WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

STREAM: CONTROL

Student Name: ID
1. Zenaye zeleke …………………………………………ENG/R/0059/09
2. Getu mulugeta …………………………………………ENG/R/0386/09
3. Mokonen Diriba ……………………………………….ENG/R/1002/09

HOSTING COMPANY: Adama Agricultural machinery Industry

Duration of time:
Submission Date:

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STUDENT DECLARATION
We declare that this report are our work the university can check in every way it wants our spend
the internship program for the last 45 days AAMI (Corona or COVID 19). Through these 45
days we tried a lot to achieve the internship objectives and we can able to do the tasks according
to the guide line and with the help of all the workers as much as we can. After so many
challenges we compiled all the data we gathered and add our work like the following below

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of all, our greatest thanks from the depth of our heart are to the almighty God for endowing
us with the courage, strength as well as health. Next we want to express our deep sense of
gratitude and sincere thanks to our university for giving this chance work with AAMI for giving
such an opportunity and our advisors T. Degu, Kasahun, and malese for their helpful advises
.Finally, we would like to thanks all workshop teams who help us by answering questions what
we ask in the workshop and in this process.

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EXCUTIVE SUMMARY
The primary purpose of this internship is to provide the necessary basics in practical skill within
electrical engineering field of study because most of the time we focus on only theoretical parts.
After spending 45 in the company the report is organized in five chapters. These are:

Chapter one: - The chapter is about the introducing or the background of Adama Agricultural
machinery Industry production machine, objectives of the company, its main products, its
customers, organizational structure and all the overall work flow.
Chapter two: - this chapter constitutes the overall internship experience. This include how we
get into the company, in which section we have been working in ,how does the flow in the
section look like ,what challenges we have been facing, what measure we have done for these
challenges and so on.

Chapter three: - this chapter comprises the benefits of the intern in terms of improving
practical skill, upgrading theoretical knowledge, improving communication skill, improving our
team work and other benefits are included
Chapter four :- this chapter mainly focused on the project we have done ,this also included
abstract of the project ,background of the project, objectives of the project both general and
specific objectives, literature review, scope of the project, problem statement of the project,
benefits of the project ,result and discussion of the project.

Chapter five:-this chapter is the last chapter and deals with conclusion and recommendation of
government of the report.

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

AAMI: Adama Agricultural Industry

HP: Horse Power

KG: Kilogram

RPM: Revolution per minute

PTO: Power Take off

METEC: Metal Engineering Corporation DOL-direct online

EEPCO- Ethiopian Electrical Power Corporation

IT-Information Technology

LCD-Liquid Crystal display

PET- Polyethylene Terephthalate

PLC- Program logic controller

WSU: WALAITA SODO UNIVERSITY

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WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSITY..............................................................................................................1
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING.................................................................................................................1
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering..................................................................................1
STREAM: CONTROL................................................................................................................................1
Student Name: ID..........................................................................................1
LIST OF FIGURE.......................................................................................................................................8
BACK GROUND OF THE COMPANY.................................................................................................9
SHORT HISTORY OF THE COMPANY..............................................................................................9
1.3 MISSION OF THE AAMI..............................................................................................................10
1.5 THE END USERS OF ITS PRODUCTS OR SERVICES..............................................................14
1.6 COMPANY’S CUSTOMERS.........................................................................................................14
OVERALL INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE...........................................................................................17
2.1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................17
2.2. WHY DO WE GET INTO THE COMPANY................................................................................17
CHAPTER THREE...............................................................................................................................23
. BENEFITS GAINED FROM INTERNSHIP...................................................................................23
3.1 IMPROVING PRACTICAL SKILL...............................................................................................23

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7|Page
LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1Tractor

Figure-2Pumps

Figure-3 Disc Harrow and plough

Figure-4 Pump factory section

Figure-5 Tractor factory section

Figure-6 Maintenance workshop

Figure-7 Implement factory section

Figure -8 power circuit and control circuit of direct online

Figure -9 power circuit and control circuit of star-delta

Figure 10 Control and power circuit of forward and reverse

Figure 11 Workshop for Power and control circuit of forward and reverse motor control

Table-1 Type of Tractor

Chart-1Work flow

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 CHAPTER ONE

BACK GROUND OF THE COMPANY

SHORT HISTORY OF THE COMPANY

Adama agricultural machinery industry located in Oromia region East showa zone Adama
city which is 99km from Addis Ababa. It was established in September 1978E.C called
Nazareth Tractor Assembly Plant (NTAP) with technical and economic cooperation
agreement signed between the Ethiopian government and former Soviet Socialist Republic
(SSR) with initial capital 12,824,000 birr. Subsequently in 1980E.C, contract was concluded
between Minsk tractor work (MTW) of SSR and National Metal Work Corporation (NMWC)
of Ethiopia to undertake primary study on the project. Parts of the first phase of the project
study, i.e. the construction the semi knocked down (SKD) tractor assembly plant was
completed and inaugurated in 1984E.C, being the sole and unique tractors assembly plant in
Ethiopia and the only of its kind in East Africa. Through this plant 26 years, NATP had been
produced over 5000 tractors and was distributing them in all region and town of the country,
of which MTZ-80/82 model tractors with 80 HP were the major one. Since 1999E.C, NTAP
has also been producing other technologically advanced, competitive and versatile tractors
and has distributed them to its customers. The tractors are of recent technology improved in
all aspect of their design and performance .After the FDRE Metal and Engineering
Corporation established and different industries come to under the management, Nazareth
Tractor Assembly Plant going to account one of the industries since 2002EC. Now day the
company knows by the name of Adama Agricultural Machinery Industry.

1.2 VISION OF THE COMPANY

To be market leader in national market diversification in regional markets there to manufacturing

Ethiopian tractors and associated implements enhance conductive working environment. To

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prosper Ethiopia in industry by eliminating the traditional way of farming and use of modern
agricultural machineries:-

 To satisfy farmers need for their production.

 To fulfill the shortage of agricultural machinery equipment’s for the countries as well.
The country likes to manufacture the agricultural equipment’s by its own engineering
industries for the future and to export it as well for foreign countries.
 It needs to increase production of agricultural machinery.
 By increasing technology of agricultural machineries to increase production rate of the
country. And to give awareness for the farmers about the equipment’s how much it is
good for the production.
 Upgrading, manufacturing and optimizing of agricultural machineries/equipment’s to
be utilized by farmers of the FDRE. And to open small maintenance garages for the
farmers near to their work place.
 Finally, to sell for the farmers by low (fair) price.

1.3 MISSION OF THE AAMI

 To ensure satisfaction of the society by supplying and servicing different models of
tractor and agricultural machineries with better efficiency, quality and at lower
company.
 To design, build and integrate agricultural machinery manufacturing plants.
 To Produce, assemble and supply quality and versatile horse power range tractors with
associated implements, water pumps and irrigation equipment’s that suit different
agricultural processes, construction activities, municipality operations and others with
competitive price to help customers use modern technology that enables them to be
efficient, effective and productive their workers.

1.4 COMPANY’S MAIN PRODUCT AND SERVICE

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As the name indicated, the company supplies different types of agricultural equipment mainly
assemble tractors. In addition to the assembly tractor assemble and produced different kinds of
trailers, ditchers, disc plough, harrow, rotary sprinklers which used for irrigation purpose. In
addition to the above product the company gives the following services:-

 Maintenance
 Training of customer’s operators & technicians
 Spare part supply

Figure-1 Tractors and pump that can be overhauled in Adama Agricultural Machinery Industry

1.4.1 TRACTOR

AAMI mainly produces different tractors. Those are Belarus with hp of 57,61,81,90,105,130.
The brand name of the tractors is known as ‘Belarus’ with different models. This name was
taken from the name of the Russian company from where the raw materials for production are
imported. Serbia and China with HP of 18, 25, 30,40,80,90 and 100 And walking Tractors with
HP 8, 12 and 15.Also the brand name of Serbian and chains Tractors Company is known
rakovica and Shandong weituo with fotton respectively. As can be understood from the historical
back ground of the company, the models that were being produced during early age of the
company were MTZ-80/82. But these model were modified to 82.1, 920, 952, 1025 and 1221
models which are being produced today.

