Chapter 3

Drying, Smoking, Salting and other quality control methods

In book III or the series we have presented the use of reduced temperatures to preserve fish in
edible condition. In many situations refrigeration facilities and ice are not available and
traditional fish preservation methods are based on the curing process. There are three basic
factors used, either singly or in combination, in the production of cured fish.

Removal of water. Water is essential for life and bacteria and enzymes in fish flesh require
plenty of water to function efficiently. The removal of moisture can slow down or even stop
completely the action of spoilage bacteria and enzymes. Bacterial action stops at moisture
contents of 25 percent or below.

Smoking. Some of the chemicals in wood smoke will destroy spoilage bacteria and this effect
can be used to advantage in preserving fish. The production of smoke implies a fire and the
generation of heat. When fish is smoked it becomes dried and also in certain instances is cooked.
Cooking will destroy the action of enzymes and will kill many bacteria because of the high
temperatures involved. Smoked products with a long storage life owe their keeping qualities to
drying and cooking, rarely to the chemical preservation of wood smoke alone.

Addition of salt. Common salt (sodium chloride), if present in fish in sufficient quantities, will
slow down or prevent most bacterial action. In addition, salt aids in the removal of water from
fish by osmosis. When fish is placed in a solution of salt stronger than the concentration of salts
in the fish cells, water passes from the cell into the brine until the two solutions are of equal
strength. In addition to the removal of water, salt will penetrate the flesh and so help to preserve
it.

When salt is added to fish before drying, less water needs to be removed to achieve
preservation and a product with a water content of 35-45 percent, depending on the amount of
salt present, is often dry enough to inhibit the action of bacteria.

SALTING
The main way in which salt is used in traditional fish processing is in conjunction with drying.
Used as a preliminary to drying it replace some of the water present in the flesh. The factors
which affect the rate of uptake of salt, and therefore, the amount od water replace are: (1) the
higher the fat content, the slower the salt uptake, (2) the thicker the fish the slower the diffusion
of salt to the center, (3) the fresher the fish the more slowly salt will be taken up, and (4) the
higher the temperature the quicker the salt uptake.
 During subsequent drying the presence of salt has the following effects (1) the higher the salt
concentration the greater the replacement of water and therefore the less water that remains to be
removed during drying, (2) the higher the salt concentration, the less water that need to be
removed to produce a satisfactorily preserved product, (3) the higher the salt concentration the
more slowly the fish dries, and (4) salt tends to absorb moisture from the air and at relative
humidities of more than about 75 percent during the drying process or during the subsequent
storage fish will not dry further or may even take up moisture.

Is salt is used the product will give a better yield and probably be of better quality (i.e. have
longer shelf life) than non-salted fish. Salt also acts as a deterrent to insect pests which can
invade fish during drying and subsequent storage. Although from these points it would seem
advisable always to use salt as a preliminary to drying there are various factors which must be
considered. These include:

1. The economics of production: i.e. whether salt is available in sufficient quantities and at
sufficiently low cost for a fish processor to be able to recover the expense involved
through better yields and through higher prices charged for the product.
2. Consumer resistance: in many countries there is a marked preference amongst the fish-
eating population for non-salted fish. It has proved extremely difficult to change the
eating habits of people to accept salted fish and for this reason many programs aimed at
improving dried fish quality in less developed countries have failed.
3. Often the salt that is readily available in sufficient quantities and at the right price is of
very poor quality and so not suitable for use on fish processing.

Salt Quality. Chemical composition of common salt is in its pure form of sodium chloride
(NaCl), however many commercial salts are produced by the evaporation of sea water (solar salt)
and contain chemical impurities. The main impurities are usually salts of calcium and
magnesium. Calcium and magnesium chlorides absorb moisture and, at high relative humidities,
can cause the salt to become wet. In general however, calcium and magnesium salts if present in
small quantities can be advantageous. Only when they are present in excess can they be
troublesome because they can also cause brittleness. Magnesium sulphate cause brittleness and
calcium brings about excessive whitening of the fish.

Physical impurities. Many salts, particularly solar salts, contain physical impurities such as
sand and mud. The quantity of detritus present depends largely on the means of production but
can be as high as 35 percent by weight. As far as possible the use of salts containing physical
impurities should be avoided.

Microbiological quality. We have said that the spoilage bacteria of fish are inhibited by the
presence of salt, however, there are certain bacteria that able to grow and multiply in high
concentration of salt. These bacteria which are red or pink can be present in large numbers (up to
100,00/g) particularly in solar salt, and if present in salt used for curing fish, can cause a
phenomenon known as pinking.
 In addition moulds are often present, particularly in rock salt, which can cause a
condition known as “dun” in dried or salted fish.

Ideally, salt used for fish curing should be free from microbial contamination but it is
rarely possible to obtain a pure salt at the right price and in sufficient quantities.

Grain size. Salt is available in a variety of grain sizes depending on the amount of
grinding that it has undergone. When producing a brine it is useful to have a fine-grain salt so
that it dissolves quickly and easily. However, for dry salting, a larger grain salt is more
appropriate because small grains act too quality on the fish surface and remove moisture so fast
that the surface becomes hard and prevents penetration of salt to the inside of the fish. This is
known as “salt burn.”

