Parts of Speech PDF Book

PARTS OFSpeech
Part Of SPEECH
Noun
Pronoun
Verb
Adverb
Adjective
Preposition
Conjunction
Interjection
Determiners
SAJID IQBAL KHAN

First edition, 2020
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Table of content
Chapter Content Page
1 Parts of speech 2
2 Noun 4
3 Pronoun 11
4 Verb 21
5 Adverb 28
6 Adjective 37
7 Preposition 46
8 Conjunction 54
9 Interjection 64
10 Determiner 69
Parts of Speech
Chapter 1
Parts of Speech
What are parts of speech?
Every language consists on its basic

elements that are called words. As a building is
made by bricks; language is made by words. First
we will know about a word.
A word is a speech sound or a combination

of sound having a particular meaning for an idea,
object or thought and has a spoken or written form.
In English language word is composed by an
individual letter (e.g., ‘I’), I am a boy, or by
combination of letters (e.g., Jam, name of a person)
Jam is a boy. Morphology, a branch of linguistics,
deals with the structure of words where we learn
under which rules new words are formed, how we
assigned a meaning to a word? How a word
functions in a proper context? How to spell a word?
etc.
Some different examples are: Boy, kite, fox,

mobile phone, nature, etc.
There are nine parts of speech in the English

grammar: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective,
preposition, conjunction, interjection and
www.literaryenglish.com Page 2
Parts of Speech
determiners. Some writes and websites count only

eight parts of speech and place determiner under the
category of adjectives. However, advance studies
count determiner as a separate parts of speech.
These nine parts of speech indicate how the words
function within the sentence. An individual word
may function as more than one part of speech when
used in various sentences.
Here are the nine parts of speech in English

grammar:
1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
4. Adverb
5. Adjective
6. Preposition
7. conjunction
8. Interjection
9. Determines
Parts of Speech
Chapter 2
Noun
What is a noun?
A noun is a word used for a place, person, or

thing. Everything which has a name and we talk
about it is a noun. Everything is donated by a name
and that naming word is called a “noun”.
Often a noun will be the name for something

we can touch (e.g., lamb, pen, table), but sometimes
a noun will be the name for something we cannot
touch (e.g., happiness, determinism, truth).
Some examples of noun:
Everything is represented by a word that is

called a noun. Some of the examples of noun are
written below
People: Ali, boy, singer.
Animals: Cat, cow, elephant.
Places: Karachi, city, street.
Objects: Cup, pencil, book.
Qualities: Boldness, sorrow.
Parts of Speech
Actions: Writing, listening, running.
__________________________________________
Types of noun:
There are many types of noun depending

upon some aspects. One noun may fall in multiple
categories. A common noun may be a countable
noun and at a same time that noun may b a concrete
e.g., pencil is a common noun it is countable,
concrete and as well it is singular noun. Some main
types of noun are tabulated below.
Proper noun
A proper noun is the given name of a

person, or a specific place or thing, i.e. its own
name (e.g., Imran, Karachi, and Rover). A proper
noun always starts with a capital letter. All days and
months are proper noun and start with capital letters
(e.g. Sunday, March, December). Name of all
Person, name of countries, name of oceans are
counted in category of proper nouns (e.g., Mashal,
Pakistan, Atlantic).
Common noun
A common noun is the word used for a class

of person, place, or thing (e.g., person, city, and
dog). Common noun are not capitalized unless used
in start of a sentence. There are some exception like
Parts of Speech
in poetry where every word of new line is

capitalized. Something that is personified in poetry
is also capitalized e.g., “So Nature incites them in
their hearts” ( Prologue- Geoffrey Chaucer)
Concrete noun
Concrete nouns are the things which we can

see or touch physically. These noun contrast with
abstract category of noun. For example: tree,
hammer, and pen. We can see them feel them or
touch them. Some time we name it material noun.
Abstract noun
Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or

touch. Abstract nouns do not have physical
existence. These nouns are difficult to guess.
Sometime learners get confused with abstract noun
and adjectives. Abilities and emotions are abstract
noun e.g. bravery, joy, determination etc.
Collective noun
Collective nouns are words that denote

groups’ collection or multitude of something. These
noun are used as singular e.g. team, army, concert.
Compound noun
Compound nouns are nouns made up of

more than one word. For example: court-martial,
Parts of Speech
pickpocket, water bottle. Some compound nouns

are two words (e.g., peace pipe), some are
hyphenated (e.g., play-off), and some have become
single words (e.g., eyeopener). And, many of them
are currently transitioning through those stages.
Therefore, spelling compound nouns can be a
nightmare. Some compound nouns form their plural
by adding an s to the principal word, not necessarily
to the end (e.g., brothers-in-law).
Countable noun
A countable noun is a noun that can be

counted in numbers like one pen, two cars with
both a singular and a plural form
(e.g., dog/dogs, pie/pies).
Uncountable noun
An uncountable noun is a noun without a

plural form For example: oxygen, patience. Such
nouns do not include counting. All abstract noun
falls under the uncountable category of nouns.
Gerund noun
Gerunds are nouns that end -ing and that

represent actions. Gerunds have verb-like
properties. But these are used differently in a
sentence unlike verbs. Gerund noun are modified
with adverbs. How to differentiate gerund noun and
verb? Look at two examples
Parts of Speech
(a) Ali is singing a song.
(b) Ali is fond of singing.
In sentence (a) singing is verb as its show action

that Ali is performing. Verb with -ing are used
followed by helping verbs is, am, was, were, etc.
But in sentence (b) singing is not an action being
performed by Ali and not followed by a helping
verb.
Gender-specific Nouns
Gender-specific nouns are nouns that are

definitely male or female. For
example: king, vixen, and actress. A blonde is a
woman. A blond is a man.
Verbal noun
Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs

and do not have verb-like properties (e.g., building,
drawing, attack).
_________________________________________
How to differentiate gerund noun and verbal

noun?
To understand difference between gerund noun

and verbal noun look at given example.
Parts of Speech
• The ceremonial raising of the flag has

