Quality Indicators For ICU: Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine 2009
Quality Indicators For ICU: Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine 2009
Quality Indicators For ICU: Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine 2009
Task force:
Dr. N. Rangnathan
Dr. N. Rungta
Dr. D. Govil
Dr. M. Munjal
Dr. A. Kulkarni
Dr. S. Nainan Myatra
Dr. J. Divatia
Dr. C. K. Jani
Foreword by chair:
Intensive Care has had a phenomenal growth since its inception during the Copenhagen
Poliomyelitis outbreak in 1952. Few specialities have grown with that much of pace as that of
Intensive Care in such a short period. True, its a ‗capital intensive‘ care but its saving lives
which otherwise would not have been possible and its even contributing with precision to
perception of future course of the disease and to instituting remedial measures well ahead of the
time, the patients require critical care therapies. Target oriented therapies and bundles are
becoming the preferred modalities for bettering the outcomes and there are definitive indications
that such therapies are helpful. Intensive therapy outcomes are constantly improving
techniques in different ICUs. While disease outcomes are relatively easy to appreciate and
accounted for, intensive care outcomes are not so easy to do so because of the very nature of the
units and the way we practice it particularly in our country with a large number of open and very
few semi closed and even fewer closed units. In order to develop the right kind of unit and
practice optimum therapies for providing best quality treatment to our critically ill patients, we
need to develop appropriate key performance indicators which reflect the aspirations of patients,
Developing key performance indicators and monitoring, auditing and improving those parameters
is a dynamic process which requires standardization, improvement and innovation – the three
standardization means ‗removing the outliers‘ i.e. reducing the standard deviation, improvement
denotes gradual bettering of a parameter from the previous level with a degree of irreversible
consistency. Innovation is however, sporadic and often it requires a thinking cap which, while
maintaining the speed of standardization and improvement, quickly takes the parameters to a new
level. In Total Quality Management (TQM) parlance the first two are a part or product of Daily
Management and the last one is a part or product of Policy Management. While standardization
and improvement come with all-round participation in the unit, the innovation comes from a
Small improvements through small group activities (SGAs), previously known as Quality Circles,
are central to any improvement in a unit and brings about pride and involvement amongst the staff
in ICU. While isolated improvement activities are important to making the members engaged to
start with, institutionalizing these activities is the ultimate goal of the unit, for only that will
ensure a complete irreversibility of the process. The latter is possible if the problems are
constantly identified in the process/procedure and improvement initiatives are taken to address
those. Striving for results is extremely important and for that the team needs to identify and take
care of the ‗vital few‘ problems leaving the ‗trivial many‘; something like ‗triaging‘ in mass
casualty parlance.
Co-relating the improvement of the process/outcome parameter with the improvement activities is
important; if it does not match, then either one has not chosen the parameter properly, or the
parameter needs further development in form of precision and complexity or the ‗vital few‘
problems have not been properly identified. A constant engagement with the improvement
process is necessary on the part of the team. The parameter needs to be developed, validated and
revalidated in the same unit and in different units among the similar and dissimilar case mix
*********
Members’ details :
Dr D P Samaddar : HOD Anaesthesia and Critical Care , Tata Main Hospital , Jamshedpur
drdpsamaddar@tatasteel.com ;9234551849
Dr George John : Professor of Medicine , Head division of Critical Care, CMC, Vellore
yokavi@yahoo.com ;09443626986
Background: Efficiency of any health care unit is judged by its quality indicators. However in our
country monitoring the outcome through quality indicators is not yet institutionalized because of many
reasons including the majority of ICUs being run as open or semi closed with unaccountable custodians.
Dependency on the key performance indicators practiced by the developed countries therefore becomes
inevitable wherever some degree of total quality management system is being adhered to. It is generally
seen that few of the hospitals in India attempt to evolve their own parameters either taking ideas from the
―established parameters‖ or from their experience in Indian hospitals. Some of the parameters when
pursued year after year do not express or reflect the aspirations of the intensivists. Selecting definitive
and sensitive quality indicators and forming a data base at national level, is therefore required. The
executive committee of Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine (ISCCM) , took a decision in the year
2008 to evolve Quality Indicators for ICUs in India and a task force was constituted under the convener
ship of Dr B Ray to give its report.
Objective: Primary objective is to select suitable quality indicators for Indian intensive care units.
Development of national data base and meaningful utilization of this data base is the final objective.
Parameters: Common performance parameters (nominators) along with certain basic parameters
(denominators) have been selected to find out quality indicators. Each indicator has been explained for
ease of understanding and uniformity of practice. Based on the selected parameters Dash Board for
monitoring the data has been developed.
Dash Board: Dash board includes the selected parameters which would be made available to
participating institutions for reporting to main body at pre decided intervals.
Caution and limitations: Very common parameters have been selected in this report. Acceptability and
utility of these parameters in the Indian scenario will have to be assessed over a period of time.
Accordingly parameters will be modified and may be few parameters have to be even discontinued if
those parameters do not reflect the outcome directly or indirectly.
Future steps: Addition and deletion of parameters as per need would be considered in future. This will
be done in phases after proper evaluation of monitored parameters. National data base generated by this
exercise can be released for public reporting at a later date. Institutions will also be in a position to
compare their performance with the national data base.
Approach by an Intensive Care Unit: These should be the guidelines and by no means a complete or
closed list. Once the parameters are put in place , monitored and audited at predetermined interval one
would surely find some improvement in the key performance indicators (KPIs) but by no standards that
alone should be construed as a successful exercise. The approach should be to minimize standard
deviation (prevent ―spikes‖on either direction) while improving the KPIs .It will be clearly appreciated
that the whole unit‘s involvement is essential to find out the bottlenecks in the process or functional areas
of any parameter and take remedial action through small group activities(SGAs) and self initiated
projects(SIPs). One would see a lot of Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCAs) on the way to evolution of a
parameter.
Main Report
3. Units 1
4. Objective 2
5. Parameters 2
7. Dash board 16
10. Recommendations 17
12. Acknowledgements 18
14. Annexure 20
It is therefore becoming more and more mandatory for the institution to monitor quality
indicators/parameters and compare their performance level with the national standard or
international bench marks. It gives an opportunity to the individual institution to improve its
quality of care through standardization of processes, procedures and treatment protocols.
Unfortunately, due to variety of reasons, performance levels are not monitored in India and
therefore a national data base does not exist for a meaningful comparison. Dependency on the
international data base, however not logical for Indian scenario, becomes inevitable in our
strategic planning of the service.
Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine (ISCCM) had taken the initiative in the year 2008 in its
executive body meeting to identify quality indicators for the ICUs which will help intensive care
units in India to judge their performance level and also compare with the national data base.
2. Gathering evidence:
Annexure :
1 Quality indicators in Critical Care : An overview Dr B Ray, Dr D P Samaddar
2 Patient safety Dr S K Todi
3 Personnel Development Dr Suresh
4 Quality of processes Dr George John, Dr N Ramakrishnan
5 Outcome Parameters Dr George John, Dr N Ramakrishnan
6 Infection Control Dr D P Samaddar
3. Units : Report is basically focused on adult mixed intensive care unit but wherever possible
for benchmarking other specified units‘ references have also been given (except Neonatal ICU ).
Abbreviations used for different specialized units are given below.( Table no. 1)
Table no.1
Unit Abbreviation
Burn BCU
Coronary CCU
Surgical cardiothoracic SCU
Medical MICU
Medical/surgical, major ,teaching M-S ICU major teaching
Medical/surgical, all others M- S ICU
Pediatric medical/surgical PICU
Neurological Neuro ( Med) ICU
Neurosurgical Neuro (Surg) ICU
Surgical SICU
Trauma TICU
-2-
4 . Objective:
1. Select very common parameters mainly focussing on the outcome (mortality and
morbidity), process, infection, communication, human resource and safety.
2. Generate national data base for comparison with international bench marks and provide
data to participating institutions at national level for comparison with national data base.
5. Parameters: Based on the objective of this report, common parameters with their
international bench marks have been selected to address different aspects of patient care
operational issues and human resource development. Certain basic data, which as such do not
reflect patient care but when used as denominators to the selected parameters, make the parameter
more sensitive and meaningful. Example of these denominators are: number of admissions , total
patient days in the unit( occupancy), ventilatory days, central venous and arterial line days,
urinary catheter days etc. In order to avoid confusion and ambiguity of interpretation, it is
essential that purpose and usefulness of selected parameters must be understood by the care
providers. All the selected parameters, therefore, are described under certain sub headings as
given in the table no. 2 along with explanation.
Table no. 2
Indicator Explanation
Description What does the parameter mean
Rationality Why should it be monitored
Formula for calculation How it should be calculated
Patient population For whom the parameter is collected
Source of data Where from the input will be collected
Type of parameter Linkage of parameter with the type of quality
Bench mark Common national or international standard
References Literature back up for the bench mark and background
information for the selected parameter
6.Definition of Parameters:
6.1 Mortality:
.
6.1.1 Standardized mortality rate ( SMR)
Rationality Risk of death varies with severity of disease state, age, and co-
morbid conditions. Crude mortality (overall mortality) therefore is
not a sensitive indicator. On the basis of influencing factors SMR
obviates limitation of crude mortality as data from a large pool of
patients with similar diagnoses and risk factors are analysed to get
expected mortality for that group of patients. Data can be obtained
from national records or international records. Mortality rate can be
obtained from predictive models such as APACHE , SAPS,MPM
etc.2 The SMR is a very useful parameter, often used to compare
outcomes in two or more groups under study. It also gives an
opportunity to individual ICU for improving the processes and
techniques.