Salting methods. Salt can be used as a preliminary to drying in two basic ways; as dry salt
or dissolved in water as brine.

Dry salting. In its simplest form dry salting consists of rubbing grains of salt into the
surface of the fish. It is important that all parts of the fish are covered and salt is applied more
liberally to the thicker parts of the flesh to obtain an even penetration.

Another way of using dry salt is to produce alternate layers of fish and salt. It is important
that salt covers the fish and is applied both above and below. In kenching, the fish salt are
stacked so that the water, drawn from the fish by osmosis, can flow away. In pickling is formed.
Generally salt penetration is mover even and thorough with pickling than kenching. It is also
possible to use kenchng and pickling to produce preserved salt fish that is not subsequently dried.

Brining. Dissolving salt in water produces a brine. In fish processing a brine strength of
between 90 and 100 percent saturated is usually recommended. This is equivalent to about 270-
300 g of salt to each liter of water. Brine must be made up to within these limits if it is to be
effective and the salt must be completely dissolved before use. In many instances the salt
available for fish processing is impure and more rather than less, salt should be added. Potable
water should always be used.

After being prepared by, for example, splitting, gutting and scoring, the fish are immersed
in brine for various periods depending on the size, fat content, consumer demand, etc. The period
of immersion is usually determined by trail and error for a particular fish species. In Zambia a
rough and ready guide is 1 hour for 1 pound weight for non-fatty fish, and for fatty fish, 1 ¼ hour
per pound. These immersion time give about 8-10 percent salt in the final sundried and smoked
product that is popular in Zambia. For products requiring different salt concentrations the brining
time can be altered accordingly. It is often advisable to rinse the excess brine from the surface of
the fish after brining so that unsightly white crystals of salt do not appear during subsequent
drying.
 DRYING
The term “drying” usually implies the removal of water by evaporation but water can be
removal by other methods, for example, by applying pressure, using absorbant pads, and adding
salt.

During evaporative drying, water is removal in two distinct phases. Firstly water on or close to
the surface of the fish evaporates; the drying rate depends on the surface area of the fish, the air
temperature, the speed of air movement over the fish and the relative humidity of the air. If air
conditions remain the same the drying rate will remain constant. This phase is known as the
constant rate period.

One the surface water has evaporated, water can only evaporate as fast as it can reach the surface
of the fish from within. The rate of movement of water from the deeper parts of the fish become
slower as drying proceeds; this second stage is known as the “falling rate period.” During the
falling rate period the drying rate depends on: (1) the nature of the fish-fat in fish flesh retards
water movement, (2) the thickness of the flesh, (3) temperature of the fish, and (4) the water
content.

Provided that the air moving over the surface of the fish is not saturated with moisture, the
drying rate is independent of the state of the air. If drying during the constant rate period has
been very rapid, a condition known as case hardening occurs. The surface layers dry quickly,
producing a hard layer which is impervious to the passage of water. This layer then prevent the
migration of water during falling rate period and the center of the fish can become spoiled
although, to all intents and purpose, it looks well dried.

SUN AND WIND DRYING

Many traditional fisheries use the energy of the sun and/or wind to dry fish. Exposing fish to the
warming effects of the sun will help to remove moisture and natural wind and air currents will
carry away the moisture form the surface of the fish. It is important when using natural energy
sources that they are utilized to the full. Many traditional fishermen dry fish on the ground, on
rocks along the seashore and on sandy beaches.

Some fish processors use mats and reeds, etc., laid on the ground to prevent contamination of the
fish by sand, dirt, mud, etc. Drying fish on the ground and at ground level has many
disadvantages and the use of raised drying racks should be encouraged wherever possible
because: (1) at ground level air movements are usually sallow, at a meter or so above the ground,
air currents are stronger, (2) laying fish on the ground does not allow drying from the underside
of fish; if the fish are dried on racks with an open-work top, air will pass under the fish as well as
over them. The fish therefore dry more quickly, (3) racks keep fish cleaner by not allowing them
to come into contact with dirt on the ground, (4) racks keep fish out of reach of domestic
animals, such as dogs and chickens, and pets, such as rats, mice and crawling insects. These
often contaminate and steal fish that are dried at ground level, (5) sloping racks allow any excess
moisture to drain away, thus, eliminating pockets of water that can form in the gut and gill
cavities causing slow drying in these areas, (6) fish dried on racks are more easily protected from
the rain, the racks can be simply covered with a sheet of polythene or other waterproof material
if fish are on the ground, covering will protect them from falling rain but not from ground water.

Drying times are reduced by using raised racks and the product will almost certainly be of
better quality than fish dried on the ground.

Raised drying racks can be constructed at little cost using bamboo, branches to trees, reeds, etc.
Raised racks should be sited in areas with low humidity and with good prevailing winds.