started.
• Raising the flag carefully is much difficult.
Like gerunds nouns, verbal nouns are also
derived from verbs, but, unlike gerunds, they have
no verb-like properties. In above given example, the
verbal noun raising is not showing any verb-like
qualities. It is not modified by a determiner and an
adjective (the and ceremonial) and it requires
a preposition (of) to link it to the flag. In contrast, in
the sentence “raising the flag carefully is much
difficult,” the word raising (which, despite being
spelled the same, is now a gerund) is showing verb-
like qualities. More specifically, it is modified with
an adverb (carefully).
Verbal nouns are usually preceded by a, or,
an, or the, and followed by a preposition
(e.g., of, in, for). This makes them pretty inefficient
from a word count perspective. Also, a sentence
with verbal nouns can often sound stuffy.
However, verbal nouns can give an air of
formality or provide emphasis. So, we should all
care about verbal nouns for two reasons:
(1) Replacing verbal nouns with verbs and
gerunds will reduce your word count and improve
sentence flow.
Parts of Speech
(2) Sentences featuring pure verbal nouns could

portray you as stuffy (bad) or authoritative (good).
Employ them smartly to tune to your needs.
Parts of Speech
Chapter 3
Pronoun
Definition of pronoun
Pronoun is defined as a word that replaces a

noun in a sentence. It takes place of a noun. Read
the paragraph written below.
(Jam is a boy of sixteen. Jam is studying in

th
9 class. Jam has two brothers. Jam loves playing
football. Jam is captain of his team.)
Look at above paragraph. The

name Jam looks strange in every sentence due to
repetition of noun Jam. We replace it with pronoun
to make a sentence beautiful and easy to avoid word
redundancy. We will replace it with appropriate
pronoun and read it again.
Jam is a boy of sixteen. He is studying in

th
9 class and has two brothers. He loves playing
football and he is captain of his team.
__________________________________________
Types of pronoun
Pronouns are categorized into many types.

Main types include personal pronoun, possessive
pronoun, indefinite pronoun, reflective pronoun,
Parts of Speech
intensive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun,

interrogative pronoun, and reflexive pronoun.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to a person’s name.

We use personal pronouns as a substitute for a
person’s name. There are two kinds of personal
pronoun: Subjective and objective pronouns.
(a) Subjective pronoun: Subjective pronouns

replace the subject in a sentence.
Common subjective pronouns are I, we, you,

he, she, it, and they
Example: I love watching TV.
(b) Objective pronouns: Objective pronouns

replace the object in a sentence.
Common objective pronouns are me, us,

you, him, her, it, and them
Examples: She gave him a present on his

birthday.
Possessive pronoun
Possessive pronouns are the pronouns that

show ownership and possession in a sentence. We
categorize possessive pronoun into two types:
Parts of Speech
(1) Strong possessive pronoun
(2) Weak possessive pronoun.
The strong possessive pronouns include

yours mine, his, hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours.
They refer back to a noun or noun phrase already
used, replacing it to avoid repetition: “I said that
pen was mine.” Strong possessive pronouns are
sometime called absolute possessive pronoun.
The weak possessive pronouns include

your, my, her, his, its, their, our, and, your. Their
function is as a determiner in front of a noun to
express whom something belongs to: “I said
that’s my pen.” Sometime we call them possessive
adjectives.
Indefinite pronoun
Indefinite pronouns refer to something that

in not definite in a sentence, they do not refer to
particular thing or person. We use them when an
object does not need to be specifically identified.
There are two main types of indefinite
pronoun: Singular indefinite pronoun and plural
indefinite pronoun.
(a) Singular Indefinite Pronoun: We use

singular indefinite pronouns for the singular
objects and not for plural.
Parts of Speech
Singular indefinite pronouns include:

someone, somebody, something, no one,
nobody, nothing, everyone, everybody,
everything, anybody, another, anyone,
each, anything, either, other, one, neither,
and much
(b) Plural Indefinite Pronoun: Plural

indefinite pronouns are used for the plural
objects and not for singular.
Plural indefinite pronouns include many,

several, few, others, and both.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates

the relative clause to another clause within
a sentence. In addition, introduces the relative
clause or an adjective clause. In mostly cases it acts
as a subject of the relative clause. The most
commonly used relative pronouns are mentioned
below.
Whom, whoever, whomever, who, that,

which and whose
Example in a sentence:
She does not know which pack of pencil you

want.
Parts of Speech
“Which pack of pencil you want” is a

relative clause, and the relative pronoun “which”
has linked it to the main clause.
Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify

nouns and pronouns and we define it as
a pronoun that ends in self or selves. Intensive
pronouns place emphasis on its antecedent by
referring back to another noun or pronoun used
earlier in the sentence. An intensive pronoun is
approximately identical to a reflexive pronoun.
Intensive pronouns are also sometimes
called emphatic pronouns.
Intensive pronouns are himself, myself,

themselves, itself, herself, yourselves, ourselves,
and yourself,
I myself like to sing.
Jerry herself is her worst critic.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are the nouns that

take place of a noun that’s already been mentioned
in a sentence. Demonstrative pronouns can be
Parts of Speech
singular or plural. Five main demonstrative

pronouns are: these, those, such, this, that,
These are beautiful.
Do not eat that.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun often stands for

something that we are not aware of yet, because we
are asking about it. We use these pronouns
specifically to ask questions. These pronouns are
special because they all start with “Wh”, which is
quite easy to remember.
Most commonly used interrogative pronouns

are whose, what, whom, which, and who.
The other words like “whichever” and

“whatsoever” are the words that we use as
interrogative pronouns.
Words with ‘wh’ that are not

interrogative pronouns. There are many other
words that start with Wh but they are not
interrogative pronouns. Because they are just words
that start with ‘wh’ and are in questions!. “When” is
not an interrogative pronoun neither is “where” nor
“why”. Moreover, unlike other pronouns, sometime
Parts of Speech
interrogative pronouns do not have antecedents

because you are not yet sure what they really are!
What is your nickname?
Whose pen is this?
Whatsoever do you suggest by that?
Whom were you talking with last night?
Which of these three do you like?
Sentence in which ‘wh’ words are not

interrogative pronoun:
When do you have to go to gymnasium?
He doesn’t know where Ali was living last

week.
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns and intensive pronouns

are similar, but the difference between them is that
intensive pronouns are not essential to a sentence’s
meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are. In
addition, they are used when the subject and the
object of a sentence refer to the same person or
thing. Reflexive pronouns end in -selves or -self.
Parts of Speech
Reflexive pronouns are: yourself, himself,

ourselves, itself, themselves, herself, myself,
yourselves.
She told herself to spend all vacations at

home.
He bought himself a new phone.
__________________________________________
What is the difference between intensive

pronouns and reflexive pronouns?
Here is easy way to differentiate

an intensive pronouns and reflexive pronouns.
Just remove pronoun from the sentence; if it

is an intensive pronoun, the sentence will still make
sense. If the sentence no longer makes sense when
the pronoun is removed, it’s a reflexive pronoun.
__________________________________________
Reciprocal pronouns
A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that we

use to identify a feeling or any kind of action that is
reciprocated among two or more than two. That is
why; it always refers to two or more than two
Parts of Speech
persons. For example, Jane is laughing at

