le2 , IL2 and I •.
100 100 110 + j25.8
le• = Ze, = ll0 - j25.8 X ll0 + j25.8
_ ll ,000 + j2580 _ ll ,000 + j2580
- ll02 + 25.8• - 12,800
= 0.860 + j0.202 amp
For IL2 the equation is,

100 100 33.3 - j95.8
IL2 = Zu = 33.3 + j95.8 X 33.3 - j95.8
_ 3330 - j9580 _ 3330 - j9580
- 33.32 + 95.82 - 10,300
= 0.323 - j0.930 amp
And now the remaining branch current, 1., is found.

100 100 20 - j40
1
• = Z. = 20 + j40 X 20 - j40
2000 - i4000 = 2000 - j4000
= 202 + 402 2000
=I - j2 amps
Call l 2 the total assumed current of Section 2. It then becomes,
I, = I. + I,.. + 102
= l - j2 + 0.323 - j0.930 + 0.860 + j0.202
= 2.18 - j2.72 amps
We can now find the impedance of Section 2, which we will label Z,,.
z, = 100 = 100 X 2.18 + j2.72

1. 2.18 - j2.72 2.18 + j2.72
218 + j272
= ---------,--
2.l82 + 2.72 1
= 218 + j272
12.2
= 17 .9 + j22.3 ohms
Section 2 is thus equivalent to a resistance of 17.9 ohms in series with an
inductive reactance of 22.3 ohms. Figure 49B shows the equivalent series
circuit of the original circuit.
The circuit impedance, Z, is now found by addition of the resistances and
reactances. Adding them in the order in which they appear in Fig. 49B,
reading downward we get,
Z = 51.5 - j47.l + 10 + jl80 - j21.5 + 17.9 + j22.3

= 79.4 + jl34 ohms
The final equivalent circuit, as shown in Fig. 49C, is that of a resistance of
79.4 ohms and an inductive reactance of 134 ohms.
Z is converted into polar form to continue the solution.
Z = 156 /59.4° ohms
Knowing I and Z we may find the applied voltage, E. We give I the same
phase angle as Z, but with the sign changed. In this way, E comes out with
a lero phase angle and I shows the correct angle of lead or lag as the case
may be.
E = IZ = 0.500 /- 59.4° X 156 /59.4°
= 78.0 f!2° volts
The rest of the problem is readily solved.
Power factor = cos 59.4° = 0.509
P.= EI = 78 X 0.500 = 39.0 volt-amps
P = El cos 8 = 39.0 X 0.509 = 19.8 watts
The subject of parallel resonance is a very complex one. Since it
is thoroughly covered in the book Resonant Circuits of this series,
we will not describe it now. There it is shown that at resonance, a
parallel R-L-C network is at or very close to the point of maximum

impedance and minimum line current.
(I) State three facts about voltage and current in a parallel circuit.
(2) Give the formula for finding the effective impedance of two impedances
in parallel.
(3) Which component, E or I, leads in the capacitive branch of a parallel
network?
(4) A parallel network has three branches containing R, L and C. Name the
steps necessary to find the circuit impedance.
(5) Define the circuit conditions in a parallel R-L-C circuit where
a. Xe > XL;
b. XL> Xe.
(6) What general statement can be made about parallel resonance?
(7) A parallel network consists of three branches: in branch I, R = 100 ohms;
in branch 2, XL = 50 ohms; in branch 3, Xe = 150 ohms. Find the total
impedance.
(8) If a IO-volt source is applied to the network of Question 7, find the total
current and the phase angle between E and I.
(9) A parallel network consists of two branches: in branch I, 60 + j60; in
branch 2, 10 - jl20. A source of 100 volts is applied across the network.
Find total current and effective impedance.
(10) Find the phase angle of each branch and of the total circuit in Question 9.
TABLE II: NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 91
TABLE II
NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Angle Sine Cosine Tangent Angle Sine Cosine Tangent
oo 0.000 1.000 0.000 46° .719 .695 1.036
I° ,018 1.000 .018 47° .731 .682 1.072
20 .035 0.999 .035 48° .743 .669 I.Ill
30 .052 .999 .052 49° .755 .656 1.150
40 .070 .998 .070 50° .766 .643 1.192
50 .087 .996 .088
51 ° .777 .629 1.235
50 .105 .995 .105 52° .788 .616 1.280
70 .122 .993 .123 53° .799 .602 1.327
so .139 .990 .141 54° .809 .588 1.376
90 .156 .988 .158 .819
55° .574 1.428
10° .I 74 .985 .176
II o 56° .829 .559 1.483
.I 91 .982 .194 r::,70 .839 .545 1.540
12° .208 .978 .213 r,go .848 .530 1.600
13° .225 .974 .231
59° .857 .515 1.664
14° .242 .970 .249
60° .866 .500 1.732
15° .259 .966 .268
61 ° .875 .485 1.804
16° .276 .961 .287
62° .883 .470 1.881
17° .292 .956 .306
18° 63° .891 .454 1.963
.309 .951 .325
64° .899 .438 2.050
19° .326 .946 .344
65° .906 .423 2.145
20° .342 .940 .364
21 ° .358 .934 .384 66° .914 .407 2.246
22° .375 .927 .404 67° .921 .391 2.356
23° .391 .921 .425 68° .927 .375 2.475
24° .407 .914 .445 69° .934 .358 2.605
25° .423 .906 .466 70° .940 .342 2.747
26° .438 .899 .488 71 ° .946 .326 2.904

