1.2.

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

After defining and graphing functions, we are now in position to tackle one of the origins of
the concept of calculus. We develop the principle by exploring some other concepts of
functions.

Suppose we are given with the function

2
23
xx
+−
( )1
fx.
=
x −

Note that the function given is not defined when x = 1since the value of f(x)will be undefined.
Automatically, the value of 1 is discarded from its domain.

But even though we cannot allow 1 as our value of x, what if we set the values of x to be
closer and closer to 1? Let us try to see on what it will seem to be the value off(x)if we set the
value of x to be very close to 1, but not necessarily equal to 1.

To answer this question, let us construct a table of values with x-values that are less than 1
(0.75, 0.9, 0.99, 0.999) and greater than 1 (1.25, 1.1, 1.01, 1.001). Then we substitute these 2

23
xx
+−
values to ( )1
f xusing a calculator. Setting up the table and solving for the
= −
x
corresponding values of f(x), we have:

x 0.75 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.25

f(x)4.5 4.8 4.98 4.998 und 5.002 5.02 5.2 5.5

Let us deduce all possible concepts that we can notice in the table of values. Starting with
values of x that are less than 1 (0.75, 0.9, 0.99, 0.999), note that as the values come closer and
closer to 1, the values of f(x)seem to come closer and closer to a certain value which is 5.
Notice that the outcome is the same for values of x that are greater than 1 (1.25, 1.1, 1.01,
1.001), that is as the values of x comes nearer and nearer to 1, the value of f(x)also seem to
come closer and closer to 5. But again, note that the value of f(x)is NOT equal to 5 if x is equal
to 1 because in the first place, the function cannot take a value of x = 1. The phrases “comes
closer and closer” and “equal to” are two different things and have different meanings.

To support these results, let us sketch the graph of the involved function using the concepts
that we learned in graphing graphs of functions. Noting that the numerator is factorable:

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 1
2
+−⇒=
x
23
xx
( )1
fx;x≠1−

( )( )2 3
xx
−+
123
=+
=x
x − 1

∴f(x) = 2x + 3; x ≠ 1 (graph is a straight

line, replace f(x)by y)

⇒ y = 2x + 3 ; m = 2 and b = 3 ⇒(0, 3)

*if x ≠ 1 ; y ≠ 2(1)+ 3 = 2 + 3

y≠5

restricted point is at (1, 5)

Note that our mathematical manipulation and graph matches with our findings earlier. That is,
as the value of x comes closer and closer to 1, the value of f(x)comes closer and closer to 5.
But again the value of x cannot be equal to 1 and the value of y cannot be equal to 5.

In mathematical terms, the phrase “closer and closer” is synonymous to the term
“approaches”. To rephrase our findings, we have this statement: “As the value of x approaches
1, the value of f(x)approaches 5”. Symbolically, we can symbolize the term “approaches” in
terms of an arrow pointing to the right (→). Then x approaches 1 can be symbolized as x →1.
The number 5 wherein it is the value that f(x)approaches is called the limit of the function f(x),
with this formal definition:

Definition:
Limit of a
Function

Let be a function defined at every number in some interval containing a, except

possibly at the number a itself. The limit of a as x approaches a is L, written as:

It is very important to take note that in finding the limit (L) of the function, we just consider on
where the value of f(x)seems to be close as the value of x comes closer and closer to the
value of a, but not necessarily equal to a. Oftentimes, the value of a is the restricted value of
x, so the value of x cannot be equal to a, just like in our illustration, that is x cannot be equal to
1.

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 2
2
23
xx
+−
Transforming the concept that we found out so far, given that ( )1 f x , a = 1 and

=
x
−
L = 5. Using the definition of the limit of a function, we have:

2
23
xx
lim 5
+−
1=
x →
x 1
2 −

23
xx
as x approaches 1 is equal to 5”. Note that the
+−
where it is read as “the limit of 1
x −
answer for the limit which is 5 is found in our description so far by using a table of values or by
graphing the function.

Our primary objective in this section is to evaluate the limit of a function analytically, that is
without constructing a table of values or graphing the involved function. To do this, the limit of a
function can be utilized by applying what we call as limit theorems. Strictly, applying limit
theorems is the only way to evaluate the limit of a given function analytically, and we must not
invent our own concepts. Proofs of these theorems will be omitted, and we will focus on their
straightforward applications. We enumerate and illustrate here the first seven limit theorems.