Formula for calculation 1 Risk-adjusted Mortality 1
= Observed Rate/Risk-adjusted expected Rate (X100)
Observed rate = Actual death in ICU/ institution.
Risk adjusted expected rate = Predicted death rate by predictive
model
Interpretation 1 Equal to 100 — hospital's mortality rate and the expected
average rate are the same
>100 — hospitals mortality rate is higher than the expected
average mortality rate
<100 — hospitals mortality rate is lower than the expected
average mortality rate.
Higher SMR does not necessarily mean that hospital is unsafe as this
is a snapshot method and simultaneous assessment of other quality
indicators must be done to draw a logical conclusion. Single
parameter based judgment on performance level is not advocated. 2
Patient population All patients admitted to critical care units of different type
Source of data Hospital record for the observed mortality ( numerator)
Type of parameter Outcome
Bench mark If the 95% confidence interval of the SMR includes 1, the
performance is considered average. If the 95% CI *does not include
1, SMRs less than 1 and more than 1 are considered to show good
and poor performances, respectively.3
References 1. Available at : http://www.mayoclinic.org/quality/adjusted-
mortality.html
2. Available at: http://www.qhc.on.ca/body.cfm?id=565
3. Bekele Afessa ,Ognjen Gajic , Mark T. Keegan Severity of
Illness and Organ Failure Assessment in Adult Intensive
Care Units. Crit Care Clin 23 (2007) 639–658
-4-
5% ( interstitial emphysema/pneumothorax/
pneumomediastinum/subcutaneous emphysema)2
References 1.AHRQ national average .Sharp health care ,2007 Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award application 2007.
6.5 Infection Control: Nosocomial infection has both outcome and financial implications.
Approximately 1.7 million infections, 99,000 deaths, and higher estimated annual expenditure of
$4.5 billion had been reported by centers for disease control and prevention in 2007. 4 additional ref
Most commonly monitored three variables : a) ventilator associated pneumonia , b) blood stream
infection and c) urinary tract infection rate were selected as quality indicators for this report.
NNIS surveillance 2002 shows that out of overall 13.04 overall infection rate / 1000 patient days
in adult and children intensive care unit , pneumonia, BSI and UTI rates were represented as 3.33
, 2.71 and 3.38 respectively. SSI (0.95) and others (2.67) represented the rest. Percentage wise
UTI, BSI, and Pneumonia incidence were 32, 14, 15 in the 2002 survey. 5 additional ref
6.5.1 Ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP): VAP is an important cause of morbidity and
mortality 6,7additional ref but difficulties encountered in diagnosis of VAP makes bench marking a
difficult proposition. Therefore its advantage as quality indicator is limited. Still hospitals in
United States report ventilator-associated pneumonia rates as an indicator of quality of care and
also for benchmarking due to the collective demand of legislators, tax payers, and advocates of
quality-of-care across .8 additional ref
Endotracheal aspirates with nonquantitative cultures had been advocated as the initial diagnostic
strategy. Common clinical criteria (e.g. fever, leukocytosis, purulent secretions, new or changing
radiographic infiltrate) have high sensitivity but suffer from relatively low specificity level. They
are most useful for initial screening for VAP and for selecting patients for invasive procedures,
such as BAL, that have sensitivities and specificities in the region of 80%.For ease of application
clinical and radiological diagnostic criteria are given in this report.
6.7 Customer focus: Perception of patients and their relatives about the care received is an
important determinant for forming public opinion. If care perceived is not good then it causes
customer (Patient, relatives) dissatisfaction. Patient and family‘s satisfaction level should never
be ignored and regular attempt to assess the gap between actual level of care (based on the survey
- 15 -
by health care provider and other quality parameters discussed above ) and perceived level of
care(customer dependent), should be made. Patient satisfaction is included for this report. In units
where most of the patients, due to their physical condition, are not in a position to give feedback,
relative‘s opinion can be taken.
7. Dash board :
Based on the selected parameters, dash board has been prepared for systematic data entry of the
parameters. Participating centers are expected to use the dash boards and send the same to the central
body for review, analysis, and to collate available data for preparing national data base. Following
acceptance of this dash boards, formula for automatic calculation of performance parameter will be
incorporated. Annexure 7
This report is only the beginning of the broad based objective of quality orientation in Indian
scenario. Future direction, therefore, is necessary to achieve its final objective.
9.1 Generation of national data base: Authenticity of data due to variable system of data
collection (manual vs electronic), variability of practice, infrastructure, support etc will be the
biggest challenge in forming a national data base. Institutions, therefore, will have to be selected
based on prefixed guidelines for contribution to national data base. Compliance to national level
guidelines, surveillance system, reporting frequency set by ISCCM and commitment to provide
correct data should be part and parcel of such guideline. Steps will be necessary to ensure data
collection, collation, stratification and analysis of data to make it meaningful for the end user.
Responsibility will have to be given to a central body / institution with adequate support to
accomplish this job on regular basis.
9.2 Data base for specialized units: This is a future consideration so that national data base is
available for units looking after specific subset of patients.
- 17 -
9.3 Inclusion and exclusion of parameters: Many new parameters will have to be included to
address the need of the intensive care units managing specific subset of patients and accordingly
national bench marks will have to be decided. All the institutions might not be willing to compare
their results against all the parameters selected at national level. Liberty should be given to the
institutions to select few optional parameters while monitoring mandatory parameters. Decision
will have to be taken to identify mandatory parameters. Utility of certain parameters over a
period of time might have to be questioned and decision to take them off dash board will have to
be taken from time to time. This happens when the unit appreciates that the parameters are not
helping any more in bringing a positive change.
9.4 Evaluation of Performance level: Institution can match their performance against the
national data base. While granting accreditation to institution for IDCC, fellowship in critical care
and inclusion as participating institution for the national data base , performance level of the
institution should be taken into consideration. National data base subsequently may be compared
with international bench marks.
9.5 Research , qualitative improvement: National data base can be used for improvement cycles
(―Plan – Do- Check - Act‖ i.e. PDCA) to bring qualitative improvement in the unit and even at
national level.
9.6 Public reporting: Public reporting should be the ultimate objective of the whole exercise so
that patient and their relatives can take a conscious decision while selecting an institution for its
offered services and performance levels. However, to prevent misuse of national data base and
inappropriate projection for boosting the image of the institution or financial gain for the
institution ; right to use the data base should be restricted .Public reporting should be allowed
only with prior approval of the ―ISCCM quality parameters body‖, which could be formed and
authorized to give such permission.
9.7 Audit system: Periodic auditing of institution interested in post doctoral course , contributing
data for national data base and public reporting of their performance against national data base
,should be done to maintain uniformity of standards set by ISCCM. Audit team should be formed
by the national body to address this issue. Methodology for auditing, scoring system and a cutoff
limit should be set for this purpose.
9.8 ISCCM quality parameters body : Formation of a team will be essential to address various
aspects related to maintaining , updating data, formation of audit team, audit schedule, auditing
system, training , amendments in national dash board, inclusion exclusion and modification of
parameter, and to address any dispute related to quality parameters.
9.9 Bench marks: Periodic amendment of bench marks given in this report will be necessary
with the availability of newer bench marks from developed countries and national data base.
10.Recommendations:
1. Following approval of this report, pilot implementation of advocated dash board in
selected few institutions is recommended with monthly updating of the dash board.
2. Based on the experience of the participating institution and central body while developing
the national data base , further amendments can be done.
3. Future steps suggested above can be considered in phased manner subsequently.
11 List of symbols:
Symbols Definitions
Agencies:
AHRQ Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
JCAHO Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations
NNIS National nosocomial infection surveillance system
CDC Center for disease control and prevention
- 18 -
Terminologies:
ISCCM Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine
SMR Standardized mortality rate
APACHE Acute physiology and chronic health evaluation
MPM Mortality prediction model
BUN Blood urea nitrogen
GFR Glomerular filtration rate
ARF Acute renal failure
LOS Length of stay
VAP Ventilator associated pneumonia
BSI Blood stream infection
UTI Urinary tract infection (catheter induced)
Units
ICU Intensive Care Unit
BCU Burn care unit
CCU Coronary care unit
SCU Surgical cardiothoracic unit
MICU Medical intensive care unit
M-S ICU major teaching Medical/Surgical , major , teaching intensive care unit
M- S ICU Medical/ surgical all others
PICU Pediatric intensive care unit
Neuro ( Med) ICU Neuro(medical) Intensive care unit
Neuro (Surg) ICU Neuro(Surgical) Intensive care Unit
SICU Surgical Intensive care unit
TICU Trauma Intensive care unit
12. Acknowledgement:
Task force members compliment national executive body for considering lack of quality
indicators and national data base as an important issue. It was an honor and privilege for the
members to be a part of this exercise which is first of its kind at national level and particularly in
the field of critical care. This is a humble beginning for a mammoth task waiting to be completed
.As chairman, I express my deepest gratitude to each member of the task force for his valuable
contribution in finalization of this report.
6. Daren Heyland ,Deborah Cook, Hamilton, ON , Peter Dodek, et al , The Canadian Critical
Care Trials Group, A Randomized Trial of Diagnostic Techniques for Ventilator-
Associated Pneumonia.NEJM.2006; 355:2619-2630
7. John Muscedere, Peter Dodek, Sean Keenan, Rob Fowler et. al. Comprehensive evidence-
based clinical practice guidelines for ventilator-associated pneumonia: diagnosis and
treatment. - J Crit Care - 01-MAR-2008; 23(1): 138-47 (MEDLINE)
8. Michael Klompas, and Richard Platt. Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia—The Wrong
Quality Measure for Benchmarking Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:803-805.
