PUMP DESCRIPTION

SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS 2

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 2
AXIAL PUMPS 2
MIXED FLOW PUMPS 2
PUMP COMPONENTS 2
PUMP CURVES 3
HEAD DEVELOPED BY AN ESP STAGE 3
HORSEPOWER PER STAGE 4
RECOMMENDED OPERATING RANGE (ROR) 4
CONSTRUCTION TYPES 5
PUMP SHAFTS 6
APPLICATION OPTIONS 6
SAND HANDLING OPTIONS 7
PUMP CHARACTERISTICS AND AFFINITY LAWS 9
FIXED SPEED PUMPS 10
VARIABLE SPEED PUMPS 10
GAS-HANDLING 10
FAILURE MODES OF PUMPS 11

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

Submersible Pumps

ESP’s are classified as rotodynamic pumps of which two general types can be
distinguished. These are axial flow pumps, in which the flow enters and leaves the
impeller axially, and radial flow or centrifugal pumps in which the fluid enters the
impeller axially and leaves radially. The majority of downhole pumps are essentially
radial in nature, although for higher flow rates, impellers, which combine the
characteristics of radial and axial impellers are used.

Centrifugal pumps

The increase in static head across a centrifugal pump is dependent on the acceleration
of the fluid passing the impeller, which is governed by the speed of rotation and the
diameter of the impeller. The fluid is forced to rotate by the vanes of the impeller, and
is thus accelerated both radially and tangentially. At the outlet of each impeller the
fluid enters a diffuser in which it is decelerated, increasing the static pressure, and
directed into the inlet eye of the following stage. In order to achieve the required
pressure rise in a downhole pump multiple impeller stages are used. In general
centrifugal pumps are used in applications in which high pressures are required at
moderate rates of flow.

Axial Pumps

In an axial pump, the fluid passes through a rotating impeller similar in design to a ship's
propeller. This causes the fluid to be accelerated both axially and tangentially. The
fluid then passes through a set of static vanes in which the tangential velocity
component is redirected axially. At the outlet of the static vanes the fluid enters a
diffuser in which the fluid is decelerated, increasing the static pressure. Axial pumps
are most efficient in applications requiring high rates of flow to be pumped at low
pressures.

Mixed Flow Pumps

Axial flow pumps are more efficient in applications with high rates of flow than purely
centrifugal pumps. In order to keep the fluid path through the pump as straight as
possible in a downhole pump of restricted diameter, designs of pumps for larger flow
rates employ 'mixed flow' impellers in which the fluid is accelerated by the impeller in
the radial, tangential and axial directions. The impeller used is a hybrid design employing
the characteristics of both axial and centrifugal pumps to accelerate the fluid. The
increase in head developed per stage by mixed pumps under design operating conditions
is generally lower than that developed by purely radial types of a similar diameter due to
a drop in efficiency caused by lack of guidance in the impeller passages.

Pump Components

The downhole pump is made up of a number of pump stages, mounted on a common shaft.
Each stage consists of an impeller, which is turned by the shaft, and a static diffuser,
which is anchored to the housing. The diffuser directs the flow of fluid leaving an
impeller to the inlet of the following stage. For a given pump diameter, a number of

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

different stage designs are available. The type of stage used is determined by the flow
rate. The number of stages is determined by the required lift; The total head developed
is given by the product of the number of stages and the pressure rise per stage.

Pump Curves

Schlumberger’s published pump curves show the characteristics of a single pump stage
tested based on API recommended practice 11S2. More importantly the curves show for
a given operating speed the following:

 Head developed across flow range

 HP required at each operating point

 Recommended operating range

Head Developed by an ESP Stage

Efficiency

Pump Range

Head

HP per Stage

By examining the curve above we can see that at 38000BPD the N1500A pump stage will
produce 140’ of lift or head. It does not matter to the pump what the specific gravity of
the pumped fluid is, for that condition it will always produce 140’ of lift. This is very
useful for producing pump curves but not very practical in the real world as we are not
very often producing liquid straight out of the pump to atmosphere. More often head
needs to be converted to pressure, in the ‘imperial oil field’ this is almost always Pounds
per square Inch. The conversion is relatively straightforward

PSI=(Head in feet)x(Weight in pounds of one square inch of fluid 1’ high)

This suggests that you know the weight by volume of your fluid, which is not usually the
case. However a 1’ high column of water will exert a pressure of 0.433pounds of pressure
over a 1” square, so if you know the s.g. of the pumped fluid it is easy to work out the
head in PSI.

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

PSI=(Head in feet)x(0.433)x(S.g. of pumped fluid)

Horsepower per stage

In the same way that the lift per stage can be read for each flow rate, the HP required
to ‘turn’ the stage can also be calculated. For the 48000BPD case each stage will use
approximately 68HP.

