NAME:

GCSE Geography Revision Pack: 
Key Themes Paper
River and coasts
River and coasts ‐ need to know
• Processes within a river basin
• River flooding and management
• River landforms
• Coastal landforms
• Coastal management

1
 These processes erode material at the
coast and in a river.
Corrasion/Abrasion
Hydraulic action
Eroded rocks rub
against the
The force of the water
channel/thrown
breaks rock particles
against the cliff
away from the river
wearing it away.
channel/cliff.

Corrosion/Solution

River/sea dissolves
some types of rock
such as chalk and
limestone.

Attrition
Coastal erosion is affected by:
 The point at which the wave breaks Eroded rocks picked
 Steepness of the wave. up by the river/waves
 Rock type and structure - (hard rock such as smash into each
granite is far more resistant to erosion than soft other.
rocks, such as clay).
 These processes move
material at the coast and in a
river.

Soluble materials
Small particles are
dissolve in water and
carried along by the
are carried along.
water.

Large particles like Pebble sized particles are

boulders are pushed bounced along the river
along the bottom of bed/sea by the force of
the river bed/sea by the water.
the force of the water.
The size and energy of a wave is influenced by:
 how long the wind has been blowing
 the strength of the wind
 how far the wave has travelled (the fetch)

Destructive
 Destroys (takes beach
away)
 Strong backwash
 Weak swash

Constructive
 Creates (put sand on
the beach)
 Strong swash
 Weak backwash
 Weather weakens the top of the
cliff. 1

The sea attacks the base of the

cliff forming a wave cut notch. 2

The notch increases in size causing

the cliff to collapse. 3

The backwash carries the rubble

back to the sea forming a wave cut 4
platform.

The process repeats itself and the

cliff continues to retreat. 5
Hydraulic action creates cracks in
the headland. 1

Overtime the hydraulic action 2

causes the crack to become deeper.

This creates a cave. This may

eventually break through. 3

This creates an arch. The arch will

eventually become bigger and 4
collapse.

This leaves a stack. Forces of

erosion turn the stack into a 5
stump.
 The sea attacks an area of coast
with alternating bands of hard and 1
soft rock.

The soft rock (sand or clay) are 2

eroding more quickly.

This creates a bay. 3

The hard rock is more resistant 4

and takes longer to erode.

This leaves a headland jutting out

5
to sea.
Constructive waves help to build
up beaches.
1

The soft rock (sand or clay) are

eroding more quickly.
2

This creates a bay. 3

The hard rock is more resistant

and takes longer to erode.
4
 Longshore drift moves material
along the coastline. 1

A spit forms when the material is

deposited. 2

Over time, the spit grows and

develops a hook if wind direction 3
changes
g further out.

Waves cannot get past a spit,

which creates a sheltered area
where silt is deposited and mud 4
flats or salt marshes form.

A bar forms when a spit joins to 5

two headlands.
 Groynes
 Easily destroyed
 Build up  South beaches a
the beach deprived of
 Cheap sediment

Breakwater

 Long-term
 Beaches
 Expensive Gabions
 Unattractive
remain
natural

 Cages rust
 Cheap
 Short
 Efficient
lifespan
Rip-rap

 The boulders
 Can easily
are good at
be moved
absorbing
 They need
wave energy
to be Revetment
replaced
Sea wall
 Expensive
 Prevents Creates a strong
 They
erosion.  Expensive backwash which
absorb the
 Acts as a  Need maintaining erodes under
wave
flood  Creates a strong the barrier.
energy
barrier backwash
 The purpose of soft engineering is
to work with the natural processes
of the coast.

Beach replenishment

 Creates wider
Beach replenishment
beaches.  Taking material can Adding sand and sediment to the
 Protects from kill organisms
erosion and  It is very expensive beach from the sea floor.
flooding  It has to be repeated
 Looks natural  Could affect tourism

Managed retreat

Managed retreat  Creates new

marshland habitats  May cause
Allowing a section of land to flood  Fairly cheap conflict due to
lost land.
in order for plants to grow and  Flooding is reduced
 Could affect
therefore become a natural wave and peoples lives.

flood barrier.
 Loss of housing Deaths

Social Water supplies affected

Businesses on the edge

Loss of jobs Damage to infrastructure

SSIs are Loss of tourism

threatened by Economic
erosion

House prices fall

Environmental
Floods damage farm land
Ecosystems are
affected as sea water
has high salt content
By 2055, loss of 20 more  ‐A small village with a pub , tea shop, lighthouse, church and homes  
properties  ‐850 population 
Loss of caravan park and  ‐Mainly farmland
farmland ‐No main roads 
‐Historic records indicate that over 250 m of land were lost between 1600 and 1850.
‐The cliffs are soft clay, so erode very quickly. Weathering increases the erosion rate. The location of 
Happisburgh causes increasing problems with powerful waves from the North sea, which creates 
landslides from eroding the base of the cliff. 