Fish may take up moisture if the relative humidity rises above about 75 percent. In tropical
countries, there is often a diurnal rise and fall of temperature and humidity. For this reason it is
often recommended that fish be taken indoor overnight. This will not only prevent the fish from
being “rewetted” at high humidity but will also protect them from rain., theft and predators. If
this fish are stacked or press-piled overnight the internal water will migrate more quickly to the
surface, thus accelerating subsequent drying.

Blowflies lay eggs on fish during the early stages of sundrying, as they will on fresh fish, but
become progressively less attracted to the fish at it dries. If the fish can be dries sufficiently
quickly i.e. before the eggs hatch into larvae, they are not normally a problem. Brining or salting
before drying will deter tacks, etc. with a contact insecticide. It is important that the insecticide
does not contaminate the fish.

In Iceland and Norway a product known as stockfish has been produced for many centuries.
God which has been headed is hung in the open air to dry. At the low ambient temperatures in
these countries the fish is preserved and gradually dries over a period of about 6 week to a
moisture content of about 15 percent. This product has a shelf life of several years if stored
correctly and is mainly exported to African countries and to the Mediterranean area.

Mechanical Dries. To allow drying regardless of weather conditions and to produce a more
uniform product various mechanical dries have been developed. The purchase of a mechanical
drier and the cost of fuel for its operation are higher than building a set of drying racks for
natural drying; however, the labor costs can be lower.

Mechanical driers are used experimentally and commercially in a number of fisheries. These
are often made on a one-off basic to suit local condition and using locally available material. A
few commercial firm produce driers for purchase as prefabricated units.

Most driers have a horizontal flow of air across the product, placed on open-work tray on a
trolley. The trolley is either pushed through the drying tunnel or into the drying chamber. The air
passing over the fish can be heated with steam, electricity, gas or oil.
 SMOKING
The use of smoking to preserve fish is an ancient practice. Various smoking methods are
practiced in many different countries.

In the United Kingdom and other European countries, original products, developed in the
Middle Ages, were heavily salted and smoked for some week. These products owed their long
storage life, at normal temperatures, to a high salt concentration and to very long smoking and
drying times. Modern transport and distribution facilities in the industrially developed countries
have greatly reduced the need for long-term storage of smoked and dried fish and most product
are now available for the consumer within a few days of processing. Smoke curing, as a methods
of food preservation, has also lost importance due to the rapid advances in freezing and cold
storage techniques. Most smoked product in the developed world are only lightly cured in order
to give them a mild savoury flavor. They will not remain in a wholesome condition much longer
than fresh fish products when stored at normal temperatures and so should be refrigerated during
storage.

In most tropical developing fisheries, however, smoking is still used not only to impart
desirable flavors but also to accelerate the drying process. Generally, smoked products will be
dark brown in color, hard and have a strong flavor. Smoking is often combined with a period of
sundrying and/or preliminary brining.

The temperature of smoking varies from place depending on consumer requisite and the types
of smoking kiln or oven. Most products, however, are hot smoked, i.e. the temperature of
smoking cooks the products.

NATURAL CONVECTION SMOKERS

The apparatus used for smoking fish in traditional tropical fisheries is often fairly rudimentary.
One of the simplest designs is a pit, dug in the ground, in which a fire is lit and the fish are laid
on racks over the fire. Other traditional designs resemble tables with open-work tops on which
the fish are laid. Various overs, constructed from local materials such as mud, sticks, stones and
using relatively cheap man-made materials, such as old 44-gallon oil drums, scarp iron, etc., are
found in many different fisheries.

Some of these ovens and kilns are better than others but there are some disadvantages common
to most; (1) inefficient use of fuel, (2) difficult to control the fire and obtain a uniformly smoked
product, (3) affected by adverse weather conditions, (4) low capacity, (5) materials used in
construction are often inflammable, and (6) constant attention is required to keep the fire burning
or to control the smoking process.

To overcome these advantages several designs of kilns have been put forward as improvements.
These include the “Altona” ovens, first developed in West Africa, and the small smokers based
on oil drums which can be used on board boats and for very small quantities of fish. The designs
for these types of kilns are described in the FAO Fisheries Report No. 88 the FAO Fisheries
Technical paper No.140. One further design which is worth mentioning is the Ivory Coast kiln.

The Ivory Coast kiln is a development of the Altona kiln and was first produced in West Africa.
If is fairly simple to construct and use the minimum of expensive materials. If could be made in a
variety of sizes and is suitable for use at village level in many fisheries.