Recommended Operating Range (ROR)

The recommended operating range of is determined and used for a number of different
factors and for a number of different reasons.

Api Testing-Pumps must fall within +/- 5% on head and flow, less than 8% on horsepower
and +/-10% on efficiency within the ROR. Not all pumps match the performance curves,
Schlumberger curves will match to within API RP within the ROR. The further away from
the ROR the pump is operated at the larger the percentage difference can become.

Efficiency-The ROR is set around the best efficiency point(BEP) of the pump stage
operating outside of this range will undoubtedly require a larger pump and motor to be
purchased as well as more electricity to operate it.

Thrust-Each pump stage will be exposed to various forces in its normal operating life.
These are

 Gravity acting on the bouyed mass of the impeller. This force will always act
downwards, this will not always be in the direction of the shaft, remember deviated
wells.

 The net force resulting from the differential pressure in the stage. Unless there is
a wide open flow condition the stage will always develop head hence the ‘topside’ will
always be greater than the ‘downside’, hence this force is always downwards.

 The force from the momentum of the fluid coming into the stage.This will always be
upwards unless there is a no flow condition, in which case it will be zero.

Depending on whether the resultant force is positive or negative determines whether

the pump stage is in downthrust or upthrust, it is practically improbable that the forces
will be in equilibrium. As a general rule of thumb, pump operation to the left of the ROR
will mean the stage is in downthrust (the differential pressure at lower flows out weighs
the force of the fluid momentum). To the right of the ROR the stage is generally
considered to be in upthrust.

In upthrust, the topside of the impeller will need to handle the force created against
the underside of the top diffuser stage. In downthrust this force will need to be
handled on the underside of the impeller stage.

Downthrust can be handled in every stage or by transfer to a suitable location within the
pump string, it all depends on construction of the unit.

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

Construction Types

The impellers may be fixed to the shaft so that any axial thrust is transferred through
the shaft to the thrust bearing in the protector, compression type or may be free
floating on the shaft with any thrust developed transferred through thrust washers to
the pump housing, floater type.

Construction types of pumps

All
Thrust Impeller
Carried Thrust
here

Pump

Is
there
Protector any Protector
Thrust Thrust
Bearing seen
here?
Motor Motor
Thrust
Bearing

Compression Floater
When Schlumberger install a compression type pump it may be necessary to perform a
process called the ‘Field spacing procedure’, where shims are installed in the pump to
pump and pump to intake couplings. This will raise the pump shaft so that the impeller
does not touch the diffuser or will allow the impellers to sit on the downthrust washers.
In this way we can ensure that all the thrust will be transferred to the protector thrust
bearing.

COMPRESSION
PUMPS SHIMMING

Consult Field Service

Manual to determine the
appropriate amount of lift
or gap recommended for
every type of pump
stage.

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

Pump shafts

The pump shaft, which is exposed to the well fluid, is commonly manufactured from K-
Monel. The shaft diameter will determine the maximum torque loading, and therefore
the maximum number of stages, which a pump may contain. The pump shaft is supported
by radial bearings, which prevent flexing of the shaft in operation. The well fluid
lubricates the bearings. Specialised bearings are required in sandy environments, which
consist of extremely hard bearing faces mounted on a compliant rubber support. The
number of bearings should be increased in a sandy environment to reduce the bearing
loads.

The weight of the shaft and the force due to the pressure differential acting on the
cross section of the shaft is supported by the thrust bearing in the seal assembly.

High strength shafts are manufactured from Inconel, giving an increase of around 60%
in the torque handling capability compared with a K-Monel shaft of the same diameter.

Application Options

Compression ‘v’ Floater

The thrust developed in high rate or larger diameter pumps may be large, and fixed
impellers should be used to transfer the load to the thrust bearing. When fixed
impellers are used, up-rated tungsten carbide or ceramic bearing inserts may be
required to maximise pump life.

Floater (FL) Construction

Floater pumps should only be used when the intended operation point falls within the
recommended operating range of the pump, and where the stage design has a
downthrust washer. In the operating position the impellers are free to move
independently and ideally, operate in a slight down thrust mode within its recommended
operating envelope, creating a seal with the impeller and the diffuser below. This allows
the downthrust load of the pump to be shared between each impeller within the pump
and the protector thrust bearing is only required to handle the differential pressure
across the pump shaft.

Compression Construction
Compression pumps should be used when operation may occur outside the recommended
operating range or when abrasives are present. In compression pumps, all impellers are
fixed on the shaft and not permitted to move up and down independently along the
shaft. The impeller does not contact the diffuser below. The protector thrust bearing
must be capable of handling the stage’s downthrust plus the differential pressure across
the shaft.

