initive or gerund lowed by another verb, the ther in the gerund form (ing) or it rbs are followed by a gerund: imagine, fee! Suggest, practise, miss, can't stand, enjoy, detest, Tenjoy cooking but I can't stand washing the dishes (XIenjoy cooking but I can't stand to-wash the dishes) These verbs are followed by an infinitive with to: decide, refuse, hope, promise, ask, expect, afford, offer and choose. con't afford to buy a new smart phone. 4 These verbs can be followed by either form with no difference in meaning: begin, start, continue. We started walking / to walk towards the town. It continued raining / to rain until late afternoon, Verbs + -gerund and to + infinitive with different meanings ‘The verbs remember, try, stop, regret, forget can be followed by either form (gerund or infinitive) but with a difference in meaning, The difference relates to time: which action came first (1) and which came second (2). In general, verb + gerund looks back, and verb + infinitive looks forward. Remember Fremember going there last year. (= I went last year (1) and some time later, I remembered (2)) remembered to go to the supermarket. (= First | remembered (1) and then I went (2)) Forget Il never forget meeting you. (= First! met you (1) and now I wont forget (2) Don't forget to meet me at the cinema, (= First don't forget (1) {and then meet me at the cinema (2) Stop We stopped eating and left the café. (= First we ate (1) and then we stopped (2)) Wie stopped to eat our sandwiches. then we ate (2)) rst we stopped (1) and Try Iied taking the medicine but I stil fet il (= 1 fet il. took the medicine. After the medicine, I didn't feel better) tried to take the medicine but I couldn't swallow it (= I wanted to take the medicine, and tried, but I was unsuccessful.) Regret really regret telling him what happened. (= First told him what happened (1) 1am sorry that I told him (2) regret to tell you that you failed the exam. (= You foiled (1) ‘and I'm sorry to hove to tell you this (2)) Unit 2 Relative clauses (review) 1 Adefining relative clause identifies the thing, person, place or possession that we are talking about. We do not use a comma in these clauses. The woman who gives the lectures is very intelligent. ( There is only one wornan who gives the lectures) The city where I grew up is a great place. (= lam talking about the only city where I grew up.) 2. Anon-defining relative clause gives additional information about the thing, person, place or possession we are talking about. This information is, between commas. The woman, who gives the lectures, is very intelligent. (= Lam talking about an intelligent woman and adding the non-essential information that she gives lectures.) The city, where grew up, is a great place. (= !am talking about a city that’s a great place, and adding that itis where I grew up.) which to refer to a whole clause When we want to refer back to a clause or an idea, we use the relative pronoun which (not that or what) He had to go out and find a job, which wasn’t easy. (0X He had to go out and find a job, thet wasn't easy.) This phone is very good, which is why it's so popular. (X This phone is very good, wet is why it's so popular)| CRAM MARIREGERENCE | Omitting relative pronouns and reduced relative clauses 1 When the relative pronouns that / which / who are the object of the following clause, they can be omitted. They can't be omitted when they are the subject of the following clause. He's the man (that) I told you about. He's the boy who sold me this watch 2. When the relative pronoun is followed by the verb be, the relative clause is passive and we can leave out both the relative pronoun and the verb be. This is called a ‘reduced relative clause’ Their house, (which was) built only last year, was completely destroyed by the tornado. The people (who are) running the company are not doing their job propery. The shopping centre, (that was) opened by the Queen, is the biggest in the country. Unit 3 Quantifiers 1 Quantifiers are words that we use to say how many or how much of a noun, Frequent quantifiers are: none, hardly any, a few /a little, (not) many / much, some, several, most, a lot /lats, loads, all 2. The quantifiers a few / (not) many / several are only used with countable nouns. The quantifiers a little / (not) much are only used with uncountable nouns. ve been to a few / many / several rock concerts They took a little food on the trip. They didn’t take much food on the trip. 3 Some quantifiers always need the word of before the noun or pronoun they refer None of the books were cheop. ‘Alot of people think that way. 4 Allthe quantifiers need the word of when they are followed by a pronoun: Hardly any films are made here, ond hardly any of them are good. There is some food in the fridge, but some of its quite old 5. The word none of) is grammatically singular but many people use a plural verb after it I've got lots of friends, but none of them are musicians. so and such (review) 1 We use the words so and such to emphasise what we are saying: This food isso delicious! She's such 0 good writer. 