Limit Theorem (L. T.) # 1: The Limit of a Constant

If c is a constant, then for every number a,

x a=
lim → c c

Note that as long as we are finding the limit of any number c (maybe positive, negative or
zero), regardless of the value of a, the limit is still equal to that constant c.

Example 1: Evaluate lim 8

x→5

Since 8 is just a constant, the limit is still 8, and we write:

∴=
lim 8 8
x→
5

x→−6;(b) lim 21
Example 2: lim 7 8476−
Evaluate (a)
x→

For both cases, we are involved with a limit of a constant; therefore regardless of the
value that x is approaching into:

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 3
a. lim 7 7
∴=
 x→−b. lim 21 21
∴−=−
6
x→
8476

Limit Theorem # 2: The Limit of an Identity

Function If a is a constant, then if f(x) = x ,

x a=
lim → xa

This limit is named as the limit of an “identity function” since if f(x)is replaced by y, the
expression involved will be y = xwhere the values of x and y are just equal or identical.
According to this limit theorem, if the function involved is just a variable raised to 1 and having a
numerical coefficient of 1, the limit is just equal to a, or the value where the variable involved is
approaching into.

Example 3: Evaluate x
lim→−
x4

Note that the function involved is just x, so it is just a limit of an identity function.
Whenever we have this case that the function involved is just a variable having an
exponent of 1 and numerical coefficient of 1, the limit is always equal to a in general,
or:

∴=−
lim 4
x
→−x 4

Example 4: Evaluate (a)

z

lim→−; (b) q
 lim
q 576 →−

z9

The variables involved is not x, but since the variables involved in each of the function
involved and the variable under the “lim” notation are just the same, we can apply limit
theorem 2:

a. lim 9
∴=
→z

zb. lim 576 ∴ = −

9
→−q 576
q

The next limit theorem will illustrate the process of finding the limit of functions having more
than one term, that is if each term is separated by a plus or minus sign.

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 4
Limit Theorem # 3: The Limit of a Sum and/or Difference of n

Functions lim; ( ) 22

lim; ( ) 3 3
If ( ) 1 1 x af x = L lim; … ; ( ) n n
x af x = L → xa f x = L→ lim, then: →
→
x af x = L

[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )] 1 2 3 n 1 n
x±fx±fx±±fx=L±L±L±±L
x af
lim ... ... 2 3
→

The statement of this limit theorem seems to very complicated because of numerous symbols
and expressions. But we can summarize the statement of this limit theorem as follows: if we
are involved with the limit of a sum or difference of 2 or more terms, we can just distribute the
limit expression to the terms and evaluate the individual limits. That is, in general:

[f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x)] f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x) n lim ± ± ±... ± = lim ± lim ± lim ±...
± lim
123n
1
2
3
x→a → → → →
 xa xa xa xa

= L1 ± L ± L ± ± Ln
... 2 3

Example 5: Evaluate lim ( 6)

→x
x

3−

The expression that we will find the limit is composed of 2 terms. As a first step, we can
apply limit theorem # 3 by distributing the limit expression to the two terms. Doing this:

(x ) x 6
⇒−=−
lim 6 lim lim
x3x3x3
→→→

Applying next limit theorem # 2 in the first term and limit theorem # 1 in the second

term: lim ( 6) lim lim 3 6

⇒−=−=−
xx6
xxx
→→→
333

lim ( 6) 3
∴−=−
x

→x 3

Example 6: Evaluate lim ( 19)

→−y

7+

Note that this example is somewhat similar in form as the previous example. Executing
the steps and applying the limit theorems that we know so far::

lim ( 19) lim lim 19 7 19

⇒+=+=−+
yy
yyy
→− →− →−
777

lim ( 19) 12
∴+=
y
→−y 7
WARNING: In evaluating limits, unnecessary shortcut solutions are strictly not allowed. If
we are involved with evaluating limits of more than one term, we are required to distribute first
the limit expression to each term before we use the concept of the limit of a constant and limit of
an identity function. The use of too much shortcuts can lead to violation of concepts in

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 5
evaluating limits. Illustrated below is one of the possible solutions that we must avoid from the
previous example.

lim ( 19) 7 19 12
⇒+=−+=
y

→−y 7

The next limit theorem will give us an idea in evaluating limits of variables having numerical
coefficients.