Conflict from managed retreat 
Old Management (all 40 years 
old)  ‐To repair revetment cost £5 million, not cost effective
‐Farmers lose land and livelihood
‐Revetments – now damaged  ‐Insurance companies won’t pay out  
(from a storm) and not effective ‐Increasing protest from locals to central government but g’ment has said no.
‐Groynes were placed to stop  ‐Defences would cost more than the land and homes are worth. 
the rate of erosion, however  ‐Locals want compensation for the lack of management and for their homes collapsing 
they are not helping enough. into the sea.
‐Rock Armour – now little 
effectiveness ‐The historical lighthouse has had to be moved further back from the edge of the cliff. 
‐local campaign  ‘buy a rock for Happisburgh’ to raise money for private defences. 
Increasing climate change and 
sea level rise are impacting and 
increasing erosion  
 Stores- Water Outputs-
stored. Water leaving.

Flows- Water
Inputs- Water moving.
coming in.

Interception
 The area of land a river gets its water from. It is
defined by the watershed.

Where the river

starts, usually
in an upland
area.
An imaginary
line marking
out the drainage
basin.
Small rivers
which join the
main river.
The point
where two
rivers join.

Where the river

ends and flows
into a sea/lake.
 Created when the river flows over an area
of hard rock followed by soft rock.
1

The soft rock is eroded more quickly

creating a step.
2

As the water goes over the step it eroded

more and more of the softer rock.
3
The river eroded vertically downwards
creating V-shaped valleys.
The rivers are not powerful enough to erode
laterally as they have to wind around the A steep drop is created which is called a
hillsides. waterfall.
4

The hard rock is undercut by

the erosion and collapses. 5

The collapsed rock is swilled

around and helps to erode the 6
softer rock in the plunge pool.

Overtime more collapses occur

and the waterfall retreats 7
gag
creating g
gorge.
 The current if faster on the outside of the
bend because the channel is deeper.
1
Erosion causes the outside bends to
become closer and the river breaks
through. Deposition cuts off the meander Therefore more erosion takes place on the
river bend forming a river cliff.
2
forming an ox-bow lake.

The current is slower on the inside of the

bend because the channel is shallower.
3

So eroded material is deposited on the

inside forming a slip-off slope.
4
 Levees are natural embankments. When a river floods onto the flood plain
River are forced to slow down when they
During a flood eroded material is the water slows down and deposits the
meet the sea or a lake.
deposited over the flood plain. eroded material. This builds it up.

If the sea does not wash away the material

The heaviest material is deposited nearest Meanders migrate across the flood plain
it builds up and the channel gets blocked
the river channel. making it wider.
and is forced to split up.

Eventually the material builds up so much The deposition that happens on the slip
Overtime the deposited material builds up
that low lying areas called deltas are off slopes of meanders also helps to build
creating levees along the channel edge.
formed. There are three types. up the flood plain.
 85 miles in  River Management
length ‐Long history of flash flooding
‐Cow green reservoir, controls  water 
supply for industries along the river
It drains an  ‐Straighten the river for easier navigation 
area of 710  during the industrial revolution 
square  Flood protection schemes in Yarn 
miles

Upper Course Lower Course
‐Source high in the Pennines (893m  ‐Very urbanised and large populations. Eg Yarn
above sea level) ‐Important wildlife seals & 
‐High run off as steep V shaped valleys of  Middle Course migratory birds also SSSI
impermeable rock ‐Clear widening and meandering  ‐Ox bow lakes 
‐Meanders cut off in the 19th ‐Large oil, gas and petrochemical  industries (as flat land)
‐High rainfall – good water supply ‐Natural Levees formed due to silt build up 
century
‐Many tributaries  ‐Mouth is in the North sea 
‐Sides become less steep 
‐Famous high fall waterfall – tallest in  ‐Wide Mudflat estuary (tidal)
‐Lateral erosion 
England 21 metres high  ‐Huge water sports complex Tees Barrage 
‐Gorges, rapids and potholes at Low 
force 
 Snow melt
When a lot of snow or ice
melts it means a lot of water
goes into the river in a short
Urbanisation
Urban areas have lots of
space of time.
impermeable surfaces such as
tarmac. This means the water
runs off the surface quickly and
to the river.

Relief Deforestation
Geology If the valley is steep the Trees intercept the rainwater. They
If the rock is rain just not have a also take up water. Cutting down the
impermeable water chance to infiltrate and it trees increases surface-runoff and
cannot infiltrate and goes runs off quickly. therefore the volume of water in the
to the river. river.

