Theory of Architecture

 Thematic theories
 Theories of synthesis

Not all industrial products are modern inventions. There are several types of artifacts that
have been produced during generations. Accordingly, these products have also been the
object of many studies and theories. The most notable example of these is the building.
The art and science of architecture has been studied almost continuously during two
millennia, and a great number of these treatises have been preserved until our day.

In the following is given an overview of the most prominent lines of thought in the study
of building until now. Possibly the account can also give researchers of other types of
products some cues, to follow or to abstain.

Because of the great number of published essays on architecture it is convenient first to

 Descriptive studies aim at reporting the present (or past) state of the object which
in architectural studies can be either one building or any defined class or series of
buildings, as well as people related to these buildings. Monographs of buildings
often belong to this category, as well as a great part of the histories of
architecture.
 Explanatory studies try to find out why each building has taken the shape that they
have. The reasons can be taken either from the past (causal explanation), from the
concurrent context, or alternatively from the future (i.e. from the intentions of the
builders). See also Explaining Development.
 Normative studies attempt to point out in which respects the object of study could
be improved, and the method of doing it. When the outcome of normative studies
is generalizable to later similar objects, we can call it theory of design.

Recent studies about architecture and buildings can usually be classified into one or the
other of the above three genres of research (if not being combinations of them). As a
contrast, when looking at earlier writings it turns out that practically all papers published
before 18 century belong exclusively to the third group, i.e. to design theory. The same
seems to be true for the very oldest writings about architecture, about which has survived
just the name, like "Instructions for the decoration of walls" that is listed in the library
catalog of the Edfu temple in ancient Egypt (Ricken, p. 10). For those texts that still exist,
the normative purpose often is clearly expressed in their introductory phrases:
 "Because I saw that you [Caesar] have built and are now building extensively, I
have drawn up definite rules to enable you to have personal knowledge of the
quality both of existing buildings and of those which are yet to be constructed."
(Vitruve, Book I, Preface, trans. by Morgan.)

"It seemed to me a thing worthy of a man, who ought not to be born for himself
only, but also for the utility of others, to publish ... those rules which I have
observed, and now observe, in building; ... that one may learn to lay aside the
strange abuses, the barbarous inventions, the superfluous expence, and (what is of
greater consequence) avoid the various and continual ruins that have been seen in
many fabricks" (Palladio, preface, 1570, trans. by Isaac Ware in 1738).

"My purpose is to develop the taste of architects and ... to give them secure
instructions of work and a method which guarantees an impeccable result" (Marc-
Antoine Laugier, Essai sur l'architecture, xliii, from the year 1753).

"Architects everywhere have recognized the need of ... a tool which may be put in
the hands of creators of form, with the simple aim ... of making the bad difficult
and the good easy" (Le Corbusier, The Modulor, Foreword of 2nd ed. 1951).

"This language is extremely practical. ... You can use it to work with your
neighbours, to improve your town and neighbourhood. You can use it to design a
house for yourself, with your family; or to work with other people to design an
office or a workshop or a public building like a school." (Alexander et al., 1977,
A Pattern language, page x).

It seems thus that in architectural writing during centuries the most common objective
has been to guide later design, i.e. the outlook has been normative.

In present day, the design theory of architecture includes all that is presented in the
handbooks of architects: legislation, norms and standards of building. All of them are
intended to aid the work of the architect and improve its product -- the quality of
buildings. The aim is thus the same as in technology and production in general: proven
theory helps designers to do their work better and more effectively. It occasionally even
helps to do things that were believed to be impossible earlier on. As an old saying goes,
there is nothing more practical than a good theory.

The design theory of architecture consists of all the knowledge that the architect uses in
his work, including how to select the best site and the most suitable construction
materials. Moreover, there is advice on how to design practical buildings, up to the ease
of maintenance and reparations. You can find out what it includes by studying
empirically what source material architects actually use in their work. This study will
reveal that, in addition to rationally motivated rules and methods, this material includes
rather miscellaneous and "unscientific" elements; prejudice of the clients, whims of
fashion, cost saving decisions of building companies and horse trade of politicians.
Some people say that the architect is an artist and, unlike engineers, he cannot base his
work on theory. This is true, of course: the plan of the architect cannot come into being
only by following the rules of manuals nor by proceeding in a totally rational fashion
from the initial information the architect has. But even an artist has to have his technique.
In art, like in any other work, professional skills are needed and that is the same as
knowing what you should do, does it not? This was at least what erudite architect Jean
Mignot thought when inspecting the worrisome, cracking vaults on the building site of
the Milan cathedral in 1400: "Ars sine scientia nihil est." (Skill without knowledge is
nothing.)

While theory of design is intended to help design, it does not necessarily precede design.
On the contrary, the first building where a new architectural style is exposed, is usually
created intuitively, without the help of any theory, just by the skill of a brilliant architect.
The design theory comes a little later, and even less brilliant architects can then base their
work on it.

In the following are examples of traditions of theory, in other words, paradigms that
architects have applied at different times. They are classified in two groups in the
following:

 Thematic theories
 Theories of synthesis

Thematic or "analytic" theories are treatises which aim at the fulfilment of one principal
goal of architecture. They are often based on profound analyses of this goal, often made
at the cost of other customary goals of building. This adds to the clarity of the theory, and
also of the buildings that are designed on its basis. They are often admirable works of art
and can be used as exemplars in the education of younger architects.

On the other hand, over stressing just one goal of building has often made these edifices
impractical and inadequate in other respects. Indeed, many of them are today no more
used for their originally intended purposes but are instead serving as tourist attractions or
museums.

Theories of architectural synthesis are examples of theories which aim at fulfilling