Limit Theorem # 4: The Limit of a Product of n Functions

lim; ( ) 22
lim; ( ) 3 3
If ( ) 1 1 x af x = L lim; … ; ( ) n n
x af x = L → x af x = L → lim, then: →
→
x af x = L

[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )] 1 2 3 n 1 n
x ⋅f x ⋅f x ⋅ ⋅f x = L ⋅L ⋅L ⋅ ⋅L
x af
lim ... ... 2 3
→

The concept of the application of this limit theorem is somewhat similar to the limit of a sum
and difference of n functions. To evaluate the limit of a product, we can just distribute the limit
expression to each of the factors. Then apply the previous limit theorems to each factor and
multiply the answers.

[f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x)] f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x) n

lim ⋅ ⋅ ⋅...⋅ = lim ⋅ lim ⋅ lim ⋅...⋅ lim
123n
1
2
3
x→a → → → →
xa xa xa xa

L1 L L L n
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅...⋅
 23

Example 7: Evaluate lim (3 7)

→−x
x

2−

Note that the first term already has a numerical coefficient in it, unlike our previous
examples where x has a numerical coefficient of just one. To evaluate limits of these
forms, we will use the concept of the limit of a product. But before we apply this, we can
apply first limit theorem # 3 by distributing the limit expression to the two terms. Doing
this, we have:

lim (3 7) lim 3 lim 7

⇒−=−
xx
x→− x→− x→−
222

Given the limit of the first term, we interpret it as a limit of the product of 3 and x.
Applying limit theorem # 4 in this term and simplifying, we have:

lim (3 7) lim 3 lim 7 (lim 3)(lim ) lim 7

⇒−=−=−
xxx
x→− x→− x→− x→− x→− x→−
222222

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 6
lim (3 7) (3)( 2) 7 6 7 ⇒ − = −

−=−−
x

→−x 2

lim (3 7) 13 ∴ −
=−
x

→−x 2

WARNING: It is strongly emphasized that in evaluating limits of functions, unnecessary

shortcuts are not allowed. In our previous example, it seems that the answer of -13 can also
be obtained by substituting -2 to the value of x and simplifying. Recall that the concept of
evaluating the limit of any function is we let the value of x to be closer and closer to a certain
number (in this case, closer and closer to -2) BUT NOT NECESSARILY EQUAL TO THAT
NUMBER. Substituting -2 to x means that we let the value of x to be equal to -2, which is
incorrect considering that we are evaluating the limit. To illustrate this error in evaluating limits:
 lim (3 7) 3( 2) 7 6 7 13
→−x
2− =−−=−−=−x

What we have done there is we did not evaluate the limit. The solution that we have done is
for finding an expression for f(− 2)by substitution. That is in general, the answer for f(− 2)is
not always equal to the expression forf(x)
lim
→−. It is a mortal sin to substitute the value that
x2

x is approaching in evaluating limits. Inventing our own concepts in finding limits is not
allowed, the only process for this is by using limit theorems.

Example 8: Evaluate lim (4 3)(2 9)

→x x
x

4+ −

The limit expression is a product of two functions. Therefore we can distribute first the
limit expression to the two factors and we evaluate the limit of each factor using the limit
theorems that we know so far. Executing the solution:

lim (4 3)(2 9) [lim 4 lim 3][lim 2 lim 9]

⇒+−=+−
xxxx
x→ x→ x→ x→ x→
44444

[(lim 4)(lim ) lim 3][(lim 2)(lim ) lim 9]

=+−
xx
x→ x→ x→ x→ x→ x→
444444

= [(4)(4)+ 3][(2)(4)− 9] = [16 + 3][8 − 9] = [19][−1]

lim (4 3)(2 9) 19
∴+−=−
x

→x x4

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 7
Alternative Solution: We can combine the concepts of limit theorems 3 and 4 in a
 single line of a solution by distributing the limit expression to each factor and each term.
This is one way to reduce the length of our solution of evaluating limits. Doing this:

lim (4 3)(2 9) [(lim 4)(lim ) lim 3][(lim 2)(lim ) lim 9]

⇒+−=+−
xxxx
x→ x→ x→ x→ x→ x→ x→
4444444

= [(4)(4)+ 3][(2)(4)− 9] = [16 + 3][8 − 9] = [19][−1]

lim (4 3)(2 9) 19
∴+−=−
x

→x x4

The next limit theorem will be the one that we will use if the variables involved have
exponents in it.

