Structural Geology Lab 2: Outcrop Patterns and Structure Contours

I. Geologic Map Symbols

A. Refer to Appendix F in back of lab manual for list of commonly used geologic
map symbols

1. Emphasis:
a. strike and dip of bedding
(1) inclined
(2) horizontal
(3) vertical
(4) overturned
b. Fold axes
(1) syncline
(2) antincline
(3) plunging folds
c. strike and dip of joints
d. strike and dip of foliation
e. fault symbols
(1) thrust
(2) vertical

II. Outcrop, structure and age relationships

A. Folding of rocks
1. Inclined sequence of sedimentary beds
a. layer cake relations
(1) oldest on bottom, youngest on top

b. Fold Types

(1) Anticlines-upfolded forms, results in older rocks

becoming enclosed within younger strata

(2) synclines-downfolded forms, results in younger rocks

becoming enclosed within older strata.

(3) symmetrical folds - both limbs of the fold dipping at

same angle away from fold axis

(4) asymmetrical folds - both limbs of the fold not dipping at

same angle away from fold axis
(5) overturned folds - condition in which one limb of fold has
been tilted beyond vertical

(6) plunging folds- axis of fold is tilted

(7) Domes- more or less circular equivalent of anticline,

oldest rocks exposed in center of dome

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 (8) Structural Basin- more or less circular equivalent of
syncline, youngest rocks exposed in center of dome (not to
be confused with depositional basin)

c. Outcrops Patterns Associated with Folded Rocks

(1) As rocks are folded, and subsequently subjected to

erosion, regular patterns become evident in relation to type
of rock that outcrops and age of the rock that outcrops in
an area of folded strata. In essence, erosion exposes the
interiors of the folds

(2) Non-plunging Folds- axis of fold is horizontal, results in

parallel bands of dipping strata about the fold axis

(a) anticlines- oldest strata exposed along fold axis

(b) synclines- youngest strata exposed along fold axis

(3) Plunging Folds-axis of fold is tilted, results in alternating

V-shaped bands of dipping strata oriented about the fold
axis.

(a) anticlines- oldest strata exposed in the center of

the V, V points in direction of plunge of fold axis

(b) syncline- youngest strata exposed in the center of

the V, V points in opposite direction of plunge of
fold axis.

(4) Doubly Plunging Folds- fold axis is plunging in two

opposite directions, results in a flattened oval pattern, or a
double V-shaped pattern <<<>>>>.

(a) anticlines- oldest strata exposed in center of

flattened oval

(b) synclines-youngest strata exposed in center of

flattened oval.

III. Using outcrop pattern to determine structural attitude

A. Comparison of Outcrop Pattern with Topographic Contours

1. The Law of "V's"

a. Contacts of horizontal beds appear parallel to contour lines

(1) Contacts V upstream, when crossing valleys

b. Contacts of vertical beds are not deflected at all when crossing

valleys and ridges

c. Inclined planes V updip when crossing ridges

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 d. Planes that dip upstream, V upstream

e. Planes that dip downstream

(1) At angles the same as stream gradient:

(a) bed contacts appear to parallel stream bed

(2) At angles gentler than stream gradient, V upstream

(3) At angles greater than stream gradient, V downstream

Refer to Figures 2.2-2.7 in lab manual for visual summary

B. Using geologic contacts and topographic contours to determine strike and dip of
beds

1. Identify a single geologic contact between beds in stratigraphic sequence

2. Find a single contour line that crosses the geologic contact at two points

a. A line connecting the points of equal elevation along the geologic

contact defines STRIKE

3. To Determine Dip
a. Take same geologic contact, and identify another (different)
topographic contour line that crosses at two points, draw a line
between them
(1) You now have two strike lines on the same geologic bed
(2) draw a line perpendicular to the strike lines and this will
define DIP
(a) remember that dip direction is in the direction of
bed slope, or elevation decrease
(3) Solve for dip using the following equation
(a) Tan (Dip) = vertical /horizontal
i) Inv Tan = angle of dip from horizontal

IV. Structure Contouring

A. Structure contour lines are similar to topographic contour lines

1. structure contours = lines connecting points of equal elevation on the

surface of a bed of rock

a. Structure contour lines = "continuous strike lines"

