Review

•  Languages and Grammars

CS 301 - Lecture 5 –  Alphabets, strings, languages
•  Regular Languages
Regular Grammars, Regular
–  Deterministic Finite Automata
Languages, and Properties of –  Nondeterministic Finite Automata
Regular Languages –  Equivalence of NFA and DFA
Fall 2008 –  Regular Expressions
•  Today:
–  Regular Grammars and Regular Languages
–  Properties of Regular Languages

Grammars Grammar Notation

•  Grammars express languages
Production Rules
• 
•  Example: the English language
sentence → noun _ phrase predicate noun → cat
noun → dog

noun _ phrase → article noun

Variable Terminal

predicate → verb

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 Some Terminal Rules A Resulting Sentence
article → a
article → the sentence ⇒ noun _ phrase predicate
⇒ noun _ phrase verb
noun → cat ⇒ article noun verb
noun → dog ⇒ the noun verb
⇒ the dog verb
verb → runs ⇒ the dog walks
verb → walks

The Resulting Language Definition of a Grammar

G = (V , T , S , P )
L = { “a cat runs”,
“a cat walks”, V : Set of variables
“the cat runs”,
“the cat walks”, T : Set of terminal symbols
“a dog runs”,
“a dog walks”, S : Start variable
“the dog runs”,
“the dog walks” } P: Set of Production rules

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 A Simple Grammar Example Grammar Notation
•  Grammar: S → aSb S → aSb
S →λ S →λ

G = (V , T , S , P )
•  Derivation of sentence : ab
S ⇒ aSb ⇒ ab
V = {S } T = {a, b}
S → aSb S →λ
P = {S → aSb, S → λ}

Deriving Strings in the Grammar

•  Grammar: Sentential Form
•  A sentence that contains variables and
S → aSb terminals
S →λ
aabb :
•  Derivation of sentence S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aaaSbbb ⇒ aaabbb
S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aabb

Sentential Forms sentence

S → aSb S →λ

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 General Notation for Derivations Why Notation Is Useful
*
•  In general we write: w1 ⇒ wn
•  We can now write:
w1 ⇒ w2 ⇒ w3 ⇒  ⇒ wn *
•  If:
S ⇒ aaabbb

*
w ⇒ w •  Instead of:
•  It is always the case that:

S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aaaSbbb ⇒ aaabbb

Language of a Grammar Example Language

S → aSb
Grammar can produce some set of strings
S →λ
Set of strings over an alphabet is a language Consider the set of all strings that can derived from this
grammar…..
Language of a grammar is all strings produced by the grammar
∗ S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aaaSbbb ⇒ aaabbb
L(G ) = {w : S ⇒ w}
S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aaaSbbb
⇒ aaaaSbbbb ⇒ aaaabbbb
String of terminals What language is being described?

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 The Resulting Language
Linear Grammars
S → aSb
•  Grammars with at most one variable at
S →λ the right side of a production
Always add on a and b on each side resulting in:
a’s at the left
b’s at the right
equal number of a’s and b’s
•  Examples: S → aSb
The image cannot be displayed.
Your computer may not have
enough memory to open the image, S →λ

A Non-Linear Grammar Another Linear Grammar

Grammar G: S → SS
Grammar G: S→A
S →λ
A → aB | λ
S → aSb
B → Ab
S → bSa
L(G ) = {w : na ( w) = nb ( w)} L(G ) = {a nb n : n ≥ 0}

Number of in string

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 Right-Linear Grammars Left-Linear Grammars
•  All productions have form:
•  All productions have form:
A → Bx
A → xB
or
or A→ x
A→ x •  Example: S → Aab
•  Example: S → abS A → Aab | B string of
string of
terminals
S →a terminals B→a

Regular Grammars
•  A regular grammar is any right-linear or
Regular Grammars left-linear grammar

•  Examples:
S → abS S → Aab
S →a A → Aab | B
B→a
What languages are generated by these grammars?

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 Languages and Grammars

S → abS S → Aab
A → Aab | B
Regular Grammars
S →a
B→a Generate
L(G1 ) = (ab) * a L(G2 ) = aab(ab) * Regular Languages
Note both these languages are regular
we have regular expressions for these languages (above)
we can convert a regular expression into an NFA (how?)
we can convert an NFA into a DFA (how?)
we can convert a DFA into a regular expression (how?)
Do regular grammars also describe regular languages??

Theorem - Part 1
Theorem
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
= Regular
Languages
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
Regular
Languages

Any regular grammar generates

a regular language

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 The case of Right-Linear
Proof – Part 1
Languages Grammars
Regular
Generated by
Languages •  Let Gbe a right-linear grammar
Regular Grammars
•  We will prove:
L(Gis)regular
The language L(G ) generated by
any regular grammar G is regular •  Proof idea: We will construct NFA using the
grammar transitions

Step 1: Create States for

Example
Each Variable
Given right linear grammar: •  Construct NFA M such that every
state is a grammar variable:

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 Step 2.1: Step 2.2:
Edges for Productions Edges for Productions
•  Productions of the form
•  Productions of the form
are only slightly harder…. Create row
result in
of states that derive w and end in