Limit Theorem # 5: The Limit of the nth Power of a Function

If f(x) L
x a=
limand n is any real number, then:
→

[ ( )]n n
x af
x=L
lim
→

To apply limit theorem # 5 correctly, we evaluate the limit of the base of the exponential
expression by using the other limit theorems that we know so far, and simplify. That is:

[ ( )] [ ( )]n
n

x afxfx
lim = lim
→→
xa

=L

Example 9: Evaluate lim (2 3 4)

 3

→x x
x

3− +

The first term involves a variable having an exponent of 3. So we can apply here the
concept of limit theorem # 5. We will show two possible solutions here: one is the step
by step applications of the limit theorems, and the other is the combination of concepts
of limit theorems 3, 4 and 5 to shorten our solution.

Solution 1: lim (2 3 4) lim 2 lim 3 lim 4

3 3
xxxx
−+=−+
x x x x →3 → → →
3 33

(lim 2)(lim ) (lim 3)(lim ) lim 4

3
=−+
3 3x x
x→ x→ x→ x→ x→
333

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 8
lim (2 3 4) (lim 2)(lim ) (lim 3)(lim ) lim 4
3 3

3x xxx
−+=−+
x→ x→ x→ → → → 3 3 3 3 3
xxx

(2)(3) (3)(3) 4 2(27) 9 4 54 9 4

3
=−+=−+=−+

lim (2 3 4) 49 3
→x x
x

3− +=

Solution 2: lim (2 3 4) (lim 2)(lim ) (lim 3)(lim ) lim 4

3 3

3x x x x
−+=−+
x→ x→ x→ → → → 3 3 3 3 3
xxx

(2)(3) (3)(3) 4 2(27) 9 4 54 9 4

3
=−+=−+=−+
 lim (2 3 4) 49 3
→x x
x

3− +=

Again, we emphasize that direct substitution of 3 to x is not allowed because it will

violate the concept of the limit.

Limit Theorem # 6: The Limit of the nth Root of a Function

If f(x) L
limand n is a positive integer where n ≥ 2, then:
x a=
→

()
nn

x af x=L
lim
→

where L ≥ 0if n is an even integer

This limit theorem is used if we are involved with radical symbols in the function. The way on
how this limit theorem is used is almost the same as limit theorem # 5. We will place the limit
expression inside the radical symbol and evaluate the limit of the radicand. That is:

( ) n( )
x af
xfx
lim = lim
n
→→
xa

=L

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 9
Example 10: Evaluate lim 6 16 2 →x
x

3−

First step here is we apply limit theorem number 6, since we are involved with a limit
having a radical symbol. We next evaluate the limit of the expression inside the radical
symbol by using the previous limit theorems that we know. Executing the solution:

lim 6 16 lim(6 16)

2 2
⇒−=−
xx
xx
→→
3
3

(lim 6)(lim ) lim 16 (6)(3) 16 (6)(9) 16 54 16 2

2
=−=−=−=−
x
xxx
→→→
33
3

lim 6 16 38 2
∴−=
x

→x 3

Since 38is already a simplified radical, we leave this as our final answer. For
instances that the radical obtained can still be simplified (e. g. 24 , 54 ,3 81), we are
required to transform them to a simplified radical form by extracting roots of suitable
factors of the radicand.

Note also that we directly distributed the limit expressions to each terms and factors. We
can also present our solution by using the limit theorems one by one, for each line. But it
is better as a suggestion that we acquaint ourselves with this shorter method of
evaluating limits.

The last limit theorem for this section will be involving the limit if we are involved with a
quotient of two functions.