The kiln itself consists of the following parts:

1. A walled enclosure, approximately 1m high and from 1-2 m square in plan section,
which can be constructed from a variety of materials. Locally available stones, cemented
together with mud, a pole and mud construction, or four corner posts with sheet or
corrugated mental for the sides, are some of the possible alternatives. The structure must
be straight and the top rim must be smooth and flat.
2. Into one side of the enclosure is set the box. This is most easily made from one or two
old oil drums. For small kilns of about 1m square, two 20-gallon drums are sufficient but,
for lager kilns, 44-gallon drums will be needed. The drums are set on their sides so that
an open end protrudes a few centimeters outside the square at ground level. The rest of
the drum is inside the enclosure. The end of the drum inside the square remains closed,
but a hole should 0.3m square is cut in the uppermost surface of the drums. These details
are most easily seen by referring to the diagrams. The square cut in the upper surface of
the drum must be located centrally with the outer enclosure.
3. A square baffle sheet is suspended, above the hole in the oil drum, by wires from each
of the four corners of the enclosure. This baffle consists of a sheet of iron, about twice the
dimension of the hole in the drum, which has holes of about 1cm diameter punched in use
until a good distribution of smoke and heat is obtained.
4. The fish themselves are supported on racks above the enclosure. The racks are made
from 7.5 cm square timber and chicken wire or expanded metal. The size of the racks is
exactly the same as the square dimensions of the enclosure. The racks will rest on top of
the walls of the enclosure and on top of one another. Four or five racks of fish can be
smoked at once.
5. During smoking, the upper rack is covered with sheet mental or damp sacking. Mental
sheet is preferable for protection against rain.

Mechanical Smokers. The traditional and improved smokers dealt with so far have no
moving parts and rely on natural convection for air circulation. Mechanical kilns, by
contrasts, have fans or blowers to move the air across the fish. Such kilns are usually
expensive to purchase and run but do give more control over smoking than other kilns. In
most design it is possible to accurately regulate the temperature of smoking and to lesser
degree, the humidity of the air and the smoke density. With experienced operators it is
possible to produce a consistent product time after. For these reason they are used quite
extensively in the processing industries of Europe, the UK and North America for the
production of products such as kippers, smoked haddock, buckling, etc. The use of
mechanical kilns for the production of smoked dried products is very limited.
 SPECLFIC METHODS
There are many hundreds of different recipe for drying, salting and smoking. A few
suggested procedures follow which have been found to be successful.

Ideally, only truly fresh fish should be used for salting and drying although in many
instances drying is used as a last resort to save partially spoiled fish. If the fish cannot be
processed shortly after capture they should be iced or salted before further processing.

Dried salt fish. The process in sequence includes:

1. Only fresh fish make a good product. Bleed mackerels, tunas, etc. at sea; ice if possible or
salt at sea
2. Scale and split. Behead before splitting unless the heads are required.
3. Remove all but the tail third of the back bone.
4. Clean carefully. Remove all guts, liver, gills membranes.
5. Score the flesh as far as the skin but not through it.
6. Wash. Soak in 10 percent brine for half an hour.
7. Drain
8. Dry salt in a shallow box using appropriate amount of salt – more salt in thick parts of
fish than thin parts – fill all scores, rub well in, one part of salt by weight to three parts
fish is generally used. Saturated brine with an excess of salt may be used as an alternative
to dry salting.

9. Place skin side down in the salting vat, making even piles. Top layer should have skin
side up. If brine does not cover within 3-4 hours top up with saturated brine. Weigh fish
below surface, cover the vat.

10. Leave in salt for about 12 hours. Fish size, market preference, weather and working
conditions all affect salting time.

11. Wash in 10 percent brine or sea water, removing all salt crystals.

12. Drain and set to dry. If drying condition are good, dry in shade, not in open sun.

13. Leave on the drying racks during the first night. Thereafter, remove and pile up under
pressure each night until drying is complete. Greater pressure and longer press time may
be used towards the end of the drying period.

14. Continue alternate drying and pressing until no further weight is lost. Store and bale.
 BOILED DRIED ANCHOVIES
This process could be used with suitable modification for any small schooling species. The fish
must be absolutely fresh, processing should start in the boats.

1. Wash the fish and place in shallow baskets or trays. Bamboo is a suitable material.

2. Cook in boiling brine (10° salinometer) for 50 to 90 seconds, rotating basket continually.

3. Drain and set to dry in tray.

4. Continue drying until hard dried. If bad weather intervenes store in chill rooms. Smoking
may be possible if air drying cannot be used.

TUNA
Baked and smoked. The process involves:

1. Tuna are washed and eviscerated. Then cut into chunks.

2. Hot-smoke overnight so that flesh is cooked.

3. Sun dry until hard. Product can then be kept for several months.

Katsuobushi, Maldive fish, mas min, ikan kuyu. The process includes the following in
sequence:

1. Small tunas e.g. skipjack are filleted.

2. Simmer fillets in dilute brine for 5 minutes. Alternatively, steam cook.

3. Smoke (cold-smoke or hot-smoke) for 8-12 hour.

4. Sun dry.

It is important to take note that mould growth may be deliberately encouraged, e.g., by storing
before drying.

Watanabe’s method of salting, smoking and drying. This is a methods developed for use in
Zambia where drying conditions are usually good. A satisfactory product can be made from fat
fish.
 1. Scale, gut and split. Clean very carefully.

2. Brine in saturated brine, small fish (½ 2 lbs) for 30-40 minutes, large fish 4-6 hours.

3. Wash.

4. Sun dry to three quarters of dressed weight. Surface is dry and fish reasonably firm.

5. Smoke using smoke at 40° to 60°C for 4-5 hours.

6. Sun dry to 35-46 percent of dressed weight.

Fish processed in this methods will have a keeping time up to two months.