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Table-1: Type of Tractor

1.4.2 PUMPS AND SPRINKLE

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There are different types of centrifugal pumps can be assembled in this company. The pumps are
having different HP 5-30 and works with electric motor without accessories. They have also
different type of sprinkler. Its model is double nozzle 3/4” male threaded with diameter of 4.4
mm×2.4 mm and discharge of 1.69 meter cub per hour also it has working pressure of 3.15 bars

Figure-2 pumps.

1.4.3. TRAILERS

Before eleven years ago AAMI used to import trailers from Italy and supply for customers. But
later on it started manufacturing the trailer here in Ethiopia by importing some raw materials.
Today the company is producing trailers that is 85% Ethiopian product. i.e., 85% the raw
materials are found from the domestic market and the remaining 15% of the items (like piston
and axles) are imported from Italy. The trailers have 6 tons capacity and they are three types:
fixed, two ways tipping and three way tipping trailers. Apart from fixed and tipping type trailer
Abattoir trailers that are used for meat transportation from slaughter house are also produced in
the company.

Disc harrow and plough Harrows and ploughs are assembled by the raw materials that are
imported from Italy. The harrow can have 4 or 32 discs. Las than 28 disc harrows are operated
by the power that is supplied are from the power cylinder. But the one with 32 discs has its own
power cylinder. The cylinder is directly connected to the hydraulic oil tank by hoses. The disc
ploughs on the other hand are of four types: those with 2 discs,3 discs,4 discs and with 5 discs.
Both are raised and fallen by the power obtained from the power cylinder.

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Figure-3 Disc Harrow and plough

1.5 THE END USERS OF ITS PRODUCTS OR SERVICES

Now a day, tractors have got many applications besides its use in tillage and pulling trailers. It is
being used for driving different attachments like: - Loaders, crushers, balers, mowers, water
pump, etc. In context of Ethiopia, the culture of employing tractor for all these operations his not
appreciably developed. Due to this the demand for tractor is at its lower position. A study made
by national statistical agency shows that, the annual demand in our country is about 500 tractors.
This quantity is not large as compared to the dependence of citizens on agricultural practice.
Thisrestricts the supply of tractors to market as it is reference for the companies that imports and
produces tractors. This fact can be verified by the case of AAMI. The company has a production
capacity of 800 tractors per annual. But assuming that the company controlled the tractor market
at all, the only quantity that it has to produce is restricted to 500.

1.6 COMPANY’S CUSTOMERS

The allowable production quantity and market condition of the company is influenced by many
factors. There are more than ten companies that import and distribute tractors in the country.
This gives the users options of brand selection. Many users think that the products that are

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imported from foreign companies are more qualified than domestic product. Such thought is
adapted due to lack of awareness of the product. In fact, Belarus tractors are technologically
competitive and mechanically powerful products. Different promotion works are being done by
the company to change the attitude of the users and hence increase the marketability of the
product. For example the products are shown on different exhibitions that are held at different
places & times. They also advertise the products through Medias and presses. More over the
guests that visit the company for different purposes have the chance to get introduction to all
products and services of the company. Due these, the company is obliged to produce only 25%
of its full production capacity. This quantity itself sometimes becomes excess with respect to the
annual sale which is 85-90 tractors with possibility of reaching 200. Despite the small number of
tractors sale per year, the company is profitable from its products. The overall after tax profit of
the company is 2-10 million birr with average of 4 million birr per

Major customer
 Amhara seed enterprise
 Coffee plantation
 Ethiopian Agricultural Research Institute
 Ethiopian road Authority
 Ethiopian seed enterprise
 Seka Agro processing
 Sugar Corporation

Major supplies
 Awash auto Batteries Plc
 Kaliti Metal products factory
 Kadisko paint factory
 Minsk Tractor works commercial department
 Minisk tractor works spare parts
 ShadongWeituo Group co ltd
 Total Ethiopia
 ILG Turkey Company

Business ethics
 Honesty
 Responsibility
 Loyalty
 Integrity
 Fair business
 Prosperity through productivity

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1.7 COMPANY OVER ALL ORGANIZATION AND FLOW
The company is now a day under FDRE Metals & Engineering Corporation as mentioned in
subsection 1.1, its overall organization and work flow is going through the corporation structural
system which is determined for the good of the company. This company holds above 300
workers under different working sections. The overall organizational work flow of the company
is structured in a form that is suitable for running technical, financial and management activities.
The supreme body of the company is the general management body. This body deals with overall
internal and external affairs of the company.

1.7.1 WORK FLOW OF AAMI

Chart-1 Work flow

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 CHAPTER TWO

OVERALL INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE

2.1. INTRODUCTION
We entered to Adama Agricultural Machinery Industry through WSU institute of engineering
and Technology University to industrial linkage. We are assigned in pump factory for the first
month then we were transferred to electrical maintenance and different machine maintenance and
prototype section department within one month and five days fraction. We were executing
different tasks in each factory for duration of 45days from pump system assembling and on
electrical maintenance disassembling to maintain different AC and DC electrical motor, to do
different electrical installation.

2.2. WHY DO WE GET INTO THE COMPANY

Firstly, collecting information from seniors that afford our interest, then we have chosen AAMI
as our favorite company for the internship practice on the form that our department given us. We
choose this company because there are many advantages than other organization. Those
advantages are:-

 Type and quantity machineries available.

 Full access given to students and initiate to work effectively.
 The company plays a great role for the industrialization process which aims to bring
about economic transformation in the country.
 Use time properly.
 Having experienced engineers on our field of study.

2.3. SECTION OF THE COMPANY WE ARE WORKING

As our department all the work done on the company is important but work in electrical
maintenance , prototype section , Tractor factory , Implement section and pump factory These
sections are;

1. Electrical maintenance section.

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 2. Prototype section.

3. Tractor factory

4. Implement section

3. Pump factory.

2.3.1 PUMP FACTORY

Under this factory section assembling, inspection, checking and maintenance of centrifugal
pump is done. The pump components are imported from Italy. The main parts of the centrifugal
pump is bed, axle, tire, timoni, timoni stand, motor and centrifugal pump. Most of this pumps are
applicable in sugar factory industries and farmers, there are different powers and heads according
the motor. Some of the products are:-

 LOMBERDINI engine model- 4LD40 and IVECO engine model- N45MSA

Power- 10.5kw/ 14.3Hp Power- 70kw/81 hp Flow rate Q- 17L/S
Flow rate Q-75L/S Head H- 29.8 M Head H- 43M

 LOMBERDINI engine model- LDW1503 and IVECO engine model- N45MSTA2 Power-
30kw/ 40.8 hp Power- 94kw/127hp Flow rate Q- 35 L/S
Flow rate Q-100L/S Head H- 43.7 M Head H- 37M

Figure-4 Pump factory section

2.3.1.1 Work flow of pump factory

The mechanical machine which used to transport the components and assembling process of
above products from place to place are fork lift, overhead and trailers applicable.

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Under this factory also they have five station, and at least three workers at each section. In each
station all the necessary components are available placed in kazen form. Assembling of each
component of the pump and operations at every station are listed as follows:-

Station one: Under this station hub assembling right and lift, towing bar with supporter (temony),
tyre assembling right and lift and engine assembling to chassis activates are finalized. Then
transfer to the next station.

Station two: Fly wheel cover assembling, rubber dumper with coupling assembling, pump
assembling and coupling cover assembling operations are occur under this station.

Station three: Under this station assembling of motor to chassis and assembling of pump stand
are occurThe motor is placed on the chassis using crane found in the fixed form under this
station.

