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Assignment No.3: APPLIED LINGUISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION

Applied Linguistics: An Introduction

Sajdah Imtiaz Eng-17-01

Government Postgraduate College No.1 affiliated with AUST

Submitted to Ma’am Raquia

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APPLIED LINGUISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION

Assignment No.3

Applied Linguistics: An Introduction

Q1. Compare and contrast Pragmatics vs. Sociolinguistics?

Answer. In linguistics pragmatics is defined as the study of the use of language in a social

context while sociolinguistics is the study of social and cultural effects on language. Pragmatics

has to do with the way language use and meanings are tied to the context/situation. Part of that

context may include social issues, but it also includes the individual, particular level, and the

universal level. Sociolinguistics, however, deals with how language differs in direct relationship

to the existing social groupings and subgroupings of the native speaker society.

Sociolinguistics focuses on how certain native speakers of a language talk differently from other

users of the language because of the special groups they belong to. Pragmatics focuses on how

all native speakers of a language make sense out of the language by using connections to the

context around them. In producing language, one may select a sound, a word, or a form in

relationship to two factors: the immediate context (including the people) and what social groups

the people involved belong to. The first is pragmatics, the second is sociolinguistics. Again,

pragmatics focuses more on the ways all native speakers do something, sociolinguistics focuses

more on how subgroups do things.

For example, in Pass the salt and Would you pass the salt?

Pragmatics will focus on native speakers of English. They can select either option at the family

dinner table. Both the imperative form and the question form act as requests; one is more polite

than the other. While in Sociolinguistics they study will focus that women are more likely to use

the question form than the imperative form.

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Q2. Define Sociolinguistics and Sociology of language.

Answer. Sociolinguistics or micro-sociolinguistics and the sociology of language or macro-

sociolinguistics are two different aspects of linguistics. Sociolinguistics is concerned with

investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better

understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication; the

equivalent goal in the sociology of language is trying to discover how social structure can be

better understood through the study of language, e.g., how certain linguistic features serve to

characterize particular social arrangements.

Hudson has described the difference as follows: sociolinguistics is ‘the study of language in

relation to society,’ whereas the sociology of language is ‘the study of society in relation to

language.’ In other words, in sociolinguistics we study language and society in order to find out

as much as we can about what kind of thing language is, and in the sociology of language we

reverse the direction of our interest.

Coulmas says that ‘micro-sociolingustics investigates how social structure influences the way

people talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with social attributes such as

class, sex, and age. Macro-sociolinguistics, on the other hand, studies what societies do with

their languages, that is, attitudes and attachments that account for the functional distribution of

speech forms in society, language shift, maintenance, and replacement, the delimitation and

interaction of speech communities.’

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Q3. What is the scope and role of applied linguistics?

Answer. Applied linguistics is the academic field which connects knowledge about language to

decision making in the real world. The role of applied linguists is to make insights drawn from

areas of language study relevant to such decision-making. Applied linguistics mediates between

theory and practice. The origins of applied linguistics lie in the mid-twentieth century effort to

give an academic underpinning to the study of language teaching and learning. Until at least the

1980s applied linguistics was most closely associated with the problems and puzzles surrounding

language pedagogy, learning and acquisition. Applied linguistics also concerns with the well-

established ways of language learning, teaching, testing and teacher education, to matters as

disparate as language and the law, the language of institutions, medical communication, media

discourse, translation and interpreting, and language planning.

The scope of applied linguistics lies in improvement of language teaching, language learning,

language planning, communication between groups, speech therapy and the management of

language handicap, systems of communications, translating and interpreting, and lexicography.

Applied linguistics has various sub fields such as, SLA, Language Assessment and Testing,

Cognition, Language Policy and Planning, Lexicography, Translation, Multilingualism,

Language and Technology, Descriptive linguistics, and Corpus Linguistics. Applied linguistics

engages with contemporary social questions of culture, ethnicity, gender, identity, ageing, and

migration. It adopts perspectives on language in use spanning critical discourse analysis,

linguistic ethnography, sociocultural theories, literacy, stylistics and sociolinguistics. It draws

upon descriptions of language from traditions such as cognitive linguistics, corpus linguistics,

generative linguistics and systemic functional linguistics, among others.

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Q4. Explain the difference between social dialect and register.

Answer. According to Wilkoń, social dialects are ‘language varieties related to such social

groups as: class, community and professional groups’. He argues that social dialects are based on

three supreme sociolectal categories: professionalism, the usefulness of linguistic devices in the

professional activity of the group; secrecy, the ability to code information to make it accessible

only to selected individuals; and expressiveness, means of conveying attitudes to extra-linguistic

reality. A social dialect generates an image of extra-linguistic reality. It consolidates the

interpretation of life experiences; shapes its users’ attitudes to phenomena outside their social

group; and frames a course of action for group members in relation to themselves, to other social

groups, and finally to those components of reality that are of interest to the speakers of this social

dialect.