********
- 20 -
Annexure:
Annexure :1
Quality indicators in Critical Care : An overview
B Ray
D P Samaddar
Quality of care in medical practice in general and critical care in particular is the responsibility of
the care provider. Clinicians involved in providing the care therefore are morally and ethically
bound to enhance quality. Level of care varies among ICUs and within ICU. Even small
adjustments can significantly improve quality of care and patient outcome.1 Care before and after
improvement initiatives can be quantified provided attributes to measure the care are predefined.
Quantification of ICU performances, however, is a not an easy task because it depends on
multiple variables involving medical knowledge, ethics, economics, systems, engineering,
sociology, and philosophy. 2 Regular monitoring. of parameters is a labor intensive process.
Therefore, selection of quality indicators and prioritization should be done in such a way that
impact is maximum with minimum data collection.
Objective: Monitoring of quality indicators is done to identify level of care provided on a time
scale. Trend analyses of such data helps in quantifying the standard of care offered in the same
setup and compare the same with selected bench marks. Improvement initiatives are subsequently
taken, to bridge the gap between the levels offered and bench mark levels, as per need.
Whole issue of quality indicators in ICU will be discussed under two broad headings in this article
A: Conceptual basis
B. Selection and implementation of parameters
Readmission and Length of stay: Judicious transfer of patients to ward is important to prevent
overstay. On the contrary overzealous and injudicious shifting can lead to readmission and
mortality. 1.5 to 10 time higher mortality and twice the length of stay (LOS) in readmitted
patients as compared to control patients have been documented in the literature. Premature
transfer can reduce ICU stay and expenditure 5 but at the cost of worse outcome. 6-8 LOS therefore
should also be correlated to ICU readmission within 24 hrs of transfer during a single hospital
stay. Reported ICU readmission rates are around 5–6% .9,10 Readmission rate of a given setup can
be compared with such bench mark data. Reduction in ICU readmission rate can be taken as
improvement initiative to reduce crude mortality.While doing so, a root cause analysis should be
done so that vital few causes are addressed primarily to get maximum benefit. Caution is
necessary while drawing conclusion from readmission data as many ICU readmissions are due to
poor post shifting care in the ward therefore linking ICU readmission to injudicious decision
making and quality of care in ICU would be illogical under such circumstances. 2 Target taken to
reduce such readmissions will make ICU team more defensive leading to prolonged and
unnecessary ICU stay. Higher risk of nosocomial infection and iatrogenic complications and
creating a strain on hospital resources will be the end result of such defensive approach. 4 LOS of
ICU is not very sensitive parameter unless it is linked with ultimate outcome. Short-term
outcomes like LOS should therefore be correlated to long term outcomes at least in the hospital
and preferably on a more long term basis such as survival adjusted for the quality of life ( quality-
adjusted life years).11
Cost effectivity and revenue generation: Resources are not unlimited. Higher expenditure in
intensive care units is a global concern. One day in an ICU costs $2,000 to $3,000, which is six
fold higher than those for non-ICU care. 5,12 This is more important if patient, generally
entertained in a given unit belonged to poor socio economic status, not covered by medical
insurance and also not supported financially by state for free medical care. This kind of situation
is more often a rule than exception in India. Considering this background, ICU expenditure/
patient/day is an important parameter. Attempts should be made to minimize it by taking local
factors into account while practicing evidence based medicine and international protocols. Cost
conscious units can maintain the same quality or offer a better quality with lesser and judicious
utilization of resources. There is no proportionate relationship between the cost and quality. USA,
despite being the most expensive medical care system, is not the leading nation in quality of care.
Cost effectivity is expected to be the natural fallout of efficient care. The benefit so accrued can
either be shared with the patients/ relatives by maintaining same quality at reduced charges or
enhancing offered service level without reduction in charges.
Economic viability of the unit is judged by the income generated after deduction of all expenses.
Higher management always measures the success in terms of revenue loss or gain. Analysis of the
expenses to identify expenditure on vital few and trivial many should be done. Measures should
be directed at vital few items to get maximum return. While doing this exercise, judicious cost
control should be done. Prevention of wasteful expenditure can significantly reduce running cost
of the unit.
Resource Utilization: Because ICU care is expensive, resource utilization should be optimum.
Assessment of resource utilization should be reflected in selection of quality indicators.2 Optimum
utilization of beds is essential to make the unit economically viable. Number of patients managed,
percentage occupancy, average length of stay (LOS) and occupied bed days (LOS of each patient
added in a predefined duration) etc. help in quantifying resource utilization and justifying the need
of future expansion. Deserving patients denied ICU care due to paucity of bed or equipment,
percentage of patients remaining in ICU who could have been managed elsewhere and patients
getting ICU care where intensive care is expected to be futile should be taken into consideration
while assessing judicious utilization of resources. 13- 15 Adherence to written or published ICU
admission and discharge standards can be used to measure the quality of ICU bed utilization, but
such standards have not been subjected to the scientific validation and therefore are not endorsed
- 23 -
for this purpose. 2 Proprietary systems such as APACHE III can be used to match units data with
the predicted ICU length of stay, days spent receiving mechanical ventilation, and the likelihood of
receiving active intervention. This approach is limited by the fact that APACHE III has been
validated only for the length of stay . 16 Despite the limitations in addressing this issue, local
protocol should be developed based on the scientific background and local factors.
Equipment utilization is an equally important dimension of resource utilization to justify future
procurement. Downtime in hours, revenue loss due to equipment remaining down, expenditure on
overall maintenance of equipment and equipment wise revenue generation (return on investment or
ROI) indicate the efficiency of maintenance support and skilled utilization of equipment by the ICU
team. Check list of all equipment should be updated in the unit on daily basis to monitor equipment
utilization and downtime.
Errors and patient safety: Focus should be both on safety of patients and care providers. The
2005 Critical Care Safety Study, published in the August 2005 issue of Critical Care Medicine,
reported that adverse events in ICUs occur at a rate of 81 per 1,000 patient-days and that serious
errors occur at a rate of 150 per 1,000 patient-days, supporting the findings of an earlier study
indicating that nearly all ICU patients suffer potentially harmful events. According to another study
conducted in an Israeli ICU , errors were observed to occur in 1% of all the activities performed
each day and incidence was higher with physicians than nurses.5,12 Nearly half (45%) of the adverse
events were deemed preventable in the Critical Care Safety Study.17 Medical errors and hospital-
acquired complications often lead to disability, large costs and mortality. 27,000 to 98,000
preventable deaths/ year had been reported in USA due to medical errors which is a matter of great
concern. 18 – 22 Situation is not expected to be better in other countries. Common ICU errors are
treatment and procedure related. Medication errors result in more than 770,000 injuries and deaths
each year at a cost of up to $5.6 million per hospital, depending on size in USA. 23 Communication
failure while ordering prescription or carrying out medication orders and compliance to protocols
are often the important causes of errors. 24,25,26 More disturbing fact is the denial by physicians and
nurses that the error was committed by them. In one study, one third of ICU nurses and physicians
denied having ever made an error in the ICU, whereas at the same time they said that many errors
are neither acknowledged nor discussed.5,12
Errors could be due to various reasons. Shortage of man power, deficiency of trained manpower,
injudicious work pressure, inadequate infrastructural and equipment support, lack of protocol, and
personal issues are the few important causes of errors. These factors should be addressed before
blaming a person. Complacent attitude and lack of commitment could also be responsible for
certain errors though it is infrequently observed in a sensible unit.23,27 Majority of errors are not
caused by individual inadequacies but are a product of defects in the system of care. 4 Therefore,
before doing error surveillance, ambiguity of practice in offering various services should be
eliminated. Care providers must know what is expected from them. Guidelines, protocols, systems
and processes developed locally with reference to national/international guidelines and
recommendations should be in place. 23 Protocols should be in written form and adequate training
should be given to the people who are expected to follow the protocol. 28 Development of local
guidelines/processes etc. should be done in consultation with the stake holders to break the
resistance and to create a sense of ownership. This exercise should be done in piecemeal and
training should be imparted as the systems and processes are being developed and implemented.
Noncompliance to monitoring and record keeping should be done regularly to find out the
magnitude of problem and area of concern.29 Writing protocols is relatively easy but
implementation of the same and to conduct compliance monitoring are difficult to accomplish.
Non-adherence to established standards of care have been related to poor outcomes.4 Only 50 to
70% of Americans receive the care that is recommended for their condition 30 and 20 to 30%
receive inappropriate medical interventions. 18, 31-34 Parameters should also be selected to ensure that
- 24 -
care providers are not exposed to undue risk. Audit can also be done at prefixed intervals by
internal and external agencies to find the safety standard of the unit. Corrective measures can
be taken accordingly. In authors‘ view, error documentation and analysis is expected to pay rich
dividend in quality oriented and matured unit where acceptance of deficiency is not considered as a
failure rather viewed as an improvement opportunity. More practical approach for beginners would
be to select mortality, morbidity and resource utilization parameters. Introspection drive for error
documentation and analysis can be given priority when the unit is ripe enough to accept the
deficiency without being defensive about it.
People: Efficient, motivated and trained man power is the backbone of any critical care unit.
Training is must for maintaining and further up gradation of skill of the ICU personnel. Imparting
training based on identified need is essential for any sensible unit. Days or hours of training
should be monitored as a parameter. 29 Effectiveness of training in form of reduction of repetitive
errors, is however the end product of good training.
Although certification for critical care nurses is not mandatory but certification comforts patients
and employers that a nurse is qualified and had gone through rigorous training requirements to
achieve the additional credential.23 Same is true for the doctors involved in the unit. Efficiency of
work force should also be monitored based on the targets given to them in relation to certain key
result areas.