Station four: Flange assembling, control panel assembling with cable and oil filing engine and
pump are done under this station.

Station five: Under this station inspection, checking and maintenance operations are done. Any
maintenance of pump is takes place under this station.

2.3.2 TRACTOR FACTORY

This is tractors body assembly section. Under this different types of tractors based on their
manufactured country, engine type and operation horse power (hp) can be assembled. It holds
about 80 workers sectioned by group, each group has three or four members and one group is
assigned to assemble at list two tractors per day. It has many equipment’s and tools that are used
for the production system. In the section, there is an overhead crane that has a capacity of lifting
3200 kg of load. This crane can roll from end to end of the production hall and hence it is used
for lifting and taking the raw materials to required position. The production line is a conveyor
that is driven by an electric motor. It works by the chain and sprocket system to move to tractors
on the line. It has a capacity of holding five tractors at a time. When assembly is completed, it
puts the tractor out through the exit. There is a supervisor for the section.

2.3.2.1 Work flow of Tractor factory

 First operation – engine transmission and front axle, engine, transmission, connector,
front axle, hinge plate, bracket axis , inter mediate plate
 Second operation - clutch steering, brake steering, revers control clutch pedal ,spring
bracket, clutch tie, sliding sleeve Sliding sleeve, spring hatch, right brake pedal, left
brake pedal, right tie, bracket, spring, bumper, ten signing screw. Jack steering
 Third operation – hydraulic system distributer, sucking filter, distributer bracket,
filter bracket, sucking coupling with O-ring, fast coupling bracket, sensor, sensor

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 bracket, tie turning on the front drive with knob, pump filter nose, orbitrol, pump
nose, distributer fast coupling nose (short), distributer fast coupling nose (long),
hydraulic nose back from orbitrol, right cylinder orbitrol nose, pump distributer nose,
long sucking nose, short sucking nose, distance pipe, air filter bracket, tank bracket.
 Fourth operation – pneumatic system and assembling shaft (power train)Cylinder
vessel, base of cylinder, support of fastening pneumatic cable diameter of 10 mm,
fastening of quick connector brake valve bracket, trailer control, coupling head, shut
of cock, combined unloaded, clamping ring.Shaft, cover, spline sleeve.
 Fifth operation – fuel system, cooling system, fuel tank and bracket. Valve fuel tank
hose, over flow hose, over flow connector hose Hood plate (battery set, radiator
(cooler set)), holder bases lock mount base, lock bonnet, the net, introducer or older,
upper cooler hose with clamp, cushion pad, s bar valve, valve cooler hose. Tank
cover, fuel tank, rear band, front band, fuel lever sensor.
 Brackets acceleration pedal, flange bearing, complete mechanism hammed
accelerator, gas knob, and throttle cable manual. Slide cover assembly-left side cover,
right side cover, hand wheel. Wheels assembly-left rear wheel, right rear wheel, left
front wheel, right front wheel. Cab fastening -cab frame, down plate Roof hoop, roof
and mirrors assembly-roof, roof bracket, mirror arm, mirror differential lock steering-
lock pedal, distance sleeve, flat lock lever Gear box knobs assembly -knobs body, the
cap shift knob, reducer sleeve.

Figure 5 Tractor factory section.

2.3.3 ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE SECTION

Under this section maintenance, inspections and painting activities are done. Maintenance
section is place where any kind of tractors and other service vehicles are get settings, adjustment
and over all services. When we are under this section we get the chance to see tractors which is
engine, gear box, hydraulic system and almost all the components. In this section painting is the

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other task takes place. Once the tractor is inspected and approved for OKAY operation, it is
taken to painting section.

In painting room, Firstly the tractor is washing by pressurized water, then it taken to dry section
where it is exposed to very pressurized air that is blown over its surface from all directions. Then
the tractor is painted by spraying paints. At the last the tractor is checked after painting is dried
whether its electrical and mechanical operations are damaged by pressurized water and air during
washing it. The operation that takes place under this section are listas follows.

Figure-6 Maintenance workshop

2.3.5. IMPLEMENT FACTORY

In this section assembly of agricultural equipment (disc harrow, disc plough and seeder) is takes
place, the mechanical system used to move the equipment parts are forklift, conveyer and
overhead crane. In this section also there are different machines are available such as lath,
grinding, milling, drilling and cutting machines. As we have stayed under this section for 15
days; two major operations are performed.

Figure -7 Implement factory section.

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2.4 Procedure I Have Been Using While Performing My Work Tasks:

I have been oriented with the responsibility of my job by communicating with factory supervisor
and factory workers.

 center
 Visiting and observing the plant.

 Study and analysis the plant and system.

 Sharing ideas with the regarded staff workers.
 Take part in maintenance activity when and where necessary.
 Participating inspection and returning evaluation with each technician.
 Writing the daily and weekly report as the company supervisor order and accepting
consecutive feedback.
 Acting as normal workers as much as possible for all entire duration of internship.

2.5 My Performance at the Company:

First we were just looking what they work and after a few days we interred to look what they do.

Our strength:

 Teamwork skill and interpersonal communication.

 Dependability and technical competence.
 Capacity of developing and proposing technical ideas and implementing system.
 Punctuality and willingness to learn and accept constructive criticism and change.

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  Preparing take off sheets with my own paper and doing on it.
 Department and self- confident internee
 Initiative and responsible trainees.

Our weakness:

 Weak work speed or productivity.

 Lack recognition and relating some theoretical knowledge with practical.
 Lack of using schedule effectively.

2.6 Challenges I Have Been Facing While Performing My Work Tasks:

I have faced certain problems during our 45 Days staying in AAMI.

During my internship the challenges were: -

It was difficult to get information about the company performance, because there were no
computer and learning guidance

 Getting data about company profile and production was very boring and exhaustive.
 We did not learn the theoretical knowledge and application of PLC, because almost some
control parts of the company works by using PLC System.
 Lack of understanding Chinese language.

2.7 Measures Or Solutions I Have Used For The Challenges I Have Been
Facing:

As much as possible we have participated with workers during work and observed the
procedures they took, asking them about the operation of the system and then involving into the
task.

For further understanding and awareness, I used to read certain manual and different books as
well as world journals and articles from internet.

I took a time for discussion on the introduction new technology and system with my colleagues
and gather required data by repeating many days without boring

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CHAPTER THREE

. BENEFITS GAINED FROM INTERNSHIP

3.1 IMPROVING PRACTICAL SKILL

Since we were engaging in different types of practical work we have improved our practical
knowledge. We were participating on disassembling of Components repairing and installation of
the repaired components, thus we have developed our Skill on disassembling, repairing and
assembling a given components following the sequence given on the manual. We have improved
our testing skill using different equipment, procedure and different materials. We have improved
our fault detection skill on working field and we have developed our skill on determination of
fault elimination method. We have improved our practical skill on structural part manufacturing,
repairing and modifying. We have been familiarized to different types of machine that is used
while manufacturing, maintaining and modifying structural parts. Our testing knowledge has
been upgraded to the next level. When different jobs are performed the desire to know push us to
ask every person, this give us a chance to be introduced to different persons. While performing
our main project we were advised by the industries research department so this creates a huge
advantage in introduced to them and to share their knowledge and experience. In the first round
of the industrial experience we were grouped with each group containing eight persons, also
while performing our main project we do it by this group. We were doing jobs by sharing every
responsibility. It gives us a chance to work as a team to share our knowledge. Since AAMI is one
among METEC which is in the defense ministry industry there is strict rule towards self-
discipline and work ethics. This made us to understand issues related to work ethics such: Time
to get into and out of work,

1. To work only on the place you are assigned

2. To give respect to other employees

3. To protect the industries property from damage

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 4. Time management

5. Giving respect for the work done etc

3.2. UPGRADING THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE

3.2.1 STARTING METHOD OF THE MOTORS

 Direct On-Line (DOL) starting method:-
It is the simplest and the most inexpensive of all starting methods and is usually used for
squirrel cage induction motors. It directly connects the contacts of the motor to the full
supply voltage. The starting current is very large, normally 6 to 8 times the rated current.
The starting torque is likely to be 0.75 to 2 times the full load torque. In order to avoid
excessive voltage drops in the supply line due to high starting currents, the direct online
starter is used only for motors with a rating of less than 5KW [2]. Working principles of
direct online starting method Direct online starter consists of a coil operated contactor
K1M controlled by start and stop push buttons. On pressing the start push button S1, the
contactor coil K1M is energized from line L1. The three mains contacts (1-2), (3-4), and
(5-6) in fig are closed. The motor is thus connected to the supply. When the stop push
button S2 is pressed, the supply through the contactor K1M is disconnected. Since the
K1M is de-energized, the main contacts (1-2), (34), and (5-6) are opened. The supply to
motor is disconnected and the motor stops.