A register is a variety defined by reference to the social context. It is a function of what you are

doing at the time’ while ‘a dialect is a variety of a language that is defined by reference to the

speaker: the dialect you speak is a function of who you are’. A register is thus a variety of

language which corresponds to a variety of situation. It is viewed as a semantic concept. A

register includes expressions, lexico-grammatical and phonological features, which typically

accompany or realize these meanings. Major differences between dialect and register are as

follows:

Social Dialect Register

A social dialect is what you speak in a social A register is what you are speaking at the time.

group. It is a dialectal variety. A variety It is diatypic variety. A variety according to the

according to the user in a certial social class. use.

It is determined by who you are social class, It is determined by what you are doing i.e.
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profession or surrounding and expresses nature of social activity being engaged in, and

diversity of social structure patterns of social expresses diversity of social process and social

hierarchy. division of labor.

In principle social dialects are different ways In principle registers are ways of saying

of saying the same thing and tend to differ in: different things and tend to differ in semantics;

phonetics, phonology, lexico-grammar but not and hence in lexico-grammar, and sometimes

in semantics. in phonology.
Typical instances of social dialect are Typical instances of registers are occupational

subcultural varieties both varieties technical, semi-technical etc.

standard/nonstandard.
Principal controlling variables of social dialect Principal controlling variables of registers are

are social class, caste; provenance i.e. field i.e. type of social action; tenor i.e. role

rural/urban; generation; age; and sex etc. relationships; and mode i.e. symbolic

organization.
It is characterized by strongly-held attitudes It is characterized by major distinctions of

towards dialects as symbol of social diversity. spoken/written; language in action/language in

reflection.

Q5. Compare and contrast type vs. token.

Answer. The term "token" refers to the total number of words in a text, corpus etc., regardless of

how often they are repeated. The term "type" refers to the number of distinct words in a text,
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corpus etc. Thus, the sentence "a good wine is a wine that you like" contains nine tokens, but

only seven types, as "a" and "wine" are repeated. Token is the instance or individual occurrence

of a type. For example, the sentence Next week I go to Edinburgh and next month Alice arrives

from Washington contains two tokens of the word form next. Equivalently, the word form next,

as a type, is instantiated twice in this sentence.

A token is an instance of a type; it exemplifies the type. In addition to exemplification tokens are

the representation of types. Types are abstract particulars, tokens represent their types, just as

“paintings, photographs, maps, numerals, hand gestures, traffic signs and horn signals” represent,

or “stand for” their representation. A word token of ‘horse’ represents the word ‘horse’, which in

turn represents horses. Just as a correct map of the planet can provide us knowledge of the

planet, so a token too can provide us with knowledge of properties of the type.

Q6. Compare and contrast descriptive grammar vs. prescriptive grammar.

Answer. Descriptive Grammar

Linguists attempt to describe the grammar of the language that exists in the minds of its

speakers, i.e. to create a model of speakers’ mental grammar. The resulting descriptive grammar

describes person’s basic linguistic knowledge. It explains how it is possible to speak and

understand and it summarizes what speakers know about the sounds, words, phrases and

sentences of their language. Creating a descriptive grammar involves observing the language and

trying to discover the principles or rules that govern it. Descriptive rules accept as given the

patterns speakers actually use and try to account for them. Descriptive rules allow for different

dialects of a language and even variation within one dialect.

Prescriptive Grammar
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Prescriptive grammar tells someone’s idea of what is “good” or “bad” in a language. Prescriptive

rules make a value judgment about the correctness of certain utterances and generally try to

enforce a single standard. For example: In English we say: don’t split infinitives; don’t say: to

easily understand, don’t end a sentence with a preposition; and don’t say Where are you from?

etc. The people who advocate prescriptive grammar make up the rules of the grammar. They

attempt to impose the rules for speaking and writing on people without much regard for what the

majority of educated speakers of a language actually say and write. So-called prescriptive

grammar usually focuses only on a few issues and leaves the rest of a language un-described. In

fact, from the linguistic point of view, this is not grammar at all.

Thus linguists describe language, they do not prescribe it. As a science, linguistics is not in the

business of making value judgments about language use. It studies how language really is used

and then attempts to describe the facts, in order to analyze and, eventually, explain them.

An Analogy between prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar is similar to a Physicist

who says don’t complain that objects fall to earth. Simply observe and describe the fact of

falling, then try to discover the laws that are behind it; and a Linguist who says don’t say that

people shouldn’t use ain’t, bysme, colloq. and wouldpl’. Simply observe that some people in

certain situations do use ain’t without judging, although they do note any systematic correlations

of such use with particular groups, regions, situations, styles, etc.

Q7. Compare and contrast spoken grammar vs. written grammar.

Answer. Written versus Spoken Grammar

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The difference between written and spoken grammar essentially comes down to a debate

between formal and informal grammar. Spoken grammar is essentially the same as written

grammar in terms of all belonging to the use of grammar generally rather than a particular

system. The distinction is practically important for language use as often the use of written

grammar in speech and conversely spoken grammar in writing, can often not be contextually

appropriate and can lead to confusion. Simply put, people generally do not speak the way that

they write and they certainly do not write the way that they speak.