2. We use so + adjective. We use such (+ adjective) + noun (or pronoun). The weather's so good. Ics such a wonderful day. 3 We can follow these phrases with a that clause, to show consequences. The weather was so good that we went for a walk, Itwas such good weather that we went for a walk. do and did for emphasis We can use the auxiliary verb do / does (or did in the past) to emphasise the verb, I did like the food! I just wosn't very hungry. Wie didn’t have time to go to the museum, but we did go to the ark. Unit 4 be get used to (doing) vs. used to (do) 1 When we want to talk about something being normal or familiar, we can use the expression be used to. It cold where I lve, so fm used to wearing a fot of warm clothes. 2 We use get used to to refer to the process of something becoming normal or familiar. It took him a while to get used to eating dinner early. (X It took him a while to get used to eat dinner early) 3 These expressions are followed by a noun or the gerund (-ing) form of a verb. Tm not really used to spicy food. They've got used to living in a small apartment. (0X They've got used to five in a small apartment) ‘These expressions are not the same as used to, which refers to past habits or states which are no longer true and is followed by an infinitive without to. Tused to love their music, but now I never listen to it I didn't use to eat vegetables. (XI didn’t wsed to eat vegetables.) 153Cl TUS gt cel a Adverbs and adverbial phrases ‘Adverbs qualify verbs. They can qualify verbs in different ways, for example: Adverbs of manner (how) ‘He walked quickly. ‘Adverbs of time (when) We got there late, ‘Adverbs of place (where) ‘Sign here, please. Adverbs of probability You probably think fm crazy! ‘Adverbs of opinion Its surprisingly quiet in here. We can also use adverbial phrases to describe a verb and to say how an action is/was performed. They played well. OX They played good) Drive more slowly! One structure for adverbial phrases is with + noun. When I told her, she reacted with surprise. Another structure for adverbial phrases is in a(n) + adjective + way. (Our teacher explains things in a fun way. Adverbial phrases are often used when an adjective (e.g. friendly, difficult, interesting, fun) has no adverb form. Unit 5 Obligation, permission and prohibition (review) 1 We can talk about obligation and necessity by using ‘must, have to and (be) supposed t0. You must get there before eight o'clock. (= This is an ‘obligation imposed by the speaker) We have to finish our projects by Friday. (= This is an obligation imposed by someone else.) We're supposed to switch off our phones in lessons. (© This isthe rule, but we don't always follow it) 2 We can talk about no obligation or no necessity by using don't have to and don't need to. You don’t have to eat this if you don’t want to. We didn't need to buy tickets - my dad gove us some. 3 We-can say something is (or isn’t) a good idea by using should(nt), You should leave now if you don't want to miss your bus. shouldn't eat any more or I'l feel sick 4 We can talk about permission using let or be allowed to. Lets active voice, while be allowed to is passive voice. The school lets us use the tennis courts at the weekend, (© The schoo! gives us permission to use the tennis courts at the weekend.) We're allowed to use the tennis courts at the weekend, 5 We can talk about prohibition using (not) be allowed to or don't/doesn’t let. When we don't know, or don’t want to say who itis that prohibits something, we use ‘they’ pists are not allowed to leave their bikes here They don't let cyclists leave their bikes here. Necessity: (didn’t) need to / needn't have We use didn't need to and needn't have to talk about the necessity of past actions. There is a small but important difference between the two structures. 