STORAGE
The nature of dried fish product presents particular problems during storage: (1) dried fish are
often brittle and easily damaged physically, (2) at high humidities, they absorb moisture and so
become susceptible to spoilage by fungi and bacteria, (3) dried fish are susceptible to attack by
insects, particularly beetles of the Dermestes group, and (4) rats and mice as well as domestic
animals are attracted to dried fish for food.

Most of the physical damage occurs during transport and consignments of dried fish should be
packed in rigid containers which will not allow the fish to be crushed or shaken around. Many
fisheries use hessian sacks, wicker baskets, cardboard cartons, brown paper and string and other
soft materials which afford little protection. It is much better to use rigid wooden cartons or
wooden boxes for the transportation of dried fish.

To prevent the uptake of moisture, plastic packaging materials are often put forward as a
solution. These have various disadvantage, the main ones being: (1) high cost, (2) they are easily
puncture or damaged by sharp spines, etc. on fish and therefore become useless, (3) sweating can
occur inside the bag when there are changes in temperatures and this can produce moulds, and
(4) they do not usually give protection against insects.

In most situations it is less costly and more feasible to store fish in well aerated shaded rooms
or in a wooden box which allows the passage of air currents. If long storage times are required it
many be necessary to re-dry the product periodically over a fire on in the sun.

Prevention of insect attack is particularly difficult but there are various means of control. These
are: (1) salted fish are less susceptible to attack by insects than unsalted fish, (2) infestation can
be much reduced by screening the storage area against insects, (3) dermestid beetles often bore
into wood and lay eggs, so producing a residual source of infestation-wooden structures should
be sprayed with a contact insecticide to overcome this problem, (4) if infestation occurs, it is
possible to drive out or kill the insects by hot smoking, (5) the use of pyrethrum synergized with
piperonyl butoxide as a dip on spray on dried fish will protect from insect attack (NB FAO/WHO
maximum allowable residues are 3 ppm of pyrethrum and 20 ppm of piperonyl butoxide), and
(6) good housekeeping is one of the most important factors which can help to prevent or control
attacks by insects. Regular cleaning of storage areas will help to prevent cross-infestation
between one batch and the next; cross-infestation is especially high from hides and skin which
are also attacked by dermestes.

Construction of fish stores on stilts and thorough regular cleaning can help to prevent attack by
mammalian pests.

OTHER METHODS OF PRESERVATION

Fermentation

Most traditional methods of preservation depend primarily on the removal of water from the
fish by the action of sun and wind, often in conjunction with a salting or smoking process. In hot
and humid (and wet) climates, however, spoilage is not always arrested by dehydration methods.
Moreover, it was found that, if these changes were controlled, desirable flavors could be
conferred to the product. These increased the acceptability of the fish and masked other less
pleasant flavor and odors. The process is known as fermentation which is in general terms the
breakdown of organic substances into simpler compounds by the action of enzymes or micro-
organisms. The nature of the final product depends largely on the extent of fermentation.

During fermentation, salt inhibits the action of the natural bacteria of the fish and allows the
fish enzymes to act (ie. autolysis). Although fermentation is mainly autolytic, anaerobic bacteria
have been shown to be responsible for the characteristic flavor and odors of some fermented fish
products.

In South-east Asian countries, as it is here in the Philippines, fermented fish products are
extremely popular. Three types of product are made, i.e. fermented fish, fish pastes and fish
sauces.

Fermented fish. The product is a partially fermented whole fish. Examples are “Colombo-
cured” fish of Indian, pedah siam of Thailand, and Makassar fish of Indonesia. The raw material
is fatty fish, generally mackerel species, and the process in effect is a pickle cure. In “Colombo
curing”, the fish are washed, mixed with salt and an acid fruit pulp is added. Fermentation
proceeds for 2-4 months, then the fish are packed in barrels and covered with the “pickle” for

A number of kench-salted products, prepared in various countries, are partially fermented when
export. The product is reported to be stable for about a year. sold and hence can be considered in
this group.

Fermented fish pastes. Generally, small fish or shrimps are used. They are pounded before and
during fermentation, and in some arears, a carbohydrate is added. Examples are ngapi of Burma,
and various mams of Cambodia (Kampuchea), and belachan or trassi of Malaysia and Indonesia.
For pastes made for fish, 1 part salt to 3 parts fish may be used. In some products, the fish are
eviscerated and beheaded. The sauce or pickle which forms on the surface may be sold
separately. For shrimp pastes, the shrimps are usually lightly salted and partially dried and then
pounded. Fermented fish pastes are used as condiments. The bagoong, ginamus or tinabal
including patis are products of fermentation. In the Philippines, fermented fish in various forms
are either canned or bottle and exported.

Fish sauces are clear liquids, ranging in color from yellow to amber to darkish-brown, with a
characteristic odor and flavor. Different grades are sold and quality is often based on color rather
than composition. Fish sauces are extremely stable and some will keep almost indefinitely.

Extensive research on methods of accelerating fermentation has been carried out but many of
the processes have not proved successful because the final product lacks the typical aromas and
flavor. Non-traditional methods of fermentation will not be dealt with here.

QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSESSMENT

Quality. In simple terms, the quality of a food can be defined as those characteristics or
attributes which made it acceptable to the consumer. Generally the consumer will pay more for
fish that he or she considers to be of higher “quality” and will continue to buy it as long as the
quality remain constant. Consumer preferences however vary from country, from region to
region and even between individuals, and these preference may well change over the year. In
order to control quality it is, therefore, essential to know what the consumer is looking for when
buying fish.

Some of the characteristic of quality are inherent in the fish immediately it is caught (intrinsic
quality), others are associated with the post-harvest fate, i.e. quality deterioration, or spoilage,
and loss of quality which may occur during handing and processing (extrinsic quality). From the
consumer’s point of view, some of the more important factors that determine quality are: species,
appearance of fish, ease of preparation, odor, flavor, freshness, size, presence or absence of
bones, absence of parasites, freedom from food poisoning bacteria, condition, composition, and
packaging.

The consumer will know from experience which types of fish he prefers and what he considers
to be of “good quality”. There are other factors of which he may not be aware. These may be
controlled by legislation, e.g., certain additives or coloring materials may be prohibited, or in
some countries, the total number of bacteria.

Quality Control. Quality control can be defined as the maintenance of quality at a level that
satisfies the consumer and that is economical to the producer. Quality control is normally based
on agreed procedures and specifications which are designed to maintain quality or reduce
defects: (1) of the raw materials, (2) during all stages of processing, and (3) of the final product.

Inspection is a vital function of quality control. It is normally a commercial activity but official
inspection is required in some countries by law (mandatory inspection). Inspection is the
examination of the fish products by visual, physical, analytical or microbiological means to
ensure it meets the required standards of specifications.
 Purpose. The purpose of quality control is to keep the customer happy and to maintain or
increase profitability to everyone involved in selling and/or processing fish. If quality falls, the
customer will complain and may not return to the shop or may not buy the product again. It is
therefore, very important for quality to be maintained, particularly for “branded” product. Also
loss of profitability can occur when fish products do not comply with local, national and
international standards.

Below is an illustration of a typical marketing chain which shows the circular feedback situation:

Fisherman

Supplier

Processor

Wholesaler

Retailer

Consumer

Application of quality control. Application of quality control is either actively or passively at all
stages in the chain from capture to retail. These are briefly as follows:

The catch is shorted. Unmarketable fish are

discarded. Fish may be sorted according to
On the boat species and size

Fish are selected again by size, species, and

quality. Fish of lower quality may be channeled
into another process or discarded. Random
sampling at different stages quality control
At the wholesale market, during processing also applied to water supply, equipment,
personnel, etc.

Final product Random sampling.

 During storage Random sampling. NB frozen, dried, salted,
canned fish, etc.

By the retailer Selection of species, size, etc.

By the consumer Selection for species, size, etc.

Cost of quality control. Active quality control, i.e. taking samples for taking samples for
testing, is a costly and time-consuming operation, the cost of mandatory inspection is
inescapable and is borne to some extent by all parties. It can be argued that, if no benefits accrue
from quality control, it should not be carried out; however, the benefits are difficult and
sometimes impossible to measure. Quality control is generally accepted as being essential for
any firm of industry that wants to maintain a good reputation. The processer will pass the cost of
quality control on to the customer but must not price the product out of reach of the consumer.
The cost quality control should not be more than 1 percent of the retail value.

Passive quality control, i.e. visual selection on the boats, at markets, shops, etc. tends to
be an integral part of the catching or buying operation.

ASSESSMENT AND SELECTION FOR QUALITY

The quality of the raw material and/or the final product can be assessed by sensory,
mechanical and physical, biochemical and chemical, and microbiological methods. Over the
year, may methods have been developed to find the most reliable and most suitable index for use
in quality control testing. The disadvantages of most method are that they are time consuming
and require specialized facilities; the results are not produced immediately, and the sample is
destroyed in the test.

For all fisheries, whether developed or developing, a means of assessing the quality of the
raw materials is essential. There is no point in using “poor quality” fish for expensive processing.
In many tropical fisheries, however, elaborate quality control procedures cannot be undertaken.
A simple and rapid method of assessing quality is required.

Sensory methods. Sensory methods depend entirely on the human senses. All except
hearing are used in the fishing industry. The importance of sensory assessment cannot be over-
emphasized. Frequently there is no choice but to use sensory methods. Furthermore, the final
criterion for quality is whether the fish is acceptable to eat.

The sense of sight is used at almost all stages to assess size, species, color, and condition
of the gills and eyes. Presence of slime, physical damage, condition of the belly (in developed
fisheries, however, many species are gutted immediately after capture), presence of bones in
fillets, attractiveness of the packaging, etc.
 In any visual assessment of the whole fish the sense of touch is also used. A film fish is
preferred to a soft fish. The sense of touch is also used when eating the fish, i.e. in assessing the
texture of the flesh.