Lizzy and Lizzy is laughing at Jane. So we say:
Jane and Lizzy are laughing at each other.
Each other and One another are the two

reciprocal pronouns are not individual words but
they are phrases. While using them, there must be
two or more things, persons, or groups involved.
Moreover, they all must be acting the same action.
Some more examples are:
Paul and Jam help each other.
Both teams fought hard against each other.
Why do you laugh at each other?
All the students gave presents to one

another.
Distributive pronouns
Distributive pronoun is a pronoun that

describes a member of a group separately from the
group and not collectively or including in that
group. It refers to a thing or a person in a group. We
use this pronoun to describe all the individual
members of a particular group. Distributive
pronoun are commonly used with plural noun and
singular verb
Parts of Speech
Distributive pronouns that are commonly

used are each, either, every, neither, none,
everyone, and any.
Each of the boys writes a poem.
Neither of the pens is black.
Parts of Speech
Chapter 4
Verb
What is a verb?
A verb shows the happening or state of

something. It is an action word.
It can show
• If somebody does something; like: This

cat sleeps all day.
• If something has done onto someone; like: A
stranger patted the stray cat.
• The state of someone or something; like:
The cat is alive fortunately.
Verb is the most important part of any sentence.

A sentence does not make sense without a verb in it.
There are some instants where a one-word answer
can make up for a whole sentence; like, yes or
indeed, etc, without the use of verb, but these
responses are not used in formal writing.
Verbs can also consist of more than one word,

such as:
The children were playing in the backyard.
Types of Verbs
Parts of Speech
These are the main kinds of verbs: Linking

Verbs, Transitive Verbs, Intransitive Verbs,
Reflexive Verbs, Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Verbs.
Linking Verbs
Linking verb is a verb that connects a

sentence together. It does not mean anything on its
own but makes sense when used in a sentence.
Common Linking Verbs that are used are:
Is, am, are, was, were
Examples in sentences:
The birds are flying high up in the sky.
She is always looking fabulous.
In the above examples, we can see that the

linking verbs are connecting the subject with the
rest of the sentence. Without Linking Verbs, the
sentences do not have a complete structure.
Action Verbs
Action verbs show action. They create an

image of the happening in your head. There are two
kinds of action verbs: Transitive and Intransitive.
(a) Transitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that

has a direct object is known as Transitive verb.
Parts of Speech
The verb should have something on which it is

performed. The sentences containing Transitive
Verbs can also be converted from Active
Voice to Passive Voice.
Look at the examples below:
The batsman hit the ball hard.
She walked the streets alone.
In the first example, we can see that the

verb hit has a direct object ball. The sentence
can also be converted into passive voice: the
batsman hit the ball.
The same case is with the second sentence. The

verb walked has direct object streets and the
sentence can be converted into passive voice:
The streets were walked by her, alone.
(b) Intransitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that

does not have a direct object is known as
Intransitive verb. The sentences containing
Intransitive Verbs cannot be converted
from Active Voice to Passive Voice. Let us see
the examples below:
The lion cub sleeps.
The house is flawed.
Parts of Speech
In both of the above examples, there is no direct

object. Both cannot be converted into passive
voice too. So, the verbs; sleeps and flawed are
intransitive.
• Most verbs can be used both transitively and

intransitively. For example:
The child rings the bell.
Here the verb ‘rings’ has a direct object and

is used transitively.
The bell rings loudly.
Here the verb ‘rings’ does not have a direct

object and is used intransitively.
More Examples
I stopped the car. (Transitively)
The car stopped suddenly. (Intransitively)
There are some verbs such as: go, sleep, die,

fall, etc, which show an action that cannot be done
to anything or anyone. Hence, these verbs can never
be used Transitively.
Reflexive Verbs
Parts of Speech
Reflexive verbs are those whose subject and

direct object are the same. They refer back to the
same thing or person. Let us see the examples
below.
She stays home herself.
The cat cleans itself.
In both the above examples, the verbs are

referring back to the same person. Their subject and
object are the same, hence they are Reflexive Verbs.
The reference back is done in form of Reflexive
Pronouns by which they are being called reflexive
verbs.
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary Verbs help the main verb in a

sentence and are called Helping Verbs. Auxiliary
Verbs, when used with ordinary verbs help in
changing the tenses, mood or voice of a sentence.
They also help in making negatives and
interrogatives of sentences. Auxiliary Verbs are also
simply called Auxiliaries. Common words that
come under this category are as follows:
Is, am, are, was, were, have, do, etc
I was going to the shop.
Parts of Speech
Here the Auxiliary is used to form a

continuous tense.
The car door was opened.
Here it is used in formation of a sentence in

passive voice.
I have to reach the airport at 5:00 am.
To form questions, to emphasize on

something, or to make a request, the Auxiliary Do is
used.
Do you know where the parking lot is?
You do look great.
Do visit!
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are the verbs that are used

before the ordinary verbs to show meanings such as:
possibilities, permission, certainty etc. They can just
simply be called Modals. Common Modal Verbs
that are used are as follows:
Can, could, may, might, will, would, shall,

should, must, ought.
Parts of Speech
Never and dare are also used as modal verbs

sometimes.
You dare not do such a thing.
You must be Sara’s sister.
You could have stopped them.
Modals are mostly put in the category of