Satisfaction level of staff is very important. Higher turnover due to dissatisfaction causes wastage
of time and money on staff training. Quality of care goes down due to higher turnover.
Replacement of trained and motivated manpower is not good for the unit. Satisfaction level and
staff turnover should therefore be taken as performance parameter of the ICU. 2 Many survey
tools are available to assess this aspect.
Customer Focus: Care provided should be perceived and appreciated by the patients and
relatives. Concern and empathy should be exhibited by the natural action of the care provider.
ICU patients or their surrogates are often dissatisfied with the amount, nature, and clarity of
communications by care givers. These contacts, which are often delayed and too brief, lead to
confusion, conflict, and uncertainty about the goals of therapy. 2 Communication protocol and
complain capturing and handling system prevents confusion and conflict. Patients and their
relatives should be encouraged to give suggestions and to express their feelings. Number of
complains/suggestions lodged and addressed could be taken as parameters. Mere distribution of
feed back form, though is easier, often does not serve the purpose if educational background of
feed back givers do not match with the expectation of the surveillance team. Instead of routine
ritual of passive surveillance, effort should be made to explain and assist the relatives of patients
or patients before giving them feed back forms. They should also appreciate the need and
importance of surveillance otherwise they might ignore such request. They should also be
encouraged to give feed back without hesitation and fear. Such active surveillance is expected to
be a better alternative and helps in identifying actual difficulties and expectations of the target
population. Uninhibited feed back is possible if care providers are not part of such surveillance.
Trained third party involvement for conducting the survey and analysis is a better but a costlier
alternative. Care providers can help in designing the feed back format based on the past feed
backs and area needing more attention. Efficient customer feed back system also helps in
identifying expectations of the community. Quality indicators should be selected keeping these
concepts in mind. Frequency, method of surveillance and analysis should be predefined. ICU
management should do compliance monitoring and keep the necessary documents for review.
Corrective action taken should get reflected in the subsequent satisfaction survey; provided
methodology remains the same.
Variation in standard of care: Variation in care is mostly due to geographical location, type of
hospital, and physicians‘ preference. These variations can be tackled to a great extent by protocols
developed based on international guidelines and evidence based medical approach.
- 25 -
Resistance offered by individual clinician or group of clinicians could be the road blocks while
implementing the protocols and systems. Protocol based approach might be viewed or projected
as restriction in the authority and autonomy of individual clinician but keeping objective of
evidence based medicine in view such variability should be curbed. Supportive administration can
help in overcoming such resistance. While developing local protocols, individuals‘ or groups‘
opinion should be honored as much as possible. Once protocol is developed, compliance of these
is expected from them. Monitoring of compliance and need based action is the responsibility of
ICU management with the help of hospital authority.
Variation in care due to financial status, and insurance coverage could be difficult to address. In
one study, 200 to 400% variation was noted in the use of pulmonary artery catheter due to ICU
organization and staffing pattern, 38% due to racial variation and 33% was in relation to patients
insurance status. 34
Indicators Parameters
Indicators Parameters
5 Safety of ICU personnel Number of needle stick injuries
Number injured while working
6 Man power Per Person training (in hours or days) /Yr
Appraisal of targets given.
Staff satisfaction and turnover rate
7 Resource utilization ICU:
Infrastructure Number of patient managed, %bed occupancy,
Av. LOS, total occupied bed days,
% ICU patient ideally should be shifted but remaining in ICU
number of readmissions, fraction of patients
for whom ICU care is expected to be futile, number of X
rays done / 1000 patient days.
Average ventilatory days
claimed that incident reports, or chart reviews are inefficient, inaccurate, and debatable means
of data collection. 4 Similarly cultivation of safety consciousness is also essential before safety
practices are introduced and parameters are selected to monitor the safety standards. 24 Safety
self assessment and personal safety plan helps in paving the way for bringing a safety
consciousness in the unit.
Action plan:
1.Target setting and bench marking: Current level of performance and bench mark data help in
deciding the future targets. For example if reintubation rate is considered as the perceived
problem and needs attention then the gap between the current level of reintubation in the unit and
bench mark should be identified. Literature background of bench mark and method adopted for
collecting the data should also be noted for future reference. Reported reintubation rate in patients
receiving mechanical ventilation is 12.2% within 48 hrs of extubation based on the published data
of large international survey conducted by Esteban et al in 2002. 36 This target can be used as
benchmark, provided unit is planning to collect similar data for comparison. An overstretched but
realistic target should be selected with appropriate action plan to achieve the target. However,
such approach can not be used always because database is scarce and incomplete; therefore
comparing each parameter might not be possible. 37 Comparison with the unit‘s own data can be
done in such situations. More over influence of nonphysiologic parameters, such as
socioeconomic factors should not be ignored while linking the monitored parameter with the main
objective i.e mortality, morbidity outcomes. 2 Due to these reasons direct comparison with the
bench mark data from a different socio economic background might not be always logical.
Reducing the incidence might not be the desired goal always. For example reducing the
readmission and reintubation to zero level would be ideal but would be associated with
unnecessary stay and prolonged ventilation respectively. 4 Sometimes availability of appropriate
bench mark could also be difficult. If 41% reintubation rate in unplanned extubation in the above
mentioned survey is compared with observation of 12.2% reintubation in planned extubation,
then it becomes evident that deciding optimal time of extubation and acceptable rate of
reintubation is not an easy task. 38 Similarly it is not plausible that error levels will be zero, the
goal should be reduced error rate to an acceptable level or below what it was previously present
in the setup. Presence of error does not always prove that the overall performance is poor
therefore target setting and interpretation of result should be done with care. 2 The Joint
Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) has developed eight ICU
Core Measures. Ready made tools are also available that can assist in measuring individual unit‘s
performance. [ Available at : JCAHO Project Impact CCM, Inc.]
2.Data collection: Hospital Management System (HMS) should be robust enough to generate
data and analyze the same based on the fed information to minimize man power utilization and
errors. 4 Information collected by computerized system is superior to that collected by humans,
especially if the system is specifically programmed to acquire the desired information. ICU team
should remain involved if a tailor-made soft ware is being used. Specific need should be identified
and introduced by ICU professionals while the software is being developed.
Manual data collection is possible but computerized physician order entry (CPOE) system
automatically detects errors in unbiased manner and thus improves quality care by reducing costs
and errors. 2,23 In absence of this, data collection and incidence reporting by individuals is the
only viable alternative. Predefined criteria for data collection should be established with least
dependency on human judgement. It is always better if ICU personnel collect data rather than
relying on the health-care workers. 2 Ownership and accountability should be fixed for data
collection, monitoring and maintenance of score board.
3.Trend analysis: Score Card should be prepared to accommodate vital parameters based on the
monitored parameters. Score Board should depict overall performance of the ICU. This helps in
- 28 -
systematic collection of data, monitoring of important parameters at a glance and also conduct
trend analysis. While selecting the parameter, whenever possible correlate the desired parameter
(numerator) with another parameter (denominator) to make it more meaningful. For example
number of adverse events (numerator) can be expressed as the rate of events by dividing the
absolute number with a denominator like aggregate number of at-risk patients, patient-days etc. 2
Irrespective of the data type, care must be taken to collect a sample size that is large enough to
allow reliable statistical comparisons. 2 Suppose monthly tracking shows that a particular
parameter fluctuates between 0% and 6%, then while doing the trend analysis over a period of
time a difference in the parameter within the acceptable limit should not be considered as
deterioration in service. Thus, it is important not to over-interpret short-term changes in
performance measurements while evaluating the same. 2 Frequency of data analysis is therefore
important. Short term analysis can show wide variation in the parameters. Standardization and
accuracy of data collection is also important for subsequent analysis and comparison. For example
measuring the number of calendar days a patient spends in the ICU is likely to overestimate LOS.
Accuracy will be better if exact number of hours occupied or the number of days with midnight
bed occupancy is taken into account for LOS calculation. 39 Proper statistical analysis is also
important for avoiding misrepresentation of data. If the arithmetic mean is used to calculate LOS
in the ICU, it will often misrepresent the population because LOS data are skewed by atypical
stays of few patients. Reporting the median, mode, or geometric mean will more accurately reflect
the central tendency of the data .40 Standard deviation and range will also be informative while
interpreting LOS data and instituting improvement initiatives.