1 didn’t need to usually suggests that we didn't do something because it wasn't necessary. I didn’t need to go to the doctor. = I didn’t go.) 2 needn’t have means that we did something but actually it wasn’t necessary. We needn't have cooked allthis food - only four people turned up at the party. (= We cooked a lot of food but it wasn't necessary, Ability in the past: could, was/were able to, managed to, succeeded in doing 1 When we talk about ability in the past, we can use could/couldn’t, managed to, was/were able to or succeeded (in doing). However, there are differences between them. 2) We use could /couldn’t to talk about general abil in the past, My brother couldn't ride a bike until he was twelve. could do maths in my head when I was 0 kid. 3. When we want to talk about no ability on a specific occasion in the past, we have three possibilities: listened, but I couldn't hear anything. Iworked hard, but | didn't manage to finish everything hurt my leg and I wasn’t able to walk for two weeks. 4 But, when we want to talk about ability on a speci occasion in the past, we don't use could: The wall was very high but we managed to climb over it. (NOT: we coxstercimb over it) Because we bought our tickets @ long time in advance, we were able to get them quite cheaply. (NOT: we eeuietget them...) 5 We use succeeded (in doing) to emphasise that something was difficult in the past but we were able to doit. had to woit for hours, but I succeeded in getting tickets.| CRAM MARIREGERENCE | Unit 6 3 The linkers however and nevertheless come at the beginning of a sentence. They are followed by a comma and introduce a contrast with what was s 1 We can intensify a comparison (make it stronger) in the previous sentence. using a lot /for/ much + comparative adjective Imade some mistakes in my driving test. However / Nevertheless, | passed. Comparatives Use a calculator - its far easier thot way. Lets take a tox, its much quicker. . It's lot more difficult than I thought. Unit 7 2. Comparisonswith as...ascan be madestronger Ways of referring to the future (review) with not nearly or nowhere near. Some common ways to refer to the future include: He's not nearly as clever as his sister. (his sister is much cleverer than him.) 1 be going to for plans, intentions and evidence-based The film is nowhere near as good as the book. Predictions (The book is far better than the film) Tm going to visit my grandparents tomorrow. 3 We canuse just with as... as to emphasise how 2. mill for future facts, spontaneous decisions and similar two things are. offers, and feeling-based predictions Our team is just as good as yours. (The two teams are Technology will develop a lot in the next twenty years. really equally good) 3 the present continuous for arrangements 4. We can use comparative and comparative with We're taking our cat to the vet this afternoon, short adjectives or more and more + adjective with longer adjectives to show how comparisons become 4 the present simple for events that are part of a stronger over time. timetable, and after time expressions like when, before, after, until, and as soon as Il meet you when you arrive tomorrow. My litle sister's getting bigger and bigger every day. Train tickets ore getting more and more expensive. 5. We can use the + comparative (+ clause), the + Future continuous and future perfect ‘comparative (+ clause) with short adjectives, or the ‘more ... adjective (+ clause), the more... adjective 1 The future continuous is formed by will + be + -ing ( clause) with longer adjectives, to show how two form of the verb, events affect each other 2. We use the future continuous tense to talk about an The longer | sat there, the more uncomfortable | action that will be in progress at a specified future became time. The older people are, the more interesting they are. When I'm 25, 1 be fing in another country. Linkers of contrast 3. The future perfect tense is formed by will * have + the past participle of the verb. 1 The linkers although and even though are followed bya clause. They can be used at the beginning ofa 4 We use the future perfect tense to talk about an sentence, or before the second clause. action that we think will be completed by a specified passed my driving test, although / even though I made future time. some mistakes. By 2025, the population will have grown enormously. Although / Even though I made some mistakes in my By the time the World Cup finishes, ll have watched driving test, I passed. ‘more than 50 hours of football 2 The linkers despite and in spite of are followed by ‘a noun phrase or a gerund. They can be used at the beginning of a sentence, or before the second clause. passed my driving test, despite /in spite of (making) some mistakes. Despite / In spite of some mistakes in my driving test, 1 passed. 