Auxiliaries. Then they are sometimes called Modal
Auxiliaries.
Parts of Speech
Chapter 5
Adverb
Definition of an Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb,

an adjective or another adverb. It provides us with
further information about a verb, adjective or
another adverb. It tells us in which manner, at what
place or time, something happened, or is/was done.
Look at the examples below.
1. Ali walks swiftly.
2. She took the grocery out of the shopping

bags very
3. That is a really sweet child.
In the first example, the adverb swiftly is

modifying the verb walks and is telling us the
manner in which Ali walks.
In the second example, the adverb very is

modifying another adverb, carefully.
In the third one, the adverb really is modifying

the word sweet, which is an adjective.
Kinds of Adverbs
Parts of Speech
Adverbs are categorized into many kinds,

such as Adverbs of Time, Adverbs of Place,
Adverbs of Frequency, Adverbs of Degree, Adverbs
of Manner, Adverbs of Reason, Relative Adverbs,
Interrogative Adverbs, Adverbs of Affirmation and
Negation.
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time tell us about which time an

action was performed. These answer the question:
When? Common words which come under the
category of adverbs of time are:
Ago, before, after, later, already, now,

never, formerly, soon, since, etc
I called my friend a few days ago.
I formerly worked at the pizza shop.
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us about at what place

an action took place. These answer the question:
Where? Common words which come under the
category of adverbs of place are:
Here, there, up, out, in, within, away, etc
Parts of Speech
Mr. Saud was visiting here an hour ago.
I’m going out with my family.
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency show us about how

often or how many times a thing took place. These
answer the question: How often? Common words
used as adverbs of frequency are:
Once, twice, again, often, seldom, rarely,

always, frequently, etc.
I often go to visit my grandparents.
It rarely rains around here.
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree inform us about to what

degree or an extent something happens. These
answer the question: How much? Adverbs of
Degree are also known as Adverbs of Quantity.
Common words used as Adverbs of Degree or
Quantity are:
Parts of Speech
Too, any, almost, so, pretty, rather, quite,

partly, altogether, enough, etc
I was pretty busy yesterday.
The sauce I bought today was

good enough for making my pizza.
In the above examples, we can see that the

words pretty and enough both answer the question
of how much.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner give us information

about how or in which manner some action is
proceeded. These answer the question: How?
Adverbs of manner usually are derived from
adjectives and mostly end in -ly. Following are
some common words that come under the adverbs
of manner category:
Swiftly, clearly, foolishly, well, so, slowly,

etc
Hassan caught the loose snake bravely.
Her hair is always well combed.
Parts of Speech
She should do so.
Adverbs of Reason
Adverbs of Reason are the words that are

used to state the reason or cause of some happening.
These are also known as Adverb of Cause and
answer the question: Why? The common words that
come under this category are:
Because, hence, therefore, so, etc
Example in sentences:
I therefore went to the market by myself.
He was hungry, so he went to the restaurant.
Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation
Adverbs of Affirmation are the words that

are used to affirm or declare something as true.
These validate things. These are the words that are
commonly used as adverbs of affirmation:
Surely, certainly, definitely, very, obviously,

yes, indeed, etc.
Examples:
Surely it rained yesterday.
Parts of Speech
I am obviously going to get an A+ on my

test.
Adverbs of negation are the words which

denote a statement, action or an idea as false. It is
used to negate something. Words commonly used to
falsify something are:
No, never, invalidly, etc
He never went to Italy.
I no longer like to play table tennis.
Relative Adverbs
Relative Adverbs are the words which come

before an adjective clause. These are: When,
where and why.
That was the reason why Harris came.
The place where I parked my car is very

deserted.
She forgot the time when we went to the

States.
Parts of Speech
Interrogative Adverbs
Interrogative Adverbs are the verbs used to

ask questions. These are placed in the beginning of
the sentence which contains the question. These
words are commonly used as interrogative adverbs:
Why, where, how, when
When will you come to visit?
How was the roast cooked?
Degrees of Adverbs
Like adjectives, adverbs also

have Degrees of Comparison. But, only Adverbs of
time, degree and manner admit to the comparison.
Adverbs like now, then, there, once, etc cannot be
compared because of their nature.
Degrees of Comparison
Adverbs of Manner, Degree and Time are

changed in form very often to denote comparison.
The degree to which these adverbs change,
determines their degree. These degrees are
called Degrees of Comparison.
Parts of Speech
There are three degrees of

comparison: Positive Degree, Comparative
Degree and Superlative Degree.
Positive Degree
An adverb with a positive degree is an

adverb in its simple and original form. There is no
comparison going on with anything. It just lets it
known that some quality exists in something or
someone. Look at the examples below.
She walked slowly.
The car is parked at a near location.
Comparative Degree
The comparative degree of an adverb shows

that the presence of a quality in one thing is more or
higher than its presence in the Positive. This degree
is used when the comparison of two things is
happening. Look at the examples below to get a
more clear idea.
She walked more slowly than her friends.
The car is park at a nearer location.
Superlative Degree
Parts of Speech
The Superlative Degree of Comparison is

used when the some quality in one thing or person
is highest than anything or anyone else. Superlative
degree is used when a thing or person is in
comparison against more than one thing or person.
Examples:
Of all the people, she walked the most

slowly.
The car is parked at the next location.
In the above examples, we have compared

the thing we were talking about with all the other
things of the like. This is the highest form of
comparison and hence is the Superlative Degree.
Parts of Speech
Chapter 6
Adjective
Definition of an adjective
An adjective is defined a word which gives

information about a noun, pronoun, or a noun
phrase. It gives additional information about a noun
or pronoun. It shows the quality, kind, or degree of
a noun. Look at the examples below.
1. Sana gave me eight apples
2. The mouse is little.
In the first example, the word eight is telling

about the quantity of apples. It is giving additional
information about the apples, hence is an adjective.
In the second example, the word little is

telling us about the quality of the mouse, that it is
little, so it is an adjective too.
Kinds of Adjective
Adjectives are categorized into many kinds,

such as: Adjectives of quality, Adjectives of
Quantity, Numeral Adjectives, Demonstrative
Adjectives, Possessive Adjectives, and
Interrogative adjectives.
Parts of Speech
Adjectives of Quality
Adjectives of quality describe the kind,

quality, or degree, of a noun or pronoun. They are
also called Descriptive Adjectives.
Examples:
He ate a big mango.
Hassan is an honest man.
The child is foolish.
Arabic language is not hard to learn.
In the last example, the word Arabic is a