27° .454 .891 .510 72° .951 .309 3.078
28° .470 .883 .532 73° .956 .292 3.291
29° .485 .875 .554 74° .961 .276 3.487
30° .500 .866
7:,0 .966 .259 3.732
.577
31 ° .515 .857 .601 76° .970 .242 4.011
32° .530 .848 .625 77° .974 .225 4.331
33° .545 .839 .649 78° .978 .208 4.705
34° .559 .829 .675 79° .982 .191 5.145
35° .574 .819 .700 80° .985 .174 5.671
36° .588 .809 .727 81 ° .988 .156 6.314

37° .602 .799 .754 82° .990 .139 7.115
38° .616 .788 .781 83° .993 .122 8.144
39° .629 .777 .810 84° .995 .105 9.514
40° .643 .766 .839 85° .996 .087 11.43
41 ° .656 .755 .869 86° .998 .070 14.30

42° .669 .743 .900 87° .999 .052 19.08
43° .682 .731 .933 88° .999 .035 28.64
44° .695 .719 .966 89° 1.000 ,018 57.29
45° .707 .707 1.000 90° 1.000 .000 00
TABLE Ill
SIGNS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
IN THE FOUR QUADRANTS
Function 1st Quadrant 2nd Quadrant 3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

Sine + +
Cosine + +
Tangent + +
Cotangent + +
INDEX
A-C: Coulomb, 30
basic principles, 1-10 Counter voltage 22, 23, 24, 28
generation, 3 Current amplitude, 20
power, 2 Current vectors, 66
terminology, I, 2 Currents, branch, 63
waveforms, I, 2 Cycles of rotation, 36
voltage, 2, 3, 11 Cycles per second, 2
Alternation, 1, 14
Alternator, 3
four-pole, 8, 9 Dielectric, 28
multipole, 8
rotating field, 9
two-pole, 4-7 Effective value relationship, 17
Angular velocity, 7, 8 Electric field, 30
Armature, 9 Electric generator, 3
Electromagnets, 8
Electromagnetic induction, 3
Branch:
current, 76
Farad, 30, 31
impedance, 76
Faraday's laws, 22
Field voltage, 8
Capacitive circuit, 30, 54 Figure of merit, 60
Capacitance: Frequency, 2, 8
pure, 28-33
stray, 20
Geometrical addition of complex
Capacitive reactance, 31
numbers, 38-41
Capacitor:
parallel, 33
series, 32 Henry, 22
Circumference of a circle, 7
Complex a-c waveforms, 2
Complex numbers, Imaginary axis, 37
geometrical addition, 38-41, 49 Imaginary number, 35, 36
polar form, 41-44, 49 Imaginary term, 40
powers and roots, 44, 45 lmpedence, 48
summary, 45 Induced voltage, 4, 5, 22
Conjugate, 40 Induced waveform, 6
93
94 INDEX
Inductance, Parallel circuits (contd.) :