Compression construction is also a requirement given the Variable Speed Drive. The
drive presents the ability to vary the pumps' performance over a wide range of flow.
The compression design ensures that throughout the range of flow applications the
downthrust load is distributed on the Thrust Chamber bearing. The increased
downthrust at higher frequencies will be adequately supported by the protector bearing
with no concern for increased wear on the pump at higher frequencies.

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

With possible abrasives and aggressive fluids in the pump, it is preferable to carry the
downthrust in the ‘clean oil’ of the thrust chamber, instead of on a thrust washer that
must operate within the well bore fluid conditions.

Diffuser Pedestals

By reviewing the areas within the pump stage where the thrust is carried it is possible to
further increase the thrust carrying capabilities of a pump stage.The pedestals in the
diffusers are extensions of the diffuser bore and can be enlarged to provide additional
downthrust surface area within the impeller. The additional downthrust washer,
normally called either “inner downthrust washer” or “sand washer”, increases the
downthrust carrying capability of the stage, over a non-pedestal stage. This pedestal
design provides additional radial support along the shaft and eliminates impeller hub
exposure to sand impingement. These two factors add to increased reliability of the
pump. An additional benefit of the pedestal is a reduction in fluid leakage within the
stage, which limits the diffuser bore and impeller hubs exposure to the abrasive fluid.
Below is a cross section of a mixed flow stage.

Sand Handling Options

The impellers and diffusers in ESPs are normally manufactured from corrosion and
abrasion resistant steel alloys such as NI-Resist (a nickel-iron alloy), although ceramics
and other synthetic materials such as polyphenylene sulphide (Ryton) are also used.

The presence of sand or other abrasives in the fluid being pumped can lead to rapid wear
of the impellers and diffusers of a pump. The impellers and diffusers are designed to
minimise the exposure of the diffuser bore and impeller hubs to high velocity fluid since
abrasion of these areas will lead to fluid leakage within the stage, reducing pump
efficiency.

Abrasion Resistance (ARZ)

The Zirconia ceramic bearings used in ARZ pumps and intakes provide excellent
properties for oilfield use. The material is hard enough to be virtually unaffected by the
abrasives in the produced fluid yet rugged enough, when used with the compliant

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

mounting system, to withstand the rigors of oilfield handling. ARZ pumps have withstood
repeated drop testing where other rigid mounted ceramics have failed on the first drop.
Any ceramic can be broken, but tests have proven Zirconia to be 7 times more resistant
to breakage than Silicon Carbide in impact toughness tests. This toughness and the
shock absorbing capabilities of the compliant mounting system make ARZ pumps the best
choice for oilfield applications. Zirconia is unaffected by H 2S and CO2. It has excellent
lubrication properties and will maintain its structure to about 1000oF.

Radial stabilisation and the subsequent reduction in stage wear allows for pump
efficiency and flow capacity to remain within API limits for significantly increased
periods of time when operating in abrasive environments. If reductions in flow capacity
and efficiency are eliminated or favourably impacted, then production will remain higher
and, subsequently, fluid velocities past the motors will remain higher. This result could
have a tremendous impact on system runlife because of the direct relationship between
flow velocity and internal motor temperature. By controlling radial wear no vibration is
transmitted to the rest of the equipment string. Pump vibration can lead to fluid leakage
past the shaft seals in the protector allowing well fluid into the motor and subsequent
motor failure.

Following radial wear, the next most likely cause of premature failure is downthrust
wear. For increased downthrust capability, ARZ pumps feature a high temp, composite
downthrust washer which are double the normal thickness typically found in other
pumps.

Pedestals in the diffusers provide additional downthrust surface area. These pedestals
also decrease radial leakage within the stage. This limits the exposure of the diffuser
bore and impeller hubs to the abrasive fluid.

By eliminating radial wear and downthrust problems the compliant mounted Zirconia
bearings will extend the life of the complete downhole pumping system.

Coatings For Corrosion / Erosion Resistance and Performance

Schlumberger has developed a number of proprietary coatings, which, enhance the

operating characteristics of a particular pump stage. Hard Face coatings of a
Tungsten/Chrome Carbide have been developed for use in the North Sea and South
America to combat premature wear due to sand production. The coating is applied after
finished machining to the flow passageways of the impellers and diffusers.

Coating

No Coating

Coating

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

Pump characteristics and Affinity Laws

Pump stages are tested by the manufacturers using fresh water at rotational speeds of
2917 and 3500 rpm, corresponding to operation with a two pole induction motor on 50
and 60 Hz supplies with 2.8% slip. The head developed at these speeds is measured for
a range of flow rates, from zero up to the maximum of which the pump is capable. Over
this range the power absorbed by the pump is measured and the efficiency of conversion
of mechanical power to hydraulic power derived.