Proper Noun. Such Adjectives which are formed
from Proper Nouns are called sometimes as Proper
Adjectives. They generally come under the category
of Adjectives of Quality.
Adjectives of Quantity
These adjectives tell us about the quantity of

a noun. They answer the question: How much?
Common Adjectives of Quantity are: some,

much, no, any, little, enough, great, half,
sufficient
Examples:
Parts of Speech
Take great care of your grandma’s health.
The pay is enough for my expenses.
Half of the papers were checked.
Adjectives of Number
Adjectives of Number tell us about how

many things or people are meant or the order of
standing of people or things. These are also
called Numeral Adjectives. There are of three
kinds of Numeral Adjectives: Definite Numeral
Adjectives, Indefinite Numeral Adjectives
and Distributive Numeral Adjectives.
(a) Definite Numeral Adjectives: These

represent an accurate number. Definite
Numeral Adjectives are of further two
types: Cardinals and Ordinals.
(i) Cardinals indicate how many. Such
as: One, two, three, etc.
Example: I have three pairs of scissors.
(ii) Ordinals indicate in which order.

Such as: First, second, third, etc.
Example: She was the first one to arrive at

the airport.
Parts of Speech
(b) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives: Indefinite

Numeral Adjectives do not represent an
accurate number. Some of the common
indefinite numeral adjectives are:
No, all, few, many, some, several, any, etc.
All the cats are sleeping.
I have taken several different baking lessons.
There are no pedestrians on the street.
(c) Distributive Numeral Adjectives: These

adjectives refer to a specific or all things or
people of a bunch. Some common
Distributive Numeral Adjectives are:
Every, each, either, neither
Each student must take its turn.
Neither proposal is acceptable.
Demonstrative Adjectives
Parts of Speech
Demonstrative Adjectives point to a specific

person or thing. They answer the question: Which?
Some common demonstrative adjectives are:
This, that, these, those, such
Examples:
This is my assignment.
Those are spicy dishes.
Such an attitude will cause him failure.
Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives are used to ask

questions. When what, whose and which are used
with a noun to ask questions, they become
interrogative adjectives. Interrogative adjectives are
only three and are very easy to remember.
Which way goes to the mall?
What time is it?
Whose duty time is it?
Possessive Adjectives
Parts of Speech
Possessive adjectives denote the ownership

of something. Common possessive adjectives are:
My, your, our, its, his, her, their
My daily routine is pretty simple.
Your shoelaces are loose.
Cat is licking its paws.
They are doing their work.
Emphasising Adjectives
Emphasising adjectives are used to put

emphasis in sentences. Look at the example below.
This is the very book I want.
Sarah saw the robbery with her own eyes.
In the examples above, very and own are

added to put additional emphasis.
Exclamatory Adjective
Exclamatory adjective is used to exclaim

excitement, fear and other extreme feelings. There
Parts of Speech
is only one word which is usually used to exclaim

i.e. what.
What crap!
What a spectacular view!
What foolishness!
__________________________________________
Degrees of Adjectives
Degrees of Comparison
Adjectives are changed in form very often to

denote comparison. The degree to which an
adjective changes, determines its degree. These
degrees are called Degrees of Comparison.
There are three degrees of

comparison: Positive Degree, Comparative
Degree and Superlative Degree.
Positive Degree
An adjective with a positive degree is an

adjective in its simple and original form. There is no
comparison going on with anything. It just lets it
Parts of Speech
known that some quality exists in something or

someone. Look at the following examples.
The bus I took yesterday was very fast.
My dog is very intelligent.
This is a good working calculator.
In all of the above sentences, the presence of

a quality is shown without comparison to anything
else; this makes these words have Positive Degree.
Comparative Degree
The comparative degree of an adjective

show that the presence of a quality in one thing is
more or higher than its presence in the Positive.
This degree is used when the comparison of two
things is happening. Let’s see the examples below.
The bus I took yesterday was faster than the

bus I took today.
My dog is more intelligent than my friend’s

dog.
This is a better working calculator.
In all of the above examples, we are talking

about the quality of one thing in comparison to the
Parts of Speech
other. This comparison makes this degree the

Comparative Degree.
Superlative Degree
The Superlative Degree of Comparison is

used when the some quality in one thing or person
is highest than anything or anyone else. Superlative
degree is used when a thing or person is in
comparison against more than one thing or person.
Examples:
The bus I took yesterday was the fastest.
My dog is the most intelligent dog.
This is the best working calculator.
In all of the above examples, we have

compared the thing we were talking about with all
the other things of the like. This is the highest form
of comparison and hence is the Superlative Degree.
Parts of Speech
Chapter 7
Preposition
The word Preposition means ‘that which is
placed before’. Let us look at the definition of
Prepositions and Kinds of Prepositions.
What are Prepositions and Types of

prepositions?
Prepositions are the words that we put

before nouns or pronouns. These denote in what
relation the person or thing indicated by it exists, in
relation to something else. Look at the examples
below.
1. The child jumped off the bed.
2. There is a bee in the jar.
3. Hani is fond of cheesecakes.
In the first example, the word ‘off ‘is

showing the relation between the action denoted by
the verb jumped, and the noun chair.
In the second example, the word ‘in’ is

showing the relation between bee and the jar.
Parts of Speech
In the third example, the word ‘of’ is

showing the relation between the quality denoted by
the adjective fond and the noun cheesecake.
Hence the
words off, in and of are Prepositions.
Kinds of Prepositions
Prepositions are classified into following

categories: Simple Prepositions, Double
Prepositions, Compound Prepositions, Phrasal
prepositions, Participle Prepositions and Detached
Prepositions..
Simple Prepositions:
Simple prepositions are used to denote a

relation between nouns or pronouns. These can even
be used to join different parts of sentences and
clauses. Simple prepositions are one word
prepositions. These are also called Single
Prepositions. Common words used that come under
the category of Simple Prepositions are as follows:
In, out, on, up, at, for, from, by, of, off,
through, till, etc
Examples of Simple Prepositions in

sentences:
Keep your phones in your pockets.
Parts of Speech
Staring at people is not considered a good

gesture.
In the above two examples, both

prepositions consist of one simple word and hence
are Single or Simple Prepositions.
Double Prepositions:
Double Prepositions are made by putting

together two Single Prepositions. That is why they
are called Double Prepositions. Common words
used as Double Prepositions are as follows:
Onto, into, throughout, up till, up to,

within, without, upon, etc
Examples of Double Prepositions in

sentences:
Complete this essay within two hours.
I am going to turn this scrap into a

masterpiece.
In the first example, the

Preposition within is made by combining
two Single Prepositions with and in.
In the second example, the