Limit Theorem # 7: The Limit of the Quotient of Two Functions

limand g(x) M
→
If f(x) L x a= lim, then: →
x a=
 fx
L
()
lim; M ≠ 0 x a=

()M
→
gx

This limit theorem is used if the limit of the function involved has a numerator and a
denominator, provided that the limit of the denominator is not zero (M ≠ 0). If we found out at
first hand that the limit of the denominator is 0, then we cannot apply this limit theorem.
As we go along with our subject, we will illustrate one by one on the possible procedure/s that
we will apply if the denominator is zero. But provided that the limit of the denominator is not

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 10
zero, we just distribute the limit expression to the numerator and denominator and find
each of the limits by using the previous limit theorems. In general, to illustrate:
xa ( ) f x
( ) f x lim
→
lim
=
→ lim ( ) g(x)
xa →
gx xa

ML
=;M≠0

What if the limit of the denominator is 0? Recall that in this case, limit theorem # 7 cannot be
used directly. But we can still use this limit theorem after redefining the function that is given.
Redefining the function can be done by doing one or more of these possible manipulations: (a)
by factoring, (b) by rationalizing the radical in the numerator or (c) by simplifying the
function using techniques of algebra. Applying one or more of these possible manipulations can
help us apply the concept of limit theorem # 7. We will illustrate all of these cases one by one as
we proceed with examples.

x
→4
lim −x+
Example 11: Evaluate
71
x

Before trying to apply limit theorem # 7, we must check first if the limit of the
 denominator is not 0. This is because the moment the limit of the denominator is zero,
the concept of the limit of a quotient cannot be applied yet. To compute for the limit of
the denominator (we can also do this mentally, if we can):

lim ( 7 1) [lim( 7)](lim ) lim 1 ( 7)(4) 1 28 1 27

⇒−+=−+=−+=−+=−
x x ; − 27 ≠ 0
x→ x→ x→ x→
4444

Since the limit of the denominator is not 0, we can apply limit theorem # 7 directly.
Distributing the limit expression to the numerator and denominator, and evaluating each
limit, we have:
lim
x x
→
⇒ lim = x 4

→ 4
x −+−+

71
x
x lim( 7 1)
x
→
4
lim x 4 4
x → 4
= = =
( )( ) 28 1 [lim( 7)](lim ) lim 1
−+
lim4= − − + xxx→→→444
−+741
→ x 4 −+
∴ xx
71
27
x

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 11
3
xx++

lim 2 23
Example 12: Evaluate
5 →x
x
2
+

Notice that upon applying limit of the nth root of the involved function, the radicand
involves a fraction. Checking mentally, the limit of the denominator will not be zero,
therefore we can apply there the limit of a quotient. Executing the process by directly
distributing the limit expression to each of the terms and factors involved in the
 numerator and denominator, we have:

3
(lim ) (lim 2)(lim ) lim 3
xx
3
++
xx xxxx→→→→
++
23
⇒ lim 2
2
= 2222

x
x →+
2
+ 5 (lim ) lim 5 x x
x →→
2
2
3

915 (2) (2)(2) 3

3
= (2) 5 843 +
xx++ + ++ =
2
++ = 45
lim 2

23
→ 15
∴ x

2=

3
x + 5

Note that in applying limit theorems in the first line, we are a bit straightforward in
combining limit theorems 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. We can do this sort of a solution for us to
shorten it, as long as we are not substituting the value of 2 in x. But alternatively, if you
are not yet used with this straightforward technique, you may opt to use the method of
step by step application of limit theorems in each line. We should arrive at the same
answer.

z2
Example 13: Evaluate 25 5
5 lim +−
z
→−
z

The limit expression involved here is a fraction but notice that upon checking mentally,
the limit of the denominator will give us 0. Therefore in this form of the given, limit
theorem # 7 cannot be directly used.

If we are involved with limits involving fractions and having a limit of 0 in its denominator,
we must first redefine the function (if possible) such that the newly-formed function can
have its limit evaluated by using the limit theorems that we know so far. We can possibly
redefine the given function by applying these three possible manipulations. That is either
we factor, rationalize or simplify the function.

