Research review Hygeia.J.D.Med.vol.

4 (1), April 2012 –September2012 79-90

:: Hygeia rid:c-3693
Journal for drugs and medicines
April 2012-September2012
OPEN ACCESS www.hygeiajournal.com
.
A half yearly scientific, international, open access journal for drugs and medicines Research article section: Pharmacology & Toxicology

Plant toxins-useful and harmful effects

Chandra Sekhar J, Sandhya S*, Vinod KR, David Banji, Sudhakar K, Chaitanya RSNAKK
Department of Pharmacognosy, Nalanda College of Pharmacy, Cherlapally, Nalgonda, Andhra Pradesh, India-508001.

Article history: Received: 29 November, 2011, revised: 20 December 2011, accepted: 25 December 2011, Available online: 5 April 2012

Abstract
Plan: To review the useful and harmful effects of plant toxins.
Prologue: Poisonous chemicals found in plants are normal biochemicals. They have been developed as an evolutionary response
for self-protection. Therefore, plants are deliberately poisonous and their toxicity to humans and other animals is an example of
natural selection.. The surviving plants, therefore, have not been subjected to selective pressures which might influence them to
produce toxins. The alkaloids are by far the most predominant of plant toxins and because of their enormous structural diversity
and various modes of action, examples may be chosen from among them to serve as paradigms for virtually every type of plant-
herbivore interaction.
Outcome: Since plant toxins show many useful effects they can be used in treating respective diseases. They can be modified to
show better affinity and efficacy. Regardless of the structure of a particular toxin, it is likely to have evolved and been elaborated
biosynthetically under pressure from a specific predator or limited group of predators. Commercial crops for human food usage
must therefore have optimal concentration of biologically active natural products, low enough to be nontoxic to the consumer (at
least when eaten in reasonable quantities) but sufficiently great to repel or limit pests.
Key words: Toxins, secondary metabolites, alkaloids, herbivore, adverse effect

Introduction

Plant toxins are substances produced as secondary metabolites that are identical to extra cellular
bacterial toxins in their properties. They show both useful and harmful effects in human beings and
animals. They Show a wide range of side effects from minor itching, nausea, vomiting to adverse effects
like psychosis, paralysis, teratogenecity, arrhythmias. They are useful in production of cosmetics, ulcers,
menstrual cramping, cancer and in treatment of man ailments and diseases. Toxins may enter into the by
body either by inhalation, swallowing or by contact. The action is based on their chemical constituents
which are classified into alkaloids, glycosides, proteins, oxalates, anti vitamins, tannins, volatile ether
layers etc. They act by altering specific mechanisms involving enzymes, receptors and even genetic
material at particular cells and tissues. Poisonous plants have a seed, root, leaf, stalk, fruit or juice where
even a relatively small amount, taken either internally or eternally, can lead to injury to the human body.
In some species the poisonous constituents occur throughout the whole plant. In others they are
concentrated in one or more parts.

_______________________________________
For correspondence: sanpharm@gmail.com ,
Contact: +91 9010055004
http://www.researcherid.com/rid/C-3693-2012
© 2012, Hygeia.J.D.Med. All rights reserved, 2229 3590, 0975 6221

79
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
Chandra Sekhar J, et al

The degree of toxicity also depends on the location (including height above sea level), climatic factors
including the local microclimate (light, warmth, humidity), the growing season, type of soil, fertilization,
plant variety and age. The condition of the poisonous plant material is equally important (dried, chewed,
cooked, as tea). The dose of course is the most important factor.

Plants contain a variety of toxic compounds commonly called "secondary compounds" that affect the
behavior and productivity of wild and domestic animals. There are many classes of these toxic
compounds; however soluble phenolics, alkaloids, and terpenoids are the most common. Soluble
phenolics include flavonoids, isoflavonoids, and hydrolysable and condensed tannins. There are a huge
variety of plant poisons and it is difficult to organize the myriad plant toxins in an understandable manner.
Plant toxins are described according to the organ system in the human body which they affect, e.g.
cardiotoxins, neurotoxins etc. The difference between the terms ‘medicinal’ and ‘poisonous’ is sometimes
smaller than one might think1-3.