25. Chang, S. Y., Multz, A. S., Hall, J. B. (2005). Critical care organization.Critical Care
Clinics, 21(5), 43-53
26. Pronovost, P. J., Angus, D. C., Dorman, T., et al. (2003, November 6). Physician staffing
patterns and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: A systematic review. JAMA
2003 ;288 (17), 2151-2162
27. sample safety attitudes questionnaire from the University of Texas‘s (Houston) Center of
Excellence for Patient Safety Research and Practice is available online (available at
http://www.uth.tmc.edu/schools/med/imed/patient_safety/survey&tools.htm)
28. Garland A: Improving the ICU: Part 2. Chest 2005; 127:2165–2179.(Cross reference)
29. Quality in Critical Care -Beyond ‗Comprehensive Critical Care‘Quality Critical Care –
recommended actions for Strategic Health Authorities (SHAs)
30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Deaths
by place of death, age, race, and sex: United States, 1999–2002. Available at: http://www.
cdc.gov/nchs/data/dvs/mortfinal2002_work309.pdf. Accessed February 21, 2002
31. Schuster MA, McGlynn EA, Brook RH. How good is the quality of health care in the
United States? Milbank Q 1998;76:517–563. ( Cross reference)
32. Chassin MR, Kosecott J, Park RE, et al. Does inappropriate use explain geographic
variations in the use of health care services? JAMA 1987; 258:2533–2537. ( Cross
reference)
33. McNeil BJ. Shattuck lecture: hidden barriers to improvement in the quality of care. N
Engl J Med 2001; 345:1612– 1620. ( Cross reference)
34. Rapoport J, Teres D, Steingrub J, et al. Patient characteristics and ICU organizational
factors that influence frequency of pulmonary artery catheterization. JAMA 2000;
283:2559– 2567. ( Cross reference)
35. J. Randall Curtis, Deborah J. Cook, Richard J. Wall, Derek C. Angus. Intensive care unit
quality improvement: A ―how-to‖ guide for the interdisciplinary team. Crit Care Med
2006; 34:211–218 (Review article)
36. Esteban A, Anzueto A, Frutos F, et al: Characteristics and outcomes in adult patients
receiving mechanical ventilation: An international survey. JAMA 2002; 287:345–355)
37. Antonio O. Gallesio, Daniel Ceraso,Fernando Palizas. Improving Quality in the Intensive
Care Unit Setting. Crit Care Clin 22 (2006) 547–571
38. Berenholtz SM, Dorman T, Ngo K, et al:Qualitative reviewof intensive care unit quality
indicators. J Crit Care 2002; 17:1–12.
39. Marik PE, Hedman L: What‘s in a day? Determining intensive care unit length of stay.
Crit Care Med 2000; 28:2090–2093. (Cross reference)
40. Weissman C: Analyzing intensive care unit length of stay data: problems and possible
solutions.Crit Care Med 1997; 25:1594–1600. (Cross reference)
41. Rosmin Esmail, Ann Kirby , Thelma Inkson, Paul Boiteau. Quality improvement in the
ICU. A Canadian perspective. Journal of Critical Care (2005) 20, 74–78.
42. Pronovost PJ, Angus DC, Dorman T, et al: Physician staffing patterns and clinical
outcomes in critically ill patients: A systematic review. JAMA 2002; 288:2151–2162.
(Cross reference)
43. The Leapfrog Group. Available at: http://www.leapfroggroup.org/about_us. Accessed
January 12, 2006.
- 31 -
Annexure 2:
Quality Indicators in Critical Care : Patient safety
S K Todi
Introduction
―To err is human‖, a seminal paper from Institute of medicine , USA in 1999 citing 44,000 to
98,000 deaths annually in USA due to medical errors which is roughly equivalent to a jumbo jet
full of passengers crashing every day, took the world by storm. This paper attracted huge media
attention and gave rise to a new ―safety‖ movement in medicine.
With increasing corporatization of health sector in India, there is a growing demand from the
consumers, regulatory authorities, and the government that health care providers adopt a culture
of ―safety‖ and hospital managers have taken this as the prime Quality initiative . ―primum non
norcere‖ – first, do no harm is being rediscovered and is the present day ―mantra‖ in health care
institutions all across the globe and to be competetitive internationally, we need to firmly put this
as the primary agenda of health care delivery in our country.
Epidemiology
Intensive care units have been the main focus of delivering safe health care, as the patient
population are at greatest risk of harm here, due to multiple interventions, polypharmacy, increase
workload, variability of staffing and patient related factors. Observers who attended ICU rounds
found that staff reported a serious adverse event in 17% of patients . Self-reports and direct
observations in a medical /surgical ICU found 1.7 error per patient per day, one third of these
were potentially harmful. With an average length of ICU stay of three days, it turns out that every
patient has a potential of serious error at least once during their icu stay.
Definition.
The term ―safety‖ is more diplomatic than ―error‖ as the latter implies direct fault of health care
provider. An error of ―omission‖ i.e. what we fail to do ( meeting standard of care ) is often
termed as ―quality‖ and error of ―commission ― i.e. what has already been done ( not meeting
standard) is termed ―safety‖ . Quality and Safety are two sides of the same coin and it is difficult
to know where quality ends and safety begins. Medical researchers have so far concentrated on
clinical management part of patient care and only lately has attention been given towards research
in implementation of therapy and safe patient care. In order to standardize and compare,
regulatory authorities have laid down definitions pertaining to safe patient care.
Patient safety: It is defined as the absence of the potential for, or occurrence of, health care–
associated injury to patients. It is created by avoiding medical errors as well as taking action to
prevent errors from causing injury.
Error: It is defined as mistakes made in the process of care that result in, or have the potential to
result in, harm to patients. Mistakes include the failure of a planned action to be completed as
intended or the use of a wrong plan to achieve an aim. These can be the result of an action that is
taken (error or commission) or an action that is not taken (error of omission).
Incident: unexpected or unanticipated events or circumstances not consistent with the routine
care of a particular patient, which could have, or did lead to, an unintended or unnecessary harm
to a person, or a complaint, loss, or damage.
Preventable adverse event: harm that could be avoided through reasonable planning or proper
execution of an action.
Measurement
As patient safety is a concept and an abstract term, converting it into numerical terms for research
and audit purposes is difficult. One also has to consider many dimensions of safe patient care. We
all try to practice safe patient care but when it comes to quantifying it certain basic principles need
to be followed.
Principles of management from industry are being increasingly incorporated in medicine and this
is most evident in regards to patient safety. Safe industries (e.g. aviation) reports defect rate in
terms of sigma or defects per 10,100 or 1,000 events. One sigma equates to a 69% defect rate and
six sigma equals three defects per million. Health care industries record is abysmal in this regard
which runs at one or two sigmas
Any quantification tool will be meaningful if it consists of a numerator (number of events
observed) and denominator (number at risk) so that a rate can be calculated. It is labour intensive
to keep a tab on rates of adverse event, and a more subjective approach may be appropriate some
time which acts to highlight problem areas to be specifically addressed in a more objective way .
Examples of such subjective approach will be peer review, morbidity and mortality conferences,
investigation of liability claims, and incident reports. In all of these, a single event is analysed
which is not linked to a denominator which limits the ability to estimate rates. Nonetheless, they
help to identify problem areas.
Incident report: It evaluates how a single patient is harmed but can also be utilized to look at
near misses i.e. incidents that did not but could have caused harm. The ICUSRS project pioneered
by Dr. Pronovost from Johns Hopkins is an example of such incident reporting system which is
web based.
To be successful an Incident reporting system should be voluntary , anonymous, and not linked
with any form of punitive measures . The ICUSRS system is open to participating hospitals and
personnel can entry incidents and near misses confidentially which is analysed centrally and
feedback is given . Over 1700 reports have been analysed in the system. In order to standardize
reporting system, hospitals are encouraged to report incidents in terms of patient variables,
exposure variables and outcome variables. A framework for evaluating such reports is also laid
down which analyses the incident reports under Patient factor, Provider factor , Team factor, Task
factor, Training and Education factor, ICU environment and Institutional environment.
Root Cause Analysis- This is a more focused enquiry on certain incidents which are deemed to
be important for patient safety. A sentinel event is identified and important preventive aspects of
this event is discussed by the ―safety‖ team and safeguards implemented.
Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) - Both the incident report and root cause analysis
are post hoc analysis which tries to improve patient safety after the incident has occurred . A
more proactive approach where a problem area is identified prospectively, and all possible
preventable aspects are discussed and remediable measures are taken . This approach takes away
the primary burden from an individual and focuses more on system failure. In an FMEA, an error-
prone process is identified and a multi-disciplinary team is formed to analyze the process from
multiple perspectives. The team systematically assesses failure modes and the urgency with which
each failure mode should be addressed. Where RCA can be thought of as an expanding circle of
inquiry that is focused on a sentinel event, FMEA is a linear process that examines a selected
process from start to finish. Conducting FMEA is highly time consuming and labor intensive, so
- 33 -
its use should be restricted to areas prone to serious adverse events .Regulatory authorities are
now making it mandatory in USA and UK for medical and nursing directors of ICUs to conduct
at least one FEMA annually.
Implementation
Implementing ―safety‖ culture in the ICU has to come from a strong leadership primarily from
ICU director , backed by a willing Management.
The first step in our country is to ensure that the health care providers are assured that no punitive
actions will be taken against them if an adverse event is identified or reported. In fact some
institution in India have started rewarding such bold steps of revealing errors to the authority.
The concept of ‗system failure‘ rather than ―individual failure‖ need to be enforced.
Secondly, a system of reporting adverse events have to be in place for audit or root cause analysis.
This system should be discreet and could be paper or computer based.
Thirdly, an audit of incident report, root cause analysis or FMEA should be performed
periodically by a multidisciplinary team consisting of ICU director, Nursing director, Quality
control personnel, and hospital administrator. Corrective measures should be identified and
feedback given to health care providers.
Finally, established practices for decreasing errors like Computerised Physician Order Entry
(CPOE) system, Patient identification tags, Check list for blood transfusion should be in place
and checked periodically for compliance.
There is a great need for research in this field in our country to identify areas of vulnerability , and
finding cost effective solutions to problems of patient safety.
References
1. The Critical Care Safety Study: The incidence and nature of adverse events and serious
medical errors in intensive care. Jeffrey M. Rothschild et al . Crit Care Med 2005; 33:1694
–1700
2. Failure mode and effects analysis application to critical care medicine. Beau Duwe et al .
Crit Care Clin 21 (2005) 21– 30
3. Defining and measuring patient safety. Peter J. Pronovost et al. Crit Care Clin 21 (2005) 1
– 19.
4. Monitoring Patient Safety. M. Berenholtz et al Crit Care Clin 23 (2007) 659–673.
5. The electronic medical record, safety, and critical care. William F. Bria II et al. Crit Care
Clin 21 (2005) 55– 79.