To determine on what possible manipulation that we can do to the given, note that the
numerator is factorable, by using the method of factoring a difference of two perfect
squares. Therefore, we can use first the technique of factoring. Executing this in the
numerator, common factors can be cancelled out. To show the process, we have:

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 12
2

( )( )
− →− →− 25 55
⇒ z lim +

z z + lim z +−5 5
z = 5 z5z

(z - 5)
z5
=
lim→−

The resulting new function if you may notice has no denominator anymore, and we can
now apply the limit theorems that we know. Doing this:

2
−
⇒→− z→− z→− z→−
25
lim5 5 5 5
z
lim ( ) lim lim 5 5 5
zz -5z
z +
z 2
==−=−5
0
− →−
∴ z
25
lim5=
z + 5

In general, the method of factoring can be used if either the numerator or denominator
can be factored by using a certain method. Therefore, at this point, we must recall all
possible methods of factoring polynomials, from your junior high school or senior
high school mathematics. This technique can often be successful if common factors in
 the numerator and denominator cancel out.

s3
Example 14: Evaluate 11
1
lim −−
s
→
s

The limit expression involved is in quotient form where the limit of the denominator is 0.
If this is the case where the limit of the denominator is zero, we will think if either the way
of factoring, rationalization or simplifying the function is applicable. Being observant in
the involved function, note that the numerator can be factored using the concept of a
sum or difference of two cubes. Recall from algebra that a sum or difference of two
perfect cubes can be factored in this form:

( )( )
3
±=±+
322
a b a b a ab b

3
Therefore, the numerator −1
scan be factored as:

1 ( 1)( 1)
3
2
s−=s−s+s+

Replacing the given numerator of the limit expression by its factored form and evaluating
the resulting limit, we have:

( )( )
3
2
− →→
⇒ s
1 s lim sss− ++11
=
lim
11
−
s s − 1 s
1

lim( 1) (lim ) lim lim1

2 2
=++=++
ssss
s s s s →1 → → →

1 11
 MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 13
− → 3 1 1
⇒ ss
(1) 1 1 1 1
lim 2
1= + + = + +
s
− 13

−∴ 3 1
ss =
− 1

Example 15: Evaluate

42
lim x −
x
→
x 4−

The involved function still is in fraction form where the limit of the denominator is zero.
Recall that if we encounter this case, we analyze the given function if we can factor,
rationalize or simplify. Neither the numerator nor the denominator is factorable; therefore
the method employed in the last two examples is not applicable.

But upon noticing that the numerator has a presence of radical symbols, we can try to
rationalize the numerator by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by
the conjugate of the denominator. Then we simplify for the limit of the resulting
function to be possibly evaluated using the limit theorems that we know. This method is
introduced in the previous section involving evaluating functions.

Recalling that the conjugate of x − 2is x + 2, we multiply this conjugate to both

numerator and simplify. Executing the process:

− →→→
⇒ xx
x 2 x − 2 x + 2 x − 4
444
lim −+
− 4 = lim x 4 ⋅ + 2 = lim ( 4)( 2)
x − x
xxx

1
→
= x Note here that the limit of the
4 denominator here is not zero
lim +
anymore.
2 x;
 1 1
lim 1
x → 4
= = =
22
lim lim 2 +
x + 42
+
xx
→→
44

−
∴
lim x 2 = 1
x 4 h2
→
x4
−
4 lim0+ −
2
Example 16: Evaluate
h
h →

Based on the given, the limit of the denominator is still 0. To check if one of the three
possible manipulations is possible, the method of factoring is not applicable. But upon

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 14
observation of the presence of radical symbols in the numerator, we can rationalize the
numerator of the given. Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of
the numerator and simplifying, we have:

+− →→
⇒ h2
h2 h2 22h2
+−
lim 2 ++
00
lim ++
h ⋅
= h 2
hh

→→
( )( 2) = h h 2h

h
+−22

00
lim ++
hh2 =
( 2) + +lim
 hh1

lim 1 1
h 0
= lim = →
=
h
022 h2h2
0
++
→ hhh
2 lim 2 →→→000
++ lim lim ++

2 21 rationalize the denominator to

1 simplify
=
=; 22
+

2
2(2)
2
1
=⋅=
h2 2

+− → 22
∴ h
22

lim0= h
11−
4
Example 17: Evaluate 44
x
4
lim −
x
→
x

Just like in our previous examples, the limit of the denominator is still 0. But from the
given form of the example, the methods of factoring and rationalizing are not
applicable since none of the numerator and denominator are factorable or contain
radicals.