mutual, 27 R-L with R in both branches,
parallel, 27 65-67
pure, 21-27 R-L with Rand Lin each branch,
self, 22 68-70
series, 26 resonance, 89
Inductive circuit, 53 simple R-L-C, 73-75
Inductive reactance, 25 Peak value, 2
Inductor, 25 Peak voltage, 11
Inertia, 22 Period, I, 2
Instantaneous: Phase displacement, 47
current, I I, 15, I 7 Polar form, 42
values, 14, 15 Polar notation, 41
voltage, 11, 15 Polyphase system, 21
Power,
apparent, 51, 53
"j" operator, 35-45 average, 16, 17, 24
equation, 16
factor, 49, 50
Kirchhoff's laws: frequency, 21, 30
first, 46, 47 instantaneous, 16
second, 63 negative, 24, 25, 30
positive, 21, 24, 25, 30
true, 51, 53
I ,enz' law, 22 Properties of the sine, 12
Linear velocity, 8
Lines of force, 3
Q of the coil, 60
Quadrants:
Magnetic field, 7, 8, 21, 22 properties of sine in, 12
Magnetic flux lines, 4 signs of functions in, 92
Magnetic interaction, 26
Magnetic poles, 8
Maximum voltage, 5, 11 Radian, 6, 7
Radius, 6
Rate of change, 22, 23, 29
Natural trigonometric functions, Reactance,
table, 91 inductive, 25
Numbers: capacitive, 31
imaginary, 35, 36 Real axis, 37
real, 35 Rectangular form, 37, 38, 42
Rectangular notation, 41
Reference vector, 47
Ohm's law, II, 18 Resistance of a circuit, 20, 21
Resistance, inductance, capacitance,
20-34
Parallel circuits and series parallel Review questions IO, 18-19, 34, 45,
networks,63-90 61-62, 90
Parallel circuits: Revolutions per minute, 9
assumed voltage method, 81-90 Rotating machinery, 1
general R-L-C, 76-78 Rotation by 90, 35
R-C, 70-73 Rotor, 9
R-L, 63-65 rms value, 16, 17, 21
INDEX 95
Series circuits, 46-62 Tables (contd.):

general, 53-57 signs of trigonometric functions,
properties of, 46 92
R-C, 51-53 trigonometric functions, 92
R-L, 46-49 Three-branch parallel network, 83
resonance in, 57-61 Transient condition, 20
Series parallel networks, 78-81, 84
Sine of an angle, l, 5, 6 Volt,4
Sine wave, I, 6, II Voltage and current value of a sine-
average value, 13-17, 21 wave, ll-18
effective value, 16, l 7, 21 Voltage vector, 58
peak value, 2, 16, 17 Voltampere, 51
Slip rings, 9 Voltmeter, 17
Stator, 9 Vectors, 39, 42
Tables: Watt, 51
instantaneous voltage and current
values, 15 Yoke,9

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are some of the topics covered in the book?

What are some of the topics covered in the book?

.

JOHN F. RIDER PUBLISHER, INC.

All rights reserved. This book or parts thereof may

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 58-14216

Printed in the United States of America

In many design applications, alternating current offers substantial

step-by-step problem analyses provide clearcut concepts of the

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current is one that starts from zero amplitude,

1. Simple A-C Waveforms and Terminology

Figure 1 shows the changes described above, and illustrates the

The number of cycles of ac occurring in I second is called its

2. A Complex A-C Waveform

Another type of waveform more complex than the sine wave is

losses, and facilitates the increase or decrease of voltage with rela-

3. Electromagnetic Induction - A-C Generation

Now, to better understand the nature of alternating voltages

The electric generator which produces ac by electromagnetic induc-

terial whether the conductor or the lines of force are in motion

4. The Simple Two-Pole Alternator

These principles may be utilized in constructing a simple alter-

In position I, the conductor is moving in a direction parallel to

Fig. 2. Generation of a-c voltage by a revolving conductor in a uniform magnetic field

of 30°. From position 2 to 3 at 60° an even greater number of lines

As we go from 7 to 8 the situation is the same as in going from

Fig. 3. The definition of a

voltage must now reverse. As a result the voltage goes to a negative

Up to this point, angles have been expressed in the customary

(b) 60° = 60 x _!!_ = 2!.... radians

lxample 4, Express the following in degrees.

Solution. (a) 4 radians = 4 x 57.3° = 229°

In the basic two-pole alternator of Fig. 2, one revolution of the

than conventional linear velocity (such as inches per second) a use-

6. The Four-Pole Alternator

In practice, the simple two-pole alternator is not an efficient

fig. 4. A four-pole alternator.

rotor of the alternator. The d-c voltage may then be brought in

where f is frequency in cycles per second, p is total number of poles,

Solution. f = p (rpm) = 8 (900) = 60 cycles

120f (120) (400) = 2400

(I) Explain the action of one cycle of ac.

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF A SINE WAYE

8. The A-C Sine-Wave

Figure 5 shows a sine-wave of alternating voltage. The voltage is

• E is the conventional symbol for voltage, I for current.

angle corresponding to the instant under consideration. The Greek

Example a. The maximum value of an ac is to be found. The instantaneous

• A Trigonometry Table is included at the end of this volume.

Example 9, The maximum value of an ac is 15.5 amps. At what points in the

9. The Average Value of an A-C Sine-Wave

Another useful value to be considered for an a-c sine wave is

is evidently zero as the negative alternation exactly cancels the

Eov•O.636 Em (FOR ONE ALTERNATION)

Fig. 6. Average values af a sine-wave.

alternation. Since only absolute values are of concern, the average

Similarly, Iav = 0.636 Im