6. An irreplaceable safety culture Marta L. Render, MD et al Crit Care Clin 21 (2005) 31–
41.
7. Medication safety and transfusion errors in the ICU and beyond. Erfan Hussain, MD et al.
Crit Care Clin 21 (2005) 91– 110.
8 Safety in training and learning in the intensive care unit. John E. Heffner et al. Crit Care
Clin 21 (2005) 129– 148
- 34 -
Annexure 3
Quality indicators in Critical care : Personnel Development
Suresh Ramasubban
Historically the speciality of critical care started with cohorting of acutely ill patients into Separate
clinical areas. These discrete geographical areas were subsequently named Intensive care units.
With the advent of various new technologies, these specialized clinical areas became segregated
from other hospital wards and had personnel needs which were different from that of the other
hospital wards.
The delivery of care in the intensive care units require the presence of highly trained, skilled and
motivated personnel who can apply modern techniques and interventions in an appropriate fashion
to provide the highest quality of care.
Irrespective of the type of ICU‘s and their geographic locations, all ICUs have the responsibility to
provide services and personnel that ensure quality care to patients. With the Leapfrog initiative in
the US based on the Institute of Medicine‘s (IOM) report, commitment to high quality care is now
of paramount importance. Personnel Development is an integral part of this quality initiative. This
chapter will focus on ICU personnel development and quality initiatives focussed to personnel
development. This will be discussed under the following headings:
Staff in ICU:
ICU House staffs are either physicians in training or otherwise who are fully dedicated to the ICU
and have no other responsibility and are on site to provide all emergency care to the patient.
An ICU nurse should be a licensed nurse with preferably added certification in critical care.
Although certification is not mandatory but certification validates to patients and employers that a
nurse is qualified and has gone through rigorous training requirements to achieve the additional
credential.
- 35 -
ICU Pharmacist is defined as a practitioner who is a qualified pharmacist and has specialized
training or practice experience providing pharmaceutical care for the critically ill patient.
The presence of an ICU pharmacist as part of the ICU team improves quality of care in the ICU by
reducing medication error by as much as 66%.
Another important Personnel in the ICU is the Respiratory Therapist who provides cardio-
respiratory care to critically ill patients. The absence of trained therapist should lead to
establishment of training programs for Respiratory therapist
Training:
Training is must for maintaining and further up gradating of skills of the ICU personnel.
Imparting training based on the identified need is essential for any sensible unit.
In the absence of any certification, nurses working in the ICU should have periodic assessment of
competence by the nursing director with provision for feedback and need based education
curriculum. This competency assessment should be standardized according to nursing guidelines
of AACN.
House staff should have training in advanced airway management and ACLS Training.
FCCS/BASIC critical course training is recommended but not mandatory for ICU House staff.
Staffing Logistics:
ICU staffing pattern can be classified as low intensity (no intensivist or elective intensivist
consultation) or high-intensity (mandatory intensivist consultation or closed ICU (all care directed
by intensivist) groups. High-intensity staffing is associated with lower hospital mortality, lower
ICU mortality, reduced hospital LOS, and reduced ICU LOS.
The lack of adequate staffing of Nurses leads to delays in weaning patients, higher infection rates,
increased readmission rates, increased medication errors and increased length of stay. Excessive
Nursing workload as defined by ―hours per patient days‖ or ―nurse/patient ratios‖ is associated
with increased mortality in critically ill patients. Staffing pattern for nurses should take into
account patient load and case mix. The gold standard for staffing should be one nurse for each
critically ill patient.
Inadequate House staff leads to poor emergency care and poor continuity of care, adequate staffing
pattern should be taking into account patient load and acuity of care.
Quality Measures:
Quality measures in the ICU are predominantly medical outcomes related but since the ICU
provides service to relatives and friends, ICU personnel, the hospital and the society, other
parameters must also be used. These include economic outcomes, psychosocial and ethical
outcomes and Institutional outcomes.
Institutional outcomes like staff satisfaction and turnover rate are important measure of quality in
the ICU related to personnel. Higher rates of staff turnover leads to increased costs, increased
training time, decreased morale and increased stress on remaining staff, leading to decreased
quality of performance and worse patient outcomes.
- 36 -
Each ICU should measure and control regularly the efficiency of the use of nursing manpower
evaluating the work utilization ratio (WUR) by recommended scoring tools.
Measuring staff satisfaction is an important quality initiative. Staff retention rates should be
obtained from personnel records and data of job satisfaction should be obtained from
questionnaires or exit interviews.
Further Reading :
1. Critical care delivery in the intensive care unit: Defining clinical roles and the best practice
model.Crit Care Med 2001 Vol. 29, No. 10
6. Pronovost, P. J., Angus, D. C., Dorman, T., et al. (2003, November 6). Physician staffing
patterns and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: A systematic review. JAMA 2003 ;288
(17), 2151-2162
Annexure 4
Quality Indicators for ICU : Process Parameters
The Critical Care Services in a modern hospital has a vital role to play in delivering prompt,
appropriate and adequate care to acutely ill patients. Acutely ill patients can present with a variety
of pathopysiological derangements which need rapid repeated interventions with constant
monitoring and further interventions based on the results of the monitoring process. These
interventions involve multiple components – all of which need to be seamlessly integrated to
optimize outcome. In a study in which engineers observed patient care in ICUs for twenty four
hours periods, it was found that the average ICU patient required 178 individual interactions per
day. These included a range of interventions from physical manoevers (such as positioning the
patient) to medication administration.
Quality and Safety are two facets of a system designed to deliver optimum care. The terms have
been separated as two components by defining Quality as referring to errors of omission and
Safety as errors of commission. Quality of care is an important issue because the cost of non-
quality in any enterprise is more expensive than investing in quality. Quality of Care is defined
as the degree of correspondence between goals set and goals achieved in relation to patient care
without excessive use of financial resources. Hence, Quality is the ratio of Standard Achieved /
Expected Standard. It is 1.0 if all standards are achieved.
Quality In Processes:
1. Critical care services should employ best evidence practices, such as those
described in ‗care bundles‘.
2. Patients requiring critical care are entitled to the care given by dedicated, highly
skilled, multidisciplinary teams.
3. Critical illness has a great impact on the lives of patients and their families.
Decisions about care should be made in partnership between the critical care team,
the patient, and relatives.
4. Continuity of care and facilities are important throughout the patient‘s care period
but especially when stepping down to lower levels of care, to general wards or
home.
- 38 -
The 20 Fundamental Quality Indicators for Critical Care developed by the Spanish Society of
Intensive & Critical Care and Coronary Units (SEMICYUC) are:.
Heinrich proposed more than 60 years ago a 300-29-1 ratio between near-miss incidents, minor
injuries, and major injuries. Heinrich also estimated that 88 percent of all near misses and
workplace injuries resulted from unsafe acts. It's interesting that the 300-30 ratio of near misses to
injuries is referred to as a "law," when in fact it was only an estimate. More than 30 years later
that this "law" was actually tested empirically. Frank E. Bird, Jr. analyzed 1,753,498 "accidents"
reported by 297 companies. The result was a new ratio: For every 600 near misses, there were 30
property damage incidents, 10 minor injuries, and one major injury. It's likely the base number is
much larger than 600. A reduction of near misses (events at the bottom of the iceberg) should lead
to a reduction in the number of events at the exposed top of the iceberg.
Unlike other areas in medical care, adverse events can occur even when care is delivered
appropriately; as an example renal failure can occur even with appropriate dosing of
aminoglycosides. Crude event rates do not provide an adequate measure of adverse events as it
does not account for the unknown range of opportunities for harm.
- 40 -
Error Detection:
Clinicians make decisions in a highly complex environment by negotiations and compromises as
they trade off between competing goals. In order to characterize the systemic causes of error in
such environments, we need to identify the pressures (e.g. fatigue, workload, policy, and lack of
resources) that push people towards these boundaries, and then make efforts to counteract
pressures.
Error Resilience:
A realistic approach is to recognize that human error cannot be eradicated, but that the negative
consequences of an error can be controlled. Thus, an error resilient system should have the
following targets:
Error correction forms an integral part of the cognitive system underlying critical care (and other
complex tasks). In keeping with contemporary human error research, approaches seeking to
eradicate error fail to recognize that error recovery is integral to any cognitive work. The critical
role of error recovery mechanisms in the maintenance of system safety is neglected by approaches
that focus exclusively on completed errors.