Even though the first two possible methods of manipulation are not applicable, note that
the numerator of the given can be simplified, using our known techniques from algebra.
Noting that the given is a complex fraction, we can subtract first the two fractions in the
denominator, and multiply the result to the reciprocal of the denominator. Doing this:
4 − x
11−
 →→
⇒ xx
x 4 4
44
lim −
x − 4 = lim 4
xx
− 1
4 x
→
x; Note that 4 − xcan be written as − (x − 4) = xx

4
lim −
⋅
4
4

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 15
11−

()−−
x 4 x 4 1
→→ 44
⇒ x x lim −

x − 4 = lim ⋅
4 4
xx

()
lim 1
= 1 − −
→
− lim = 4
=
1
x
→
x
x
4
4 x (lim 4)(lim ) (4)(4)
x
→
→
4
x
4

11
− 1
→ 4
∴ xx
lim4= −
x
− 4 16
Example 18: Evaluate ⎟ ⎜ ⎛
⎟ ⎠⎞ ⎜ ⎝ +

11 1
0x
lim x
3 −
x
→
9

From the first factor of the given function, note that we cannot evaluate the limits directly
because the denominator will be zero. Therefore we must think if what possible
manipulation (factor, rationalize or simplify) can be applied in the given. Sometimes,
experimentation of the possible manipulations can be done on the given for us to
evaluate its limit. One possible first step is we first simplify the given by expressing the
two terms in the 2nd factor in terms of a common denominator. Doing this, rationalizing
the numerator and evaluating the limits, we have:
=⎟ ⎜⎛ ⎟
⎜⎛ ⎟ ⎠⎞ ⎜⎝+ ⎟ ⎠⎞
⎜⎝+
11 193 x
1 ⇒− +−
00
lim x
lim
xx
xx x
3
→→
39
9

⎜⎛
⎜⎝++
⎟
⎟ ⎠⎞
0
lim xx
193
x ++
+− 93
→
= 93
x
x 39 ⋅
x +
() ⎢⎡ ⎥
⎢ ⎣ + + + ⎥ ⎦⎤
⎢⎡ 199
⎢⎣+++ =⎥
⎥ ⎦⎤
x +− 1 x
 →→ 00
= 3 9( 9 3) lim xx

lim
x
xx

xxx
3 9( 9 3)

1
→
= xx
0
lim + + +
3 9( 9 3)
x

lim 1
1
x 0
= →
=
3 0 9( 0 9 3) (lim 3) lim lim 9( lim lim 9 lim 3)
xx
xxxxxx→→→→→→000000

⎜⎛ =⎟ =⎟
⎜⎝+ lim0 ⎟ ⎠⎞
⎟ ⎠⎞
+++ +++
11 1 1 ⎜⎛
1 ⎜⎝+

x⇒ 541
⇒− 11
→x ∴−
lim0= x
1
3(3)(3 3) + →x 9
x
3 x3
9
9(6)

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 16
So far in our examples of evaluating limits of functions, we just focused on limits involving
polynomial functions. On our future sections, we will have the process of evaluating limits of
some other functions, especially trigonometric functions. Also, the cases of limits of polynomial
functions involving a quotient that we evaluate so far is that if the denominator is zero, we apply
any of the three possible manipulations, that is either we factor, rationalize or simplify. In
general, there are still other limit expressions of polynomial functions where none of the three
manipulations are applicable. We will proceed to those cases in our next sections.

In this last example, we will show on how to evaluate limits of functions if we are given with
the graph of that function.
Example 19: The domain of f(x)is
[− 5,5]. (a) What are the values of f(− 4),
f(− 3), f(3)and f(4)? (b)f(x)
lim→−,
x4

lim→−, f(x)
f(x) lim→, f(x)
x3
lim→? x 4
x3

In this example, we are to find expressions for function values of f(x)and limits of
functions for certain values of x. This will emphasize further the difference between the
function value and the limit. Take note that both the function value and the limit of a
function represent the value of a y-coordinate.