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 a. Power circuit b. Control circuit

Figure -8 power circuit and control circuit of direct online

 Star delta starting method:-ced supply voltage in starting. The following figure shows
the connection of power and control circuit of star-delta starter. The method achieved low
starting current by first connecting the stator winding in star configuration, and then after
the motor reaches a certain speed, throw switch changes the winding arrangements from
star to delta configuration. By connecting the stator winding, first in star and then in
delta, the line current drawn by the motor at starting is reduced to one-third as compared
to starting current with the winding's connected in delta. At the time of starting when the
stator windings are start connected, each stator phase gets voltage VL per √3 where VL is
the line voltage. Since the torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the
square of the applied voltage, star- delta starting reduced the starting torque to one-third
that obtainable by direct delta starting.

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Figure -9 power circuit and control circuit of star-delta Working principles of star-delta When
star auxiliary contact (1) (which is placed on Main Contactor coil circuit ) become NO to NC it’s
complete The Circuit of Main contactor Coil (KM3) so Main Contactor Coil energized and Main
Contactor’s Main and Auxiliary Contactor Change its Position from NO to NC. This sequence
happens in a friction of time.

After pushing the ON push button switch, the auxiliary contact of the main contactor coil (2)
which is connected in parallel across the ON push button will become NO to NC, thereby
providing a latch to hold the main contactor coil activated which eventually maintains the control
circuit active even after releasing the ON push button switch. When Star Main Contactor (KM1)
close its connect Motor connects on STAR and it’s connected in STAR until Time Delay
Auxiliary contact KT (3) become NC to NO. Once the time delay is reached its specified Time,
the timer’s auxiliary contacts (KT) (3) in Star Coil circuit will change its position from NC to
NO and at the Same Time Auxiliary contactor (KT) in Delta Coil Circuit (4) change its Position
from NO to NC so Delta coil energized and Delta Main Contactor becomes NO to NC.

Now motor terminal connection change from star to delta connection normally close auxiliary
contact from both star and delta contactors (5and6) are also placed opposite of both star and delta
contactor coils, these interlock contacts serves as safety switches to prevent simultaneous
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activation of both star and delta contactor coils, so that one cannot be activated without the other
deactivated first. Thus, the delta contactor coil cannot be active when the star contactor coil is
active, and similarly, the star contactor coil cannot also be active while the delta contactor coil is
active.

 Forward and reverse starting method

To change the direction a three-phase induction machine rotates two of its phases needs
to be changed, thus changing the phase sequence from (say) ABC to CBA. This can be
accomplished by making use of two contactors, one for the Forward and one for Reverse.
Forward reveres operation of induction motor is required for lift to move up and down

Figure 10 Control and power circuit of forward and reverse

Where: Q1: - is the motor protection circuit breaker with build-in short-circuit and thermal
overload protection, 13 and 14 are the terminals of the normally open auxiliary contacts K1: - the
mechanical three-phase contactor for forward. 21 and 22 is the terminals of the normally closed
auxiliary contacts. K2: - the mechanical three-phase contactor for reverse.

Figure 11 Workshop for Power and control circuit of forward and reverse motor control

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Working principle: A start push button to activate contactor K1 and a plug button is to activate
contactor K2. A stop push button is to switch off both the contactors when pressed, and an E-
stop push button emergency stop. A normally open auxiliary contact of contactors K1 and K2
serves as selfsealing contacts to hold in the contactors after the START or the PLUG button have
been pressed and released. Normally closed auxiliary contacts of contactors K1 and K2 serves as
protection against the possibility of both contactors K1 andK2 switched on simultaneously. A
normally closed auxiliary contacts of pushbuttons S1 and S2 serves as protection against the
possibility of both buttons S1 andS2 pressed simultaneously resulting in K1 and K2momentarily
switching on simultaneously and causing a short-circuit.

3.3 IMPROVING INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILL

As we have been working with different technicians, we have to be a good communicator with
each of them to gather knowledge in a perfect manner. Thus we were trying our best and we
have improved our interpersonal communication skill due to the communication that has
happened between us and our former coworkers in AAMI. Being in AAMI has been a good
opportunity to develop our interpersonal communication skill. Most of the workers in Adama
Agricultural machinery Industry are sociable and positive towards students who were there for
Internship; this helped us to improve our interpersonal communication skill with everybody and
we were successful in improving it.

3.4 IMPROVING TEAM PLAYING SKILL

The tasks that we have been given and most of the tasks that exist in Adama Agricultural and
Machinery Industry require team work. It is must for everyone to operate in team. The way
factories that exist in AAMI are organized in team and also every worker is categorized in a
team. Working in team allows helping each other and sharing different ideas and this help all the
working person to improve their knowledge, team working experience, to speed up the work, to
reduce unbalanced work load from one individual to the other, increases productivity, to reduce
errors from happening and to develop friendship between the workers. It also helps to have a
responsibility for the given task. Developing this skill will help us improve our confidence in our
task. AAMI’s Strategy towards team playing skill helped us to improve our team playing skill.

3.5 IMPROVING LEADERSHIP SKILL

Leader ship is the process of influencing other to `work towards the achievement of objectives
or goals. It is one of the most important factors for the attainment of goal. Leaders are

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responsible for getting the job done. Leadership is one of the functions of management like
planning organizing staffing and controlling Working in team allows helping each other and
sharing different ideas. This allows everyone to interchange its own ideas and procedure, thus
everyone will have the opportunity to lead a team at least for the given problem while presenting
its own solution and its sequential procedure. The team working approach in Adama Agricultural
and Machinery Industry helped us to improve our leadership skill.

3.6. UNDERSTANDING WORK ETHICS

Adama Agricultural and Machinery industry is one of the defense industries which are found
under METEC. Since the industry is managed by military personals that are strict about any rules
and regulation, there is a strict rule towards self-discipline and work ethics. For any employee
that works in AAMI it is must to obey rules and regulation, to conform to work ethics and to be
self-disciplined. This helped us to understand self-discipline and work ethics while engaging in
any kind of professional work and to improve our work ethics and related self-disciple

3.7 ENTREPRENEURSHIP SKILLS

Before internship our understanding about entrepreneurship was little. We only seek a job from
the government and different company as monthly employer because we have no confidence in
our knowledge and we didn’t know our capability, so this internship helps us in many ways :-

3.7.1 TECHNICAL SKILL GAINED

We gained practical experience of applying engineering judgment and working successfully
with others.