Classification

Plant toxins are classified based on their structural and chemical properties. They are grouped into
alkaloids , glycosides , tannins , proteins , oxalates , enzyme inhibitors , antivitamins , phytoestrogens ,
volatile etheric layers , photo sensitizing substances1,4,5.

• Akaloids include indole alkaloids, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, opium alkaloids,
vicine and covicine alkaloids.
• Glycosidal toxins include cardiac glycosides, goitrogenic glycosides, anthraquinone glycosides,
mustard oil glycosides, saponin glycosides, cyanogenetic glycosides.
• Tannins like pyrogallol.
• Proteins like lectin, abrin, ricin, cicutoxin, anisatin, gelonin, falcarinol, oenotheatoxin etc.
Antivitamins like thiaminases , Phytoestrogens like coumestrol . Volatile etheric layers such as
ushuriol, Photo sensitizing substances including hypericin .
• Enzyme inhibitors like Cholinesterase inhibitors, Protease inhibitors, Amylase inhibitors. Others
include Lathyrogens, Anti-thiamin compounds, Avidin.

Plant toxins 6-9

o Abrin, Anisatin, Andromedotoxin, Apocyanin, Amygdalin, Aesculin, Anabasine, Anagyrine, Aspargine ,

Avidin
o Brucine
o Chaconine, Cicutoxin, Cicutiol, Cardinilides, Cycasin, Cyanarin, Confoline, Convolmine, Covicine,
Convoline, Convosine, caratotoxin,cucurbitacin
o Delphinine, Djenkolic acid, Dhurrin, Levo-Duboisine
o Epipodophyllotoxin
o Falcarinol, Frascin, Fagopyrin quinines , furocoumarin
o Gelonin, Gossypol, Grayanotoxin, Gallotoxin
o Hymexon, Hypericin, Hymenoxon, Hyoscine

80
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
 Plant toxins-useful and harmful effects

o Illicin, Isoalyl thiocyanates, ipomeamarone

o linamarin, lotaustralin, Lycorine, Laetrile, Lectin, Lantanene
o beta-methylamino-l-alanine, Macrozamin, Mezeein, 4-methoxypyridoxine
o Nitrates, Naudicoline, Nerosides
o Oenanthotoxin
o Phytotoxin, Pseudaconitine, Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid, Persin, Prunassin, Podopyllotoxin,
Phenanthridineprolamine, Phytolaccine, Phytolaccatoxin, Phytolaccigenin, Protoanemonin
o Resiniferatoxin, Ricin, Ranunculin
o Saponin, Scopolamine, Solamargine, Solasodamine, Solasodine, Solasonine, Solauricidine, Solauricine,
Strychnine, Swainsonine, Syringomycin, Sambunigrin, Solanine, Shankhapushpin
o Thionins, Tinyatoxin, Tutin , Tremetol ,Taxine
o Ushuriol
o Vicine

2.2 Structures of few plant toxins

Persin Anisatin

Cicutoxin Oxalate Falcarinol

Oleandrin Hypericin Macrozamin

Tinyatoxin Fagopyrin Laetrile

81
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
Chandra Sekhar J, et al

Coumestrol Linamarin Andromedotoxin

Sinigrin dhurrin

Plant toxins act on all parts of the body withsome common symptoms like vomiting, nausea. They show
actions based on the way of exposure and concentration. They are both useful and harmful.

Conclusion

A plant grows in a highly competitive environment. It is continually threatened by other plants

encroaching upon the space from which it draws its sustenance, by micro-organisms, by insects, and by
both large and small mammalian, avian, or reptilian herbivores.

In order to survive, each plant must draw upon a complex of defenses, which may be physical, such as
spines or leathery leaves, or chemical .These compounds are of most interest because they are often
specific to a particular species or genera and must, therefore, have been designed to serve a particular
protective function. Among the most prevalent are numerous classes of phenolics, terpenes and steroids,
cyanogenic compounds, and alkaloids.