To emphasize the difference, let us have f(− 4)

and f(x)
lim→−. Recall that f(− 4)represents the
x4

actual value of y if the value of x is -4. Referring to

the graph, if we are to find the actual value, then
we must trace on the graph the actual point
(solid dot) and determine there the value of y
where x = -4. Note that at x = -4, the actual point
involved in the function is at (-4, 6). Therefore,
f(− 4) = 6. Doing this similarly to other function
values that we are to find (points involved are encircled in the figure), we

have: a. f(− 4) = 6;f(− 3) = 4;f(3) = 7;f(4) = 3 Now, how about f(x)

lim→−? To evaluate the limit of a function given its graph, we

x4

consider the main curve / graph involved (semicircle). Given this main curve, we note

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 17
on where the value of y seem to approach as the value of x approaches -4. The
point involved for f(x)
lim→−is the hollow point along the semicircle at x = −4. We
x4

consider two parts of this analysis, that is: (a) from the left of -4 (less than -4) and (b)
from the right of -4 (greater than -4). Refer to the figure on the right.
First, from the left of x = −4(signified by the
violet arrow on the left of the hollow
point), note
that as the value of x approaches -4 from
the
left, the value of y seems to be closer
and closer
to a certain value, and that value is 3.
Secondly,
from the right of x = −4(signified by the
violet
arrow on the right of the hollow point), we have
the same observation. That is, as the value of x
comes nearer and nearer to -4 from the right,
the value of y seems to be close and closer to a
certain value, which is 3. Since the limit from the left and the limit from the right are
equal, we conclude that the limit exists and is equal to 3, that is: lim ( ) 3
→−f x
4=
xDoing
this same analysis for the other limits that are required to find:

b. lim ( ) 3
x;lim ( ) 4

x;lim ()4
→−f x x;lim ( ) 3 →f x 3=

4= →f x
→−f x x 4=

3=
Note that f( ) f(x)

− ≠. This signifies that the function value and the limit are not 4 lim→−
x4

always equal. Thus, this further strengthens our claim that it is a mortal sin to substitute
the value of x whenever we are evaluating the limit of a function, because substituting
the value of x involves finding the function value.

The manner of analysis that we have done in

finding the limit of an expression given its graph is
very important, particularly the part of checking
whether the limit from the left and the limit from the
right of a certain value of x are equal. From our
previous example, it seems that the limit from the
left and the limit from the right are always equal so
the overall limit all exists. But there are cases that
the two directional limits are not the same. An
 example is illustrated on the left. Note that the limit
from the left of 2 is equal to 2 while the limit from
the right of 2 is 4. The involved limits are not equal,
therefore by definition,f(x)
lim→does not exist. This
x2

serves as an introduction to the concept of one

sided limits, which will be the subject of the next
section.

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 18
Test Your Understanding: Evaluate the following limits analytically, if they exist.

21

1.lim (3 7) →x x +

5−
21
lim −+
5.
x 35
x
→−
xx
81
r
2.lim ( 8)
1
lim ++
3
→−z
2+
6.
z 3
r
→
r2

3.lim ( 2 1) xx
2 −+
→x
x 34
2+ − lim 2
7.
x 2 1 →x x
x

x
3 4.
lim −− 51
45 lim
4
−− xx
52
+
 3
x8.
→
x 1. 49 2
exist. 7 lim
x
−
→−

3
52

EXERCISE 1.2:

A. Evaluate the following

limits analytically, if they

(Ans: 14) 7.
2 65
x − lim 3
→
x t −
→ 2
x t +t
7
−

(Ans: -2) 8. 25 2
5 lim
2
49 z −
x −
2.
23 →−
z 5+
lim
→
x
x 1/ 2
+ z

3 17 20
lim 22
3 8 16 xx
lim 22
−+
ss
−−
3.
294
(Ans: 16/7) 9.
s 4 25 36 → s s
4
−+3 x
→
x x 4− + 8 27
lim 23
t
−
4.
28
lim y +
(Ans: 12) 10.
y 4 9 →− y
2
+ 3/2
−t
→
t
 2
) 11.
(Ans: 530 15 2
y − 9 x +−
lim
5.
273 →−
x 1+
lim 2
→−
yy
y
3
++
x 11
6. −
11
x −
(Ans: 1/2) 12.
x 66
lim 6
→ lim −
x
z
→
1
− z z

MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 19

B. The domain of f(x)is ( −∞, 2 ].

a. Determine the values of f(−1), f(0), f(1)and f(

3)?

b. Determine the values of f(x)

lim→−, f(x)
f(x) x1
lim→, x 0
lim→, f(x)
?
x3→
x1
lim
MATH 20043 (CALCULUS 1) | Prepared by: Prof Randy Cham T. Alignay (PUPSRC) 20