A "bundle" is a group of interventions related to a disease process that, when executed together,
result in better outcomes than when implemented individually. The science behind the bundle is
so well established that it should be considered standard of care. Bundle elements should be
dichotomous and compliance should be measurable as yes/no answers. Bundles avoid the
piecemeal application of proven therapies in favor of an ―all or none‖ approach. This strategy
provides a simple but rigorous check list and documentation. It facilitates easy performance
monitoring.
hypercapnoea
- E ratio 1:1 to 1:3
- If pH < 7.30 – use HCO3 infusion
Measures to decrease CO2 production (sedation, decrease temperature)
Intermittent interruption of sedation if there is 1:1 nursing care
Further Reading :
1. Donchin Y, Gopher D, Olin M, Badihi Y, Biesky Y, Sprung CL, Pizov R, Cotel S. A look
into the nature and causes of human error in the intensive care unit. Qual. Saf Health Care
2003; 12: 143 – 147
2. Leape LL & Berwick DM. Five years after To Err Is Human What have we learned.
JAMA 2005; 293: 2384 – 2390
3. Garland A. Improving the ICU: Part 1. Chest 2005; 127: 2151 – 2164
4. Garland A. Improving the ICU: Part 2. Chest 2005; 127: 2165 – 2179
5. http://www.semicyuc.org/calidad/quality_indicators_SEMICYUC2006.pdf
6. Gawande A. The Checklist. The New Yorker, Dec 10, 2007
(http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/12/10/071210fa_fact_gawande)
7. Auerbach AD et al. The tension between needing to improve care and knowing how to do
it. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 608 – 613
8. Scales DC & Laupacis A. Health technology assessment in critical care. Intensive Care
Med. 2007; 33: 2183 – 2191
- 44 -
9. Ranganathan P et al. Cost of ICU care in India – Prohibitive or Justified? Critical Care
Update 2007; 20-27
10. Dastur FD. Quality and safety in Indian Hospitals. Journal of Assoc. Phys. India 2008; 56:
85 – 87
11. Najjar-Pellet Jet al. Quality assessment in intensive care units: proposal for a scoring
system in terms of structure and process. Intensive Care Med 2008; 34: 278 – 285
12. Weinert CR. The science of implementation: changing the practice of critical care. Current
Opinion in Crit Care 2008; 14: 460 – 465
13. Patel V, Cohen T. New perspectives on error in critical care. Current Opinion in Crit Care.
2008; 14: 456 – 459
14. MacLaren R et al. Clinical and economic outcomes of involving pharmacists in the direct
care of critically ill patients with infections. Crit Care Med 2008; 36: 3184-3189
15. Gallesio AO. Improving quality and safety in the ICU: a challenge for the next years.
Current Opinion in Critical Care. 2008; 14: 700–707
16. Valentin A. Reducing the number of adverse events in intensive care units. Controversies
in Intensive Care Medicine 2008 (ESICM publication) 337 – 342
- 45 -
Annexure 5
Quality Indicators in Critical Care – Outcome Parameters
George John, N Ramakrishnan
The cost of non-quality in any enterprise is more expensive than investing in quality.
The difference is magnified in settings such as the Intensive Care Unit where the baseline costs
are among the highest in the health care domain.
In order to choose outcome parameters in any enterprise, the mission goals must be clearly
defined. In the critical care setting, the goals are as follows:
1. To preserve meaningful life. In this context ―meaningful life‖ refers to a quality of life
valued by the patient.
2. To provide specialised care to patients in order to sustain, protect and rehabilitate them
during their treatment for a critical illness or injury. ―Specialised care‖ in this context
implies care in an environment where it is possible to provide real time monitoring of vital
parameters along with the ability to intervene rapidly when necessary.
3. To provide compassionate palliative care to those who are dying from irreversible diseases
in order to alleviate suffering during their final hours.
4. To ensure the viability and sustainability (economic and human resources) of the unit in
order to deliver the above modes of care professionally as a team.
Sentinel Events are measurable events which indicate the achievement (or non achievement)
of a goal. The Sentinel Events in the corresponding domains would be:
1. PRESERVATION OF LIFE:
The marker of a negative outcome in this domain would be mortality. The mortality can be
measured as:
• Crude: Crude mortality rates cannot be used to measure quality of ICU care because
they do not adjust for differences in diagnosis and severity of disease.
• Standardized Mortality Ratio: Disease based / Severity Score adjusted: The
Standardized Mortality Ratio (SMR) is defined as the ratio of the observed mortality
rate to the expected mortality rate. This permits performance-based comparisons of
ICUs by adjusting for disease category and severity of physiological derangement. The
reference values for the expected mortality rates are obtained by documenting
mortality rates of patients from a large number of ICUs in a specific population. These
are then stratified based on disease categories and within multiple outcome score
bands of standard ICU scoring systems. If the SMR for an ICU is <1, then the
outcomes for that unit are interpreted to be better than the overall outcomes of the
reference set used to develop the scoring system. Alternatively, an SMR of >1 signifies
that the observed mortality rate is higher than the expected mortality rate, suggesting
that the quality of care needs to be improved.
- 46 -
• Morbidity
• Post discharge events
a. Morbidity: Morbidity could be due to 3 broad reasons: chance, faults in the system
or human error. System faults and human errors are appropriate targets for quality
improvement. Faults in the system include overutilization, underutilization and
misutilisation of resources.
• Futility: number of patients being admitted for futile care to the ICU; there is, as yet, no
universally accepted definition of futility.
• Number of counselling sessions for family members
• Family satisfaction
a. Economic Issues:
This is important in our Indian setting where the public funding for the tertiary
level of care is inadequate, the level of health insurance cover is low and health
care bills drive families into debt.
- 47 -
Error Detection:
Clinicians in the ICU make decisions in a highly complex environment by negotiations and
compromises as they trade off between competing goals. In order to characterize the systemic
causes of error in such environments, we need to identify the pressures (e.g. fatigue, workload,
policy and / or lack of resources) that push people towards these boundaries and then make efforts
to counteract these pressures.
The phrase „error in evolution‟ denotes the progression of a series of small mistakes towards a
cumulative adverse event. Erroneous decisions undergo a selection process based on their
anticipated consequences. The figure below illustrates the progression of error in critical care,
where personnel (clinicians, nurses, technicians and others) conducting routine work hit a
boundary and where they come close to making an error (near miss). ―Near Miss‖ is a breach of
the first boundary and is a violation of the bounds of safe practice. At this stage, the error can still
be detected and corrected before the second boundary is crossed. This is a window of opportunity
to detect and prevent a potentially adverse event. If only adverse events are reported, the ―near
misses‖ will continue to remain undetected. Since ―near misses‖ are an integral component of the
chain of events leading to an adverse event, detection, reporting and reducing these should be an
integral component of any strategy to reduce errors in any system.
If undetected / uncorrected, it can proceed to the next stage - an adverse event which occurs when
the second boundary is crossed.
- 48 -
The conventional framework of individual accountability is ill suited to address the problem of
medical error because it fails to address the complexity of the system within which medical errors
occur. Within the traditional culture of medicine, the approach has been to blame a single
individual for any error. In reality, medical error is rarely the result of the actions of a single
person. The data and analysis (thought processes) underlying critical care decision making do not
exist in the mind of just a single individual. In actuality, they are spread or distributed not only
across the minds of many clinicians but also across non living objects (physical objects such as
notes and computer equipment). It is essential to internalize the perspective that faulty action is a
product of flawed thinking across the system - this is the concept of “distributed cognition”. The
perspective that distributed cognition is responsible for, any error shifts the focus of analysis from
the study of individuals in controlled settings to the study of groups of individuals in their real-
world context. Using this framework, a collective workflow can be reconstructed from events of
critical importance that are spatially or temporally correlated. This mode of analysis focuses on
the identification of vulnerabilities and flaws in the system (as opposed to the action of a single
individual). In contrast, retrospective analysis of individual error is vulnerable to the bias of 20/20
hindsight: actions leading to the error may be viewed as incorrect although they may have been
the best alternative with the information available at that point in time.
The cognitive demands imposed by multitasking, interruptions and handovers during change of
shift can be sources of error. Gaps in information flow occur during handovers. Error production
and error detection rate are studied as a function of task demand. Three levels of demand are
considered; very demanding, busy and low workload. While it might seem intuitive that more
errors would occur at a high workload, the actual results of research show an apparent paradox:
the greatest number of errors occurred at a low workload, with the least number of errors at a
high workload. However, at high workload, error detection was reduced, leading to a much
higher rate of adverse events. The rate of error detection improves with practice.
Error Resilience:
A realistic approach is to recognize that error cannot be completely eliminated, but that the
negative consequences of an error can be controlled. Thus, an error resilient system should have
the following targets:
Error correction and recovery should form an integral part of the cognitive system underlying
quality in critical care. The critical role of error resilience in the maintenance of safety in any
system is neglected by approaches that focus exclusively on completed errors.
Research findings challenge the common perception that experts are somehow infallible. They are
consistent with error research in other domains which show a constant rate of error regardless of
expertise (with the exception of absolute beginners who make significantly more errors at the
beginning of their learning curve). Clinicians at all levels of expertise make errors; however,
experts make errors from which it is easier to recover.
The cost of non-quality in any enterprise is more expensive than investing in quality.
- 49 -
Further Reading :
1. Donchin Y, Gopher D, Olin M, Badihi Y, Biesky Y, Sprung CL, Pizov R, Cotel S. A look
into the nature and causes of human error in the intensive care unit. Qual. Saf Health Care
2003; 12: 143 – 147
2. Leape LL & Berwick DM. Five years after To Err Is Human What have we learned.
JAMA 2005; 293: 2384 – 2390
3. Weinert CR. The science of implementation: changing the practice of critical care. Current
Opinion in Crit Care 2008; 14: 460 – 465
4. Patel V, Cohen T. New perspectives on error in critical care. Current Opinion in Crit Care.
2008; 14: 456 – 459
5. MacLaren R et al. Clinical and economic outcomes of involving pharmacists in the direct
care of critically ill patients with infections. Crit Care Med 2008; 36: 3184-3189
6. Gallesio AO. Improving quality and safety in the ICU: a challenge for the next years.
Current Opinion in Critical Care. 2008; 14: 700–707
- 50 -
Annexure 6
Quality indicators : Infection Control
D P Samaddar
Value addition in health-care is directly proportional to quality and inversely proportional to cost.
Goal therefore should be to obtain the highest quality health care at an affordable price. Hospital
acquired infection or health care related infection (HAI) creates an imbalance between quality and
cost by increasing mortality, morbidity, length of stay, psychological stress and disproportionately
higher financial drain. This imbalance can be bridged by improvement in the process and system
as quality of health care is progressively being linked to process and system and not to
individuals. Compliance to processes and its qualitative impact on the delivered health care can be
assessed by selecting and monitoring appropriate quality indicators1.