Step 2.3:
In General
Edges for Productions
•  Productions of the form •  Given any right-linear grammar, the previous
Create row of states that derive w and procedure produces an NFA
end in a final state –  We sketched a proof by construction
–  Result is both a proof and an algorithm
–  Why doesn’t this work for a non linear grammar?
•  Since we have an NFA for the language, the
right-linear grammar produces a regular
language

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 Proof - Part 2 Any regular language L is generated
Languages by some regular grammar G
Regular
Generated by
Languages
Regular Grammars
Proof idea:

Any regular language L is generated Let M be the NFA with L = L(M ).

by some regular grammar G
Construct from M a regular grammar G
such that L( M ) = L(G )

Step 1:
NFA to Grammar Example Convert Edges to Productions
•  Since L is regular there is an NFA b
b
q0 → aq1 M
a a
a a q0 q1 q2
q0 q1 q2 q1 → bq1
This transition in the NFA q1 → aq2 λ b
Looks a lot like a production rule λ b
q3 q2 → bq3 q3

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 Step 2: Step 2:
λ Edges and Final States λ Edges and Final States
b b
q0 → aq1 q0 → aq1
q1 → bq1 M a q1 → bq1 M a
a a
q0 q1 q2 q0 q1 q2
q1 → aq2 q1 → aq2
λ b λ b
q2 → bq3 q2 → bq3
q3 q3
q3 → q1 q3 → q1
If is a final state, add
q3 → λ q3 → λ

But What About Left-Linear

In General
Grammars
•  Given any NFA, the previous procedure produces a
right linear grammar •  What happens if we reverse a left linear grammar as
–  We sketched a proof by construction follows:
–  Result is both a proof and an algorithm
•  Every regular language has an NFA Reverses to
–  Can convert that NFA into a right linear grammar
–  Thus every regular language has a right linear grammar Reverses to
•  Combined with Part 1, we have shown right linear •  The result is a right linear grammar.
–  If the left linear grammar produced L, then what does the
grammars are yet another way to describe regular resulting right linear grammar produce?
languages

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 But What About Left-Linear Left-Linear Grammars
Grammars Produce Regular Languages
•  Start with a Left Linear grammar that produces
•  The previous slide reversed the language! want to show is regular

•  Can produce a right linear grammar that produces

Reverses to

•  All right linear grammars produce regular languages

Reverses to so is a regular language
•  If the left linear grammar produced language ,
then the resulting right linear grammar produces •  The reverse of a regular language is regular so
Claim we just proved left linear grammars is a regular language!
produce regular languages? Why?

For regular languages L1 and L2 We say: Regular languages are closed under
we will prove that:

Union: L1 ∪ L2 Union: L1 ∪ L2
Concatenation: L1L2 Concatenation: L1L2
Star: L1 * Are regular Star: L1 *
Languages
Reversal: L1R Reversal: L1R
Complement: L1 Complement: L1
Intersection: L1 ∩ L2 Intersection: L1 ∩ L2

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 Example
Regular language L1 Regular language L2 M1
a
L(M1 ) = L1 L(M 2 ) = L2 L1 = {a nb} b
n≥0

NFA M1 NFA M2
M2
b a
L2 = {ba}
Single final state Single final state

Union Example
M1 NFA for L1 ∪ L2 = {a nb} ∪ {ba}
•  NFA for
L1 ∪ L2 L1 = {a nb}
a
λ λ
b
λ λ
λ M2 λ
λ L2 = {ba} λ
b a

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 Concatenation Example
L1L2 = {a nb}{ba} = {a nbba}
NFA for
NFA for L1L2
M1 M2
L1 = {a nb}
λ λ a
L2 = {ba}
b λ b a λ

Star Operation Example

NFA for L1 * λ w = w1w2  wk
NFA for
λ ∈ L1 * L1* = {a nb} * λ wi ∈ L1
M1
λ λ L1 = {a nb}
a
λ b λ

λ
λ

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 Example
Reverse
M1
NFA for L1R
a
L1 M1 M1′ L1 = {a nb} b

M1′
1. Reverse all transitions
a
L1R n
= {ba } b
2. Make initial state final state
and vice versa

Complement Example
M1
L1 M1 L1 M1′
a a, b

L1 = {a nb} b a, b

1. Take the DFA that accepts L1 M1′

a, b
L1 = {a, b} * −{a nb} a
2. Make final states non-final, b a, b
and vice-versa

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 Intersection What’s Next
•  Read
DeMorgan’s Law: L1 ∩ L2 = L1 ∪ L2 –  Linz Chapter 1,2.1, 2.2. 2.3, (skip 2.4), 3, and Chapter 4
L1 , L2 –  JFLAP Startup, Chapter 1, 2.1, (skip 2.2), 3, 4
regular
•  Next Lecture Topics from Chapter 4.2 and 4.3
–  Properties of regular languages
L1 , L2 regular –  The pumping lemma (for regular languages)
•  Quiz 1 in Recitation on Wednesday 9/17
L1 ∪ L2 regular –  Covers Linz 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, and JFLAP 1, 2.1
–  Closed book, but you may bring one sheet of 8.5 x 11 inch paper
with any notes you like.
L1 ∪ L2 regular –  Quiz will take the full hour on Wednesday
•  Homework
L1 ∩ L2 regular –  Homework Due Thursday

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