1

E-NOTES
 2

UNIT-1
 3

UNIT – 1
CONCEPT OF VECTORS & COORDINATE SYSTEM
Unit-01/Lecture-01
Vector Analysis
Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which electromagnetic (EM) concepts are
most conveniently expressed and best comprehended.

Scalar Field
A scalar field is a function that gives us a single value of some variable for every point in
space. A quantity that has only magnitude
Examples: voltage, current, energy, temperature, mass , time distance, charge

Vector Field
A vector is a quantity which has both a magnitude and a direction in space.
Examples: velocity, momentum, acceleration, displacement, Electric field intensity and
force.
It can be written by letter ¯A = | A | â where | A| is magnitude and â is direction

Introduction & Definition

Orthogonal Coordinate Systems[RGPV/DEC2005(2)]
An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are mutually perpendicular. A
point or vector can be represented in any curvilinear coordinate system which may be
orthogonal or non-orthogonal.
 4

Coordinate System:-
In order to define the position of a point in space, an appropriate coordinate system is
needed. A considerable amount of work and time may be saved by choosing a coordinate
system that best fits a given problem. A hard problem in one coordinate system may turn
out to be easy in another system.
We will consider the Cartesian, the circular cylindrical, and the spherical coordinate
systems. All three are orthogonal (the coordinates are mutually perpendicular).
Dot product of two unit vectors is defined geometrically as the product of the magnitude
of and the projection of onto (or vice versa):
e X⋅e y =e y⋅e z =e Z⋅e x =0
e X⋅e x=e y⋅e y =e Z⋅e z =1
Cross product using cyclic permutation: (a) moving clockwise leads to negative results;
(b) Moving counterclockwise leads to positive results
Classification [RGPV/Dec2004(4)] –
Coordinate can be broadly classified on the basis of origin as.
Cartesian coordinate system
In Cartesian coordinate system we set up three coordinate axes that are mutually
perpendicular at right angles to each other and call them x ,y, z.

Limits

Fig. 1 Differential normal length in Cartesian coordinate system

Characteristics :-
Differential Length, Differential Surfaces and Differential Volume.[RGPV/Dec2005 (4)]
 5

Length:

dl  x ˆdx  y
ˆ dy  zˆdz

Differential Area:

ds x  x
ˆ dydz

ds y  y
ˆ dxdz

ds z  z
ˆdxdy

Fig.2 Differential Areas of Cartesian Coordinate system

Differential Volume
dv  dxdydz
 6

S.no. RGPV/QUESTIONS YEAR MARKS

1. Describe orthogonal coordinate system in detail. Dec2005 7

What do you understand by coordinate system?

2. Explain Cartesian or rectangular coordinate June2004

system. 5

3. Prove that ∇ X ∇ X A = ∇ ( ∇ . A )−∇ 2 A Dec2012 10

 7

CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM AND SPHERICAL COORDINATE

SYSTEM
Unit-01/Lecture-02
Introduction & Definition
Cylindrical Coordinate System [ RGPV/Dec2006(5)]
A cylindrical coordinate system is easy for cylindrical symmetry like cables, electric
motor. This system doesn’t have axes like Cartesian. .The surfaces being circular
cylinder of radius ρ = constant, a plane=Ф i.e. azimuthal angle and z= constant. The
azimuthal angle is the angle made by xy plane with x-axis.

0≤ ρ<∞
0≤φ<2 π
Limits −∞<z<∞
There are three unit vectors directed radially outwards normal to the cylinder surface of
the point of consideration.

Unit vectors relation

Fig 3. Point P of Cylindrical Coordinate system

Differential Length, Differential Area and Differential volume

 8

Fig.4 Differential Areas of Cylindrical Coordinate system

Length:

Area

Volume
Spherical Coordinate System
9

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks ē ρ×ē φ=ē z

d ⃗l =r^ dr + Φrd
^dv=rdrd
Φ +^Φz dz
dz
|Ā|=( A + Ad ⃗
ρ2
d ⃗s r =^r rdΦ dz
( A ρ , A φ A z ) or A ρ ē ρ + Adφ ē⃗
s+A

sφΦ+=AΦ
= ^z)rdrd Φ
φ2 z 
^ x  
z ē zdrdz
  y  
1/2
z2  z  
ē φ ×ē z =ē ρ
ē z×ē ρ =ēφ

Q.1 Write expression for incremental length, surface Dec 2005 10

and volume in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical
coordinate systems.

Q.2 Explain cylindrical coordinate system with proper Jun 2006 5

diagram.

Fig.5 Spherical Coordinate system

In this the three orthogonal surfaces are spheres, cone and plane. We first define
distance from origin to a point as r. r is the first coordinate system and is the radius of
sphere. ϴ is the second coordinate system and is the angle from z-axis at origin
and position vector P .Point P(r,ϴ,Ф) is the intersection of three mutually perpendicular
surfaces. The unit vectors may again be defined at point P.

Unit vectors-
a^ r

Points in the direction of increasing r

a^ φ

Points in the direction of increasing j

a^ θ Points in the direction of increasing q

Transformation of coordinate system

Unit-01/Lecture-03

Transformation
Differential Length, Differential Areas and Differential Volumes
(1) Cartesian to Cylindrical
(2) Cylindrical to Cartesian
(3) Cartesian to Spherical
(4) Spherical to Cartesian
 10

(5) Cylindrical to Spherical

(6) Spherical to Cylindrical

Cartesian to Cylindrical Transformation [RGPV/Dec2009(7)]

Let us suppose cylindrical co-ordinates be (r,Ф, z) and cartesian co-ordinates are (x,y,z)
The transformation formulae are .
x= r cosФ
y= r sinФ
z=z
Cylindrical to Cartesian Transformation
Let us suppose Cartesian co-ordinates be (x,y,z) and cylindrical co-ordinates are
(r,Ф,z).The Transformation formulae are:
r=√ ¿ x2 + y2)
y
Ф=tan-1( )
x
Cartesian to Spherical Transformation
let us suppose spherical co-ordinates are (r,ϴ,Ф).The transformation formulae are

r=√ x 2+ y 2 + z 2
ϴ= cos−1 ¿¿ ¿
y
Ф=tan-1 ( )
x

Spherical to Cartesian Transformation

Let us suppose Cartesian coordinates(x,y,z) The transformation are :
x= r cos ϴ sin Ф
y= r sin Ф sin Ф
 11

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Write Short note on conversion from cylindrical
Q.1 to Cartesian co-ordinate system Dec2009 10

Given the points A(r=4,ϴ =25,Ф = 120) find

Q.2 cartesian co-ordinates of A and its distance from June 2009 10
B( x=2, y=3,z=-1)
Ans-:A(X=-0.84,Y= 1.45, Z=3.62) and Distance
AB=5.64

Q.3 Give rectangular Coordinates of the point C (rc DEC 2006 10

=4.4, Ф = -115, z=2), (b) Give cylindrical
coordinates at point D (x= -3.1; y= 2.6, z= -3).

Q..4 Transform the vector field v= 10 ax – 8 ay +6 az Dec 2013 6

to cylindrical co-ordinate system at point (10,-
8,6)
 12

GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF VECTOR FIELDS

Unit-01/Lecture-04
Definition [RGPV/JUN2013/7]
Gradient of a scalar field is a vector field which points in the direction of the greatest rate
of increase of the scalar field, and whose magnitude is the greatest rate of change.
- gradient, acts on a scalar to produce a vector
Cartesian Co- ordinate system
f f f
f  i  j k
x y z
f f f
 i j k
x y z
Cylindrical coordinate system

Spherical Co-ordinate

Physical Significance of Gradient

Consider a scalar function which represents temperature then grad of that function will
represent temperature or rate of change of temperature with distance. Hence although
temperature is a scalar quantity having magnitude only the temperature gradient is a
vector quantity having magnitude and direction both in direction of maximum rate of
change of temperature.

Divergence
• Divergence is an operator that measures the magnitude of a vector field's source
or sink at a given point
• The divergence of a vector field is a (signed) scalar.
• ∇⋅-V̄divergence, acts on a vector to produce a scalar
If F = P i + Q j + R k is a vector field on and ∂P/∂x, ∂Q/∂y, and ∂R/∂z exist, the
divergence of F is the function of three variables defined by:
P Q R
div F    F div F   
x y z
Cylindrical Coordinate system
 13

Spherical Coordinate system

Physical significance of Divergence -For example, for a vector field that denotes the
velocity of air expanding as it is heated, the divergence of the velocity field would have a
positive value because the air expands. If the air cools and contracts, the divergence is
negative. The divergence could be thought of as a measure of the change in density.

Curl [RGPV/Dec 2012/7]

• Curl is a vector operator that shows a vector field's "rotation";
• The direction of the axis of rotation and the magnitude of the rotation. It can also
be described as the circulation density.
• "Rotation" and "circulation" are used here for properties of a vector function of
position, regardless of their possible change in time.
• A vector field which has zero curl everywhere is called irrotational.
• ∇×V̄-curl, acts on a vector to produce a vector
• If we think of  a vector with components ∂/∂x, ∂/∂y, and ∂/∂z, we can also
as
 of with the vector field F as follows.
consider the formal cross product

F
i j k
  

x y z
P Q R
 R Q  P R   Q P 
   i
   j   k
 y z   z x   x y 

 curl F

Numerical :-
1) A particular scalar field α is given by
πy 40 cos ϴ
(i) α = 20 e –x sin ( ) (ii) α =
6 r2
Find its gradient at P ( 0,1,1) for Cartesian and P( 3,60,30) for spherical system.
f f f
f  i  j k πy
sol.- x y z = -20e-x sin( ) + 20e-x cos¿)
6
f f f
 i j k π π
x y z =-20 e-0 sin ( )+ 20e-0 cos( ) =7.32 Ans.
6 6

cos ϴ sin ϴ
=-40 ρ3 + 40 ρ 2 = -0.74+ 3.84=3.1 Ans.
 14

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 1) A particular scalar field α is given by
πy 40 cos ϴ Jun 2013 7
(i) α = 20 e –x sin ( ) (ii) α =
6 r2
Find its gradient at P (0, 1, 1) for Cartesian
and
P (3, 60, 30) for spherical system.

Q.2 Derive mathematical equations for Gradient,

Curl and divergence in spherical and cylindrical Dec 2012 7
coordinate system.
 15

DIVERGENCE THEOREM AND STROKE’S THEOREM

Unit-01/Lecture-05
[RGPV/JUN2008/10,Dec 2013/7]
Divergence Theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A through the
closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

 F  dS   div FdV

S E

Under the given conditions, the flux of F across the boundary surface of E is equal to the
triple integral of the divergence of F over E.

Proof:
To derive the divergence theorem let us suppose an arbitrary volume in an electric field
region and divide this volume into a number of infinite volumes.ΔV1, ΔV2 …….. bounded
by the surfaces S1 ,S2 …….. respectively. Then applying Gauss law for the electric field in
the integral form we can write expression in the form as:-
❑ ❑

∑ ( ∇ . D ) ∆Vj = ∬ D .ds +∬ D . ds … … … … …
S1 S2
In the limit that number of infinitesimal volumes tends to infinity, the left side of the
equation approaches to the volume integral of ∇ . D over the volume. The right side of
the equation is simply the closed surface integral of D over the surface since the
contribution to the surface since the contribution to the surface integrals from the
portion of the surfaces integrals from the portions of the surfaces interior the surface
cancel.

Numericals
1) Determine the divergence of the following vector field and evaluate them at given
points
π
A= ρ z sinФ aρ + 3 ρ z2 cosФ aФ , at ( 5, ,1)
2
2
Sol. Here Aρ = z ρ sinФ , A Ф = 3ρ z cosФ and Az =0
Aρ ∂ Aρ 1 ∂ AФ
∇ . A= + +
ρ ∂ ρ ρ ∂Ф
=2zsinФ – 3z2 sinФ
π
= sin ( ( 2 (1 ) −3 ( 1 ) )
2
= -1 Ans.

Stoke’s theorem
States that the “surface integral of the curl of a vector field A taken over any surface S is
equal to the line integral of A round the periphery C of the surface. It relates a surface
 16

integral to a surface integral to a closed integral.”

Proof:-Consider an oriented surface A, bounded by curve B. We want to prove Stroke’s

theorem

We suppose that A has a smooth parameterization ~r = ~r (s,t), so that A corresponds to

a region R in the st-plane, and B corresponds to the boundary C of R. We suppose that A
has a smooth parameterization ~r = ~r (s,t), so that A corresponds to a region R
in the st-plane, and B corresponds to the boundary C of R
❑

First, we convert the line integral R∫ F .dr into a line integral around C:
B

So if we define a 2-dimensional vector field

Using ~s to denote the position vector of a point in the st-plane.

Hence

By Green’s Theorem, the right-hand sides of the last two equations are equal. Hence the
left-hand sides are equal as well, which is what we had to prove for Stokes’ Theorem
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 State and Prove following theorems
(1) Divergence Theorem Jun 2013 7
(2) Stroke’s Theorem
Q.2 State Stoke’s theorem and verify the same for a
vector field F = ax + z y 2 ay over the flat surface Dec 2009 20
bounded by [0,0,0],[0,1,0],[0,1,1] and[0,0,1].

Q.3 Find the total charge enclosed in a volume June 2008 10

defined by 1m  x  2m, 2m  y  3m, 3m  z 
4m, if D = 4x ax + 3y2 ay + 2z3az C/m2 in free space
 17

by using both side of Divergence theorem

equation.
Q.4 Determine the divergence of the following Dec 2006 10
vector field and evaluate them at given points June 2009
π
A= ρ z sinФ aρ + 3 ρ z2 cosФ aФ , at ( 5, ,1)
2

Electrostatic field- COULOMB’S LAW & METHOD OF IMAGES

Unit-01/Lecture-06
Statement:- [RGPV/JUN2003/10,JUN 2010/5]
“ Coloumb’s law states that the force between two very small objects in a vacuum by a
distance which is large compared to their size is proportional to the charge on each and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. It is expressed in the
form as.
Fe = k q1 q2 Newton
2
r
k (electrostatic constant =8.99 x 109 N m2/C2)
q (charge in Coulombs)
r ( distance between the charges)

Fig 7 Force between two point charges

1
k= the new constant is called permittivity of free space or vacuum and it has
4 πε
magnitude measured in Farads per meter. ε = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.

