Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 2: Electricity
Summary Notes
(Content in bold is for physics only)

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Energy and voltage in circuits

Current

Current I is measured in amperes (A) and is the rate of flow of charge at a point in the circuit.
● The current is given by I=Q/t, where Q is measured in coulombs (C) and t in seconds (s).
● In metals, current is due to a flow of electrons. Because electrons are negatively charged,
conventional current (which is the rate of flow of positive charge) is in the opposite direction
to the flow of electrons.
● Current is conserved at a junction in a circuit because charge is always conserved.

Potential difference

Potential difference V is measured in volts (V where 1 V = 1 JC ) and is the work done per unit
-1

charge in moving between two points in a circuit.

● The potential difference is given by V=E/Q.
● It is measured with a voltmeter placed in parallel across the component.
● The higher the potential difference, the greater the current.

Resistance

The resistance of a component is measured in ohms (Ω) and is given by the potential difference
across it divided by the current through it, i.e. R=V/I. The greater the resistance, the harder it is for
current to flow through the component.

In an ohmic conductor (such as a resistor at a constant temperature), the current is directly

proportional to the voltage (i.e. it has constant resistance). In a non-ohmic conductor (such as a
filament lamp), the resistance changes as the voltage and current changes.

In a filament lamp, this is because as the current increases through the filament, so does the
temperature, which means electrons and ions vibrate more and collide more, increasing
resistance.

A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as the temperature increases.

A light dependent resistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as light intensity increases.

Electric circuits

Series:
● Components are connected end to end in one loop
● The same current flows through every component
● The potential difference is shared across each component (i.e. the sum of the p.d.s across
the components is equal to the total p.d. across the supply).

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 ● The total resistance is the sum of the resistances of each component R = R + R + …
T 1 2

Parallel:
● Components are connected to the power supply in separate branches
● The current is shared between each branch (i.e. the sum of the currents in the separate
branches is equal to the current through the source)
● The potential difference is the same across every branch
● Connecting lamps in parallel is advantageous because if one breaks, current can still pass
through the rest.

Mains electricity
Dangers of electricity

Hazards:

● Damaged insulation – contact with the wire due to gaps in the insulation can cause an
electric shock or pose a fire hazard by creating a short circuit.
● Overheating of cables – high currents passing through thin wire conductors cause the wires
to heat up to very high temperatures which could melt the insulation and cause a fire.
● Damp conditions – water can conduct a current so wet electrical equipment can cause an
electric shock.

Fuses and circuit breakers:

● A fuse is a thin piece of wire which overheats and melts if the current is too high, protecting
the circuit. They have a current rating which should be slightly higher than the current used
by the device in the circuit. The most common are 3A, 5A and 13A.
● Circuit breakers consist of an automatic electromagnet switch which breaks the circuit if the
current rises over a certain value. This is better than a fuse as it can be reset and used
again, and they operate faster.

Earthing metal cases:

● Earth wires creates a safe route for current to flow through in the case of a short circuit,
preventing electric shocks.
● Earth wires have a very low resistance so a strong current surges through them which
breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.

Double insulation:

● Appliances with double insulation have either plastic casings or have been designed so that
the earth wire cannot touch the metal casing, preventing them from giving an electric shock.

Electrical transfer of energy

Energy, measured in joules (J), is transferred from chemical energy in the battery to electrical
energy used by circuit components and then to the surroundings.
● The power of a component is measured in watts (W) and is given by P=IV (by using V=IR,
this can be shown to be equivalent to P=I2R and P=V2/R). Using this equation, the energy
transferred is given by E=IVt.

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Alternating current and direct current

In a direct current, the current only flows in one direction whereas in an alternating current, the
current continuously changes direction.

Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.) whereas the current supplied by a cell or battery is
direct current (d.c.).

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Electric charge
Charge is measured in coulombs, C. There are positive and negative charges; unlike
charges attract and like charges repel.
● Atoms are composed of protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons have a charge of
+1, electrons have a charge of -1 and neutrons have a charge of 0.
● Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
● Conductors such as metals allow electrons to flow through them whereas insulators
such as plastics impede the flow of electrons.
o When two insulators are rubbed together, friction causes electrons to move
from one to the other and they become charged. The material that loses
electrons becomes positively charged and the material that gains electrons
becomes negatively charged.
o The magnitude of the charge on each material is equal, since they lose/gain
the same number of electrons.
o For example, when a rod is rubbed with a cloth, electrons are transferred from
the rod onto the cloth and the rod becomes positively charged.

Consequences of static electricity can be seen in a number of phenomena.

● Lightning:
○ Electrostatic charge can build up on clouds due to friction.
○ When this charge becomes large enough, the clouds discharge through the
air to the earth.
○ This results in lightning.
● Charged balloon on a wall:
○ A positively charged balloon will stick to a wall if moved close enough.
○ Positive charges in the wall are repelled by the balloon and move to other
parts of the wall.
○ This leaves a negative charge on the area of the wall closest to the balloon.
○ The attraction between the negatively charged wall and the positively charged
balloon makes the balloon stick.
● Comb picking up bits of paper:
○ Rubbing a comb against an insulator will cause it to pick up an electrostatic
charge due to the transfer of electrons.
○ The charge on the comb repels like-charged in the paper, leaving the paper
closest to the comb with an electrostatic charge opposite to the comb.
○ This end of the paper is then attracted to the comb.

Electrostatic phenomena caused by the movement of electrons have many useful

applications but also pose many risks.
● Dangers of electrostatic charges include:
o Static charges pose a risk of electric shock. If a person touches an object with
a large amount of static charge, electrons will flow through the person’s body
to the earth.
o When fuelling aircraft and tankers, if enough charge builds up it can create a
spark, igniting fuel and causing a fire or explosion. For safety, a wire can be
attached so that the charge instead flows into the earth.
● Safety measures when using electrostatic charges include:
o Earthing involves offering electrons an alternative pathway to the earth.
o This prevents too much electrostatic charge form building up on the surface
of an insulator.
o Less electrostatic charge reduces the risk of electric shock.

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● Uses of electrostatic charges include:
o In an inkjet printer, droplets of ink are charged and pass between two charged
metal plates, one of which has a positive charge and the other a negative
charge. The droplets are attracted to the plate with the opposite charge and
repelled by the plate with the same charge and deflected towards a specific
place on the paper.

o In a photocopier, the image of a document is projected onto a positively

charged plate; where light falls onto the plate, the charge leaks away.
Negatively charged toner particles are attracted to the remaining positive
areas. Paper is then placed over the plate and the toner is transferred to it,
making the photocopy.

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