Preposition into is formed by putting together
Parts of Speech
two Simple Prepositions in and two. These are

hence Double Prepositions.
Compound Prepositions:
Compound Prepositions are usually formed

by prefixing a Preposition to Nouns, Adjectives or
Adverbs. They are different from Double
Prepositions because they are not formed by two
single prepositions. Common words, which come
under the category of Compound Prepositions, are
stated below:
Above, about, across, along, before,

behind, beside, inside, outside, etc
Examples of Compound Prepositions in

sentences:
He was going about his business.
The person beside Ali is my brother.
In the first example, the prefix ‘a’ is added

to a root word ‘bout’ to make a preposition. In the
second example, the prefix be is added to the root
word side to make a preposition. Thus, these words
are Compound Prepositions.
Phrasal Prepositions:
Parts of Speech
Phrasal Prepositions are groups of words

or phrases that join the noun or pronoun in a
sentence, to the remainder of the sentence. These
groups of words express a single idea by coming
together as a unit. Words that come under the
category of Phrasal Prepositions are as follows:
In addition to, by means of, in spite of,

according to, owing to, in favour of, etc
Examples of Phrasal Prepositions in

sentences:
He couldn’t pass the test, owing to his lack

of knowledge of English Grammar.
She made it to the other side of the world, in

spite of all the difficulties.
In the first example, the group of words

‘owing to’ is joining the two sentences with each
other and is a phrase. Likewise, the group of words
‘in spite of’ is also a phrase and is working as a
preposition. Hence, these are Phrasal Prepositions.
Participle Prepositions:
Participle Prepositions, indicating from their

name, are the Present Participle forms of Verbs.
These are used without any noun or pronoun
attached with them. The words that are
Parts of Speech
distinguished as Participle Prepositions are as

follows:
Concerning, considering, barring,

notwithstanding, touching, pending, during, etc
Examples of Participle Prepositions in

sentences:
Notwithstanding his efforts, he was still

fired from the job.
Touching this matter, I do not have much

information.
In above examples, both the

verbs notwithstanding and touching are in Present
Participle which is apparent from the ‘ing’ at the
end of both words. These words are
therefore Participle Prepositions.
Disguised Prepositions:
Disguised Prepositions are those

prepositions which are not used in the sentences
directly, but are disguised. Their shorter forms are
used. The examples of Disguised Prepositions are
‘a’ and ‘o’.
‘a’ is shortened form of the preposition

‘on’ and ‘o’ is the shortened form of the preposition
‘of’.
Parts of Speech
Examples of Disguised Prepositions in

sentences:
The ceremony will be held at 5 o’ clock.
We all went to a party.
In the first example, instead of saying ‘5 of

the clock’, we have used disguised form of the
preposition of.
In the second example, instead of saying

‘went on partying’, we have used abbreviation of
the preposition on and disguised the preposition as
‘a’. Hence these are Disguised Prepositions.
Detached Prepositions:
A preposition is called a Detached

Preposition when it does not come before its object.
It is detached from its object. When the object of a
preposition is an interrogative pronoun or a relative
pronoun, the preposition comes at the end of the
sentence.
Look at the following examples for further

understanding.
She is the woman whom I was talking about.
Here are the books that you asked for.
Parts of Speech
Which of the houses were you working in?
In the first two of the above examples, we

can see that because of relative
pronouns whom and that, the
prepositions about and for are being detached from
their objects.
In the third example, the interrogative

pronoun ‘which’ is detaching the preposition
‘in’ from its object.
Hence these are all Detached Prepositions.
Parts of Speech
Chapter 8
Conjunction
Definition of Conjunction
The word Conjunction means union,

concurrence or coexistence. Let us look at the
definition of Conjunctions. Conjunctions are simply
words that join sentences, clauses and sometimes
words. These join together sentences are to make
them more compact. Unlike Relative Adverbs and
Relative Pronouns, Conjunctions just simply join
and perform no other job. Look at the examples
below to get a clear understanding.
1. The teacher is young, but
2. Sara and Hania are sisters.
In the first example, the conjunction ‘but’ is

joining two sentences and is also making them
smaller. So instead of saying ‘but she is talented’
we have shortened the sentence and made it
compact.
In the second example, the conjunction and is

only joining two words.
Kinds of Conjunctions:
Parts of Speech
There are two types of Conjunctions:

Correlative Conjunctions and Compound
Conjunctions.
Correlative Conjunctions:
There are some Conjunctions which are used

as pairs. These types of conjunctions are
called Correlative Conjunctions or
just Correlatives. Common Correlative
Conjunctions are as follows:
Either –or, neither –nor, both –and, though

–yet, whether –or, not only –but also
Examples of Correlative Conjunctions in

sentences:
Either do this or do that.
Though it was raining heavily, yet she still

managed to come.
Take note that correlative conjunctions

should be placed right before the words to be
joined. We cannot write: She not only speaks
English, but also Arabic.
The correct way is: She speaks not

only English, but also Arabic.
Compound Conjunctions:
Parts of Speech
Many compound expressions are also used

as conjunctions. These compound expressions are
called Compound Conjunctions. Common words
that come under the category of Compound
Conjunctions are as follows.
In order that, as if, as soon as, as well as,

inasmuch as, provided that, even if, etc
Examples of Compound Conjunctions in

sentences:
The house looks as if it was made hundreds of years

ago.
You can have the sweets provided that you

brush your teeth afterwards.
I accept your invitation, inasmuch

as spending time with you is great.
________________________________
Classes of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are divided into two classes:
Coordinating Conjunctions and