The vector form of coulomb’s law is in the form as - Fe = k q1 q2 a12

r2
R 12
where a12 is the unit vector expressed in the form as a12 =
r 12

Method of Images[RGPV/DEC 2011/7]

 18

Method of images is particularly useful for evaluating potential and field quantities due
to charges in the presence of conductors without actually solving for Poisson’s (or
Laplace’s) equation. Utilizing the fact that a conducting surface is an equipotential, charge
configurations near perfect conducting plane can be replaced by the charge itself and its
image so as to produce an equipotential in the place of the conducting plane. To have
insight into how this method works, we consider the case of point charge Q at a distance
d above a large grounded conducting plane as shown in figure.

Fig 8 a point of charge

or this case, the presence of the positive charge +Q will induce negative charges on the surface of the cond
plane and the electric field lines will be normal to the conductor. For the time being we do not have the kn
of the induced charge density .
To apply the method of images, if we place an image charge -Q as shown in the figure, the system of two
(essentially a dipole) will produce zero potential at the location of the conducting plane in the original pro
Solution of field and potential in the region plane (conducting plane in the original problem) will rem
same even the solution is obtained by solving the problem with the image charge as the charge and the bo
condition remains unchanged in the region

Fig 9 Image charge

We find that at the point P(x, y, z),

Similarly, the electric field at P can be computed as:

 19

The induced surface charge density on the conductor can be computed as:
he total induced charge can be computed as follows:

Using change of variables,

Thus, as expected, we find that an equal amount of charge having opposite sign is induced
on the conductor.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Write short note on Coulomb’s law Jun 2003 10
Jun 2010 5
Q.2 Write short note on “Method of Images”. Dec 2006 7
Explain image theory in detail. June 2008
 20

Electric field intensity due to different charge distribution viz. line charge,
sheet charge, Field due to continuous volume
Unit-01/Lecture-07
Field due to a point charge
The Electric Field is defined as the Force exerted on a tiny positive test charge at that
point divided by the magnitude of the test charge:
E = Fe
q
E is the electric field strength
Fe is the electrostatic force
q is the charge in coulombs

Field due to a point charge [RGPV/JUN2012/7]

From the field theory point of view, we say that the charge q creates an electric field
which exerts a force on a test charge. E0eq=F0q E
Using the definition of electric field given in Eq. (2.4.1) and the Coulomb’s law, the electric
field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by
q
E=
4 πεr 2

Fig10. Analogy between the gravitational field gand the electric field
 21

Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions

The electric field at a point P due to each charge element dq is given by Coulomb’s law:
dq
E= ∭ ar
4 πεr 2

where r is the distance from to and is the corresponding unit vector. Using the
superposition principle, the total electric field due to group of charges is equal to the
vector sum (integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions:

Charge Density
The electric field due to a small number of charged particles can readily be computed
using the superposition principle. But what happens if we have a very large number of
charges distributed in some region in space?

(1)Line Charge Density

If the charge is distributed over a line of length l, then the linear charge density λ
(lowercase Greek letter lambda) is
dq
λ (r)=
dl
where the dimension of λ is charge/unit length (C/m). The total charge is now an integral
over the entire length: )
Q=∫λ(r) dl

(2)Surface Charge Density

In a similar manner, the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A with a
surface charge density σ (lowercase Greek letter sigma):
dq
σ(r) =
d  A
The dimension of σ is charge/unit area

(3) Volume Charge Density

Suppose we wish to find the electric field at some point P. Let’s consider a small volume
element ΔV which contains an amount of charge Δq. The distances between charges
within the volume element ΔV are much smaller than compared to r, the distance
between ΔV and P. In the limit where iVΔPiVΔ becomes infinitesimally small, we may
define a volume charge density ()ρr􀁇 as
dq
Ρ(r ) = dV
The dimension of ρ(r) is charge/unit volume in SI units. The total amount of charge within
the entire volume Vis
Q=∑ ∆ q=∭ ρ ( r ) dV (C/m)3
 22

The concept of charge density here is analogous to mass density ρ(r􀁇).

Electric field due to line charge

Consider a long thin uniformly charged wire and we have to find the electric field intensity
due to the wire at any point at perpendicular distance from the wire. If the wire is very
long and we are at point far away from both its ends then field lines outside the wire are
radial and would lie on a plane perpendicular to the wire. Electric field intensity has same
magnitude at all points which are at same distance from the line charge. We can assume
Gaussian surface to be a right circular cylinder of radius r and length l with its ends
perpendicular to the wire as shown below in the figure.

Fig11 Cylindrical Gaussian surface for calculation of Electric field due to line charge

λ is the charge per unit length on the wire. Direction of E is perpandicular to the wire and
components of E normal to end faces of cylinder makes no contribution to electric flux.
Thus from Gauss's law

 
Now consider left hand side of Gauss's law

 
Since at all points on the curved surface E is constant. Surface area of cylinder of radius r
and length l is A=2πrl therefore,

 
Charge enclosed in cylinder is q=linear charge density x length l of cylinder, 
or, q=λl From Gauss's law
 23

 
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Explain electric field intensity due to line charge. Dec. 2011 10
Also derive the expression.
Q.2 A circular ring of radius ‘a’ carries a uniform Jun 2012 7
charge ρl C/m and is placed on X-Y plane with
axis same as z-axis. What are the values of E and
H?

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL, POTENTIAL GRADIENT EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES.

Unit-01/Lecture-8
[RGPV/JUN2002/10]
Electric potential: - The potential at any point is the potential difference between the
point and a chosen point (or reference point) at which the potential is zero. Work done
per unit charge.

W
V= = -∫ E . dL
Q

The electric potential created by a point charge Q, at a distance r from the charge (relative
to the potential at infinity), can be shown to be

where ε0 is the electric constant (permitivity of free space). This is known as the Coulomb
potential.

Potential Gradient:
a potential gradient is the local rate of change of the potential with respect to
displacement, i.e. spatial derivative, or gradient. This quantity frequently occurs in
equations of physical processes because it leads to some form of flux.
 24

Equipotential or isopotential in mathematics and physics refers to a region in space

where every point in it is at the same potential.[1][2][3] This usually refers to a scalar
potential (in that case it is a level set of the potential), although it can also be applied to
vector potentials. An equipotential of a scalar potential function in n-dimensional space is
typically an (n−1) dimensional space.

Electrostatic Potential and Equipotential Surfaces

In the previous sections we have seen how the electric field intensity due to a charge or a
charge distribution can be found using Coulomb's law or Gauss's law. Since a charge
placed in the vicinity of another charge (or in other words in the field of other charge)
experiences a force, the movement of the charge represents energy exchange .
Electrostatic potential is related to the work done in carrying a charge from one point to
the other in the presence of an electric field

Electrostatic potential is related to the work done in carrying a charge from one point to the
other in the presence of an electric field.

Fig12 Movement of Test Charge in Electric Field

Let us suppose that we wish to move a positive test charge from a point P to another point
as shown in the Fig. 2.8.
The force at any point along its path would cause the particle to accelerate and move it out of the
region if unconstrained. Since we are dealing with an electrostatic case, a force equal to the
negative of that acting on the charge is to be applied while moves from P to Q. The work
done by this external agent in moving the charge by a distance is given by:
...........
he negative sign accounts for the fact that work is done on the system by the external agent.

The potential difference between two points P and Q , VPQ, is defined as the work done per unit
 25

charge, i.e.

It may be noted that in moving a charge from the initial point to the final point if the potential
difference is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement, external agent
performs the work against the field. If the sign of the potential difference is negative, work is
done by the field.
We will see that the electrostatic system is conservative in that no net energy is exchanged if the
test charge is moved about a closed path, i.e. returning to its initial position. Further, the
potential difference between two points in an electrostatic field is a point function; it is
independent of the path taken. The potential difference is measured in Joules/Coulomb which is
referred to as Volts.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Define Potential gradient of electric potential June 2002 10
and relate it to electric field. Discuss the June 2006 10
properties of equi-potential surface and
conservative field.

Q.2 Find electric field if voltage (V) is : Dec 2007 10

(i) V= r.ϴ.Ф (ii) V= 2. R. Ф.z2

Q.3 Determine the potential function for a line Dec 2009 10

charge ρ c/m of length ‘l’. From this determine
the electric field E directly.
 26

GAUSS LAW, APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS LAW, GAUSS LAW IN POINT FORM

Unit-01/Lecture-9
[RGPV/JUN2010/10]
Gauss’s law:-states that the total flux ψ through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface. [RGPV JUNE2010]

Q= ∫ D . ds
Gauss's law can be stated using either the electric field E or the electric displacement
field D. This section shows some of the forms with E; the form with D is below, as are
other forms with E.

Integral form
Gauss's law may be expressed as:[5]

Where ΦE is the electric flux through a closed surface S enclosing any volume V, Q is the

total charge enclosed within S, and ε0 is the electric constant. The electric flux ΦE is
defined as a surface integral of the electric field:

where E is the electric field, dA is a vector representing an infinitesimal element of area

and represents the dot product of two vectors.
Since the flux is defined as an integral of the electric field, this expression of Gauss's law is
called the integral form.

Differential form
By the divergence theorem Gauss's law can alternatively be written in the differential
form:

where ∇ · E is the divergence of the electric field, ε0 is the electric constant, and ρ is
the total electric charge density.
Applications of Gauss’ Law:
- electric field of a charged sphere;
- electric field of a charged wire;
- electric field of a charged plane.
 27

Electric Flux
The concept of flux is borrowed from flow of water through a surface. Though an area is
generally considered as a scalar, an element of area may be considered to be a vector
because :
• It has magnitude (measured in m2).
• If the area is infinitisimally small, it can be considered to be in a plane. We can then
associate a direction with it. For instance, if the area element lies in the x-y plane, it can
be considered to be directed along the z–direction Electric field is vector field (c.f. fluid
velocity x density) Element of flux of electric field over closed surface E.dS

Fig 13 Gauss law applied for charged sphere

^ 2 ^
da1=rdθ {θ¿da2=rsinθdϕ^ ¿dS=da1 xda2= r sinθdθ dϕn^ ¿n^=θxϕ^ ¿
q ^r 2 q q q
E.dS= 2 . r sinθ dθ dϕn^ {r^.n^=1¿ = sinθ dθ dϕ= dΩ ¿∫E.dS= ¿
4πεo r 4 πε o 4 πε o S ε o
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 State Gauss law for static electric field. Give its June 2009 10
applications also.
Q.2 Using Gauss law find the expression for D for June2012 10
 28

uniformly charged sphere.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

PUBLISHER /
SNo TITLE AUTHOR PRIORITY
EDITION
Elements of Mathew N.O Oxford University
1. 1
Electromagnetic Sadiku Press
Engineering TMH.
2. William H. Hayt 2
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Fields
5. S.P.Seth Khanna Publication 3
and Wave
 29

UNIT-2
 30

UNIT – 2
LAPLACE’S & POISSON’S EQUATIONS and its solution
Unit-02/Lecture-01
Laplace Equation
We have the differential form of Gauss’ law
Using D = ε E and E = - V in the above equation, we get
This is the Poisson’s Equation
We know that point form of Gauss law is
or

 2V  

∇ . D=ρv
where D= ε E and Potential
Q (r)
V=
4π ∈r
One of the cornerstones of electrostatics is setting up and solving problems described by
the Poisson equation. Finding V for some given, since this is the usual way to find the
electric potential for a given charge distribution described by the density function. The
mathematical details behind Poisson's equation in electrostatics are as follows (SI units
are used rather than Gaussian units, which are also frequently used in electromagnetism).
Starting with Gauss' law for electricity (also one of Maxwell's equations) in differential
form, we have:

where is the divergence operator, D = electric displacement field, and ρf = free charge
density (describing charges brought from outside). Assuming the medium is linear,
isotropic, and homogeneous (see polarization density), we have the constitutive equation:
D=εE
where ε = permittivity of the medium and E = electric field. Substituting this into Gauss'
law and assuming ε is spatially constant in the region of interest obtains:

In the absence of a changing magnetic field, B, Faraday's law of induction gives:

where is the curl operator and t is time. Since the curl of the electric field is zero, it is
defined by a scalar electric potential field, V
E=∇ . V
The derivation of Poisson's equation under these circumstances is straightforward.
Substituting the potential gradient for the electric field
 31

directly obtains Poisson's equation for electrostatics, which is:

Solving Poisson's equation for the potential requires knowing the charge density
distribution. If the charge density is zero, then Laplace's equation results. If the charge
density follows a Boltzmann distribution, then the Poisson-Boltzmann equation results.
The Poisson–Boltzmann equation plays a role in the development of the Debye–Hückel
theory of dilute electrolyte solutions.
The above discussion assumes that the magnetic field is not varying in time. The same
Poisson equation arises even if it does vary in time, as long as the Coulomb gauge is used.
In this more general context, computing φ is no longer sufficient to calculate E, since E
also depends on the magnetic vector potential A, which must be independently
computed. See Maxwell's equation in potential formulation for more on φ and A in
Maxwell's equations and how Poisson's equation is obtained in this case. Potential of a
Gaussian charge density
If there is a static spherically symmetric Gaussian charge density

where Q is the total charge, then the solution φ(r) of Poisson's equation,
,
is given by

where erf(x) is the error function.