1.Magnitude of problems :
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) account for an estimated 1.7 million infections, 99,000
deaths, and $4.5 billion in excess healthcare costs annually in USA.2 . In England, the cost
incurred due to HAI is estimated to be 3.6 million pounds per year per health unit. 3
Bloodstream infection (BSI) alone causes an estimated 26,250 deaths per year. It is ranked as the
eighth leading cause of death in the United States.4 Attributable death due to ventilator-associated
pneumonia (VAP) is 15 to 30 percent with overall mortality of 42 percents 3 HAI also causes
increased length of stay , non availability of beds due to unacceptable bed occupancy. Reported
average prolonged stay for urinary infection is 3.8 days, 7.4 days for surgical-site infection, 5.9
days for pneumonia, and 7 to 24 days for primary bloodstream infection . 3
Emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant organisms is a major concern. HAI also is an
important issue because 30 to 50 percent reduction in HAI is possible by running an efficient
infection control programme. 3
2.Objective : Reduction in the incidence of nosocomial infection is the main objective but it is a
broad based and less specific outcome parameter. Pursuing this parameter in isolation could be a
futile exercise unless it is linked to the influencing variables such as: patient sub groups, device,
intervention, process and protocols. It is also important to understand that improvement in
incidence of nosocomial infection does not necessarily mean improvement in quality unless it is
linked to other parameters such as : mortality outcome, length of stay, antibiotic consumption,
cost implications etc. Mere reduction in the incidence of HAI rate without desired impact on the
parameters mentioned earlier might not indicate qualitative improvement because such reduction
is possible from change in the case mix. 5
3.2.Device and intervention related: Ventilator associated pneumonia, urinary catheter and
invasive catheter or line related infection are device related parameters. Percentage of patients
being maintained on different devices will influence the infection rate.
3.3.Processes and protocols : Compliance to protocols , processes, guidelines, work instructions
are also important determinants of infection rate. Process and protocol could be linked to
antibiotic usage, investigations done , implementations of different treatment bundles, nursing
care (line care, tracheostomy care etc.), and hand hygiene. 6 Uniformity of practice through
continuous training should be ensured then compliance monitoring should be done.
3.4.Infrastructure and support service: Design of intensive care unit, quality of water, laundry
management, food handling, waste disposal, sterilization and other reprocessing and maintenance
procedures, as well as microbiology support influence infection rate.
3.5.Organizational, human resource and system support : Infection rate is also related to the
organizational and human resource. Comparison of infection rate is possible if support level is
similar in participating institution. Service provider related (nurse vs patient , doctor vs patient
ratio) parameter should therefore be taken into consideration.
3.6 Surveillance System: Surveillance system available in the unit also makes a difference.
Reliability of data is an important consideration, particularly if adequate staffing has not been
ensured. Generating and stratifying voluminous data is labour intensive. Variability in reporting is
possible in absence of electronic surveillance.7,8
4. Prioritization of parameter: Despite the availability of multiple parameters, it is practically
not possible or logical to monitor all the possible parameter on long term basis. Prioritization of
parameter therefore is essential to select parameters with maximum out put potential. Selection of
limited few parameters, while the unit is getting quality oriented, is also an alternative and easier
approach. As the unit matures, need based addition and deletion can be done for the optional
parameters but mandatory parameters should always be monitored. For example if use of
vancomycin is very limited in a particular unit then monitoring vancomycin resistant enteroccoci
(VRE) is not logical on routine basis and can be taken as an optional parameter whereas line
related infection could be a mandatory parameter. Certain key indicators should also be common
and mandatory for inter institution, national or international comparison, accreditation and public
reporting.
For prioritization, importance of parameters can be judged on a matrix where the Y axis
represents determinants of importance and on X axis, each determinant is given a score. Based on
the overall score, prioritization can be done to select parameters. Example of such matrix is given
below.
6.1. Device related Infection : Ventilator associated pneumonia(VAP), Central line associated
blood stream infection (BSI), indwelling catheter related urinary tract infection (UTI) etc. are
commonly monitored parameters.
Although VAP is being monitored very frequently wide variation in incidence is possible based
on the diagnostic criteria used. Due to wide variation in surveillance definition, it is difficult to
acquire, interpret and compare intra and inter institutional data. 10 Clinical and radiological
diagnostic criteria are simplest. Quantitative and non quantitative culture of bronchial aspirate,
quantitative culture of broncho-alveolar lavage (BAL)fluid and specimen collected by protected
bronchial brush (PBS) are the other options.BAL and PBS are technically more challenging.
Despite claims and counterclaims , superiority of a particular technique could not be proved.
Similar clinical outcomes and similar overall use of antibiotics had been recently claimed when
nonquantitative culture of the bronchial aspirate and quantitative culture of BAL were compared
for identification and subsequent management of VAP by the Canadian Critical Care Trials
Group.11 In order to bypass this controversy some authors advocate monitoring of risk factors
which leads to VAP. This kind of monitoring is known as process oriented monitoring. 12 For
example compliance monitoring to VAP prevention bundle can be taken as process quality
parameter. 13
Urinary tract infections are the second most common nosocomial infections in ICUs in Europe
and the first in the United States. 14 Risk factors for bacteriuria should be taken into consideration
such as : duration of catheterization, length of stay in the ICU, and female gender and drainage
system. 2.96 cases of UTI per 100 admissions and 6.11per 1,000 device-days had been reported in
medical ICU and 4.23 and 8.14 respectively had been reported in surgical ICU. 15
Hospital-acquired bloodstream infection (BSI) alone has been estimated to be responsible for
26,250 deaths per year and ranks as the eighth leading cause of death in the United States. 3.55
cases of BSI per 100 admissions and 7.33per 1,000 device-days had been reported in medical
ICU. Incidence varies depending upon the subset of patients managed in the ICU. In surgical ICU,
4.89 and 9.40 incidence of BSI per 100 patients and per 1000days had been reported
respectively.15
6.2. Infection from specific Organism: Infection due to C. difficile and methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus extended spectrum beta lactamase producers (ESBL), Vancomycin
resistant enerococci etc. could also be quality indicators . Infection caused by C. difficile and
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are being focused in US hospitals.16
6.3. Antimicrobial use and resistance pattern: Both antimicrobial use and drug resistance can
be taken as quality indicators. For antimicrobial consumption ―Defined Daily Dose (DDD)‖ can
be monitored. DDD of antimicrobial agent is calculated by dividing the total grams of the
antimicrobial agent used in a hospital area by the number of grams in an average daily dose of the
agent given to an adult patient.17
- 53 -
References:
1. Institute of Medicine (IOM). 2001. Crossing the Quality Chasm. Crossing the Quality
Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, D.C: National Academy
Press.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimates of healthcareassociated infections.
Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/ hai.html. Accessed October 15, 2007.
3. Lindsay E. Nicolle. Nosocomial Infection. Available at
http://www.answers.com/topic/nosocomial-infection.
4. Wenzel RP, Edmond MB. The impact of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections. Emerg
Infect Dis 2001; 7:174-177.
5. The quality indicator study group.An approach to the evaluation of quality indicators of
the outcome of care in hospitalized patients; with a focus on nosocomial infection
indicators. Infect Control hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:308 -316.
6. Available at : http://quality.mainehealth.org/SiteQualityPage.aspx? groupingID=2&
LocationID=4
7. Julie Louise Gerberding. Julie Louise Gerberding. Health-Care Quality Promotion through
Infection Prevention: Beyond 2000.Emerg Infect Dis 7(2), 2001. © 2001 Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Available at http://www.medscape.com/
viewarticle/414423_3.
8. Nyamogoba H, Obala AA. Nosocomial infections in developing countries: cost effective
control and prevention. East Afr Med J. 2002 ;79(8):435-41.
9. The quality indicator study group.An approach to the evaluation of quality indicators of
the outcome of care in hospitalized patients; with a focus on nosocomial infection
indicators. Infect Control hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:308 -316.
10. Michael Klompas , Richard Platt . Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia—The Wrong
Quality Measure for Benchmarking. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:803-805.
- 54 -
11. Daren Heyland, Deborah Cook, Peter Dodek, John Muscedere et al. A Randomized Trial of
Diagnostic Techniques for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia.The Canadian Critical Care
Trials Group.NEJM 2006;355:2619 – 2630.
12. Uçkay I, Ahmed QA, Sax H, Pittet D.Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia as a Quality
Indicator for Patient Safety? Clin Infect Dis 2008 Jan 16.PubMed ID 18199039.
(Abstract.)
13. Didier Pittet. Comment and Response: "Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia - The Wrong Quality
Measure for Benchmarking ..Annals of Internal Medicine .30 January 2008. (Letter to
editor)
14. Marc Leone, Franck Garnier, Myriam Dubuc, Marie Christine Bimar et al. Prevention of
Nosocomial Urinary Tract Infection in ICU Patients. Chest. 2001;120:220-22.
15. David J. Weber, Emily E. Sickbert-Bennett , Vickie Brown, William A. Rutala.
Comparison of Hospitalwide Surveillance and Targeted Intensive Care Unit Surveillance of
Healthcare-Associated Infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007; 28:1361-1366.
16. Miriam E .Tucker Protocols focus on infection prevention in hospitals Available.at
www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/iche/2008/29/s1
17. NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2003, issued
August 2003. Am J Infect Control 2003;31:481-98.
18. Julie Louise Gerberding. Health-Care Quality Promotion through Infection Prevention: Beyond
2000. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol7no2/gerberding.htm.
- 55 -