Heavy rainfall
Prolonged rainfall Heavy rainfall means that
After a period of long there is a lot of runoff This
rainfall the soil becomes increases the volume of
saturated, it can’t allow any
water in the river.
more infiltration.
 A flood hydrograph shows whether a river has
flooded. The lag time shows how quickly the
water reached the river.
The time it takes for the
water to reach the river. When the river has
reached its capacity.

When the river

flow increases. When the river flow
decreases.

When the rainfall The normal flow

is at its highest. of the river.
 Dams and reservoirs Flood warnings

 Don’t stop
 Store water  Very  Impact of
the flood
 Hydroelectric expensive flooding
 LEDC lack of
power  Flooding reduced
access to
 Flow control downstream  Evacuation
radio etc

Channel straightening Preparation

 Water  Flooding  Impact of  Does not

moves may happen flood mean safety
more downstream reduced  Expensive to
quickly as water gets  People modify
there faster know buildings
what to do

Man-made levees Flood plain zoning

 Risk of  Urban
 Catastrophic expansion is
 River can flooding if flooding
hold more reduced limited
levees break  No help in
water  Impermeable
surfaces not places
created already built
on
 New Management & defence 
Reasons for the flooding
‐£4.6m scheme includes: raise car park to safer level; 
move & raise bridge; widen & lower the river bed to 
PHYSICAL  increase the amount of water it can hold
‐A very wet August (2 times average  ‐Removing of dead vegetation to stop blocking of the 
rain) SO the ground was already  river  
saturated  Primary Impacts  ‐‘At risk’ properties – encouraged to use more flood 
‐Impermeable rocks & thin soils  ‐50+ cars, and caravans were  resistant material, raise height of electrical wiring etc
‐Steep slopes – rapid runoff swept out to sea ‐Environment Agency – flood warning system + 
‐Confluence of Rivers Valency &  ‐a wall of water swept through  information 
Jordan is just above the village  the village destroying  ‐Council runs special advice days, encouraging people 
‐A very high tide – made it difficult  everything in its path to have an emergency evacuation
for water to flow out to sea ‐6 buildings were swept away  pack & to take out insurance.  Council has an 
‐Many other houses, shops etc  emergency action plan. 
were flooded, with mud + 
HUMAN  sewage as well as water;  Since 2004 – flooding again, still damage but not as 
‐Bridges were low so acted a a dam ‐ possessions also ruined  damaging as this event 
debris such as tree trunks caught on  ‐Roads under 2.75m of water
them water piled up until it burst  ‐No deaths, few serious injuries
through in a great wave 
Secondary Impacts 
‐Many buildings & roads were  ‐90% of economy dependent on tourism > lost 
positioned close to the river so more  money >20 accommodation providers & tourist 
property damage attractions/shops forced to shut 
‐Insurance companies pay out £20 million 
 Characteristics of Bangladesh  Social impacts  Economic impacts 
‐36 million people were made  ‐serious damage to infrastructure – roads, 
‐Lays mainly on floodplains, so flat land homeless bridges, embankments, railway lines, 
Most of the land lies 6metres below sea ‐People died as a result of  irrigation systems
‐3 main rivers‐ The Ganges, Brahmaputra and  disease because they had no  ‐All domestic and internal flights had to be 
Meghna.  access to clean water. suspended during July
‐Monsoon season evey year  – high concentrated  ‐Impacted on rural farmers  ‐Value of damage was assessed as being in 
rainfall in a few months (June to September). and urban slum dwellers the  region of $2.2 billion of 4% of total GDP for 
‐1,800mm and 2,600mm rain a year.  most. 2004
‐Poverty is a huge issue in Bangladesh‐low literacy  ‐Over 800 died with many 
rate more from disease 
‐Flooding occurs naturally in Bangladesh  Response and management
‐Snow from the Himalayas melts each year and  Environmental  impacts  ‐Reliance on Ngo support – financial and 
increase river discharge  During July and August  emergency supplies –UN disaster 
‐Sediment blocks up the river and causes flooding  approximately 38% of the total  management support
‐Deforestation in the forest increases run off and  land area was flooded including  ‐Self help schemes promoted 
reduces lag time 800,000 ha of agricultural land  ‐local community early warning system 
‐Cyclones occur in the Bay of Benegal and causes  and Dhaka implemented, plus shelters 
coastal flooding Floods caused river bank  ‐Increasing use of levees to protect field and 
‐Densely populated areas meaning increase in  erosion especially on  villages
deaths  embankment areas close to the 
‐Increasing monitoring to reduce the impact 
main channels, soil erosion, 
as happens every year. 
water‐logging, water 
contamination ‐encourage farmers to build homes on stilts.