This solution can be checked explicitly by evaluating . Note that, for r much greater
than σ, the erf function approaches unity and the potential φ (r) approaches the point
charge potential

,
as one would expect. Furthermore the erf function approaches 1 extremely quickly as its
argument increases; in practice for r > 3σ the relative error is smaller than one part in a
thousand.
In free space , this equation becomes,

 2V  0
-Laplacian, acts on a scalar to produce a scalar
This equation is called the Laplace’ equation.
 2 is called the Laplacian operator or simply Laplacian.
Note that the ‘del’ operator  is defined only in the rectangular coordinates only, as

The Laplacian in the three coordinate systems are

2 2 2
 = 2  2  2 (cartesian )
2

x y z
 32

1     1 2 2
 =
2
   (Cylindrical )
      2  2 z 2

1   2   1     1 2
2 = r  sin   ( Spherical )
r 2 r  r  r 2 sin      r 2 sin 2   2

Solution of Laplace equation can be obtained by complementary function of non-linear

homogenous equation
In one dimensional plane
X= A e jm 1 X + B e−¿ jm 2 X ∨¿ ¿ V (x) =X
In two dimensional plane
XY = A e jm 1 X + B e−¿ jm 2 X ¿+ C e jm 1 y + D e−¿ jm 2 y ¿
and V(XY)= = A e jm 1 X + B e−¿ jm 2 X ¿+ C e jm 1 y + D e−¿ jm 2 y ¿
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Prove that potential due to electric dipole- Jun 2010 10
Qlcosθ
∅=
4 πεr 2
verify that it satisfies Laplace equation
Q2 Derive Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations and Dec 2009 10
discuss their significance.
Q.3 Derive solution of Laplace’s equation for the June 2012 10
following.
(i) Cartesian solution in one-dimension(field
between parallel plates)
(ii) Cylindrical co-ordinates (field between co-
axial capacitors.)

ELECTRIC DIPOLE, DIPOLE MOMENT

Unit-02/Lecture-02
Electric Dipole:-
An electric dipole consists of two point charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign
separated by a very small distance. An electric dipole is simply called dipole. If charges Q
and –Q and the separation distance between charges is d, then
Dipole moment p= Q.d
Now we calculate the field at point P due to dipole. The length of dipole is very small as
compared to the distance of the point from the dipole, where the field is to be calculated.
 33

Electric field due two charges is given as

Q
E= ar
4 πε r 2
Potential can be expressed as :
p . ar
V=
4 πε r 2
The unit of P is coulombs per meter square. For many dielectric materials, the polarization
vector is related to the electric field E in te dielectric in the simple manner and it is
expressed in the form as
P= εχ E
where χis susceptibility of the material is more or less how sensitive a given dielectric is
to electric field.
Dipole moment in free space P=0. For some dielectrics P is proportional to the applied
electric field E and we have
D= ε E+ P
From above two equations
D= ε (1 + χ ) E = ε εr E
where ε = εo εr is called permittivity.

Expression for potential and Electric Field due to dipole

An ideal dipole consists of two opposite charges with infinitesimal separation. The
potential and field of such an ideal dipole are found next as a limiting case of an example
of two opposite charges at non-zero separation.
Two closely spaced opposite charges have a potential of the form:

with charge separation, d, defined as

The position relative to their center of mass (assuming equal masses), R, and the unit
vector in the direction of R are given by:

Taylor expansion in d/R (see multipole expansion and quadrupole) allows this potential to
be expressed as a series.[3][4]

where higher order terms in the series are vanishing at large distances, R, compared to d.
Here, the electric dipole moment p is, as above:
 34

A key point is that the potential of the dipole falls off faster with distance R than that of
the point charge.
The electric field of the dipole is the negative gradient of the potential, leading to

Thus, although two closely spaced opposite charges are not quite an ideal electric
dipole (because their potential at short distances is not that of a dipole), at distances
much larger than their separation, their dipole moment p appears directly in their
potential and field.
As the two charges are brought closer together (d is made smaller), the dipole term in the
multipole expansion based on the ratio d/R becomes the only significant term at ever
closer distances R, and in the limit of infinitesimal separation the dipole term in this
expansion is all that matters. As d is made infinitesimal, however, the dipole charge must
be made to increase to hold p constant. This limiting process results in a "point dipole".

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Define Dipole and dipole moment foe Dec 2006 10
electrostatic fields. Derive an expression for
potential and electric field due to dipole.

Q2 Derive an expression for potential and electric Jun2009 10

field intensity due to dipole.

ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE A DIELECTRIC, POLARIZATION

Unit-02/Lecture-03

A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an electrical insulator that can

be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field,
electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in a conductor, but only
slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization.
Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and
negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that
reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself.[1] If a dielectric is composed of weakly
bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that
their symmetry axis aligns to the field.
The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and
magnetic energy in materials.[2] Dielectrics are important for explaining various
 35

phenomena in electronics, optics, and solid-state physics.

Dielectric Polarization
The larger the dipole moment the greater the tendency of the solvent to respond to an
applied field by reorientation of the microscopic dipoles. However, = shows that there are
exceptions and that liquid structure and collective dynamics also play a role. To see the
connection between the dielectric constant and the polarization we perform an
experiment. We charge up the capacitor in vacuum. The field is E= σ/εo
Then we add an insulating medium with dielectric constant εr leaving the charges
Constant. Now the field is E = σ/εrε
. The field is reduced in this case because the amount of charge is kept constant.
The difference between E and E0 is due to the polarization of the medium, P.
E=E0–P/ε0
We call E the macroscopic field. The polarization is
proportional to this field:
P=ε0 (εr– 1)E= ε0χeE

where χe is the electric susceptibility.

One main goal of studies of dielectric polarization is to relate macroscopic properties such
as the dielectric constant to microscopic properties such as the polarizability.

Non-polar gas phase molecules

The relationship between polarizability and susceptibility is simple for non-polar
molecules in the gas phase where intermolecular interactions can be ignored. The
polarization can be immediately expressed in terms of both electric susceptibility
(macroscopic) and polarizability (microscopic).

Polar molecules
The polarization we have discussed up to now is the electronic polarization. If a collection
of non-polar molecules is subjected to an applied electric field the polarization is
induced only in their electron distribution. However, if molecules in the collection possess
a permanent ground state dipole moment, these molecules will tend to reorient
in the applied field. The alignment of the dipoles will be disrupted by thermal motion that
tends to randomize the orientation of the dipoles.

Polarization :-
The limiting case of a point dipole is achieved when we assume d approach zero and Q
approach infinity such that product p is finite. A vector P is called Polarization vector.
It is defined as the electric dipole moment per unit volume. Therefore If there are N
number of molecules per unit volume of the material then there are N∇ v molecules in a
volume.
P=(N/V)αE=χeε0E
 36

The polarization density P is defined as the average electric dipole moment d per unit
volume V of the dielectric material:[4]

which can be interpreted as a measure of how strong and how aligned the dipoles are in a
region of the material. For the calculation of P due to an applied electric field, the electric
susceptibility χ of the dielectric must be known (see below).
Polarization density in Maxwell's equations
Relations between E, D and P
The polarization density P yields the electric displacement field D via

Here ε0 is the electric permittivity of empty space. In this equation, P is the (negative of
the) field induced in the material when the "fixed" charges, the dipoles, shift in response
to the total underlying field E, whereas D is the field due to the remaining charges, known
as "free" charges. In general, P varies as a function of E depending on the medium, as
described later in the article. In many problems, it is more convenient to work with D and
the free charges than with E and the total charge.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 What are dielectrics? Derive an expression for electric field Dec 10
inside a dielectric. 2010
Q.2 A charged ring of radius ‘a’ carries a uniform charge Dec 10
distribution. Determine the electric field intensity at any 2008
point on the axis.

BOUNDARY VALUE CONDITIONS FOR ELECTRIC FIELD,

Unit-02/Lecture-04
Consider a Gaussian pill-box at the interface between two different media, arranged as in
the figure above. The net enclosed (free) charge Qf is

D ・ da = Qenc,free

The integral can be broken into contributions from the top, bottom and wall. The
 37

wall is itself broken into the part of the wall above the surface, and the part below the
surface
❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

∫ D . ds = ∫ D . ds ∫ D . ds ∫ D. ds ∫ D . ds
top bottom side 1 side2

so as the height of the pill-box h tends to zero the term arising from the bulk charge
densities becomes negligible. The integral form of Gauss’s law then tells us that which
becomes exact in the limit when therefore if there is no free surface charge the
component of D normal to the interface is continuous. In the limit that the thickness of
the pillbox goes to zero, the contribution from the walls vanishes so
First we deal with the dot products,
❑ ❑

∫ D . ds = ∫ D . ds
top
∫
bottom
D . ds

Assuming that the cross–sectional area is small enough that the displacement is con-
stant across the area (for smooth distributions we can always do this), then
∫ D . ds = D2- D1
If there is some free charge density on the surface, then Qenc,free = σfA. We can relate
the electric displacement on each side of the interface :
(D2 − D1) n = σf
The dot product pulls out the components of D perpendicular to the surface, so we can
write (D2 − D1) n = σf
In the absence of free surface charge, the perpendicular components of D are equal.
What can we say about the tangential component of D? Consider the closed path
straddling the boundary

Let’s consider the line integral of D around the closed path IC

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

= ∫ D . ds=∫ D .ds +∫ D . ds+∫ D . ds∫ D .ds +∫ D .ds +∫ D . ds

C a b c d e f

where the integral has been broken up into each of the legs labelled in the diagram. If we
assume that the ends can be made arbitrarily small (h ! 0) then the only contribution to
this integral is
 38

❑ ❑ ❑

∫ D . ds=∫ D .ds ++∫ D . ds+¿

C b e
The dot product pulls out the components of D tangential to the surface, and assuming
that the length is small enough that the displacement is constant along the path we have
(D2t – D1t)l = 0

Tangential Component of Electric field intensity

we already know that the curl of an electrostatic electric field is always
zero. Hence using the same argument we used to investigate the parallel components of
D we can say thatIC
E ・ dl = (E2,k − E1,k)l = ∫ ( ∇ X E ) . ds=0
So E2,t= E1,t
Again, because we don’t a priori know what the polarization is, we can’t generate a
boundary condition for the perpendicular components of the electric field.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Show that at a boundary between two dielectrics Dec 2011 10
the tangential components E and normal
component of D must be continuous.

Q.2 Region z<0 contains a perfect dielectric for which June 2005 10
εr1 = 2.5, while the region z>0 is characterized
by εr2 = 4. Let E1 = -30 ax + 50 ay +70 az V/m.
Find (i) Et1 (ii) D2 (iii) P2 .

CONTINUITY EQUATION
Unit-02/Lecture-05
CONTINUITY EQUATION
A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of a
conserved quantity. Since mass, energy, momentum, electric charge and other
natural quantities are conserved under their respective appropriate conditions, a variety
of physical phenomena may be described using continuity equations.
Continuity equations are a stronger, local form of conservation laws. For example, it is
true that "the total energy in the universe is conserved". But this statement does not
immediately rule out the possibility that energy could disappear from Earth while
simultaneously appearing in another galaxy. A stronger statement is that energy is locally
conserved: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, nor can it "teleport" from one
place to another—it can only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the
mathematical way to express this kind of statement.
In electromagnetic theory, the continuity equation is an empirical law expressing (local)
 39

charge conservation. Mathematically it is an automatic consequence of Maxwell's

equations, although charge conservation is more fundamental than Maxwell's equations.
It states that the divergence of the current density J (in amperes per square meter) is
equal to the negative rate of change of the charge density ρ (in coulombs per cubic
metre),

Current is the movement of charge. The continuity equation says that if charge is
moving out of a differential volume (i.e. divergence of current density is positive) then the
amount of charge within that volume is going to decrease, so the rate of change of charge
density is negative. Therefore the continuity equation amounts to a conservation of
charge.

Differential form
By the divergence theorem, a general continuity equation can also be written in a
"differential form":

where
 ∇• is divergence,
 ρ is the amount of the quantity q per unit volume,
 j is the flux of q,
 t is time,
 σ is the generation of q per unit volume per unit time.
Terms that generate (σ > 0) or remove (σ < 0) q are referred to as a "sources" and
"sinks" respectively.

This general equation may be used to derive any continuity equation, ranging from as
simple as the volume continuity equation to as complicated as the Navier–Stokes
equations. This equation also generalizes the advection equation. Other equations in
physics, such as Gauss's law of the electric field and Gauss's law for gravity, have a similar
mathematical form to the continuity equation, but are not usually called by the term
"continuity equation", because j in those cases does not represent the flow of a real
physical quantity.
In the case that q is a conserved quantity that cannot be created or destroyed (such as
energy), σ = 0 and the equations becomes:

Integral form
The integral form of the continuity equation states that:
 The amount of q in a region increases when additional q flows inward through the
surface of the region, and decreases when it flows outward;
 The amount of q in a region increases when new q is created inside the region, and
 40

decreases when q is destroyed;

 Apart from these two processes, there is no other way for the amount of q in a
region to change.
Mathematically, the integral form of the continuity equation is:

Where
In the integral form of the continuity equation, S is any imaginary closed surface that fully
encloses a volume V, like any of the surfaces on the left. S cannot be a surface with
boundaries, like those on the right. (Surfaces are blue, boundaries are red.)
 S is any imaginary closed surface, that encloses a volume V,

 denotes a surface integral over that closed surface,

 is the total amount of the quantity in the volume V,
 j is the flux of q,
 t is time,
 is the net rate that q is being generated inside the volume V. (When q is being
generated, it is called a "source" of q, and it makes Σ more positive. When q is
being destroyed, it is called a "sink" of q, and it makes Σ more negative.)

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Obtain the expression of the equation of Dec 2011 10
continuity for steady currents. Jun2009

CAPACITANCE & CAPACITANCES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CAPACITORS

Unit-02/Lecture-06
 41

Parallel Plate Capacitor

A capacitor (formerly known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component that stores electric energy in an electric field. The forms, styles and materials
of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors (plates) separated by an insulating layer, the dielectric. Capacitors are widely
used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

Fig 1 Capacitance between parallel plate capacitors.

The capacitance of flat, parallel metallic plates of area A and separation d is given by the

expression above where:
= permittivity of space and
k = relative permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.
k=1 for free space, k>1 for all media, approximately =1 for air.
The Farad, F, is the SI unit for capacitance, and from the definition of capacitance is
seen to be equal to a Coulomb/Volt.