155Cl TUS gt cel a Unit 8 Conditionals (review) 1 Weuse the zero conditional to talk about a condition and its consequence that are always true. {f1go running, always fel beter 2. Weuse the first conditional to talk about a condition and its possible future consequence. Ifyou make a list, youll remember what you need. (0X Ifyou wit make alist, you'll remember what you need) 3 Weuse the second conditional to talk about a hypothetical situation in the present. If Thad more time, Pd take up the guitar (Xf I woutttrave more time, I'd take up the guitar) 4. Weuse the third conditional to talk about an imaginary situation in the past and its consequence in the past which is impossible to change. If we had left earlier, we wouldn't have been jate. (OX If we wonie-have-eft earlier, we wouldn't have been Jote,) Mixed conditionals Conditional sentences don't always follow the four patterns described above. It's possible to mix second and third conditionals. 1 If we wantto talk about an imaginary / unreal past action and its present consequence, then the if clause follows the pattern of a third conditional and the consequence clause follows the pattern of a second conditional. If I'd paid more attention in class, "'d know how to do this exercise. (= I didn't pay attention. I don't know how to do this exercise.) 2 If we want to talk about how a hypothetical or imaginary present could or would change the past, then the if clause follows the pattern of a second conditional and the consequence clause follows the pattern of a third conditional. If Thad more self-confidence, | would have gone and talked to him. (= didn't go and talk to him, because I dontt have much self-confidence) Unit 9 Iwish and if only 1 We can use I wish or if only to talk about how we would like things to be different now or in the future. The verb that follows J wish /if only is in the past simple tense, wish I knew her nome. (= I don’t know her name and lim sorry about that) Ifonly I could stay in bed a bit longer. = Icant stay in bed longer, but I want to) 2. We can also use wish or ifonly to talk about regrets we have about the past. In this case, the verb that follows I wish /if only s in the past perfect tense. Iwish you'd told me about it before. (= You didn't tell me) Ifonly Thadn't missed that penalty, (= 1 did miss thot penalty) Iwould prefer to / it if: It’s tim Td rather /sooner 1 Totalk about our own preferences, we can use I'd prefer + to infinitive, or we can use I'd rather /I'd sooner + base form. I'd rather is far more common, than I'd sooner, I'd prefer to stay home tonight. I'd rather /1'd sooner have ish than chicken for dinner. 2 Tosay what we would like another person to do, we can use I'd rather /I'd sooner + subject + past simple tense, or we can use I'd prefer it if + subject + past simple tense. fd rather you phoned me tomorrow, if that’s OK. Id prefer it if my friends didn’t make fun of me. 0X I wotsen't prefer it if my friends made fun of me) 3 We canuse its time + subject + past simple to say that we think someone should do something (and to suggest that it should be done immediately). It’s time we left. (= We should leave now) (X It's time we 9°) Unit 10 Reported speech (review) 1 When we report what someone said, there is often a change in verb tense between the direct speech (what the person actually said) and the indirect (reported) speech. ‘Someone's eaten all —* the food!’ he said. ‘Tean't do this’ he said, He said someone had eaten al the food. He said he couldn't do it 2. Ifthe information in the direct speech is still true, we don't necessarily need to change the verb tense. ‘He's hopeless,” + Shetold me he's she told me hopeless. Reported questions and requests 1 When we report a yes/no question, we use ifor whether and normal word order (subject + verb). ‘Do you know this song?’ She asked me if I knew the song, (NOT: She asked me dit+tnow...)| CRAM MARIREGERENCE | 2 When we report wh- questions, we use the same question word and normal word order (subject + verb). ‘Where did they go?’ He asked me where they'd gone. (NOT: He asked me where ake-they-ge) 3 When we report a request or order, we use asked + person + to + infinitive ‘Please help me.’