Spoken grammar often includes contractions, such as ‘I’ll’, ‘don’t’ or ‘can’t’ which are strictly

speaking not appropriate in written grammar, as well as the inclusion of slang words or

colloquialisms. Spoken grammar also includes breaking of strict written grammar rules such as

beginning sentences with prepositions. Conversely, there is grammatical syntax that exists

almost exclusively in written grammar that is not used in spoken grammar such as the existence

of the perfect past tense. Spoken grammar is also more dynamic and immediate, therefore often

including many grammatical errors that are unacceptable in written grammar. This is as a

productive of rapid speech and thought development. Written grammar is more planned and

precise, therefore allowing fewer margins for error and engaging with a more sophisticated

vocabulary and format of idea presentation. Spoken grammar is often more communicative as it

presents ideas at a lower level of engagement, making it more accessible in a way and therefore

communicative. It also is capable of more effectively conveying a tone, furthering the

assessment of spoken grammar as communicative. Some of the contrasting features of spoken

and written grammar are as follows:

Spoken Grammar Written Grammar

Extra lingual information may be derived sex, age, Less extra-lingual information can be clarified
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class, etc. It is Faster and spontaneous e.g. child’s writing. It is Slower and prepared.

However it can be planned.

It has incomplete, interrupted, altered structures. It Structures can be corrected by revising the

also have pauses and long meandering compound written sentences and punctuation.

sentences using ‘and’.

It use slang and more simple words. It has more formal and correct vocabulary.
It has intonation which can alter the meaning The may be intonation in some direct speech;

considerably; pauses which can be used for stress, pauses conveyed by punctuation, but not

climax, or may occur prior to selection of a hard to relevant speed.

find word; and speed which provide information on

the confidence, nervousness, urgency of the

speaker.
The purpose of spoken grammar involves The purpose of written grammar is logical

communication of ideas. development of ideas and easier to follow

arguments.

Q8. Explain rules of subject verb agreement in detail with examples for each.

Answer. In subject-verb agreement, the subject of the sentence and the verb of the sentence must

be in agreement in number. There are a number of rules to ensure that a subject agrees with the

verb. These rules are listed below:

Rule 1: A singular subject takes a singular verb, whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.

Example: The list of items is on the desk.

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Rule 2: A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for

understanding subjects.

Example: Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends color and fragrance to the room.

Rule 3: Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.

Examples: My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.

Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.

Rule 4: The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun

closest to it.

Examples: Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.

Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

Exception: If I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to odd sentences such as, Neither

she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

Rule 5: As a general rule, plural verb is used with two or more subjects when they are connected

by and.

Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

Exceptions: Breaking and entering is against the law.

The bed and breakfast was charming.

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In these sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.

Rule 6: Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well

as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. In such sentences

singular verb is used when the subject is singular.

Examples: The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.

Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

Rule 7: Parentheses are not part of the subject.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

Rule 8: In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.

Examples: There are four hurdles to jump.

There is a high hurdle to jump.

Here are the keys.

Rule 9: Singular verbs are used with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when

considered as a unit.

Examples: Three miles is too far to walk.

Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.

Ten dollars is a high price to pay.

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Rule 10: With words that indicate portions e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all; Rule 1 is reversed,

and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, singular verb is used. If it

is plural, plural verb is used.

Examples: A lot of the pie has disappeared.

A lot of the pies have disappeared.

A third of the city is unemployed.

A third of the people are unemployed.

Some of the pie is missing.

Some of the pies are missing.

Exception: If in context it seems like a singular, singular verb is used; if it seems like a plural,

plural verb is used. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism. When none is clearly intended

to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.

Rule 11: With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb might

be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.

Examples: All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.

Most of the jury is here OR are here.

A third of the population was opposed OR were opposed to the bill.

Exception: Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—

and also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence:
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The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the same sentence is avoided.

Rule 12: The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:

Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.

Joe should be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular but Joe isn't actually here, so

were is used instead of was. This sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to

express things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The

subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.

Examples: I wish it were Friday.

She requested that he raise his hand.

In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, is used

with the singular it. Technically, it is the singular subject of the object clause in the subjunctive

mood: it were Friday. Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second

example, where a request is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

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Sources

Crowley, K., & Houts-Smith, L. (2010). Pragmatics. Retrieved 24 January 2021, from

http://web.mnstate.edu/houtsli/tesl551/Pragmatics/page3.htm#

Lewandowski, M. (2010). Sociolects and Registers – a Contrastive Analysis of Two Kinds of

Linguistic Variation. Investigationes Linguisticae, 20, 60. DOI: 10.14746/il.2010.20.6

Rodrigo. (2015) Written versus Spoken Grammar https://writepass.com/journal/2015/04/written-

versus-spoken-grammar/

Simpson, J. (2011). The Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics (pp. 1-2). New York:

Routledge.

Straus, J., Kaufman, L., & Stern, T. (2014). The blue book of grammar and punctuation (11th

ed.). Mill Valley, Calif.: Wiley.

Szabó, Z. (1999), Expressions and Their Representations, The Philosophical Quarterly, 49: 145-

163.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (5th ed., p. 13). Blackwell Publishing

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