Taste and smell are powerful senses in assessing quality. When examining the raw fish,
the odor of the gills and the general odor of the fish are important indicators of freshness in the
cooked fish odor, flavor or taste and texture are assessed. If off-flavors and off-odors are present,
the fish will be rejected.

The tongue can detect four basic tastes: bitter, sweet, salt, and acid. Fresh fish have a
sweet taste but as they spoil, bitter flavors develop. For some products it is necessary to detect
level of saltiness and acidity but, generally, for these properties chemical methods of detection
are preferred. Other factors which are important in “tasting” fish are rancidity and the presence
of bones in fillets, etc.

Sensory methods of assessment are strictly speaking, subjective. They are based on the
likes and dislikes of the individual. The consumer may say he or she prefers one type of fish to
another but no score or number can be given to a purely subjective assessment. However, two
forms of sensory assessment have been developed in an attempt to give an objective judgment,
Visual inspection and taste panel. If people are trained, they can make a dispassionate and
unbiased descriptive assessment of the product and a score or grade can be assigned.

Visual inspection. In many countries grading systems based on visual inspection are use
in commercially. A visual and olfactory assessment of the whole fish will almost certainly be the
first means of assessment in any developing fishery. It is recommended that iced storage trails be
carried out for all commercial species to establish their maximum shelf life in ice. At intervals
during storage, detailed descriptions of the visual change should be made, samples should be
taken and cooked for tasting and if possible, samples should also be tested for microbiological
counts. From a knowledge of the visual/organoleptic changes it is possible to predict the number
of days a fish has been in ice. The acceptable length of storage is confirmed from taste panel
findings. For fisheries which are considering a distribution of fresh fish, this type of information
is essential.

Taste panel. A trained taste panel may consist of as few as six members. Their score will
be averaged to give a more useful assessment. Simple preference testing, e.g. do you like or
dislike the product, and “no-preference” testing, e.g. are two samples the same or different, can
also be used in some circumstances. No training is necessary.

Mechanical and physical testing. Mechanical or physical methods can be employed for:
(1) grading fish according to size, (2) measurement of fat and moisture content, (3) testing
firmness of flesh in frozen, chilled and canned fish, and (4) measuring the degree of spoilage in
chilled fish.

A number of machines for size-grading are available and are in common use in many
countries. Sorting according to species cannot be done mechanically. In developing fisheries,
grading would almost certainly be by hand. Instruments can be used for rapid determination of
fat and moisture but chemical methods are more accurate. Also there are a number of instruments
which have been developed for testing the firmness of fresh, chilled and canned flesh but few are
in commercial use.

As a chilled whole fish spoil changes occur in the electrical properties of the skin and
flesh. Based on this principle, two types of direct-reading instruments have been designed. The
readings must however be “calibrated” for each species. Such instruments would be particular
value at port markets and factory reception areas. The “inspection” buyer or factory manager
could rapidly check the freshness of batches of fish. It is hoped that the recently designed British
meter (GR Torrymeter) will prove to be a reliable, robust and accurate “tool” for checking and
monitoring quality. The main advantages of this type of instrument are that it: (1) is small
enough to be carried, (2) does not damage the fish, (3) gives an instantaneous result, (4) is
independent of human senses or judgment, and (5) does not require highly trained or skilled
personnel.

Reading must, however be made on a number of fish in order to obtain an average. In the
GR Torrymeter an averaging facility is incorporated. A reading is obtained only after the meter
has been placed on 16 fish.

The control of time and temperature is essential in all fish handling and processing
operations. Therefore, it can be claimed justifiably that the clock and the thermometer are the
two most important physical instruments. Their sensible and careful use can go far to obviate the
need for other more advanced instruments or expensive methods of inspection and checking.

Chemical and biochemical. For a number of fish and fish products it is important to know
their composition. Chemical determination for protein, fat, moisture, salt and ash (including
sand, etc. ) are generally called “proximate” analyses. It is considered essential that every
developing fishery should establish the proximate composition of all commercial species and
how it varies throughout the year. Details of the methods can be readily obtained from the
scientific papers, etc.

Chemical and biochemical methods, used for the assessment of quality/spoilage of

chilled, frozen and otherwise processed fish, rely mainly upon the estimation of compound
produced by bacterial and autolytic enzymes and the oxidation of fats e.g.:

Tests include

Trimethylamine (TMA) only for marine

species. Total volatile bases (TVB). Total
Bacterial Action reducing substances (TRS).

pH and lactic acid levels. Sugars and sugar

phosphates. Enzymatic assoys of nucleotide
Autolytic Action breakdown.

Thiobarbituric acid (TBA)

Peroxide value
 Fat Oxidation Iodine value
Free fatty acid

Drying, Smoking, Salting, and other quality control

methods
Estimations of compounds produced by bacterial action are usually considered to be
“spoilage indicators”., nucleotide breakdown products, e.g. hypoxanthine, may be considered
“freshness indicator” which can to some extent, predict the shelf life of a given consignment of
fish.

Nearly all these methods require specialized equipment and laboratory facilities. For the
reason TVB, which can be carried out with simple and readily available glassware and chemical,
is often the only method suitable for use in the tropics.