✓ Creativity and an innovative approach to solving problems

 The ability to analyze and interpret diverse

✓ Critical thinking and the ability to solve problem

✓ Effective assessment and management of resources and time

✓ Interpersonal sensitivity, persuasiveness and the ability to work as part of a team

✓ Awareness of ethical issues and the wider impact of work

3.7.2 MANAGEMENT SKILL GAINED

Management is a process of leading the careers of the company. Problems in the company come
in all size, shape and color in different period of time. Thus, a person who is in the position of
leadership seeks optimal solution to problems and should be smart enough to manage those
individuals whom he/she is leading. What we gain from the internship regarding improving

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leadership is that to inspire workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things must
be known to do that, these are;

1) Know him/her and seek self-improvement

2) Be technically profession
3) Make sound and timely decisions.
4) Keep workers informed

ABSTRACT

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In the present technological revolution power is very precious. So we need to find out the causes
of power loss and improve the power system. Due to industrialization the use of inductive load
increases and hence power system losses its efficiency. So we need to improve the power factor
with a suitable method.When ever we are thinking about any programmable devices then the
embedded technology comes into fore front. The embedded is now a day very much popular and
most the product are developed with Microcontroller based embedded technology.

Automatic power factor correction device reads power factor from line voltage and line current
by determining the delay in the arrival of the current signal with respect to voltage signal from
the function generator with high accuracy by using an internal timer. This time values are then
calibrated as phase angle and corresponding power factor. Then the values are displayed in the
2X16 LCD modules. Then the motherboard calculates the compensation requirement and
accordingly switches on different capacitor banks. This is developed by using 8051
microcontroller. Automatic power factor correction techniques can be applied to the industries,
power systems and also households to make them stable and due to that the system becomes
stable and efficiency of the system as well as the apparatus increases. The use of microcontroller
reduces the cost.

CHAPTER FOUR

1.1 INTRODUCTION
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In the present scenario of technological revolution it has been observed that the power is very
precious. The industrialization is primarily increasing the inductive loading, the Inductive loads
affect the power factor so the power system losses its efficiency. There are certain
organizations developing products and caring R&D work on this field to improve or compensate
the power factor. In the present trend the designs are also moving forwards the miniature
architecture; this can be achieved in a product by using programmable device. When ever we
are thinking about any programmable devices then the embedded technology comes into fore
front. The embedded is now a day very much popular and most the product are developed with
Microcontroller based embedded technology. The advantages of using the microcontroller is
the reduction of the cost and also the use of extra hardware such as the use of timer, RAM and
ROM can be avoided. This technology is very fast so controlling of multiple parameters is
possible; also the parameters are field programmable by the user.

The power factor of an electrical system gives the idea about the efficiency of the system to do
useful work out of the supplied electric power. A low power factor leads to increase in losses and
also draws penalty by the utility. AAM industry using mechanized methods suffers from low
power factor due to the use of different electric equipment which requires more reactive power.
Significant savings in utility power costs can be realized by keeping up an average monthly
power factor close to unity. Utilizing shunt capacitor banks for Power Factor Correction (PFC) is
an exceptionally established methodology. The recent trend is to automate the switching
procedure of capacitors to get greatest advantage in real time basis. Embedded systems based on
microcontrollers can be used to monitor and control the switching of correction devices because
of its dependability and execution.

1.2 problem statement of the project

Electricity plays a pivotal role in almost all businesses. Without it, it would be hard or nearly
impossible for industry to do their task. But since AAMI are often located at the end of the grid
and operated with the use of heavy industrial machineries, they are particularly susceptible to
power issues. With the constantly increasing cost of energy, AAMI are struggling to remain
competitive in the market and keep their operation as smooth as conceivable. And since they are
also considered very large power users, industrials are usually being targeted by electrical
companies and related establishments. Retaining the power quality is crucial in industry to
maximize production and avoid any technical problems while lowering energy cost. If the power
factor approaches 1, it reflects that all the energy supplied in the system is being used
resourcefully. But then AAMI often use complex equipment, power factor 1 is not usually
obtained. In the industrials business, any power factor over 0.95 is accepted and considered to be
an efficient use of energy. The typical uncorrected power factor for AAMI ranges from 0.65 to
0.8.Amendment of power factor close to unity have the points of interest of diminished utility
bills. Henceforth suitable correction equipment must be designed to monitor the system power

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factor and make the necessary improvement when it goes underneath the specified limit set as
per the standards.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

1.3.1 General objective of the project

The primary objective of the project was to design correction equipment which can monitor the
power factor of the industry electrical framework and enhance the power factor to a desired
value. The research investigations were carried out with the following objectives:

1.3.2 Specific objectives of the project

 To conduct an electrical survey of the existing system in an opencast industry to
study the system configuration and load patterns, variation of power factor during
the industrials operation hours and analyze power factor correction facility, if any.
 Design a microcontroller based correction equipment to improve the power factor
of the system to desired value of greater than 0.95.
 Implement the system and monitor different electrical load models and diverse
load patterns to verify the result.
 To carry out economic analysis for power factor improvement.

THEORY:
Efficient utilization of energy is now considered as one of the primary motives in any
mechanized industry. The power factor of any electrical system suggests how efficient it is to do
the useful work. Most industrial machines have notoriously poor power factors because of under-
utilization of induction motors. This specifically identifies poor system efficiency and utilization.
The large load currents drawn result in poor voltage regulation of the system besides contributing
to large joule losses in lines. Diminished voltage levels directly translate into heating of motor
windings in this way decreasing the life and reliability of the machine. The decline in available
torque, corresponding to the less than nominal voltage, will result in poorer machine
performance. The maximum kilovolt-ampere demand charge increases as a consequence of poor
power factor, and in most cases forms a rather large part of the monthly utility service charge.

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POWER FACTOR:
Power factor is the ration between the KW and the KVA drawn by an electrical load where the
KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a measure of how
effectively the current is being converted into useful work output and more particularly is a
good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of the supply system.

Fig 2.1

All current will cause losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a power factor of
1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power factor of 0.5 will
result in much higher losses in the supply system. A poor power factor can be the result of
either a significant phase difference between the voltage and current at the load terminals, or it
can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform. Poor load
current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an induction motor,
power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace. A distorted current waveform
can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive, switched mode power supply, discharge
lighting or other electronic load. A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved
by the addition of power factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current
waveform requires a change in equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an
appreciable improvement. Many inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than
0.95 when in reality, the true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is based
on the Cosine of the angle between the voltage and current but does not take Apparent power
Active power Reactive power into account that the current waveform is discontinuous and
therefore contributes to increased losses on the supply.

Reasons of Low Power Factor

 Mercury vapour lamps or lamps operated with chokes

 Power and distribution Transformers. A complete unloaded transformer is very
inductive has a very low power factor.
 Induction motors (Load and unload condition)

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POWER FACTOR CORRECTION:

Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include induction motors as a
means of reducing the inductive component of the current and thereby reduce the losses in the
supply. There should be no effect on the operation of the motor itself. An induction motor
draws current from the supply that is made up of resistive components and inductive
components. The resistive components are:

(i)Load current

(ii)Loss current

The inductive components are

(i)Leakage reactance

(ii)Magnetizing current

Fig 2.2

The current due to the leakage reactance is dependant on the total current drawn by the
motor, but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The magnetizing
current will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current of the motor. The
magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron and is very necessary if
the motor is going to operate. The magnetizing current does not actually contribute to the
actual work output of the motor. It is the catalyst that allows the motor to work properly. The
magnetizing current and the leakage reactance can be considered passenger components of
current that will not affect the power drawn by the motor, but will contribute to the power
dissipated in the supply and distribution system. Taking an example, a motor with a current

36 | P a g e
draw of 100 Amps and a power factor of 0.75 the resistive component of the current is 75 Amps
and this is what the KWh meter measures. The higher current will result in an increase in the
distribution losses of (100 x 100) / (75 x 75) = 1.777 or a 78% increase in the supply losses. In
the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power factor correction is added
to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing current of the motor. Typically, the corrected power
factor will be 0.92 - 0.95 some power retailers offer incentives for operating with a power factor
of better than 0.9, while others penalize consumers with a poor power factor. There are many
ways that this is metered, but the net result is that in order to reduce wasted energy in the
distribution system, the consumer will be encouraged to apply power factor correction.