Capacitance of Parallel Plates

Fig 2 Capacitance between two plates

The electric field between two large parallel plates is given by

The voltage difference between the two plates can be expressed in terms of the work

done on a positive test charge q when it moves from the positive to the negative plate.
 42

It then follows from the definition of capacitance that

We have already stated that a conductor in an electrostatic field is an Equipotential

body and any charge given to such conductor will distribute themselves in such a manner
that electric field inside the conductor vanishes. If an additional amount of charge is
supplied to an isolated conductor at a given potential, this additional charge will increase
the surface charge density . Since the potential of the conductor is given by

, the potential of the conductor will also increase maintaining the ratio

same. Thus we can write where the constant of proportionality C is called the
capacitance of the isolated conductor. SI unit of capacitance is Coulomb/ Volt also called
Farad denoted by F. It can It can be seen that if V=1, C = Q. Thus capacity of an isolated
conductor can also be defined as the amount of charge in Coulomb required to raise the
potential of the conductor by 1 Volt.
Of considerable interest in practice is a capacitor that consists of two (or more)
conductors carrying equal and opposite charges and separated by some dielectric media
or free space. The conductors may have arbitrary shapes. A two-conductor capacitor is
shown in figure.
43
 44

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain in detail parallel plate capacitor. Also Dec 2007 10
derive an expression for the capacitance of a
parallel plate capacitor having two dielectric
media.
Q.2 Derive an expression for the capacity of a Dec 2012 10
spherical condenser consisting of two concentric
spheres of radii a and b the dielectric medium
between the two sphere being air.

ENERGY STORED AND ENERGY DENSITY IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD

Unit-02/Lecture-07

We know that electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work needed to bring a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point. To bring a charge Q from infinity against
the field of a charge in free space to distance R the amount of work neede is given by the
expression.

Q1
W =Q2 V 2=Q 2
4 πϵR 12
Since electrostatic fields are conservative W2 is independent of the path followed by Q2
Equation 1 can also be expressed in another form.
Q2
W 2=Q 1
4 πεR 12

In the assembly of charges this work is stored as potential energy.

Combining two equations we obtain
(Q 1 V 1+Q 2 V 2)
W 2=
2
 45

Now let us consider another charge Q3 which is brought from infinity to a point that is
R13 from Q1 to R23 from Q2. An additional amount of work is needed that equals
Q1 Q2
∆ W =Q 3V 3=Q3 ( + )
4 π ϵ R13 4 πε R 23

The sum of ∆ W ∈ equation ( iv ) and W2 in equation (i) is the potential energy W3 stored in
the assembly of three charges Q1,Q2, Q3. An additional amount of work is needed that
equals
1
∆ W =W 2+∆ W = ¿)
4 πε

1
W 3= (Q 1V 1+Q2 V 2+Q3 V 3)
2

The electrostatic energy density is mathematically defined in such a way that its volume
integral equals the total electrostatic energy .Therefore
1
We= D . E
2

1 D2
We= εE 2 =
2 2ε
Potential at the position of Q1 caused by charges Q2 and Q3. Likewise V2 and V3 are
the potentials at Q2 and Q3 respectively in the three- charge assembly.
Extending this procedure of bringing in additional charges, we obtain the following
general expression for the potential energy of a group of N discrete point charges at rest.
N
1
We= ∑ QkVk =
2 k=1

For continuous charge distribution of density ρ we replace Qk by ρdv and the summation
by integration and obtain.
1
We= ∫ ρVdv
2
If V is the potential at the point where volume charge density is ρ and V is the volume of
the region. Substituting ∇ . D we obtain
1
We= ∫ ( ∇ . D ) Vdv
2
The divergence theorem has been employed to change the first volume integral into
closed surface integral and E has been substituted in the second volume integral.
The surface integral decreases at least as fast as 1/R and vanishes as R Then we are
left with only the second integral on the right side

Electrostatic Energy and Energy Density

To determine the energy that is present in an assembly of charges, let us first determine
 46

the amount of work required to assemble them. Let us consider a number of discrete
charges Q1, Q2,......., QN are brought from infinity to their present position one by one.
Since initially there is no field present, the amount of work done in brings Q 1 is zero. Q2 is
brought in the presence of the field of Q1, the work done W1= Q2V21 where V21 is the
potential at the location of Q2 due to Q1. Proceeding in this manner, we can write, the
total work done
.
Had the charges been brought in the reverse order,

Therefore,

Here VIJ represent voltage at the Ith charge location due to Jth charge. Therefore,

Or,
If instead of discrete charges, we now have a distribution of charges over a volume v then
we can write,

where is the volume charge density and V represents the potential function.

Since, , we can write

....

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Derive an expression for the energy stored in an Dec 2004 10
electric field Jun 2011
Q.2 Derive an expression for energy density of stored Jun 2005 10
energy field and from it how much energy is
stored in a parallel plate capacitor.

CURRENT DENSITY, CONDUCTION & CONVECTION CURRENT DENSITY

OHMS LAW IN POINT FORM,
Unit-02/Lecture-08
 47

Current Density and Ohm's Law:

In our earlier discussion we have mentioned that, conductors have free electrons that
move randomly under thermal agitation. In the absence of an external electric field, the
average thermal velocity on a microscopic scale is zero and so is the net current in the
conductor. Under the influence of an applied field, additional velocity is superimposed on
the random velocities. While the external field accelerates the electron in a direction
opposite to it, the collision with atomic lattice however provide the frictional mechanism
by which the electrons lose some of the momentum gained between the collisions. As a
result, the electrons move with some average drift velocity . This drift velocity can be
related to the applied electric field by the relationship

.
where is the average time between the collisions.

The quantity i.e., the the drift velocity per unit applied field is called the mobility of
electrons and denoted by .

Thus , e is the magnitude of the electronic charge and , as the electron

drifts opposite to the applied field.
Let us consider a conductor under the influence of an external electric field. If
represents the number of electrons per unit volume, then the charge crossing an area
that is normal to the direction of the drift velocity is given by:
.
This flow of charge constitutes a current across , which is given by,

The conduction current density can therefore be expressed as

where is called the conductivity. In vector form, we can write,

The above equation is the alternate way of expressing Ohm's law and this relationship is
valid at a point.

Convection current occurs in insulators or dielectrics such as liquid, vacuum and

rarified gas. Convection current results from motion of electrons or ions in an insulating
medium. Since convection current doesn’t involve conductors, hence it does not satisfy
ohm’s law.
 48

For semiconductor material, current flow is both due to electrons and holes
(however in practice, it the electron which moves), we can write

and are respectively the density and mobility of holes.

The point form Ohm's law can be used to derive the form of Ohm's law used in circuit
theory relating the current through a conductor to the voltage across the conductor.
For the conductor under consideration we can write,
V = EL
Considering the current to be uniformly distributed,

From the above two equations,

.
Therefore,

Current Density
The current density is a measured in amperes per square meter represented by J. The
increment of current crossing an incremental surface to the current density is expressed
as.
∆ I =Jn ∆ S
In the case where the current density is not perpendicular to the surface. Then the above
expression becomes as,
∆ I =Jn ∆ S
The total current I is obtained by integrating the above expression as,
I = ∫J∆S
The current density may be related to the velocity of volume charge density at a point.
We consider the element of charge∆ Q=ρv ∆ S.
Let us assume that the charge element is oriented with its edges parallel to the
coordinate axes and that it possess only an x component of velocity. In the time interval
∆ tthe element of charge has moved a charge ∆ Q=ρv ∆ S ∆ xthrough a reference plane
perpendicular to the direction of motion in a time increment of ∆ t and the resultant value
of current is expressed as
∆Q ∆x
∆ t= = ρ∆ S
∆t ∆t

As we take the limit w.r.t. time we obtain

∆ I = ρv ∆ S Ux
where Ux represents the x component of the velocity U. In terms of current density, we
obtain
 49

Jx =ρv Ux
It is obvious that charge in motion constitutes a current. This type of current is called
convention current and ρv U is the convention current

Conduction Current
The conduction current is of prime importance that occurs in the presence of an electric
field within a conductor of fixed cross section. The current density again obtained as
J=ρv U (A/m2 )
which in view of the relation U = μ E and it can be written in the form as ,J=σE
If the cross section of v varies or if the density is not constant throughout volume then the
current density J will not be constant with time. When the last portion of the volume
crosses surface S then the current density J will be zero.

Ohm’s law in point form

From the ohm’s law the current through the conductor is obtained by the expression
V
I = Ampere
R
where V= potential across ends of block
R = Resistance of block in ohms.
The current I is equal to the current density J (A/m2) times the cross sectional area A of
the block. Thus we can write the expression as
I = JA
W
Since R=
σA
V=Ew
On substituting values from equations we obtain
E wσ A
J= Amperes/ m2
wA
It can be equivalent written as
J=σE
Above equation shows the ohm’s law in point forms.
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Define Current density. Derive expression of Dec 2011 10
conduction density and convention current
density.
Q2 What are conduction current density and Dec 2009 10
convention current density? Explain with the
help of suitable example.

BEHAVIOR OF CONDUCTORS IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

 50

Unit-02/Lecture-09

Introduction

Behaviour of Conductor in Electrostatic Field

In electrostatics, the surface and volume of a conductor are equipotential.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain the flow of charges in a lossy conductive Jun 2008 10
medium
Q.2 Explain the flow of charge in a conductive media. Dec2007 7
 51

REFERENCE BOOKS:

PUBLISHER /
SNo TITLE AUTHOR PRIORITY
EDITION
Mathew N.O Oxford University
1. Elements of Electromagnetic 1
Sadiku Press
TMH.
2. Engineering Electromagnetic William H. Hayt 2
 52

UNIT-3

STATIC MAGNETIC FIELD, BIOT-SAVART’S LAW,

Unit-03/Lecture-01
Static Magnetic Field
 53

A magnetic field is the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic

materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a
magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field.[nb 1] The term is used for two distinct
but closely related fields denoted by the symbols B and H, which are measured in units of
tesla and amp per meter respectively in the SI. B is most commonly defined in terms of
the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges.
Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic
moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, their
spin.[1][2] In special relativity, electric and magnetic fields are two interrelated aspects of a
single object, called the electromagnetic tensor; the split of this tensor into electric and
magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity of the observer and charge. In quantum
physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result
from the exchange of photons.
The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the
discipline of magnetic circuits.

Fig. 1 Magnetic field of an ideal cylindrical magnet with its axis of symmetry inside the
image plane. The magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines, which show the
direction of the field at different points.
Definitions, units, and measurement
Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is
known from experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E
experiences a force F = qE. However, in other situations, such as when a charged particle
moves in the vicinity of a current-carrying wire, the force also depends on the velocity of
that particle. Fortunately, the velocity dependent portion can be separated out such that
the force on the particle satisfies the Lorentz force law,

Here v is the particle's velocity and × denotes the cross product. The vector B is termed
the magnetic field, and it is defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz
force law correctly describe the motion of a charged particle.

Biot–Savart law [RGPV/ DEC2010/10] [RGPV/JUN2009/8]

In physics, particularly electromagnetism, the Biot–Savart law is an equation describing
the magnetic field generated by an electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the
magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The law is valid in the
 54

magnetostatic approximation, and is consistent with both Ampère's circuital law and
Gauss's law for magnetism. It is named for Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart who
discovered this relationship in 1820.

Equation
Electric currents (along closed curve)
The Biot–Savart law is used for computing the resultant magnetic field B at position r
generated by a steady current I (for example due to a wire): a continual flow of charges
which is constant in time and the charge neither accumulates nor depletes at any point.
The law is a physical example of a line integral: evaluated over the path C the electric
currents flow. The equation in SI units is

where r is the full displacement vector from the wire element to the point at which the
field is being computed and is the unit vector of r. Using , the equation can be
equivalently written as:

where dl is a vector whose magnitude is the length of the differential element of the
wire, in the direction of conventional current, and μ0 is the magnetic constant. The
symbols in boldface denote vector quantities.
The integral is usually around a closed curve, since electric currents can only flow around
closed paths.

Electric currents (throughout conductor volume)

The formulations given above work well when the current can be approximated as
running through an infinitely-narrow wire. If the current has some thickness, the proper
formulation of the Biot–Savart law (again in SI units) is:

or equivalently

where dV is the differential element of volume and J is the current density vector in that
volume.
In this case the integral is over the volume of the conductor.
The Biot–Savart law is fundamental to magnetostatics, playing a similar role to Coulomb's
law in electrostatics.
 55

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 State and elaborate Biot-Savart law. Dec2009 10
June 2010 8
Derive an expression for magnetic field of Dec 2010 10
current carrying loop.

Q.2 State Biot’s savart law June 2011 3

Magnetic Field intensity due to straight current carrying filament, circular,

square and solenoid current
Unit-3/Lecture-02
[RGPV/Jun2011/7]
 56

Let us apply to determine the field due to a straight current carrying filamentary
conductor of finite length AB as in Figure 7.5. We assume that the conductor is along the
z-axis with its upper and lower ends respectively subtending angles a2 and a} at P, the
point at which H is to be determined. Particular note should be taken of this assumption
as the formula to be derived will have to be applied accordingly. If we consider
the contribution dH at P due to an element dl at (0, 0, z),

Fig2 Current distributions: (a) line current, (b) surface

Current, (c) volume current.

Letting z = p cot a, dz — -p cosec2 a da, and eq. becomes

This expression is generally applicable for any straight filamentary conductor of finite
Length. Notice from eq. that H is always along the unit vector a^ (i.e., along concentric
circular paths) irrespective of the length of the wire or the point of interest P. As a special
case, when the conductor is semiinfinite (with respect to P).
 57

Another special case is when the conductor is infinite in length. For this case, point A is at
(0, 0, -oo) while B is at (0, 0, °°); a, = 180°, a2 = 0°

Fig3 Field at point P due to a straight filamentary Fig 4The magnetic field of a
long straight conductor straight current
carrying wire

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Calculate the magnetic flux density produced by June 2011 7
an infinite thin long wire carrying current ‘I’ at a
distance R.
Q.2 Calculate the magnetic flux density produced by Dec 2011 10
an infinite thin long wire carrying current I at a
distance R.