2. Data

a. structure contour data is commonly derived from drilling of bore

holes
(1) The elevation of the top (or bottom) of a given unit is
determined from drilling:

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 b. Elevation of top of bed = (surface el. of boring - depth
to rock contact)

c. Data is plotted on a map base and contoured using the rules of

drawing contour lines

(1) This can also be accomplished using Golden Software

Surfer program

3. Structure Contour Interpretation

a. V-shape pattern with high elevations in center = plunging anticline

b. V-shape pattern with low elevations in center = plunging syncline
c. Bullseye patterns with high in middle = dome
d. bullseye patterns with low in middle = basin
e. Fault Interpretation
(1) Abrupt gaps or terminations in contour pattern = normal
fault
(2) Overlaps in structure contour pattern = thrust or revers
faults

4. Contour drawing techniques

a. Inverse distance method

(1) assume constant gradient between two data points and

interpolate elevations

b. Data interpolation

(1) projecting from known control points to unknown areas

c. Contour intervals: follow rules same as topographic contours

V. Three-point Problems

A. Method of determining strike and dip of bed

1. If the elevations of three points on a given planar surface are known, then
the strike and dip of the plane can be determined

B. Structure Contour/Graphical Approach

1. Determine elevation of three points known to lie on the surface of a plane

(e.g. bed of rock, fault, etc.)

a. Identify the high, middle, and low elevation points

b. draw a line between the high and low elevation points ("line x-y")

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 c. Assuming a constant grade between the two points, the middle
elevation must also occur somewhere on line x-y.
d. Determine total elevation difference between high and low points
e. Determine total map distance between high and low point along
line x-y (using engineers scale)
f. Calculate a vertical-distance conversion factor:

(1) map distance (inches)

Vertical difference (ft elevation)

g. Now, subtract the low elevation from the middle elevation and
multiply by the vertical-distance conversion factor in f above
h. you now have a measurement in inches, measure that distance
along line x-y from the low el. point and make a tick mark
i. connect a line between the middle el. point and the tick mark in
h... this is your line of strike (a line connecting points of equal
elevation; relative to the middle point).
j. draw a line perpendicular to the strike line to the low elevation
point... this is your dip direction
k. Calculate dip using Tan (dip)=V/H where V = middle el. - low el,
and H = distance between strike line and low el. point, along the
perpendicular dip line (from j above); units of V and H must be in
ground units, like feet.
(1) divide V/H and press inv Tan on your calculator, this is the
angle of dip as measured from horizontal

VI. Determining Outcrop Patterns From Structure Contour Data

A. Overlay of structure and topographic contours

1. Use tracing paper to overlay structure contours on topographic contours

2. Where lines of similar elevation intersect (i.e. structure = topographic
contours); a rock outcrop point on the bedding plane contact can be
expected

a. General Rules

(1) In areas where topographic contours are at higher

elevations than structure contours, then the bedding plane
is "buried at depth" below the earths surface

(2) In areas where structure contours are at higher elevations

than topographic contours, then the bedding plane is
above the topographic grade (i.e. it has been eroded
away)

(3) In areas where structure contours and topographic

contours intersect at the same elevation, the bedding

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 plane will outcrop at that point on the earth's surface

(a) A line connecting the intersection points of equal

elevation on the map, will define the "crop line" of
that bedding plane on the earth's surface.

Lab 2 Exercise / Assignment

In lab manual:

Problem 2.1 on p. 14 Outcrop Patterns

Problem 2.2 on p. 14 Drawing Structure Contours

In addition to the directions on p. 14, identify the anticline and syncline on the map, and
draw in the appropriate map symbols identifying the trend and plunge of the axis of folds
(see symbols in appendix F).

Problem 2.3 on p. 22 Solving a Three-Point Problem

Assume that the surface elevation is 10,000 Ft. First convert the depth data given, to
elevations by taking: (Surface El - Depth to Top of SS). Use this converted elevation for
points A,B, and C to solve the 3-point problem.

Problem 2.4 on p. 26 Using Structure Contour to I.D. Outcrop Pattern

Follow the example given on pp. 22-26. Would be a good idea to use tracing paper
overlays with the map in Fig. 2.18 (p. 29)

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