Fig 2.3

Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the connected
motor circuits and can be applied at the starter, or applied at the switchboard or distribution
panel. The resulting capacitive current is leading current and is used to cancel the lagging
inductive current flowing from the supply. Capacitors connected at each starter and controlled
by each starter are known as "Static Power Factor Correction".

STATIC CORRECTION:

As a large proportion of the inductive or lagging current on the supply is due to the
magnetizing current of induction motors, it is easy to correct each individual motor by
connecting the correction capacitors to the motor starters. With static correction, it is
important that the capacitive current is less than the inductive magnetizing current of the
induction motor. In many installations employing static power factor correction, the correction
capacitors are connected directly in parallel with the motor windings. When the motor is Off

37 | P a g e
Line, the capacitors are also Off Line. When the motor is connected to the supply, the
capacitors are also connected providing correction at all times that the motor is connected to
the supply. This removes the requirement for any expensive power factor monitoring and
control equipment. In this situation, the capacitors remain connected to the motor terminals as
the motor slows down. An induction motor, while connected to the supply, is driven by a
rotating magnetic field in the stator which induces current into the rotor. When the motor is
disconnected from the supply, there is for a period of time, a magnetic field associated with the
rotor. As the motor decelerates, it generates voltage out its terminals at a frequency which is
related to its speed. The capacitors connected across the motor terminals, form a resonant
circuit with the motor inductance. If the motor is critically corrected, (corrected to a power
factor of 1.0) the inductive reactance equals the capacitive reactance at the line frequency and
therefore the resonant frequency is equal to the line frequency. If the motor is over corrected,
the resonant frequency will be below the line frequency. If the frequency of the voltage
generated by the decelerating motor passes through the resonant frequency of the corrected
motor, there will be high currents and voltages around the motor/capacitor circuit. This can
result in severe damage to the capacitors and motor. It is imperative that motors are never over
corrected or critically corrected when static correction is employed. Static power factor
correction should provide capacitive current equal to 80% of the magnetizing current, which is
essentially the open shaft current of the motor. The magnetizing current for induction motors
can vary considerably. Typically, magnetizing currents for large two pole machines can be as
low as 20% of the rated current of the motor while smaller low speed motors can have a
magnetizing current as high as 60% of the rated full load current of the motor. It is not practical
to use a "Standard table" for the correction of induction motors giving optimum correction on
all motors. Tables result in under correction on most motors but can result in over correction in
some cases. Where the open shaft current cannot be measured, and the magnetizing current is
not quoted, an approximate level for the maximum correction that can be applied can be

38 | P a g e
calculated from the half load characteristics of the motor.

Fig 2.4

It is dangerous to base correction on the full load characteristics of the motor as in some cases,
motors can exhibit a high leakage reactance and correction to 0.95 at full load will result in over
correction under no load, or disconnected conditions. Static correction is commonly applied by
using one contactor to control both the motor and the capacitors. It is better practice to use
two contactors, one for the motor and one for the capacitors. Where one contactor is
employed, it should be up sized for the capacitive load. The use of a second contactor
eliminates the problems of resonance between the motor and the capacitors.

SUPPLY HARMONICS:

Harmonics on the supply cause a higher current to flow in the capacitors. This is because the
impedance of the capacitors goes down as the frequency goes up. This increase in current flow
through the capacitor will result in additional heating of the capacitor and reduce its life. The
harmonics are caused by many nonlinear loads; the most common in the industrial market
today, are the variable speed controllers and switch mode power supplies. Harmonic voltages
can be reduced by the use of a harmonic compensator, which is essentially a large inverter that
cancels out the harmonics. This is an expensive option. Passive harmonic filters comprising
resistors, inductors and capacitors can also be used to reduce harmonic voltages. This is also an
expensive exercise. In order to reduce the damage caused to the capacitors by the harmonic
currents, it is becoming common today to install detuning reactors in series with the power
factor correction capacitors. These reactors are designed to make the correction circuit
inductive to the higher frequency harmonics. Typically, a reactor would be designed to create a
39 | P a g e
resonant circuit with the capacitors above the third harmonic, but sometimes it is below.
Adding the inductance in series with the capacitors will reduce their effective capacitance at the
supply frequency. Reducing the resonant or tuned frequency will reduce the effective
capacitance further. The object is to make the circuit look as inductive as possible at the 5th
harmonic and higher, but as capacitive as possible at the fundamental frequency. Detuning
reactors will also reduce the chance of the tuned circuit formed by the capacitors and the
inductive supply being resonant on a supply harmonic frequency, thereby reducing damage due
to supply resonance amplifying harmonic voltages caused by nonlinear loads.

SUPPLY RESONANCE:

Capacitive Power factor correction connected to a supply causes resonance between the
supply and the capacitors. If the fault current of the supply is very high, the effect of the
resonance will be minimal, however in a rural installation where the supply is very inductive
and can be high impedance, the resonance can be very severe resulting in major damage to
plant and equipment. To minimize supply resonance problems, there are a few steps that can
be taken, but they do need to be taken by all on the particular supply.

1) Minimize the amount of power factor correction, particularly when the load is
light. The power factor correction minimizes losses in the supply. When the supply is lightly
loaded, this is not such a problem.

2) Minimize switching transients. Eliminate open transition switching - usually

associated with generator plants and alternative supply switching, and with some
electromechanical starters such as the star/delta starter.

3) Switch capacitors on to the supply in lots of small steps rather than a few large
steps.

4) Switch capacitors on o the supply after the load has been applied and switch off the
supply before or with the load removal. Harmonic Power Factor correction is not applied to
circuits that draw either discontinuous or distorted current waveforms. Most electronic
equipment includes a means of creating a DC supply. This involves rectifying the AC voltage,
causing harmonic currents. In some cases, these harmonic currents are insignificant relative to
the total load current drawn, but in many installations, a large proportion of the current drawn
is rich in harmonics. If the total harmonic current is large enough, there will be a resultant
distortion of the supply waveform which can interfere with the correct operation of other
equipment. The addition of harmonic currents results in increased losses in the supply. Power
factor correction for distorted supplies cannot be achieved by the addition of capacitors. The
harmonics can be reduced by designing the equipment using active rectifiers, by the addition of
passive filters (LCR) or by the addition of electronic power factor correction inverters which

40 | P a g e
restore the waveform back to its undistorted state. This is a specialist area requiring either
major design changes, or specialized equipment to be used.

BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Improving a facility's power factor can have the following benefits [10]:

a. Power Factor Surcharges Encourage Higher Efficiency

b. Reduced Demand Charges

c. Increased Load Carrying Capabilities in Existing Circuits

d. Improved Voltage

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Automatic Power Factor correction device is developed built on embedded system having
89S52 at its core. The voltage and current signal from the system is sampled and taken as input
where the difference between the arrivals of wave forms indicates the phase angle difference.
The difference is measured by the internal timer and calibrated as phase angle to calculate the
corresponding power factor. The system power factor is compared with the desired level and the
difference is measured for switching of required number of capacitors from the bank. The values
of power factor and phase lag are shown on a display for convenience.

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

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 Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of the Correction Equipment

3.3 ALGORITHM
Step-1: Take input for voltage and current in the circuit.

Step-2: Measure the phase lag and calculate the power factor.

Step-3: Differentiate from the targeted power factor and calculate the reactive power
requirement.

Step-4: Switch ON or OFF appropriate number of capacitors from capacitor bank depending on
reactive power supplied by each step.

Step-5: Again compare the power factor with targeted PF and continue from step-1.

3.4 MEASUREMENT
The primary quantities to be measured are power factor and energy consumed. Along with these,
the voltage level, current flowing and active power will also be helpful for monitoring the load.
The instruments used for all required purpose is Meco Power Guard Model PG08 [22].