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW IN POINT FORM

Unit-3/Lecture-03
[RGPV/DEC2004/DEC2009/10]
Statement: “Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field
(circulation of H ) around a closed path is the net current enclosed by this path.
Mathematically,
 58

                                          

The total current I enc can be written as,  
               

                                                                       
By applying Stoke's theorem, we can write

                                          

                                          
which is the Ampere's law in the point form.

Ampere's Circuital Law:

Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field (circulation of
H ) around a closed path is the net current enclosed by this path. Mathematically,

.
The total current I enc can be written as,

By applying Stoke's theorem, we can write

which is the Ampere's law in the point form.

Integral form
In SI units (cgs units are later), the "integral form" of the original Ampère's circuital law is
a line integral of the magnetic field around some closed curve C (arbitrary but must be
closed). The curve C in turn bounds both a surface S which the electric current passes
through (again arbitrary but not closed—since no three-dimensional volume is enclosed
by S), and encloses the current. The mathematical statement of the law is a relation
between the total amount of magnetic field around some path (line integral) due to the
 59

current which passes through that enclosed path (surface integral). It can be written in a
number of forms.[2][3]
In terms of total current, which includes both free and bound current, the line integral of
the magnetic B-field (in tesla, T) around closed curve C is proportional to the total current
Ienc passing through a surface S (enclosed by C):

where J is the total current density (in ampere per square metre, Am−2).
Alternatively in terms of free current, the line integral of the magnetic H-field (in ampere
per metre, Am−1) around closed curve C equals the free current If, enc through a surface S:

where Jf is the free current density only. Furthermore

 is the closed line integral around the closed curve C,
 denotes a 2d surface integral over S enclosed by C
 • is the vector dot product,
 dℓ is an infinitesimal element (a differential) of the curve C (i.e. a vector with
magnitude equal to the length of the infinitesimal line element, and direction
given by the tangent to the curve C)
 dS is the vector area of an infinitesimal element of surface S (that is, a vector with
magnitude equal to the area of the infinitesimal surface element, and direction
normal to surface S. The direction of the normal must correspond with the
orientation of C by the right hand rule), see below for further explanation of the
curve C and surface S.
The B and H fields are related by the constitutive equation

where μ0 is the magnetic constant.

There are a number of ambiguities in the above definitions that require clarification and a choice
of convention.
1. First, three of these terms are associated with sign ambiguities: the line integral could
go around the loop in either direction (clockwise or counterclockwise); the vector area dS
could point in either of the two directions normal to the surface; and Ienc is the net current
passing through the surface S, meaning the current passing through in one direction,
minus the current in the other direction—but either direction could be chosen as positive.
These ambiguities are resolved by the right-hand rule: With the palm of the right-hand
toward the area of integration, and the index-finger pointing along the direction of line-
integration, the outstretched thumb points in the direction that must be chosen for the
vector area dS. Also the current passing in the same direction as dS must be counted as
positive. The right hand grip rule can also be used to determine the signs.
2. Second, there are infinitely many possible surfaces S that have the curve C as their border.
(Imagine a soap film on a wire loop, which can be deformed by moving the wire). Which
of those surfaces is to be chosen? If the loop does not lie in a single plane, for example,
there is no one obvious choice. The answer is that it does not matter; it can be proven
that any surface with boundary C can be chosen.
 60

Differential form
By the Stokes' theorem, this equation can also be written in a "differential form". Again, this
equation only applies in the case where the electric field is constant in time, meaning the currents
are steady (time-independent, else the magnetic field would change with time); see below for the
more general form. In SI units, the equation states for total current:

and for free current

where ∇× is the curl operator.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 State and prove Ampere’s Circuital law. What Dec 2004 7
are the applications of this law? Dec 2009 10

Q.2 Using Ampere’s circuital law find the magnetic Jun 2009 10
field intensity produced by an infinitely long
filament carrying current I in the +z direction.
Q.3 Jun 2012 10
If plane z=0 carries uniform current k = ky ay,
obtain the expression for H using Ampere’s law.
Q.4 Explain Amper’s circuital law Jun 2014 3
 61

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Unit-3/Lecture-04
[RGPV/DEC2004/DEC2009/10]

Applications of Ampere's law:

1) Magnetic field intensity due to infinite sheet
We compute magnetic field due to an infinitely long thin current carrying conductor as
shown in Fig.. Using Ampere's Law, we consider the close path to be a circle of radius as
shown in the Fig.
If we consider a small current element , is perpendicular to the plane

containing both and . Therefore only component of that will be present

is ,i.e., .

By applying Ampere's law we can write,

Therefore, which is same as equation

Fig5 Magnetic field due to an infinite thin current carrying conductor

We consider the cross section of an infinitely long coaxial conductor, the inner
conductor carrying a current I and outer conductor carrying current - I as shown in figure.
We compute the magnetic field as a function of as follows:
In the region

.
 62

.
In the region

...

2) Magnetic field intensity due to Co –axial cable

We consider the cross section of an infinitely long coaxial conductor, the inner conductor
carrying a current I and outer conductor carrying current - I as shown in figure 4.6. We
compute the magnetic field as a function of as follows:

In the region

....

...
In the region   

 ...

.no. RGPV QUESTIONS YEAR MARKS

Q.1 Calculate the magnetic flux density produced by a Jun 2013 7

current loop of radius RR on the loop axis when
the loop is carrying current I and situated in air.
Q.2 A circu;ar loop of radius b in xy plane carries Jun 2014 7
current I Obtain expression for the magnetic flux
density at a point on the positive z axis.

MAGNETIC DIPOLE & DIPOLE MOMENT, A DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT LOOP AS

 63

DIPOLE
Unit-3/Lecture-05
The magnetic moment of a magnet is a quantity that determines the torque it will
experience in an external magnetic field. A loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an
electron, a molecule, and a planet all have magnetic moments.
The magnetic moment may be considered to be a vector having a magnitude and
direction. The direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to north pole of
the magnet. The magnetic field produced by the magnet is proportional to its magnetic
moment. More precisely, the term magnetic moment normally refers to a system's
magnetic dipole moment, which produces the first term in the multipole expansion of a
general magnetic field. The dipole component of an object's magnetic field is symmetric
about the direction of its magnetic dipole moment, and decreases as the inverse cube of
the distance from the object.
The magnetic moment is defined as a vector relating the aligning torque on the object
from an externally applied magnetic field to the field vector itself. The relationship is
given by

where is the torque acting on the dipole and is the external magnetic field, and is
the magnetic moment.
This definition is based on how one would measure the magnetic moment, in principle, of
an unknown sample.

Magnetic dipoles
A magnetic dipole is the limit of either a current loop or a pair of poles as the
dimensions of the source are reduced to zero while keeping the moment constant. As
long as these limits only apply to fields far from the sources, they are equivalent.
However, the two models give different predictions for the internal field (see below).
External magnetic field produced by a magnetic dipole moment

Fig6 Magnetic field lines around a "magnetostatic dipole" the magnetic dipole itself is in
the center and is seen from the side.
 64

Magnetic field lines around a "magnetostatic dipole" the magnetic dipole itself is in the
center and is seen from the side.
Any system possessing a net magnetic dipole moment m will produce a dipolar magnetic
field (described below) in the space surrounding the system. While the net magnetic field
produced by the system can also have higher-order multipole components, those will
drop off with distance more rapidly, so that only the dipolar component will dominate the
magnetic field of the system at distances far away from it.
The vector potential of magnetic field produced by magnetic moment m is

and magnetic flux density is

Alternatively one can obtain the scalar potential first from the magnetic pole perspective,

and hence magnetic field strength is

The magnetic field of an ideal magnetic dipole is depicted on the lef

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Define magnetic dipole dipole moment establish June 2005 5
the relation between magnetic flux magnetic
field intensity and magnetization vector.
Define magnetic dipole moment magnetization Jun 2005 10
Q.2 vector.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAGNETIC FLUX, FLUX DENSITY & MAGNETIC

FIELD INTENSITY
Unit-3/Lecture-06
 65

Magnetic Flux Density:

In simple matter, the magnetic flux density related to the magnetic field intensity as
where called the permeability. In particular when we consider the free space
where H/m is the permeability of the free space. Magnetic flux
density is measured in terms of Wb/m 2 .
The magnetic flux density through a surface is given by:

    Wb      .    

In the case of electrostatic field, we have seen that if the surface is a closed surface, the
net flux passing through the surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface. In case
of magnetic field isolated magnetic charge (i. e. pole) does not exist. Magnetic poles
always occur in pair (as N-S). For example, if we desire to have an isolated magnetic pole
by dividing the magnetic bar successively into two, we end up with pieces each having
north (N) and south (S) pole as shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). This process could be continued until
the magnets are of atomic dimensions; still we will have N-S pair occurring together. This
means that the magnetic poles cannot be isolated.   

Fig 7 a) Subdivision of a magnet (b) Magnetic field/ flux lines of a straight current carrying
conductor

Similarly if we consider the field/flux lines of a current carrying conductor as shown in Fig. 4.7 (b), we find tha
these lines are closed lines, that is, if we consider a closed surface, the number of flux lines that would leave
surface would be same as the number of flux lines that would enter the surface.

From our discussions above, it is evident that for magnetic field,

..
which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field.

By applying divergence theorem, we can write:

 66

  
Hence,                                         .    
which is the Gauss's law for the magnetic field in point form.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Establish the relation between magnetic flux June 2005 7
magnetic field intensity and magnetization Dec 2006
vector.
Q.2 Write a short note on magnetic flux density Jun 2003 5

TORQUES ON CURRENT CARRYING LOOPS IN MAGNETIC FIELD.

Unit-3/Lecture-07

Torque on a current carrying rectangular loop in a magnetic field

 Consider a rectangular loop ABCD being suspended in a uniform magnetic field B

 67

and direction of B is paralle to the plane of the coil as shown below in the figure

Magnitude of force on side AM according to the equation(13) is

FAB=IhB ( angle between I and B is 900)
And direction of force as calculated from the right hand palm rule would be
normal to the paper in the upwards direction
 Similarly magnitude of force on CD is
FCD=ihB and direction of FCD is normal to the page but in the downwards direction
going into the page The forces FAB and FCD are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction and hence they constitute a couple
 Torque τexerted by this couple on rectangular loop is
τ=IhlB Since torque = one of the force * perpendicular distance between them
 No force acts on the side BC since current element makes an angle θ=0 with B due
to which the product (ILXB) becomes equal to zero. Similary on the side DA ,no
magnetic force acts since current element makes an angle θ=180 0 with B
 Thus total torque on rectangular current loop is τ=IhlB =IAB                   -
Where A=hl is the area of the loop
 If the coil having N rectangular loop is placed in magnetic field then torque is given
by τ=NIAB                  
 Again if the normal to the plane of coil makes an angle θ with the uniform
magnetic field as shown below in the figure then
 68

τ=NIABsinθ
 We know that when an electric dipole is placed in external electric field then
torque experienced by the dipole is
τ=P X E=PEsinθ
Where P is the electric dipole moment comparing expression for torque
experienced by electric dipole with the expression for torque on a current loop i.e
τ=(NIA)Bsinθ
if we take NIA as magnetic dipole moment (m) analogus to electric dipole moment
(p),we have m=NIA                  
then
τ=m X B                  
 The coil thus behaves as a magnetic dipole The direction of magnetic dipole
moment lies along the axis of the loop This torque tends to rotate the coil about
its own axis .Its value changes with angle between the plane of the coil and the
direction of the magnetic field Unit of magnetic moment is Ampere.meter 2 (Am2)

Equations are obtained by comsidering a rectangular loop but thes equations are valid
for plane loops of any shape

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Write short note on magnetic torque Jun 2014 7

LORENTZ FORCE ON STRAIGHT AND LONG CURRENT

CARRYING CONDUCTORS IN MAGNETIC FIELD
Unit-3/Lecture-08
Magnetism is the force that moving charges exert on one another. This formal definition
is based on this simple formula.
 69

FB = q v × B
Recall that electricity is (in essence) the force that charges exert on one another. Since
this force exists whether or not the charges are moving, it is sometimes called the
electrostatic force. Magnetism could be said to be an electrodynamic force, but it rarely
is. The combination of electric and magnetic forces on a charged object is known as the
Lorentz force.
F = q(E + v × B)
For large amounts of charge …
FB = q v × B
   
Dx dq
FB = q × B = ℓ × B
Dt dt
 
FB = I  ℓ × B
the Lorentz force is the combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due
to electromagnetic fields. If a particle of charge q moves with velocity v in the presence of
an electric field E and a magnetic field B, then it will experience a force. For any produced
force there will be an opposite reactive force. In the case of the magnetic field, the
reactive force may be obscure, but it must be accounted for.

Force on a current-carrying wire

Fig8 Right-hand rule for a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field B

When a wire carrying an electrical current is placed in a magnetic field, each of the
moving charges, which comprise the current, experiences the Lorentz force, and together
they can create a macroscopic force on the wire (sometimes called the Laplace force[citation
needed]
). By combining the Lorentz force law above with the definition of electrical current,
the following equation results, in the case of a straight, stationary wire:

where ℓ is a vector whose magnitude is the length of wire, and whose direction is along
the wire, aligned with the direction of conventional current flow I.
If the wire is not straight but curved, the force on it can be computed by applying this
formula to each infinitesimal segment of wire dℓ, then adding up all these forces by
integration. Formally, the net force on a stationary, rigid wire carrying a steady current I is
 70

This is the net force. In addition, there will usually be torque, plus other effects if the wire
is not perfectly rigid.
One application of this is Ampère's force law, which describes how two current-carrying
wires can attract or repel each other, since each experiences a Lorentz force from the
other's magnetic field. For more information, see the article: Ampère's force law.