Subordinating Conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
Parts of Speech
The word Co-ordinating means ‘of equal

rank’. The conjunctions which join together two
sentences or clauses or equal rank or significance
are known as Co-ordinating Conjunctions. They
connect two independent clauses together. The main
coordinating conjunctions are as follows:
And, but, for, nor, or, also, neither –nor,

either –or
Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions in

sentences:
Dos bark and cats mew.
I went to work but my sister stayed at home.
Kinds of Co-ordinating Conjunctions
These are the four kinds of Coordinating

Conjunctions: Cumulative Conjunctions,
Adversative Conjunctions, Disjunctive
Conjunctions and Illative Conjunctions.
(a) Cumulative Conjunctions
These conjunctions simply add one

clause to another. Cumulative Conjunctions
are also called Copulative Conjunctions.
Parts of Speech
The cat got up and ran very fast.
He plays guitar as well as he paints pictures.
(b) Adversative Conjunctions: These

conjunctions are used to indicate
opposition or contrast between two
statements or clauses.
He is ill, but he is getting better.
She was all right; only she had a headache.
(c) Disjunctive Conjunctions: Distinctive

Conjunctions are used to present two
sentences which provide two
alternatives. These conjunctions are also
known as Alternative Conjunctions.
You must quit smoking, or you will get

seriously ill.
Revise your lesson; else you will fail the

test.
(d) Illative Conjunctions: Illative

conjunctions denote inferences. They
make an assumption in one statement
Parts of Speech
based on the condition in the other

statement.
Someone is at the door, for the bell rang.
I have been applying for Colleges

everywhere, so I will definitely get in one.
________________________________
Subordinating Conjunctions:
The conjunctions which join together an

independent clause to a dependent clause are
called Subordinating Conjunctions. The main
Subordinating Conjunctions are:
After, before, because, if, till, as, that,

though, although, unless, etc
After the rain was over the sun came out

again.
I will wait here till you come back.
Kinds of Subordinating Conjunctions
Parts of Speech
According to their meanings, subordinating

conjunctions are classified as: Subordinating
Conjunctions of Time, Subordinating Conjunctions
of Cause, Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose,
Subordinating Conjunctions of Consequence,
Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition,
Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession and
Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison.
(a) Subordinating Conjunctions of

Time: These conjunctions are used to
indicate time of happening of something.
I went home after the sunset.
Hani reached the ceremony before it was over.
(b) Subordinating Conjunctions of

Cause: Subordinating Conjunctions of
Cause are used to show the cause and effect
of something. They give the reason behind
the happening of something. These are also
called Conjunctions of Reason.
She baked a cake because it was her birthday.
Since you have been gone, I am doing the

dishes.
Parts of Speech
(c) Subordinating Conjunctions of

Purpose: These are the conjunctions which
denote the purpose of things that: why
something was done or why something
happened.
He ate, so that he won’t be hungry.
I went to the doctor lest my wound should be

infected.
(d) Subordinating Conjunctions of

Consequence: These conjunctions show the
result of some happening. For this reason
they are also Conjunctions of Result.
She worked so many hours that she could barely

sit.
The seminar was boring so people started

yawning.
(e) Subordinating Conjunctions of

Condition: Subordinating Conjunctions of
Condition are used to express that something
will happen if some other thing is done. Or
what will happen if the condition of one
clause is fulfilled.
Parts of Speech
She will work if she gets paid handsomely.
People will not succeed unless they work

efficiently.
(f) Subordinating Conjunctions of

Concession: These conjunctions concede or
state a fact or idea regardless of what claim
is made in the main clause. Look at the
following examples to get clear on this one.
Though my cat is ill, yet it plays all day.
Even though he was rich, he never looked down

upon anyone.
We can see that in example one, regardless of

illness of the cat, it still plays. So in spite of
whatever is said in the clause, a fact is still
presented by using a conjunction of concession.
(g) Subordinating Conjunctions of

Comparison: Subordinating Conjunctions
of Comparison are used to show comparison
between two things, in two statements.
She is stronger than her friend.
Parts of Speech
Our team wore white whereas their team
Parts of Speech
Chapter 9
Interjections
What are Interjections?
Interjections are the words or group of

words that are used to express and exclaim extreme
emotions. These words are always used with an
exclamation mark. Interjections do not have any
grammatical function in a sentence. The words that
are commonly used as Interjections are as follows:
Hurrah! , Alas! , Oh no! , Oh my God! ,

What! , etc
Different types of Interjections
Interjections can be used to express various

types of emotions such as happiness, surprise,
sadness, anger and greetings. On such various types
of emotions we classified them into different types.
1. Interjections for Greeting
Such interjections are used in sentences to

show the emotions of warmness to the person
meeting with.
Examples:
Good morning! It’s great to see you.
Parts of Speech
Hey! When you came here?
Hello! I am Sadaf.
2. Interjections for Happiness

show happiness or joy on any happy occasion.
Examples:
Yay! We won!
Hurrah! I’ve won!
Wow! What a pleasant weather!
3. Interjections for Attention

draw the attention of someone.
Examples:
Hey! Let’s go on a picnic!
Yo! What is going on?
Look! Jam is so happy.
Listen! I am starving.
4. Interjections for Approval
Parts of Speech

show the sense of agreement or approval for
something.
Examples:
Well done! You got first position.
Brilliant! You arrived here in time.
5. Interjections for Surprise

indicate the sense of surprise about something that
has happened.
Examples:
Oh! What a lovely scene!
Ah! It sounds good.
What! She passed away.
6. Interjections for Sorrow

express the emotion of sadness about something
unfortunate has happened.
Examples:
Parts of Speech
Alas! He could not recover from his illness.
Ouch! That hurts.
Oops, I’m sorry. It was hot.
Alas! His friend died.
7. Interjections for Shock

express the shock about something happened.
Examples:
What! What have you done?
8. Interjections for Anger

express the anger about something unfortunate has
happened by someone’s mistake or carelessness.
Examples:
Excuse me! I am not a beggar.
Interjections in form of phrases
Some of the interjections are used in

common phrases. Few of them are stated as follows:
Parts of Speech
What hell! , Goodness gracious! , Good Lord! , Oh

my God! , Oh no! , What the heck! , What
Goodness! etc.
Parts of Speech
Chapter 10
Determiners
Definition of Determiners
There are major content words in English as

Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs, and minor
function words as Pronouns, Prepositions,
Conjunctions, Determiners and Interjections.
Determiners are minor function words in English
language. Let us look at the definition of
Determiners and types of Determiners
Definition of determiners: Determiners are

the words that are placed before nouns or adjectives
to introduce them. These are different from
adjectives because they are just used for
introduction of nouns while adjectives give
additional information about nouns. Determiners are
also called Determinatives. Common words used as
Determiners are as follows:
A, the, every, any, that, my, your, which, etc
1. This is a Chandelier.
2. I did not check any papers.
Types of Determiners:
Parts of Speech
Determiners are classified into following

types: Articles, Demonstrative Determiners,
Possessive Determiners, Quantifiers, Interrogative
Determiners, Distributive Determiner, Cardinal
Numbers and Ordinal Numbers.
1. Articles:
The adjectives ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’ are usually

called Articles. Articles are function words. There
are two kinds of articles: Definite
Article and Indefinite Article.
(a) Definite Article: An article that used to

point some specific person or thing is
called a definite article. ‘The’ is the only
definite article.
• The clothes that I bought yesterday were

perfect.
• This is the best place I have ever been

in.
(b) Indefinite Article: The articles ‘a’ and

an ‘are’ called Indefinite Articles
because the place or thing talked about is
not particular and is left indefinite.
Parts of Speech
• One morning a woody woodpecker

came to our house.
It could be any woody woodpecker, not

a particular one.
• Nobody said a word.
• An ostrich is a big bird.
2. Demonstrative Determiners:
These determiners are used to demonstrate a

specific thing or identity of that thing. The words
that come under the category of Demonstrative
Determiners are as follows:
This, that, these, those
Examples of Demonstrative Determiners in

sentences:
• I like to paint these pictures.
• She patted that dog yesterday.
3. Possessive determiners:
Possessive determiners are functions words that

are used before a noun to show possession or
ownership of something. The words that come
Parts of Speech
under the category of Possessive Determiners are as

follows:
My, your, our, her, his, their, its
Examples of Possessive Determiners in

sentences:
• My apartment keys were lost.
• His shop has all kinds of crafts in it.
4. Distributive Determiners:
Distributive Determiners are the type of

function words that refer to things or people of a
group or the whole group. The words that come
under the category of Distributive Determiners are
as follows:
Every, each, all, both, either, neither, half, etc
Examples of Distributive Determiners in

sentences:
• Each employee was given a raise in

salary.
• All drinks were spilled.
5. Interrogative Determiners:
Parts of Speech
Interrogative determiners are the function words

which are used to pose questions. They are also
called Wh-Determiners because they all have
‘wh’ at the start. The words that come under the
category of Interrogative Determiners are as
follows:
What, which, whatever, whichever, whoever,

whose etc
Examples of Interrogative Determiners in

sentences:
• Whose papers were not signed?
• Which college are you going to apply

for this summer?
6. Quantifiers:
Quantifiers are the function words that are used

before nouns to tell about the quantity of something.
The words that come under the category of
Quantifiers are as follows:
All, no, any, many, some, few, a little, a lot, etc
Examples of Quantifiers in sentences:
• I only have some papers left.
• There is a little sausage on the pizza.
Parts of Speech
7. Cardinal Numbers:
Cardinal Numbers are also used to indicate

quantity. However, they show it using numbers and
counting. Cardinal Numbers are mostly considered
a type of Quantifiers and are used as Determiners.
The words that come under the category Cardinal
Numbers are as follows:
One, two, three, twelve, a hundred, two

thousand, etc
Examples of Cardinal Numbers in sentences:
• There are six people in the car.
• The airplane is containing two hundred

and seventy passengers.
8. Ordinal Numbers:
Ordinal Numbers are the function words that are

used to indicate order or position of people, things
or events. Words that come under the category of
Ordinal Numbers are as follows:
First, second, third, etc
Examples of Ordinals in sentences:
• Ali tried and tried until he finally got the

equation right the fifth time.
Parts of Speech
• The third person on the front row is his

brother.

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PARTS OFSpeech

SAJID IQBAL KHAN

Copyrights 2020, literaryenglish.com, S K Niazi

All rights reserved with author and

SAJID Iqbal Khan

Chapter Content Page

Every language consists on its basic

A word is a speech sound or a combination

Some different examples are: Boy, kite, fox,

There are nine parts of speech in the English

determiners. Some writes and websites count only

Here are the nine parts of speech in English

A noun is a word used for a place, person, or

Often a noun will be the name for something

Some examples of noun:

Everything is represented by a word that is

People: Ali, boy, singer.

Animals: Cat, cow, elephant.

Places: Karachi, city, street.

Objects: Cup, pencil, book.

Qualities: Boldness, sorrow.

Actions: Writing, listening, running.

There are many types of noun depending

A proper noun is the given name of a

A common noun is the word used for a class

in poetry where every word of new line is

Concrete nouns are the things which we can

Abstract nouns are things you cannot see or

Collective nouns are words that denote

Compound nouns are nouns made up of

pickpocket, water bottle. Some compound nouns

A countable noun is a noun that can be

An uncountable noun is a noun without a

Gerunds are nouns that end -ing and that

(a) Ali is singing a song.

(b) Ali is fond of singing.

In sentence (a) singing is verb as its show action

Gender-specific nouns are nouns that are

Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs

How to differentiate gerund noun and verbal

To understand difference between gerund noun

• The ceremonial raising of the flag has

(2) Sentences featuring pure verbal nouns could

Pronoun is defined as a word that replaces a

(Jam is a boy of sixteen. Jam is studying in

Look at above paragraph. The

Jam is a boy of sixteen. He is studying in

Pronouns are categorized into many types.

intensive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun,

Personal pronouns refer to a person’s name.

(a) Subjective pronoun: Subjective pronouns

Common subjective pronouns are I, we, you,

Example: I love watching TV.

(b) Objective pronouns: Objective pronouns

Common objective pronouns are me, us,

Examples: She gave him a present on his

Possessive pronouns are the pronouns that

(1) Strong possessive pronoun

(2) Weak possessive pronoun.