82
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
 Plant toxins-useful and harmful effects

Table 1: Mechanism of action of different toxins

83
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
Chandra Sekhar J, et al

15-18
Table 2: Pharmacological actions

84
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
 Plant toxins-useful and harmful effects

Table 3: Harmful effects of plant toxins

85
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
Chandra Sekhar J, et al

Table 4 Examples of plant toxins

S.no Common name Botanical name Plant part Chemical constituents Pharmacological action

1 Andromeda Andromeda Whole plant Andromedotoxin *Paralysis,Death

floribunda

2 Apricot Prunus Americana Wilted leaves Cyanogenic +Cancer,Ulcers,Detoxification, Constipation,Decrease LDL

glycosides,laetrile

3 Avocado Persea spp. Leaves Persin *Equinecolic,Resp.Distress,Fluid Accumulate around heart

4 Azalea Rhododendron Whole plant Glycosides *Constipation,Decrease LDL

indica

5 Baneberry Actea rubra Whole plant Cardiogenic +Menstrual Cramping *Cardiac Arrest,Death
toxins,beta-sitosterol
glycoside

6 Bind weed Convolvula arvensis Whole plant Shankhapushpin,convo +braintonic,insomnia,diuretic,

lmine,conoline,convosi
ne,confoline Strength to nerves, Urinary infections, Tone heart muscles, Hair
growth
7 Bitter Helenium.spp. Whole plant Glycosides,sesquiterpe *Muscle Tremor,Dehydration, Cough,Pneumonia
weed/sneeze ne lactones
weed

8 Black henbane Hyocyamus niger Whole plant Tropine alkaloids- *Bloat,Ataxia,IntestinalStatis,

atropine
Excitement,Convulsions,Mydriasis

9 Black locust Robinia Bark,seeds Glycoprotein- *Colieic pain, Constipation,

pseudocadia abrin,ricin,lectin
Diarrhea,Muscle Weak ness,Ataxia

10 Black walnut Jugulans nigra Whole plant ------------ +Anti Inflammatory,Astringent,Blood Purifier,Laxative,Vermifuge,
Ganarene,Leprosy

11 Bleeding heart Dicentra exemia Whole plant Alkaloids +Sharp pains like tooth pain
12 Bouncing bet Saponaria Whole plant Saponins *Hepatopathy,GIT Disturbances
officinalis

13 Brackenfern Petridium Whole plant Thiaminase *GIT Cancer,Enzootic Haematuria,Thrombocytopaenia,Depression,

aquilinum Blindness, Decreased Platelets

14 Buck wheat Fagopyrum plant except Fagopyrin,dianthroquin *Photosensitization,Sloughing of skin 24

esculentum ripe seeds ones

15 Buffalo burr Solanum rostratum Whole plant Solanine,atropine *Bloating,Diarrhoea Table.4:

alkaloids

16 Burdock Atrium spp. Spiny burs ------------- *Corneal ulcer,Trauma

17 Buttercup Ranunculus .spp Whole plant Oily Increased salivation *,Reddening of mucous membrane
glycoside,ranunculln

18 Angels wing Caladium .spp Whole plant Tropane alkaloids *Constipation,Resp Failure,Mydriasis,Muscle Weakness,Tachycardia

19 Callalily Zantedesctea Whole plant Oxalates *Kidney stones

20 Castorbean Ricinus communus Seeds Ricin,lectin *Diarrhea,Pyrexia,Depression,

Anorexia,Bloat, Hypovolemic Shock 21

-: Harmful effects; + : Useful effects; ---- : not reported

86
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
 Plant toxins-useful and harmful effects

-: Harmful effects; + : Useful effects; ---: not reported

87
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
Chandra Sekhar J, et al

-: Harmful effects; + Useful effects; --: not reported

88
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
 Plant toxins-useful and harmful effects

- : Harmful effects; + : Useful effects; ---: not reported

Insect attack upon a plant may cause it to mobilize its defensive toxins in such a way that they are
concentrated at the most threatened site, whether it be leaf tissue, flower, root, or seed. The generally
small size of insects ensures that sufficient metabolite can be produced to kill, injure, or deter the attacker.
The cost to the plant of producing its chemical weapons in the arms-race against its rapidly evolving
insect enemies is extremely high. Valuable resources of water, nutrients, and energy must be utilized in
the frequently complex biosynthetic route to an effective toxin. It is obviously advantageous to the plant if
it can survive by producing either a minimal amount of a compound which is especially toxic to its
particular predator or is localized at the point of attack.