Significance of the Lorentz force

While the modern Maxwell's equations describe how electrically charged particles and
currents or moving charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic fields, the Lorentz
force law completes that picture by describing the force acting on a moving point charge
q in the presence of electromagnetic fields. The Lorentz force law describes the effect of E
and B upon a point charge, but such electromagnetic forces are not the entire picture.
Charged particles are possibly coupled to other forces, notably gravity and nuclear forces.
Thus, Maxwell's equations do not stand separate from other physical laws, but are
coupled to them via the charge and current densities. The response of a point charge to
the Lorentz law is one aspect; the generation of E and B by currents and charges is
another.
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Derive an expression for Lorentz force on Dec2011 7
straight and long current carrying conductors in
magnetic field.
Q.2 Write Lorentz’s force equation Jun 2011 5

Q.3 A wire 2.5 m long is bent: Jun 2011 7

(i) Into a square
(ii) Into a circle
If a current flowing through wire is 100 amp, find
the magnetizing force at the centre of square
and the centre of the circle.
Q.4 Two long parallel wires separated 2 meters apart Dec 2013 7
carry currents of 50 A and 100 A respectively in
the same direction. Determine the magnitude
and direction of force between them oer unit
length

MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Unit-3/Lecture-09
Boundary Condition for Magnetic Fields:
Similar to the boundary conditions in the electro static fields, here we will consider the
 71

behavior of and at the interface of two different media. In particular, we determine

how the tangential and normal components of magnetic fields behave at the boundary of
two regions having different permeabilities.

The figure shows the interface between two media having permeabities and ,
being the normal vector from medium 2 to medium 1.

Fig9 Interface between two magnetic media

To determine the condition for the normal component of the flux density vector , we
consider a small pill box P with vanishingly small thickness h and having an elementary
area for the faces. Over the pill box, we can write
                                                
Since h --> 0, we can neglect the flux through the sidewall of the pill box.                            
                                                

                                                 and

                                                

where

                                                and
Since is small, we can write
                               

or,                                

That is, the normal component of the magnetic flux density vector is continuous across
the interface.
In vector form,

                               

To determine the condition for the tangential component for the magnetic field, we
 72

consider a closed path C as shown in figure 4.8. By applying Ampere's law we can write
                               
Since h -->0,
                                                  

We have shown in figure 4.8, a set of three unit vectors , and such that they

satisfy (R.H. rule). Here is tangential to the interface and is the vector
perpendicular to the surface enclosed by C at the interface.
he above equation can be written as

                                                

or,                                                            
    i.e., tangential component of magnetic field component is discontinuous across the
interface where a free surface current exists.                            
If Js = 0, the tangential magnetic field is also continuous. If one of the medium is a perfect
conductor Js exists on the surface of the perfect conductor.
In vector form we can write,

  
                                          

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Discuss the nature of magnetic field at the June 2004 7
interface of two dielectric materials. Dec 2005 10
Q.2 Show that at a boundary between two dielectrics Dec 2011 10
the tangential component E and normal
component of D must be continuous.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

PUBLISHER /
SNo TITLE AUTHOR PRIORITY
EDITION
 73

Mathew N.O Oxford University

1. Elements of Electromagnetic 1
Sadiku Press
TMH.
2. Engineering Electromagnetic William H. Hayt 2

3. Electromagnetic Fields; P.V. Gupta; Dhanpat Rai. 3

 74

UNIT-4

SCALAR & VECTOR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL AND ITS PROPERTIES

Unit-4/Lecture-1
Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials:[RGPV/JUN2011/10]
In studying electric field problems, we introduced the concept of electric potential that
simplified the computation of electric fields for certain types of problems. In the same manner
let us relate the magnetic field intensity to a scalar magnetic potential and write:
 75

.
From Ampere's law , we know that
.

Therefore,

But using vector identity, we find that is valid only where . Thus
the scalar magnetic potential is defined only in the region where . Moreover, Vm in general
is not a single valued function of position
This point can be illustrated as follows. Let us consider the cross section of a coaxial line as
shown in fig 4.8.

In the region ,    and

Fig1Cross Section of a Coaxial Line

If Vm is the magnetic potential then,

If we set Vm = 0 at then c=0 and

 76

We observe that as we make a complete lap around the current carrying conductor , we reach
again but Vm this time becomes

We observe that value of Vm keeps changing as we complete additional laps to pass through the
same point. We introduced Vm analogous to electrostatic potential V. But for static electric

fields, and , whereas for steady magnetic field wherever

but even if along the path of integration.

 We now introduce the vector magnetic potential which can be used in regions where current
density may be zero or nonzero and the same can be easily extended to time varying cases. The
use of vector magnetic potential provides elegant ways of solving EM field problems.

Since and we have the vector identity that for any vector , , we can write
.

Here, the vector field is called the vector magnetic potential. Its SI unit is Wb/m. Thus if can
find of a given current distribution, can be found from through a curl operation.

We have introduced the vector function and related its curl to . A vector function is defined
fully in terms of its curl as well as divergence. The choice of is made as follows.

By using vector identity,

                                

respectively
The magnetic flux through a given area S is given by        
 77

                                               

Substituting       
           

                               

Vector potential thus have the physical significance that its integral around any closed path is
equal to the magnetic flux passing through that path.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Derive the expression for magnetic scalar and June 2012 7
vector potentials.
What is the relation between vector magnetic Jun 2011 10
Q.2 potential A and the magnetic flux through a
given area.
Q.3 Define scalar magnetic potential, vector Dec 2009 10
magnetic potential, self and mutual inductance.
Q.4 What is the difference between magnetic vector Jun 2014 3
potential and magnetic scalar potential

SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTION DUE TO SOLENOID

Unit-4/Lecture-2
Inductance and Inductor:
Resistance, capacitance and inductance are the three familiar parameters from circuit theory.
We have already discussed about the parameters resistance and capacitance in the earlier
chapters. In this section, we discuss about the parameter inductance. Before we start our
discussion, let us first introduce the concept of flux linkage. If in a coil with N closely wound
turns around where a current I produces a flux and this flux links or encircles each of the N
turns, the flux linkage is defined as . In a linear medium, where the flux is
 78

proportional to the current, we define the self inductance L as the ratio of the total flux linkage
to the current which they link.
 

i.e.,           
o further illustrate the concept of inductance, let us consider two closed loops C 1 and C2 as
shown in the figure 4.10, S1 and S2 are respectively the areas of C1 and C2 .

Fig2 mutual inductance due to two coils

If a current I1 flows in C1 , the magnetic flux B1 will be created part of which will be linked to C2
as shown in Figure 4.10.

In a linear medium, is proportional to I 1. Therefore, we can write

       
where L12 is the mutual inductance. For a more general case, if C2 has N2 turns then

       

and     

or           
i.e., the mutual inductance can be defined as the ratio of the total flux linkage of the second
circuit to the current flowing in the first circuit.
As we have already stated, the magnetic flux produced in C1 gets linked to itself and if C1 has N1
turns then , where is the flux linkage per turn.
Therefore, self inductance.

  =      
As some of the flux produced by I1 links only to C1 & not C2.
                      
 79

Further in general, in a linear medium, and

Inductance per unit length of a very long solenoid:

Let us consider a solenoid having n turns/unit length and carrying a current I.
The solenoid is air cored.

Fig3 A long current carrying solenoid

The magnetic flux density inside such a long solenoid can be calculated as

                                                                  
where the magnetic field is along the axis of the solenoid.
If S is the area of cross section of the solenoid then
                                                            
The flux linkage per unit length of the solenoid
                                                            
  The inductance per unit length of the solenoid    

                                                                    

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Derive an expression for magnetic field at a point June 2011 10
on the axis of a current carrying solenoid of
radius R and N turns/ meter.

Q.2

SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTION DUE TO TOROID, MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

BETWEEN A STRAIGHT LONG WIRE & A SQUARE LOOP
Unit-4/Lecture-3

Inductance of an N turn toroid carrying a filamentary current I.

 80

Fig4 N turn toroid carrying filamentary current I

Magnetic flux density inside the toroid is given by

                                                                .
Let the inner radius is 'a' and outer radius is 'b'. Let the cross section area 'S' is small compared
to the mean radius of the toroid

Then total flux

    
and flux linkage

       
The inductance

Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance can be defined as the ratio of the total flux linkage of the second
circuit to the current flowing in the first circuit.
As we have already stated, the magnetic flux produced in C1 gets linked to itself and if C1 has N1
turns then , where is the flux linkage per turn.
 81

Fig5 Changing current in coil 1 produces changing magnetic flux in coil 2

Therefore, self inductance

  =      
As some of the flux produced by I1 links only to C1 & not C2.
                      

Further in general, in a linear medium, and

If a current I1 flows in C1 , the magnetic flux B1 will be created part of which will be linked to C2
as shown in Figure 4.10.

In a linear medium, is proportional to I 1. Therefore, we can write

       
where L12 is the mutual inductance. For a more general case, if C2 has N2 turns then
       

and      Or         

A rectangular loop near a wire carrying current i1, and N2 =N1= 1 We take the loop to have
its long sides, of length l2 , parallel to a long straight wire carrying current I1. The side which is
closest to the wire is distance from the wire. The short sides have length b1, and the normal to
the loop.
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Determine the mutual inductance between Dec 2011 7
straight long wire and a square loop.

Q,2 Determine the self inductance of toroid coils. Dec 2010 10

 82

ENERGY STORED IN MAGNETIC FIELD & ENERGY DENSITY

Unit-4/Lecture-4
Energy stored in Magnetic Field:
So far we have discussed the inductance in static forms. In earlier chapter we discussed
the fact that work is required to be expended to assemble a group of charges and this
work is stated as electric energy. In the same manner energy needs to be expended in
sending currents through coils and it is stored as magnetic energy. Let us consider a
scenario where we consider a coil in which the current is increased from 0 to a value I. As
mentioned earlier, the self inductance of a coil in general can be written as

or      

If we consider a time varying scenario,

       

We will later see that is an induced voltage

                                 .                      

                                       &   (Joule)

which is the energy stored in the magnetic circuit.
We can also express the energy stored in the coil in term of field quantities.

         is the voltage drop that appears across the coil and thus voltage opposes
the change of current. Therefore in order to maintain the increase of current, the electric
source must do an work against this induced voltage.                        
For linear magnetic circuit  

                                                      

Now,                                                 
where A is the area of cross section of the coil. If l is the length of the coil
                                              

                                                            
Al is the volume of the coil.
 83

Therefore the magnetic energy density i.e., magnetic energy/unit volume is given by

                                            

In vector form

J/mt3 

is the energy density in the magnetic field.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Derive an expression for the energy stored in the June 7
magnetic field of a coil possessing an inductance 2008,2011 10
L henry when the current in the coil is 1 amps.
Q.2 Derive an expression for the energy stored in a Jun 2003 20
magnetic field

FARADAY’S LAW, TRANSFORMER & MOTIONAL EMFS

Unit-4/Lecture-5
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how magnetic
field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF)—a
phenomenon called electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle
of transformers, inductors, and many types f electrical motors, generators and solenoids.
Statement
The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux through the circuit.

where   is the electromotive force (EMF) and ΦB is the magnetic flux. The direction of the
electromotive force is given by Lenz's law.
N is the number of turns of wire and ΦB is the magnetic flux through a single loop
 84

Fig6 A diagram of Faraday's iron ring apparatus. Change in the magnetic flux of the left coil
induces a current in the right coil.
Maxwell–Faraday equation
The Maxwell–Faraday equation is a generalization of Faraday's law that states that a time-
varying magnetic field is always accompanied by a spatially-varying, non-conservative electric
field, and vice-versa. The Maxwell–Faraday equation is

where   is the curl operator 

Motional EMF
Motion in a magnetic field that is stationary relative to the Earth induces motional EMF
(electromotive force).
Electromotive force (emf) can be obtained through the following ways:
1. A time-varying flux linking a stationary closed path. (i.e.Transformer)
2. Relative motion between a steady flux and a close path. (i.e. D.C. Generator)
3. A combination of the two above, both flux changing and conductor moving simultaneously. A
closed path may consist of a conductor, a capacitor or an imaginary line.

Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field

A wire with length l moving across a static magnetic field at a constant velocity u (points to x)
Magnetic force Fm acting on any charged particle any charged particle “q” moving with velocity
u is

This Fm is equivalent to the electrical force that would be exerted o the particle by an
electric field Em given by

The electric field Em generated by the the charged particle is called a Motional electric field. In
general, if any segment of a closed circuit with contour C moves with a velocity u across a static
magnetic field B, then the induced motional emf is:
 85

Fig 7 magnetic field produced due to motional emf

Stationary Loop in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field

A single-turn (N =1), conducting loop is placed in a time-varying magnetic field B(t).
Since the loop is stationary, d/dt operates on B(t) only

Transformer EMF

We have said that non zero can be produced in a several ways. One particular case is when
a time varying flux linking a stationary closed path induces an emf. The emf induced in a
stationary closed path by a time varying magnetic field is called a transformer emf.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Write short note on Faraday’s law Dec 2006 10
Q.2 Explain Faraday’s law. Explain the transformer Dec 2009 10
induction emf and motional emf.

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
Unit-4/Lecture-6
Definition
In electromagnetism, displacement current is a quantity appearing in Maxwell's
equations that is defined in terms of the rate of change of electric displacement field.
Displacement current has the units of electric current density, and it has an
associated magnetic field just as actual currents do. However it is not an electric current of
moving charges, but a time-varying electric field. In materials, there is also a contribution from
the slight motion of charges bound in atoms, dielectric polarization
Let us apply the Ampere's Law for the Amperian loop shown in fig. Ienc = I is the total current
passing through the loop. But if we draw a baloon shaped surface as in fig no current passes
through this surface and hence Ienc = 0. But for non steady currents such as this one, the concept
of current enclosed by a loop is ill-defined since it depends on what surface you use. In fact
 86

Ampere's Law should also hold true for time varying case as well, then comes the idea of
displacement current which will be introduced in the next few slides.
We can write for time varying case,

                                 

                        
The equation is valid for static as well as for time varying case.
Equation indicates that a time varying electric field will give rise to a magnetic field even in the

absence of . The term has a dimension of current densities and is called the
displacement current density.

Introduction of in equation is one of the major contributions of Jame's Clerk Maxwell.

The modified set of equations

                       

                        
                                
                                 

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 What is displacement current? How id maxwell’s June 2006 10
equation modified to account for it in time
varying field?

