.

Ten years later, theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified Strevens' original
definition of ESP to form their own.Strevens defined ESP by identifying its absolute and
variable characteristics. Strevens' (1988) definition makes a distinction between four
absolute and two variable characteristics:

ESP consists of English language teaching which is:

 designed to meet specified needs of the learner;

 related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines,
occupations and activities;
 centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse,
semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse;
 in contrast with General English.

Determining the Technical Vocabulary Using Range

The first thing to do in determining the technical vocabulary is by choosing the passage
related to the specific subject. The passage can be taken from a subject-specific textbook,
a magazine, or anewspaper. It is more comfortable if the passage is taken from an online
source.

• Determine and define the research questions

• Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
• Prepare to collect the data
• Collect data in the field
• Evaluate and analyze the data
• Prepare the report

Step 1. Determine and Define the Research Questions

The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to which the
researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex phenomenon or object. The
researcher establishes the focus of the study by forming questions about the situation or
problem to be studied and determining a purpose for the study. The research object in a
case study is often a program, an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is
likely to be intricately connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues,
providing wide ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case
study. The researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of
data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the case and
answers the research questions.

Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with "how" or
"why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their
inter-relationships. To assist in targeting and formulating the questions, researchers
conduct a literature review. This review establishes what research has been previously
conducted and leads to refined, insightful questions about the problem. Careful definition
of the questions at the start pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the
methods of analysis to be used in the study. The literature review, definition of the
purpose of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final
report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported.

Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques

During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines what
approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and
which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases, each
case is treated as a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select cases and
carefully examine the choices available from among many research tools available in
order to increase the validity of the study. Careful discrimination at the point of selection
also helps erect boundaries around the case.

The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in some way or
cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to represent a variety of
geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other parameters. A useful step in the
selection process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the study in order to focus
attention on where to look for cases and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the
study and answer the research questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key
element, but a case study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis.

A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and techniques
in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in advance what evidence to
gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data to answer the research questions.
Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to
collect data can include surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and
even the collection of physical artifacts.

The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically and properly
in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase, researchers must ensure that the
study is well constructed to ensure construct validity, internal validity, external validity,
and reliability. Construct validity requires the researcher to use the correct measures for
the concepts being studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or
causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and requires
the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover convergent lines
of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of evidence forward and backward.
External validity reflects whether or not findings are generalizable beyond the immediate
case or cases; the more variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can
withstand and still yield the same findings, the more external validity. Techniques such as
cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature review helps
ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy, and precision of
measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the procedures used are well
documented and can be repeated with the same results over and over again.

Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data

Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources,
systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the researcher from becoming
overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the researcher from losing sight of the
original research purpose and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large
amounts of data in a documented and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases
to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis.

The investigator training program covers the basic concepts of the study, terminology,
processes, and methods, and teaches investigators how to properly apply the techniques
being used in the study. The program also trains investigators to understand how the
gathering of data using multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing
opportunities for triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers
protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for narrative
reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and guidelines for field
procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good listeners who can hear exactly the
words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications for investigators also include
being able to ask good questions and interpret answers. Good investigators review
documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative
evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-
life situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or
lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp
the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware that
they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure of
what the case study will bring.

After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site
and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can
be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and events,
identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and
actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the research design in order to address
and add to the original set of research questions.

4. Collect Data in the Field

The researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively and
systematically, in formats that can be referenced and sorted so that converging lines of
inquiry and patterns can be uncovered. Researchers carefully observe the object of the
case study and identify causal factors associated with the observed phenomenon.
Renegotiation of arrangements with the objects of the study or addition of questions to
interviews may be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but
when changes are made, they are documented systematically.

Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data

The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find linkages
between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the original research
questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process, the researcher remains open
to new opportunities and insights. The case study method, with its use of multiple data
collection methods and analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to
triangulate data in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions.

The tactics used in analysis force researchers to move beyond initial impressions to
improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable findings. Exemplary case studies will
deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or create new insights and will
deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the analysis. Researchers categorize,
tabulate, and recombine data to address the initial propositions or purpose of the study,
and conduct cross-checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat
interviews may be necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations or check
a fact.

Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices of

categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency of events.
Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to corroborate and support
the qualitative data which is most useful for understanding the rationale or theory
underlying relationships. Another technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the
advantage provided when a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the
patterns. When the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases.
Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more deeply.

Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from reaching
premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data in many different
ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all cases investigated. One
researcher then examines the data of that type thoroughly. When a pattern from one data
type is corroborated by the evidence from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence
conflicts, deeper probing of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of
conflict. In all cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic
conclusions answering the original "how" and "why" research questions.

Step 6. Prepare the report

Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex issue into one
that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and examine the study and reach
an understanding independent of the researcher. The goal of the written report is to
portray a complex problem in a way that conveys a vicarious experience to the reader.
Case studies present data in very publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to
apply the experience in his or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular
attention to displaying sufficient evidence to gain the reader?s confidence that all avenues
have been explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special
attention to conflicting propositions.

Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a separate chapter
or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some researchers report the case study
as a story. During the report preparation process, researchers critically examine the
document looking for ways the report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative
audience groups to review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments,
the researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers suggest that the
document review audience include a journalist and some suggest that the documents
should be reviewed by the participants in the study.