89
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.
Chandra Sekhar J, et al

Commercial crops for human food usage must therefore have optimal concentration of biologically active
natural products, low enough to be nontoxic to the consumer (at least when eaten in reasonable quantities)
but sufficiently great to repel or limit pests. Similar considerations must be applied to the production of
feed and forage for livestock. Concentration and location of the toxin are the primary considerations in
evaluating the toxicity of poisonous plants.

References

1. http://www.itg.be/evde/47_Medical_problems_caused_by_plantsp2.htm .Retrieved on 15/3/2010.

2. Richard FK, Anthony TT, Plant and fungal toxins: Hand book of natural toxins, Vol 1, Marcel Dekker, NewYork, 1994, 117,345,637.
3. Jeffery B.Haborne , Herbert Baxter, Gerard.P.Moss, Dictionary of plant toxins, Vol 1, Wiley Chichester, USA,1996.
4. Jesse Wagstaff D, International poisonous plants check list: an evidence based reference, CRC Press, NewYork, 2008, 1-25, 235-271.
5. Felix D’Mello JP, Food safety contaminants and toxins, CABI publishers, UK, 2002.
6. http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/toxicagents/tannin.html. Retrieved on 15/3/2010.
7. Felix D’Mello JP, Handbook of plant and fungal toxicants, CRC press,UK, 1997, 19,63,157,191,205.
8. Camovic TA, Stewart CS, Pennycott TW, Poisonous plants and related toxins, CABI Publishers, USA,2004,1,7,38,151.
9. http://museum.gov.ns.ca/poison/default.asp?section=list, Retrieved on 3/4/2010.
10. Shibamoto T, Bjeldanes LF, Introduction to Food Toxicology, Academic Press, California, 1993, 123-163.
11. William Helferich, Carl.K.Winter, Food toxicology, CRC Press, UK,2001,138-158,.
12. Seawright AA, Directly toxic effects of plants chemicals which may occur in human and animals foods. Natural Toxins, 3(4),1995,227-232.
13. Tomris Altug, Introduction to toxicology and food, CRC Press, UK, 2002, 39-71.
14. Concon JM, Food Science and Toxicology. Part A Principles and Concepts, Marcel Dekker, New York 1988.
15. Ronald.G.Crosby, The poisoned weed:plants toxic to skin, Oxford Univ Press,NYC 2004, 6,9,87,149.
16. Dietrich Frohne, Hans Jurgen Pfander, 2nd ed, Poisonous plants:A handbook for doctors, Pharmacists, toxicologists ,biologists ,veterinarians, Manson publishing Ltd, London, 2nd
ed, 2004, 1-19,196,390.
17. Der Marderosian, Poisonous plants in and around the home, Am J .Pharm Edu,30(1), 1966, 115-140.
18. Russell J. Molyneux, Michael H. Ralph , Plant toxins and palatability to herbivores, J. Range manage,45, 1992,13-18.
19. http://www.sheepandgoat.com/poison.html, Retrieved on 22/6/2010.
20. Galey FD, Holstege DM, Johnson BJ, Toxicity and diagnosis of oleander (Nerium oleander) poisoning in livestock. In: Toxic Plants and other Natural Toxicants.,CAB
International, NewYork, 1998,215-219.
21. http://www.itg.be/evde/47_Medical_problems_caused_by_plantsp9.htm Retrieved on 22/6/2010.
22. Anet E, Lythgoe B, Silk MH, Trippett S, The Chemistry of Oenanthotoxin and Cicutoxin, Chemistry and Industry, 31, 1952, 757-758.
23. Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Becket G, Beasley, Poisoning due to water hemlock, Clin Toxicol, 47(4), 2009, 270-8.
24. Hinneburg I, Neubert RH. Influence of extraction parameters on the phytochemical characteristics of extracts from buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) herb. J Agric Food Chem.,
12(53), 2005, 3-7.
25. Ebermann R, Alth, Kreitner G, Kubin M, Natural products derived from plants as potential drugs for the photodynamic destruction of tumor cells. J Photochem Photobiol B, 36(2),
1996, 95-7.

90
Hygeia.J.D.Med. Vol.4 (1), April, 2012, 79-90.