Q.2 Derive an expression for displacement current. June 2012 7

Explain how it is different from conduction
current.
Q.3 Derive an expression for displacement current. Dec 2013 7
Explain how it is different than conduction
current.
 87

MAXWELL’S EQUATION IN FREE SPACE

Unit-4/Lecture-7
[RGPV/JUN2012/10]
Maxwell's equations are a set of partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz
force law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamics, classical optics, and electric circuits.
These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and communications technologies. Maxwell's
equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other
and by charges and currents. They are named after the Scottish physicist and mathematician
James Clerk Maxwell, who published an early form of those equations between 1861 and 1862.

Conventional formulation in SI units

                  
                        
 88

                          

In addition, from the principle of conservation of charges we get the equation of continuity

                                                                                        
We observe that
                                
Since is zero for any vector .

Thus applies only for the static case i.e., for the scenario when .
A classic example for this is given below.

Let us apply the Ampere's Law for the Amperian loop shown in fig. Ienc = I is the total current
passing through the loop. But if we draw a baloon shaped surface as in fig no current passes
through this surface and hence Ienc = 0. But for non steady currents such as this one, the concept
of current enclosed by a loop is ill-defined since it depends on what surface you use. In fact
Ampere's Law should also hold true for time varying case as well, then comes the idea of
displacement current which will be introduced in the next few slides.
We can write for time varying case,

                                 

                        
The equation is valid for static as well as for time varying case.
Equation indicates that a time varying electric field will give rise to a magnetic field even in the

absence of . The term has a dimension of current densities and is called the

displacement current density. Introduction of in equation is one of the major

contributions of Jame's Clerk Maxwell. The modified set of equations

                       

                        
                                
                                 
 89

is known as the Maxwell's equation and this set of equations apply in the time varying scenario,

static fields are being a particular case .

In the integral form

  

              

                                 
                             
The modification of Ampere's law by Maxwell has led to the development of a unified
electromagnetic field theory. By introducing the displacement current term, Maxwell could
predict the propagation of EM waves. Existence of EM waves was later demonstrated by Hertz
experimentally which led to the new era of radio communication.
S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 Write Maxwell’s equations in point form for time June 2005 7
varying fields and explain the meaning behind
them.
.2 Write down Maxwell’s equation in free space for Dec 2010 10
time varying fields in differential and integral
form.

MAXWELL’S EQUATION IN DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL FORM

Unit-4/Lecture-8
 90

Relationship between differential and integral formulations

The differential and integral formulations of the equations are mathematically equivalent,
by the divergence theorem in the case of Gauss's law and Gauss's law for magnetism, and by
the Kelvin–Stokes theorem in the case of Faraday's law and Ampère's law. Both the differential
and integral formulations are useful. The integral formulation can often be used to simply and
directly calculate fields from symmetric distributions of charges and currents. On the other
hand, the differential formulation is a more natural starting point for calculating the fields in
more complicated (less symmetric) situations, for example using finite element analysis.[2]
Flux and divergence
Closed volume Ω and its boundary ∂Ω, enclosing a source (+) and sink (−) of a vector field F.
Here, F could be the E field with source electric charges, but not the B field which has no
magnetic charges as shown. The outward unit normal is n.

The "fields emanating from the sources" can be inferred from the surface integrals of the fields
through the closed surface ∂Ω, defined as the electric flux and magnetic flux
, as well as their respective divergences ∇ · E and ∇ · B. These surface integrals and
divergences are connected by the divergence theorem.

Circulation and curl

Open surface Σ and boundary ∂Σ. F could be the E or B fields. Again, n is the unit normal. (The
curl of a vector field doesn't literally look like the "circulations", this is a heuristic depiction).
The "circulation of the fields" can be interpreted from the line integrals of the fields around the
closed curve ∂Σ:

where dℓ is the differential vector element of path length tangential to the path/curve, as well
as their curls:

These line integrals and curls are connected by Stokes' theorem, and are analogous to
quantities in classical fluid dynamics: the circulation of a fluid is the line integral of the fluid's
flow velocity field around a closed loop, and the velocity of the fluid is the curl of the velocity
field.

Time evolution
The "dynamics" or "time evolution of the fields" is due to the partial derivatives of the fields
with respect to time:

These derivatives are crucial for the prediction of field propagation in the form of
 91

electromagnetic waves. Since the surface is taken to be time-independent, we can make the
following transition in Faraday's law:

see differentiation under the integral sign for more on this result.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Write Maxwell’s equation in differential form Dec 2011 7
and derive its integral form from its differential Dec 2010
form.

Q,2 Write Maxwell’s equation integral form for time Jun 2006 10
varying fields and explain interpretation

MAXWELL’S EQUATION FOR HARMONICALLY VARYING FIELD, STATIC AND

STEADY FIELDS
Unit-4/Lecture-9
 92

Time Harmonic Fields :

So far, in discussing time varying electromagnetic fields, we have considered arbitrary time
dependence. The time dependence of the field quantities depends on the source functions. One
of the most important case of time varying electromagnetic field is the time harmonic
(sinusoidal or co sinusoidal) time variation where the excitation of the source varies sinusoidally
in time with a single frequency. For time-harmonic fields, phasor analysis can be applied to
obtain single frequency steady state response. Since Maxwell's equations are linear differential
equations, for source functions with arbitrary time dependence, electromagnetic fields can be
determined by superposition. Periodic time functions can be expanded into Fourier series of
harmonic sinusoidal components while transient non-periodic functions can be expressed as
Fourier integrals. Field vectors that vary with space coordinates and are sinusoidal function of
time can be represented in terms of vector phasors that depend on the space coordinates but
not on time. For time harmonic case, the general time variation is and for a cosine
reference, the instantaneous fields can be written as:

                
           
where is a vector phasor that contain the information on direction, magnitude and
phase. The phasors in general are complex quantities. All time harmonic filed components can
be written in this manner.
The time rate of change of can be written as:

    

Thus we find that if the electric field vector is represented in the phasor form as

can be represented by the phasor . The integral can be represented by th

phasor .

In the same manner, higher order derivatives and integrals with respect to t can be represented by multiplication
and division of the phasor by higher power of . Considering the field phasors and source
phasors in a simple linear isotropic medium, we can write the Maxwell's equations for time harmonic case
the phasor form as:
                                                   
               
 93

                               

Time-harmonic field is one that varies periodically or sinusoidally with time.• Any periodic field
can be expanded in terms of sinusoidal field by using Fourier transform.
Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Obtain the Maxwell’s equation for harmonically Dec 2011 7
varying field.
Q.2 Write Maxwell’s equations. How these are to be Dec 2009 10
modified in free space and harmonically varying
fields?

REFERENCE BOOKS:

PUBLISHER /
SNo TITLE AUTHOR PRIORITY
EDITION
Mathew N.O Oxford University
1. Elements of Electromagnetic 1
Sadiku Press
TMH.
2. Engineering Electromagnetic William H. Hayt 2

3. Electromagnetic Fields; P.V. Gupta; Dhanpat Rai. 3

 94

UNIT-V

ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES :

UNIFORM PLANE WAVE IN TIME DOMAIN IN FREE SPACE
Unit-5/Lecture-01
 In the previous chapter we introduced the equations pertaining to wave propagation and
discussed how the wave equations are modified for time harmonic case. In this chapter
we discuss in detail a particular form of electromagnetic wave propagation called 'plane
waves'.
 95

 The Helmhotz Equation:

    In source free linear isotropic medium, Maxwell equations in phasor form are

              

or,
or,
or, where

Plane waves in Lossless medium:

In a lossless medium, are real numbers, so k is real.
In Cartesian coordinates each of the equations 6.1(a) and 6.1(b) are equivalent to three
scalar Helmholtz's equations, one each in the components Ex, Ey and Ez or Hx , Hy, Hz.
For example if we consider Ex component we can write

A uniform plane wave is a particular solution of Maxwell's equation assuming electric field
(and magnetic field) has same magnitude and phase in infinite planes perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. It may be noted that in the strict sense a uniform plane
wave doesn't exist in practice as creation of such waves are possible with sources of
infinite extent. However, at large distances from the source, the wavefront or the surface
of the constant phase becomes almost spherical and a small portion of this large sphere
can be considered to plane. The characteristics of plane waves are simple and useful for
studying many practical scenarios.
Let us consider a plane wave which has only Ex component and propagating along z . Since
the plane wave will have no variation along the plane perpendicular to z i.e., xy plane,

. The Helmholtz's equation reduces to,

    The solution to this equation can be written as

 96

     are the amplitude constants (can be determined from boundary conditions).
In the time domain,

assuming are real constants.

Here, represents the forward traveling wave. The plot of
for several values of t is shown in the Figure 6.1.

Fig1 Plane wave travelling in Z direction

As can be seen from the figure, at successive times, the wave travels in the +z direction.
If we fix our attention on a particular point or phase on the wave (as shown by the dot)
i.e. , = constant
Then we see that as t is increased to , z also should increase to so that

Or,

Or,

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Write properties of Uniform plane waves. Derive June 2011 7
Helmholtz wave equation and write its general
solution in various coordinates system.

Q.2 Explain Loss tangent for any dielectric medium for Dec 2010 10
the propagation of Electromagnetic wave.
 97

Q.3 Given E= ay E1 sin (wt-βz) in free space find D,B Jun 2011 10
and H

WAVE EQUATION AND SOLUTION FOR MATERIAL MEDIUM

Unit-5/Lecture-02

The Helmhotz Equation:

    In source free linear isotropic medium, Maxwell equations in phasor form are
 98

              

or,
or,
or, where

Fig 2 E & H fields of a particular plane wave at time t.

Plane waves in a lossy medium :

In a lossy medium, the EM wave looses power as it propagates. Such a medium is
conducting with conductivity and we can write:

Where is called the complex permittivity

For a source free lossy medium we can write

.
 99

Where
Proceeding in the same manner we can write,

is called the propagation constant.

Solutions of Wave equation

The real and imaginary parts and of the propagation constant can be computed as
follows:

And

..

Similarly

Skin effect or Depth of penetration

Penetration depth is a measure of how deep light or any electromagnetic radiation can penetrate into a ma
It is defined as the depth at which the intensity of the radiation inside the material falls to 1/e (about 37%)
 100

original value at (or more properly, just beneath) the surface

According to Beer-Lambert law, the intensity of an electromagnetic wave inside a material falls off exponen
from the surface as

If denotes the penetration depth, we have

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Derive wave equation in terms of magnetic field June 2011 7

Q.2 Calculate the value of ,,,,p &  for a damp Dec 2010 7
soil at f=106 Hz. It is given that for damp soil, r
=12,  = 210-2 mhos/m, r=1.

Q.3 Given that E = ay 0.1 sin (10 πx) cos(6 π109 t – June 2011 7
βz) V /m, In air find H and β

q.4 Explain the skin depth Dec 2013 7

 101

UNIFORM PLANE WAVE IN DIELECTRICS AND CONDUCTORS

Unit-5/Lecture-03

Plane waves in a lossy medium :

In a lossy medium, the EM wave looses power as it propagates. Such a medium is
conducting with conductivity and we can write:

Where is called the complex permittivity

For a source free lossy medium we can write

Where
Proceeding in the same manner we can write,

is called the propagation constant.

Calculation of Loss Tangent

The ratio is called loss tangent as this quantity is a measure of the power loss.

where is the conduction current density and is displacement current density. The loss
tangent gives a measure of how much lossy is the medium under consideration. For a good
dielectric medium is very small and the medium is a good conductor if
 102

. A material may be a good conductor at low frequencies but behave as lossy

dielectric at higher frequencies.

Fig 3 Calculation of Loss tangent

Plane waves in a perfect conductor

Uniform plane wave in conductor is one when σ =∞
The wave equation for the conducting medium is

he propogation constant of the uniform plane wave in this medium is

separation of real and imaginary parts gives attenuation constant

And the Phase Constant

 103

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 For a non magnetic material having εr = 2.25, G = June 2009 10
10 -4 s/m find :
(1) Loss tangent
(2) Attenuation constant

Q.2 What is propagation constant for a dielectric Jun 2005 10

material medium? Discuss the attenuation
coefficient, wavelength and characteristics
impedance

POINTING VECTOR THEOREM,

Unit-5/Lecture-04

Poynting Vector and Power Flow in Electromagnetic Fields: RGPV/JUN2010/7]

Electromagnetic waves can transport energy from one point to another point. The electric
and magnetic field intensities associated with a travelling electromagnetic wave can be
related to the rate of such energy transfer.

Let us consider Maxwell's Curl Equations:

Using vector identity

 104

the above curl equations we can write

.
In simple medium where and are constant, we can write

and

Applying Divergence theorem we can write,

The term represents the rate of change of energy stored in the

electric and magnetic fields and the term represents the power dissipation
within the volume. Hence right hand side of the equation represents the total decrease in
power within the volume under consideration.

The left hand side of equation (6.36) can be written as where

(W/mt2) is called the Poynting vector and it represents the power density
vector associated with the electromagnetic field. The integration of the Poynting vector
over any closed surface gives the net power flowing out of the surface. Equation is
referred to as Poynting theorem and it states that the net power flowing out of a given
volume is equal to the time rate of decrease in the energy stored within the volume
minus the conduction losses

Electromagnetic waves can transport energy from one point to another point. The electric
and magnetic field intensities associated with a travelling electromagnetic wave can be
related to the rate of such energy transfer.
 105

d
∬ ( ExH ) . ds=∭ E . J dv + dt ∭ ¿ ¿ ] dv + ∭ J . E dv

In addition for the steady magnetic field ½ µH 2 denotes the stored energy density of
magnetic field. Hence both quantities denote stored energy densities when the field is
changing with time, then the integral denote the total electromagnetic energy stored
within the volume.

Thus in short equation stated that the net inward power flux supplied by the field over
the surface S must equal the time rate of increase of electromagnetic energy inside the
volume V plus the total ohmic losses in volume assuming volume contains no generators.
It states that ExH represents total ingoing or inward instantaneous power flux power
flowing out of volume,

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 State and prove Poynting vector theorem Dec 2011 10

Q.2 Obtain the expression for complex Poynting Jun 2010 7

theorem.