3.5.1 Meco Power Guard PG08

Using high-integration microcomputer chips and special Energy Metering IC, with high-
accuracy current sensor and LCD, this product can monitor electric equipments in every way. It
can be used in monitoring domestic appliances such as air conditioner; fridge and microwave
oven. This product is suitable for home, rental house, office, laboratory and various places.
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 Figure 3.2: Meco Power Guard PG08 [22]

3.6 DESIGN OF DIFFERENT LOADS

To verify and monitor the working of the correction device three different types of loads are
designed corresponding to actual loads in a typical power system. These will replicate the
loading pattern, power consumption, power factor etc.

3.6.1 Design of Resistive(R) Load

To design a pure resistive load, a light bulb or incandescent lamp of 100W can be used. The
circuit connection is shown below.

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 Figure 3.3: Connection Diagram & Circuit Diagram for Pure R Load

The resistor R represents the resistance value of the bulb filament.

Here V=230V, R=550KΩ

According to Ohms Law,

Current, I = V/R = 220/550

= 0.41 mA

3.6.2 Design of Series R-L Load

To model an inductive load, a tube light choke can be used. The choke and the bulb connected in
series will behave as a series R-L load. The circuit connection is shown below. The voltage
available for the bulb will be less than the supply voltage due to the drop in the choke.

Figure 3.4: Connection Diagram & Circuit Diagram for Series R-L Load

The impedance of the circuit will be, Z= R+jXL

Current, I = V/Z

3.6.3 Design of Parallel R-L Load

The choke and the bulb when connected in parallel will behave as a parallel R-L load. The bulb
will get the same voltage as the supply. The circuit connection is shown below.

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 Figure 3.5: Connection Diagram & Circuit Diagram for Parallel R-L Load

The impedance of the circuit will be, Z = R+JXL/R+jXL

Current, I = V/Z

DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the detailed design of each block of the proposed power factor correction
equipment along with the working of each part. Each block consists of several components
connected in the required way to give the desired output. The complete circuit diagram is
provided at the end based on which the fabrication was completed. Special care was taken during
the fabrication to avoid any short circuit of paths during crossing of paths.

4.2 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. The
potential transformer (PT) essentially uses a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously
high voltage to a safer low voltage (typically 110 Volts) in any substation. The PT used here
steps-down the supply voltage of 230 Volts to 12 Volts as required by the circuit to operate. The
output of a PT is used for all measurement and monitoring purposes in conjunction with relay
operation

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 Figure 4.1: A 230/12 Volt Transformer [24]

The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio of the
voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which
is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary
(output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Turns ratio =VP/VS=NP/NS=IS/IP

Where, Vp = primary (input) voltage. Vs = secondary (output) voltage Np = number of turns on

primary coil Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Ip = primary (input) current Is = secondary
(output) current.

4.3 CURRENT TRANSFORMER

In an electrical circuit, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents.
Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are
known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to
measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional
to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording
instruments. It also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the
monitored circuit. They are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical
power industry.

Figure 4.2: Schematic working of a Current Transformer [26]

4.4 ZERO CROSSINGDETECTOR

The zero crossing detector is a sine-wave to square-wave converter. To calculate the phase lag
between the voltage and current, two detectors are used to find the arrival instance of each signal.
Then the difference in the arrival instance calibrated to angle gives the phase angle lag. By
taking the cosine of this phase lag, power factor of the circuit is calculated. The reference voltage
in this case is set to zero. The output voltage waveform shows when and in what direction an
input signal crosses zero volts. If input voltage is a low frequency signal, then output voltage will
be less quick to switch from one saturation point to another. And if there is noise in between the

46 | P a g e
two input nodes, the output may fluctuate between positive and negative saturation voltage Vsat.
The LM339 IC is used as the comparator circuit to function as zero crossing detector.

Figure 4.3: LM339 IC and its Pin Diagram [27]

4.5 POWER SUPPLY FOR CURCUIT

The embedded system circuit typically uses 12 volt and 5 volt DC as its operating voltage.
Therefore, there is a need to convert the 230 Volt AC supply to the required DC supply. In the
1st stage the 230 V AC is step-down to 12 V AC by using a transformer. In this case the output
from the potential transformer (PT) can be utilized instead of going for another step-down
transformer. The 2nd stage is the rectification process. By using a full bridge rectifier circuit, the
12 V AC is rectified to a 12V pulsating DC voltage. This pulsating DC is passed through a
capacitive filter for smoothening in the 3rd stage and gives a normal 12V DC as output. The 4th
stage consists of using a 12 V and a 5 V voltage regulator for generating the required stable
supply voltage to be used in the control circuit.

4.5.1 Rectifier

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a process
known as rectification. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a
full wave rectifier. Most of the cases, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good
stability and full wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes (1 set of parallel
diodes) will conduct, in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will
conduct only in forward bias only.

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Figure 4.4: A Full Bridge Rectifier with Input and Output [29]

4.5.2 Filter

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and
smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load
is maintained constant. The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter.

4.5.3 Voltage Regulator

The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-
220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range
of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents. In the LM78XX, the output voltage is specified by the last 2 digits XX. The oLM7805
will be 5 Volts and the same for 7812 will be 12 vol

Figure 4.5: LM7805 and its Connection Diagram [30]

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4.6 DISPLAY UNIT
In an embedded system, the microcontroller interacts with the outside world using input and
output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices
attached to the microcontroller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected
to the microcontroller are 16x2 and 20x4 displays. This means there will be 16 characters per
line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 4 lines, respectively available to use. In this project a
16x2 LCD, model JHD 162A which shows the power factor and the phase lag between voltage
and current in milliseconds.

Figure 4.6: A 16x2 LCD Display

4.6.1 LCD Connection

The connection to microcontroller requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the
data bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data
bus. If a 4bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the
4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines
(3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus).

Figure 4.7: Pin Description and Connection Diagram of 16x2 LCD in 4-bit Mode [31]

4.7 MICRCONTROLLER

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The heart of any embedded system is a microcontroller which is responsible for all the logical
processing. It takes input, processes it according to the program written to it and then gives the
processed output. It also has some on chip memory which is utilized to store some temporary
variables during processing is going on. The microcontroller used here is AT89S52 which is a 8-
bit controller.

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of

in-system programmable flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density
nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard instruction set and
pin out. The on-chip flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a
conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-
system programmable flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful
microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded
control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of flash,
256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a
six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock
circuitry.

Figure 4.8: 89S52 Microcontroller and its Pin Diagram [32]

4.8 RELAY UNIT

This unit consists of a relay driver and some relays. As the output of the microcontroller cannot
control the switching of capacitors directly, this unit is responsible for controlling the high power
circuit from a low power circuit

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4.8.1 Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled
circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Current flowing through the
coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts.

 The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO: COM =
Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

Figure 4.9: 12 Volt Relay and its Internal Connection [33]

4.8.2 Relay Driver

As the current supplied by the output pin of microcontroller is not sufficient for the relay coil to
operate the relay, a relay driver ULN2003 is used. ULN2003 is a high voltage and high current
Darlington transistor array. The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current
Darlington transistor arrays. It consists of seven NPN Darlington pairs that feature high-voltage
outputs with common-cathode Clamp diode for switching inductive loads. The collector-current
rating of a single Darlington pair is 500mA. The Darlington pairs may be paralleled for higher
current capability. Applications include relay drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers, display
drivers (LED gas discharge), line drivers, and logic buffers.

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Figure 4.10: ULN2003 Relay Driver and its Pin Connection Diagram [34]

4.9 CAPACITOR BANK

Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply and the efficient
operation of the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the system can
significantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively inexpensive and can be
easily installed anywhere on the network. The capacitor bank consists of number of shunt
capacitors which are switched ON or OFF depending on the reactive power requirement. The
switching of capacitors can be done manually or automatically by using relays.

Figure 4.11: Shunt Capacitors [35]

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Shunt capacitors, either at the customer location for power factor correction or on the distribution
system for voltage control, dramatically alter the system impedance variation with frequency.
Capacitors do not create harmonics, but severe harmonic distortion can sometimes be attributed
to their presence.