Microbiological Micro-organisms in fish and fish products are divided into two broad
categories: spoilage organisms, which are almost always present in larger numbers, and
organisms of public health significance (pathogens) which, although not usually present in large
numbers, are hazardous and are the main concern of micro-biological quality control.

Routine microbiological testing measures total numbers of bacteria present, or the

presence/absence of specific pathogens. For both methods the sample is homogenized in a
suitable liquid, diluted and “plated out”, the plates are then incubated. Numbers of bacteria are
counted. For total plate counts, a nutrient medium (agar) is used; for pathogens, special media
that favor the growth of the particular group of organisms are used. Microbiological methods are
fairly laborious and often only the larger companies, public health laboratories, etc. have the
necessary facilities.

INTERPRETATIONS OF RESULTS AND ALIGNMENT

WITH STANDARDS

There is no point in carrying out any methods of quality and sensory assessment unless the
results are related to standards. This may be a local, national or international standard or an
unwritten specification. Who sets the standards up? The chain may be as follows:

Consumer: retailer

Retailer: wholesaler
 Wholesaler: processor

Processor: supplier

Supplier: fisherman

Often it will be short-circuited, i.e. the customer buys directly from the fisherman. In most cases
it is the processor who has to ensure that the product meets the standards, particularly in the case
of international and national standards which are set up by government bodies and international
organizations.

How and why are the standards set up? The ultimate destiny of fish is to be eaten by the
customer and it must, therefore, be safe to eat and of an acceptable quality. It is impossible and
impracticable for fish to be tested by tasting to each point of sale.

Products must meet standards whether they are written or unwritten. For example if chilled fish
is to be distributed for sale two days later, its quality before distribution must be such that it will
be still of acceptable quality to the consumer.

HOW TO MAINTAIN QUALITY

It must be remembered that no form of processing will improve the quality of a spoiled or
partially spoiled fish. Therefore it is important to maintain quality (as far as is possible) by good
handling practices at all stages from capture to consumption. The session on chilling and hygiene
have covered most of what is referred to as “good housekeeping”. The major factors to be
controlled in order to reduce spoilage and maintain quality are: (1) time, (2) temperature, (3)
contamination, (4) damage.

Time because fish is so perishable, particularly at high ambient temperatures, it is important to

keep all delays to a minimum. A knowledge of the length of time that fish can be left at ambient
temperature before icing, the length of time they can be stored in ice and stored frozen is
essential.

Temperature the raw material should be chilled as soon as possible and kept chilled before
processing and during all stages of preparation of the fish. The temperature of freezing, cold
storage, drying, smoking, etc. must be controlled. These may be specific.

Contamination fish are readily contaminated during handling and processing. Control is effected
by good hygiene and sanitation, i.e. good housekeeping. Problems of contamination of fish
caught in polluted water can be difficult to overcome. The problem should be treated at the
source.

Damage measures the control damage are straight forward. Avoid treading on the fish, piercing
with hooks, bending while in rigor mortis, etc. Glazing and suitable packaging will protect
frozen product. Other product may be packaged to protect them against physical damage and/or
the effects of humidity, insect infestation, etc.

CODES OF PRACTICE AND STANDARDS

In the 1960’s the need for a broad international approach to the establishment of quality
standards was recognized and, in 1962,the Codex Alimentarious Committee was set up;
standards are being prepared for all fishery products. Some form of certification of quality and
the conditions under which they were produced may become a necessity for fishery product to
survive on world markets.

Codes of practice have also drawn up. These are of value in relation to compliance with Codex
Standards and are a source of useful advice for countries wishing to improve existing handling
and processing practices. Codes of practice for Fish and Fishery Product, dealing with technical
matters, are prepared by the Ministry of Fisheries in FAO. These Codes Practice are aimed
mainly at the developed countries and it is hoped that a Code, which concentrates on the areas
where handling, processing, etc. of tropical fish differs from that of temperate fish will be
prepared.

A number of countries have set up national standards or specifications for a variety of fish and
fishery products. Every effort should be give to encourage their development in tropical
countries.

VOCABULARY
Know the meaning of the following terms. Be able to use them in sentence of your own
correctly.

Autolytic action Passive quality control

Brine Piperonyl butoxide

Fermented fish paste Predator

Fermentation Puffer fish

Hem pigment Pyrethrum

Impervious Relative humidity

Kench-salted product Spoilage bacteria

Mandatory inspection Tetrodotoxin

 Microbiological methods Tuband

Natural convection smoker Vat

DISCUSSION
1) Discuss that advantage of autolytic changes in fish in terms of food preservation
technology.

2) What makes puffer fish toxic? How can this be used as food?

3) Discuss in detail the kench-salting methods in fish preservation.

4) Discuss how the fish is preserved by smoking.

5) How is quality control in fish achieved?

6) What is meant by mandatory inspection? Differentiate this from passive quality control
methods.

7) How is brine solution made effective in fish preservation? Discuss in terms of

composition and percentage of salinity.

8) Will a half-spoiled fish preserve and improve its flavor under improved food preservation
technology? Discuss.