Q.3 Derive instantaneous, complex and average Dec 2011 7

forms of Poynting vector with its applications.

INSTANTANEOUS AVERAGE AND COMPLEX POYNTING VECTOR

Unit-5/Lecture-05

Poynting vector for the time harmonic case:[RGPV/DEC 2012,2013/7]

For time harmonic case, the time variation is of the form , and we have seen that
instantaneous value of a quantity is the real part of the product of a phasor quantity and
when is used as reference. For example, if we consider the phasor

then we can write the instantaneous field as

.
 106

when E0 is real.

Let us consider two instantaneous quantities A and B such that

where A and B are the phasor quantities

i.e,

Therefore,

Since A and B are periodic with period , the time average value of the product form AB,
denoted by can be written as

.
Further, considering the phasor quantities A and B, we find that

and , where * denotes complex conjugate

....
The poynting vector can be expressed as

.
If we consider a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in +z direction and has only
component, from (6.42) we can write:

where and , for the plane wave under consideration

 107

For a general case, we can write

.
We can define a complex Poynting vector

and time average of the instantaneous Poynting vector is given by

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1 State and prove Poynting vector theorem. Also Jun 2012 7
give the expression for average and complex
Poynting vector.
Q.2 Derive an expression for energy associated with Jun 2013 7
plane electromagnetic wave and define pointing
vector. Use it to find time average power density
due to uniform plane in perfect dielectric.

Q.3 State and prove Poynting theorem Jun 2014 7

Q.4 Define pointing vector and give its physical Dec 2013 7
interpretation

POLARISATION OF WAVES
Unit-5/Lecture-06
Polarization of plane wave:
The polarization of a plane wave can be defined as the orientation of the electric field vector
as a function of time at a fixed point in space. For an electromagnetic wave, the specification of
the orientation of the electric field is sufficient as the magnetic field components are related to
electric field vector by the Maxwell's equations.
Let us consider a plane wave travelling in the +z direction. The wave has both Ex and Ey
 108

components.

.
The corresponding magnetic fields are given by,

Depending upon the values of Eox and Eoy we can have several possibilities:
1. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarized in the x-direction.
2. If Eoy = 0, then the wave is linearly polarized in the y-direction.
3. If Eox and Eoy are both real (or complex with equal phase), once again we get a linearly

polarized wave with the axis of polarization inclined at an angle , with respect to the x-
axis.
The polarization of a plane wave can be defined as the orientation of the electric field vector as
a function of time at a fixed point in space. For an electromagnetic wave, the specification of
the orientation of the electric field is sufficient as the magnetic field components are related to
electric field vector by the Maxwell's equations

The polarization ellipse shown in figure 6.6 is defined by its axial ratio (M/N, the ratio of semi
major to semi minor axis), tilt angle (orientation with respect to x-axis) and sense of rotation
(i.e., CW or CCW).
Linear polarization can be treated as a special case of elliptical polarization, for which the axial
ratio is infinite

If Eox and Eoy are complex with different phase angles, will not point to a single spatial diection. This is
explained as follows:
 109

fIg 1 linear polarization

Let

Then,

and ...

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain the term polarization. Derive the June 2012 7
expression for elliptical and circular polarization.

Q.2 What do you understand by circular polarization? Dec 2011 10

REFLECTION BY CONDUCTORS AND DIELECTRIC – NORMAL & OBLIQUE
Q.3 Explain the term Polarizations. Derive the
INCIDENCE Jun 2012 10
expression for elliptical and circular polarization.
Unit-5/Lecture-07
Behaviour of Plane waves at the inteface of two media:
Q.4
We have What do youthe
considered mean by polarization
propagation of waveplane waves in Jun
of uniform 2014
an unbounded 2
homogeneous
medium. In practice, the wave will propagate in bounded regions where several values of
will be present. When plane wave travelling in one medium meets a different medium, it is partly
reflected and partly transmitted. In this section, we consider wave reflection and transmission at
planar boundary between two media.
 110

Fig2 Normal Incidence at a plane boundary

Let z = 0 plane represent the interface between two media. Medium 1 is characterised by
and medium 2 is characterized by .
Let the subscripts 'i' denotes incident, 'r' denotes reflected and 't' denotes transmitted field
components respectively.

The incident wave is assumed to be a plane wave polarized along x and travelling in medium 1

along direction. From equation (6.24) we can write

..

..

where and

Because of the presence of the second medium at z =0, the incident wave will undergo partial
reflection and partial transmission.

The reflected wave will travel along in medium 1.

The reflected field components are:

he transmitted wave will travel in medium 2 along for which the field components are

..
 111

...
 

where and

In medium 1,
and
and in medium 2,
and
Applying boundary conditions at the interface z = 0, i.e., continuity of tangential field
components and noting that incident, reflected and transmitted field components are tangential at
the boundary, we can write

&
From equation we get,
.

Eliminating Eto ,

or,

is called the transmission coefficient.

We observe that,

.
The following may be noted
(i) both and T are dimensionless and may be complex
(ii)

Oblique Incidence of EM wave at an interface  

So far we have discuss the case of normal incidence where electromagnetic wave traveling in a
lossless medium impinges normally at the interface of a second medium. In this section we shall
consider the case of oblique incidence. As before, we consider two cases
i. When the second medium is a perfect conductor.
 112

ii. When the second medium is a perfect dielectric.

A plane incidence is defined as the plane containing the vector indicating the direction of
propagation of the incident wave and normal to the interface. We study two specific cases when
the incident electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (perpendicular
polarization) and is parallel to the plane of incidence (parallel polarization). For a general
case, the incident wave may have arbitrary polarization but the same can be expressed as a linear
combination of these two individual cases.
Oblique Incidence at a plane conducting boundary
i. Perpendicular Polarization
The situation is depicted in figure

Figure3: Perpendicular Polarization

s the EM field inside the perfect conductor is zero, the interface reflects the incident plane wave.
and respectively represent the unit vector in the direction of propagation of the incident
and reflected waves, is the angle of incidence and is the angle of reflection.
We find that

...
Since the incident wave is considered to be perpendicular to the plane of incidence, which for the

present case happens to be xz plane, the electric field has only y-component.
Therefore, The corresponding magnetic field is given by

Similarly, we can write the reflected waves as

...
 113

Since at the interface z=o, the tangential electric field is zero.

ii. Parallel Polarization:

In this case also and are given by equations (6.69). Here and have only y
component.

Figure:4 Parallel Polarization

incident field components:

.
Reflected field components:

ince the total tangential electric field component at the interface is zero.

Which leads to and as before.

Substituting these quantities and adding the incident and reflected electric and magnetic field

components the total electric and magnetic fields can be written as

Once again, we find a standing wave pattern along z for the x and y components of and ,
 114

while a non uniform plane wave propagates along x with a phase velocity given by

where . Since, for this propagating wave, magnetic field is in transverse direction, such
waves are called transverse magnetic or TM waves.

REFLECTION AT SURFACE OF A CONDUCTING MEDIUM, SURFACE

IMPEDANCE
S.NO Unit-5/Lecture-08
RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks
Q.1
Normal Explain and
incidence on derive
a planethe expressionboundary
conducting of plane waves June 2012 7
for oblique incidence in free space. Explain both
horizontal and vertical polarization.
The medium 1 is perfect dielectric and medium 2 is perfectly conducting

Q.2 .
Explain the reflection by perfect dielectric at Jun 2010 3
oblique incidence in case of perpendicular
polarization.

From (6.53) and (6.54)

= -1
and T =0
Hence the wave is not transmitted to medium 2, it gets reflected entirely from the
interface to the medium 1.

& .
Proceeding in the same manner for the magnetic field in region 1, we can show that,

.
The wave in medium 1 thus becomes a standing wave due to the super position of a
forward travelling wave and a backward travelling wave. For a given ' t', both and
 115

vary sinusoidally with distance measured from z = 0. This is shown in figure

Normal incidence on a plane dielectric boundary

If the medium 2 is not a perfect conductor (i.e. ) partial reflection will result. There
will be a reflected wave in the medium 1 and a transmitted wave in the medium
2.Because of the reflected wave, standing wave is formed in medium 1.
From equation (6.49(a)) and equation (6.53) we can write

.
Let us consider the scenario when both the media are dissipation less i.e. perfect
dielectrics ( )
n this case both and become real numbers.

we can see that, in medium 1 we have a traveling wave component with amplitude TE io
and a standing wave component with amplitude 2JEio.
The location of the maximum and the minimum of the electric and magnetic field
components in the medium 1from the interface can be found as follows.
The electric field in medium 1 can be written as

    

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Define Surface impedance as referred to the June 2005 10
electric field over a conductor surface and derive
an expression for it. For a perfect conductor relate
it to skin depth.
Q.2 Explain Brewster angle TRANSMISSION LINE ANALOGY Jun 2014 10

Q.3 Unit-5/Lecture-09
Explain the difference between plane wave and Dec 2013 2
uniform plane wave
 116

In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable

or other structure designed to carry alternating current of radio frequency, that is,
currents with a frequency high enough that their wave nature must be taken into
account. Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters
and receivers with their antennas, distributing cable television signals, trunklines routing
calls between telephone switching centers, computer network connections, and high
speed computer data buses.
Consider two-conductor transmission line such as parallel line (ladder line), coaxial cable,
stripline, and microstrip. Some sources also refer to waveguide, dielectric waveguide, and
even optical fiber as transmission line.
Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency alternating current (AC), such as
mains power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per second, and audio signals.
However, they cannot be used to carry currents in the radio frequency range or higher
which reverse direction millions to billions of times per second, because the energy tends
to radiate off the cable as radio waves, causing power losses. Radio frequency currents
also tend to reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and joints, and
travel back down the cable toward the source.

Four terminal model

Fig1 Parallel line transmission model

For the purposes of analysis, an electrical transmission line can be modelled as a two-port
network (also called a quadrupole network), as follows:
 117

Fig2 Two port network

In the simplest case, the network is assumed to be linear (i.e. the complex voltage
across either port is proportional to the complex current flowing into it when there are no
reflections), and the two ports are assumed to be interchangeable. If the transmission line
is uniform along its length, then its behaviour is largely described by a single parameter
called the characteristic impedance, symbol Z0. This is the ratio of the complex voltage of
a given wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical
values of Z0 are 50 or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of
wires, and about 300 ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio
transmission.

Fig 3 Equivalent circuit model

 The distributed resistance of the conductors is represented by a series resistor

(expressed in ohms per unit length).
 The distributed inductance (due to the magnetic field around the wires, self-
inductance, etc.) is represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length).
 The capacitance between the two conductors is represented by a shunt
capacitor C (farads per unit length).
 The conductance of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is
represented by a shunt resistor between the signal wire and the return wire
(siemens per unit length).

The model consists of an infinite series of the elements shown in the figure, and that
the values of the components are specified per unit length so the picture of the
component can be misleading. , , , and may also be functions of frequency. An
alternative notation is to use , , and to emphasize that the values are
derivatives with respect to length. These quantities can also be known as the primary line
 118

constants to distinguish from the secondary line constants derived from them, these
being the propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant.
The line voltage and the current can be expressed in the frequency domain as

When the elements and are negligibly small the transmission line is considered as a
lossless structure. In this hypothetical case, the model depends only on the and
elements which greatly simplifies the analysis. For a lossless transmission line, the second
order steady-state Telegrapher's equations are:

These are wave equations which have plane waves with equal propagation speed in the
forward and reverse directions as solutions. The physical significance of this is that
electromagnetic waves propagate down transmission lines and in general, there is a
reflected component that interferes with the original signal. These equations are
fundamental to transmission line theory.
If and are not neglected, the Telegrapher's equations become:

where

and the characteristic impedance is:

The solutions for and are:

 119

Input impedance of transmission line

Looking towards a load through a length l of lossless transmission line, the impedance
changes as l increases, following the blue circle on this impedance Smith chart. (This
impedance is characterized by its reflection coefficient Vreflected / Vincident.) The blue circle,
centered within the chart, is sometimes called an SWR circle (short for constant standing
wave ratio).
The characteristic impedance Z0 of a transmission line is the ratio of the amplitude of a
single voltage wave to its current wave. Since most transmission lines also have a
reflected wave, the characteristic impedance is generally not the impedance that is
measured on the line.
The impedance measured at a given distance, l, from the load impedance ZL may be
expressed as,

,
where γ is the propagation constant and is the voltage
reflection coefficient at the load end of the transmission line. Alternatively, the above
formula can be rearranged to express the input impedance in terms of the load
impedance rather than the load voltage reflection coefficient:

Phase Velocity
The phase velocity of a wave is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in
space. This is the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component of the
wave travels. For such a component, any given phase of the wave (for example, the crest)
will appear to travel at the phase velocity. The phase velocity is given in terms of the
wavelength λ (lambda) and period T as

Or, equivalently, in terms of the wave's angular frequency ω, which specifies angular
change per unit of time, and wavenumber (or angular wave number) k, which represents
the proportionality between the angular frequency ω and the linear speed (speed of
propagation) νp:
 120

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

REFERENCE BOOKS:
Q.1 A 60 ohm distortion less transmission has a June 2006 10
capacitance of 0.15 nF/m and attenuation on the Jun2002
PUBLISHER /
SNo line is 0.01 dB/m.
TITLE Calculate – AUTHOR PRIORITY
EDITION
(1) Line parameters resistance inductance and
Mathew N.O Oxford University
1. Elementsconductance per meter of the line.
of Electromagnetic 1
Sadiku
(2) The velocity of wave propagation Press
(3) Voltage of distance of 1 km w.r.t. to sending TMH.
2. Engineering Electromagnetic
end volatage. William H. Hayt 2

Q.33. A generator of 1Fields;

Electromagnetic volt 1000Hz supplier power to
P.V. Gupta; Dec 2013Rai.
Dhanpat 10 3
1000 km long open wire terminated in
characteristics impedance having following
parameters:
R= 10.4 ohm
L= 0.0037 H
C= 0.8 mho
C= 0.00835 F
Calculate the phase velocity characterics
impedance and propagation constant
121