A shunt capacitor at the end of a feeder results in a gradual change in voltage along the feeder.
Ideally, the percent voltage rise at the capacitor would be zero at no load and rise to maximum at
full load. However, with shunt capacitors, percent voltage rise is essentially independent of load.

4.10 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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Figure 4.12: Complete Circuit Diagram for the Correction Equipment

4.11 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

The PCB was fabricated according to the VRP diagram for the complete circuit and all the
components are soldered on it. The connection for potential transformer, current transformer,
capacitor bank was done at the respective places. Continuity check using the multimeter was
carried out to avoid any accidental short-circuits. The program was written to the microcontroller
by using a burner. The complete hardware is shown in the below diagrams (Figs. 4.18 & 4.19).

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Figure 4.13: The Realized PF Correction Equipment

Figure 4.14: The Three Different Types of Load Designed

RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

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5.1 INTRODUCTION
The usefulness of any device designed can only be verified after it is used and expected result is
achieved. After the power factor correction circuit is fabricated, it is required to verify the
working and desired correction in power factor. For this purpose the measurement of suitable
electrical parameters is necessary accompanied by a periodical monitoring of desired outcome.

5.2 MEASUREMENT
All the measurements need to be done for the three different types of load designed; separately
with and without the correction equipment. The quantities like supply voltage, frequency, current
drawn by the load, power consumed, power factor are essential to be measured for each cases.
The energy utilized is also necessary to monitored for a particular duration of time to confirm for
the consequent energy savings, if any. The Meco power guard instrument was employed for all
the measurement and monitoring.

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Figure-5.1: Measuring the PF of a Parallel R-L Load

5.2.1 ANALYSIS OF LOAD WITHOUT CORRECTION

The analysis of the pure restive load (R Load), series resistive-inductive loads (Series R-L Load)
and parallel resistive-inductive (Parallel R-L Load) was done without using the correction
equipment. The designed loads were connected through the PG08 power guard and the readings
for different electrical parameters were recorded.

Table 5.1: Load Analysis without Correction Sl. No.

5.2.2 ANALYSIS OF LOAD WITH CORRECTION

As there is a need for power factor improvement for Series R-L load and Parallel R-L load, they
were connected to the supply along with the correction equipment designed to verify the
expected correction. The correction equipment is plugged in to the PG08 power guard and the
loads are connected to the output point of the equipment. All the three loads designed were tried
and the observed values were recorded.

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Table 5.2: Load Analysis accompanied by Correction Equipment

5.3 MONITORING

Monitoring generally means to be aware of the state of a system and may refer to observe a
situation for any changes which may occur over time, using a monitor or measuring device. To
measure the energy consumed, it is necessary to monitor the load for a specific period of time.
The Meco PG08 power guard can be used to monitor the time as well as measure the energy
consumption for each type of load. The loads are connected continuously for the definite time
and continuous monitoring was done with extreme care.

5.3.1 MONITORING OF LOAD WITHOUT CORRECTION

The monitoring of the pure restive load (R Load), series resistive-inductive loads (Series R-L
Load) and parallel resistive-inductive (Parallel R-L Load) was done without using the correction
equipment. The designed loads were connected through the PG08 power guard and the readings
for energy consumption, time and average power factor were recorded.

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Table 5.3: Monitoring of Load without Correction

Because there is a scope for power factor improvement for Series R-L load and Parallel R-L
load, they were connected to the supply along with the correction equipment designed to verify
the expected correction. The correction equipment is plugged in to the PG08 power guard and
the loads are connected to the output point of the equipment. All the three loads designed were
monitored over a period of time and the observed values were recorded.

Table 5.4: Monitoring of Load accompanied by Correction Equipment

5.4 MONITORING OF A REAL TIME FLUCTUATING LOAD

To witness the actual working of the correction unit under a real time fluctuating load, different
load patterns of duration 10 hours each was designed and the corresponding values of energy and
average power factor were monitored. To visualize the change in power factor; graphs are
plotted for each load pattern taking the pre and post power factor improvement for the respective
time of operation.

The three load patterns A, B and C over an operation of 10 hours is shown below. The loads are
changed accordingly to observe the automatic change in the switching of capacitors by the

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control circuit based on the reactive power requirement and power factor.

Figure 5.2: Three Sample Load Patterns for Monitoring

The energy consumed over the time period along with the average power factor is recorded in the
table below for the conditions without and with power factor correction.

Table 5.5: Monitoring of Real Time Fluctuating Load

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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS FOR POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the financial feasibility study will be discussed for the proposed power factor
correction equipment. A cost effective study is required to show that the proposed system will be
helpful for industry to have an efficient operation and reduced energy consumption. All the
calculations will be made based on electricity consumption. The cost of implementation payback
period will play the key role in deciding the usefulness of the power factor correction in AAM
industry.

6.3 CALCULATIONS WITH A LOW POWER FACTOR

To make the bill calculation simple, let us consider only the no. of units consumed and penalty
for power factor. Based on the above data, the average units consumed can be taken as 8740000
units in a month.

Considering the uncorrected power factor to be 0.70, the total cost of electricity consumption is
calculated.

For power factor of 70%, the penalty is 0.5% for every 1% fall from 92% up to and including
70% plus [37].

Total charges= Energy Cost + Penalty= 45448000 + 4999280 = Rs. 50447280

6.4 CALCULATIONS WITH IMPROVED POWER FACTOR

The correction equipment used was able to improve the power factor to 0.97. Considering an
average reduction of 1.7% in power consumption due to PF correction, the total cost is
calculated.

As the power factor is 0.97, there will be no penalty for low PF. Total charges= Energy Cost +
Penalty = 44675384+ 0 =Rs. 44675384

Savings in energy consumptions= 50447280 – 44675384=Rs. 5771896.

This is the amount that will be saved per month if power factor correction equipment is
employed which is 11.4% of the monthly electricity charges.

6.5 CALCULATIONS FOR COST OF CORRECTION EQUIPMENT

The size and cost of the correction equipment will depend on the reactive power requirement. It
is required to calculate the amount of compensated reactive power to raise the power factor from
0.70 to 0.97. Required KVAR =KW x (tan – tan ) =12140 x (1.02 – 0.25) = 9350 KVARs
Considering a safety factor of 1.25, the required KVARs will be= 9350 x 1.25 = 11686 ≈ 12000

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KVARs. Considering the option etaSYS-FU3 of 500 KVARs of capacity, a product from L&T
Switchgear Company [38], Total cost of correction equipment= 24 x 2058200 =Rs. 49396800

Payback period = Total investment/Total savings

= 49396800/5771896

= 8.56 ≈ 9 Months

The payback period of APFC equipment is around 9 months in this case. The initial cost of
installation is high, but the savings realized suggests that it should be implemented.

CONCLUSIONS

7.1 CONCLUSIONS
Power factor correction equipment designed based on microcontroller and capacitor banks was
used for measurement and monitoring of modeled electrical load and the following deductions
were obtained:

The power factor correction device designed was able to improve the power factor from 0.76 to
0.97 under the test load conditions. The average savings in energy consumption was about 1.7%
for the designed load and different load patterns. With the proper amount of reactive power
compensation, the system capacity is released as there is a reduction in current drawn. The
economic analysis suggested the payback period to be around 9 months with a significant
amount of savings in energy cost.

7.2 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

 The designed equipment was studied in the laboratory scale; it can be implemented in
the mine substations with proper protection to verify the operation in a real time
environment.
 In case of automatic PF correction, if the load is changing frequently, the numerous
switching of capacitor bank may cause harmonic problem. Suitable filter design as well
as an optimum algorithm design can be done based on the frequent load change pattern
to avoid regular switching of capacitor bank.
 A comparative study on the location of correction equipment may be employed in the
field to find out the optimum location referring to maximum utilization and savings.

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