+ He asked me to help hit. Verb patterns There are many verbs that we can use to report, what people said. Each one tells us what kind of thing was said (e.g. a demand, a threat, a warning, an apology, etc.). There are different patterns that follow the verbs. The most frequent patterns are: 1 + {person} + inf advise / persuade They asked us to leave. ‘She tried, but she didn't persuade me to go with her ive, e.g. tell /ask / warn / order / 2. 410+ infinitive OR + that clause, eg. agree He agreed to go ‘He agreed that it was a bad idea. 3 + gerund OR + that clause, e.g. admit /regret /deny/ suggest They suggested walking, 0X They suggested ws to work) They admitted that it was a good thing to do. 4 person + of + gerund, e.g. accuse He accused me of taking his things without asking, Unit 11 Speculating (past, present and future) We often use the modal verbs might / may / could / ‘must /can’t to speculate about the present, the past or the future. 1 We use might/ may / could to talk about a possibility. She might / may / could be Mexican. 2. We use must when we want to say that we are certain, based on evidence. Youre going swimming in the sea in winter? You must be crozy! 3. We use can’t when we believe something is impossible, based on evidence. There's no one in that restaurant - it can’t be very good. (OX There's no one in that restaurant - it enuste't be very good) 4 When we speculate about the past, we use the modal verb + have + past participle. Everyone is talking about the film last night - it must have been very good. I'm surprised John wasn't at the party - he was really looking forward to it. He must have been sick Itecan't have been my husband. He was at home with me aif ast night. 5 We can also use be + bound to /certain to / likely to to speculate about present and future events. The expression be likely to is not as sure as be bound 10 /be certain to. ‘Ask/o, she's relly smart, o she’s bound to know. The weather forecast says it's likely o rain later today. Cause and effect linkers We use the linkers due to /as a result of / because of / consequently to link actions and their consequences. 1 We use because of /due to /as a result of before the reason for an action or event. These phrases can come at the beginning of a sentence, or in the middle. They are usually followed by a noun or noun phrase. The government changed its mind because of /due to/ as a result of pressure from the popufation. Because of / Due to /As a result of pressure from the population, the government changed its mind. 2 The word consequently introduces the result of a Previous idea. Itis usually used at the beginning of anew sentence. Sales of the new car were very low. Consequently, the company lowered the price for a few weeks. Unit 12 Passive report structures 1 We use passive report structures when we want to report information and the agent is not important. The Amazon rainforest is known to be the largest forest in the world. (= Itis not important to say who thinks this) 2. We mostly use passive report structures with verbs like say, think, believe, know and consider. 3 Ifwe use a passive report structure to talk about beliefs or knowledge in the present we use be + past participle of the reporting verb + infinitive. Really strange creatures are thought to exist in the deep oceans. She is considered to be a real expert on wildlife 1574 If we use a passive report structure to talk about beliefs or knowledge in the past, we use be + past participle of the reporting verb + to + present Perfect infinitive. Dinosaurs are thought to have disappeared because of a ‘major disaster on Earth. (= They no longer exist) They are known to have had very small brains. 5 Passive report structures are quite formal and are ‘commonly used in news reports. The passive: verbs with two objects 1 Some verbs (like give, offer, ask, promise, read, show, write, etc.) have two possible passive forms. This is because these verbs can be followed by two objects ~a person and a thing. 2. Thetwo possible active forms are: 2) verb + indirect object + direct object: Someone gave mea present. by verb + direct object + to + indirect object: Someone gave a present to me. 3 Thetwo possible passive constructions are: a) Iwas given a present. (The person is the subject of the sentence) b) Apresent was given to me. (The thing is the subject of the sentence.) 4__Itis more usual to have the person as the subject of the passive construction (as in 3a) not the thing (as in 3b). The kids were shown a film is more likely than A film was shown to the kid 158