The curves provided are only applicable for a fixed pump speed, diameter and viscosity
of fluid. It is often the case that pump characteristics are required for differing pump
speeds and fluid densities. To predict the effect of varying these parameters, use can
be made of the "Affinity laws" as given below:

 rp m 2
F lo w rp m 2  F lo w rp m 1 x 
 rp m 1

 rp m 2 2
H e a d rpm 2  H e a d rp m 1x  
 rpm 1
3
 rpm 2
b h p rpm 2  b h p rpm 1x  
 rpm 1

As pump diameters are rarely changed in ESP applications the practical effect of the
"affinity laws" relates mainly to rotational speed changes. It can be observed from the
above that flow rate is directly proportional to rotational speed, head is proportional to
the square of rotational speed and power is proportional to the cube of rotational speed.
The flow rate at which peak hydraulic efficiency is obtained is proportional to rotational
speed and torque required is proportional to the square of rotational speed. Use of
these laws is only valid for dynamically similar conditions and enables families of pump
curves to be derived from the single speed curves provided by the manufacturer. It is
important to note that dynamic similarity will not exist if the pump speed or flow rate
are increased without the corresponding increase in pump pressure. In such a case the
increase in flow rate will be greater than predicted by the affinity laws.

For example: If a pump, operating with a supply frequency of 60 Hz, at a flowrate and
head corresponding to the peak hydraulic efficiency, has its supply frequency increased
to 75 Hz, the pump will continue to operate at peak efficiency only if the flowrate is
increased by a factor of 1.25, and the head difference across the pump increased by a
factor of 1.252. The power absorbed by the pump will increase by a factor of 1.253. In a
downhole application the inlet pressure is fixed by the productivity index or inflow
performance while the discharge pressure is fixed by the depth of the pump and the
pressure losses in the tubing. It is therefore unlikely that the discharge pressure will

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

rise by this amount, and the flow will increase by more than 25% unless choked back at
surface. This will effectively cause the pump to operate to the right of the peak
efficiency point. In order to determine the operating conditions at the higher frequency
an iterative process is required, which must satisfy the inflow and tubing performance
curves in addition to those of the pump.

Fixed Speed Pumps

For a pump operating at a fixed power frequency the characteristics given by

Schlumberger are sufficient to predict the performance of a pump. A pump design
giving a high efficiency at the required flow rate is selected, and the number of stages
calculated based on the required head increase. It is normal to overdesign the head
requirements for a particular pump duty. This will enable changes in reservoir pressure
and/or well PI to be compensated for without moving away from the optional efficiency
point of the pump. Small deviations in inlet or outlet pressures can be partially
compensated for by the pump characteristics. For example, a reduction in flow rate and
inlet pressure due to a change in PI will cause the operating point to move to the left on
the curve where the pump will generate a larger head.

Variable Speed Pumps

The speed of rotation of an ESP is governed by the frequency of the alternating current
supply, which is normally either 50 Hz or 60 Hz. The ability of a constant speed pump to
accommodate changes in well performance or fluid characteristics is limited to a narrow
range of flow rate and head conditions. In order to allow pumps to operate over a wider
range of conditions Variable Speed Drives have been developed in which the rotational
speed of the pump is controlled by changing the frequency of the motor supply current.
As discussed above, using the affinity laws, the behaviour of a given pump can be
predicted for a range of speeds from the characteristics at a single speed.

Care must be taken when utilising higher operating frequencies. As previously discussed,
the potential exists to significantly increase downthrust when operating at higher
frequencies. Bearing wear also increases approximately proportionally to the cubic
power of rotational speed which 'may lead to significantly shorter pump run lives.

Gas-Handling

The type of impeller utilised will effect the pumps ability to handle gas. Pure radial flow
impellers (typically found in smaller pumps) will usually perform more poorly with respect
to gas than the mixed flow impellers found in larger pumps. Mixed flow impellers (in
ESP’s these are usually combination mixed/radial design) generally produce more head
per stage and have a greater ability to compress gas bubbles. They also typically have
larger vane openings and can handle larger gas bubbles.

The completion size in relation to the well size will have a bearing on the natural gas
separation that occurs as a result of gravity. For example, with a large pump in a small
casing it is more likely that produced gas will be ingested into the pump than with a
smaller pump with greater bypass area.

Schlumberger have also linked the ability of a pump to handle free gas to the pressure
at the pump intake. This pressure effects the gas bubble size and the in-situ flow

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

regime. This has been translated by Schlumberger into a chart relating vapour liquid
ratio and pump intake pressure to gas locking of pumps. For this curve vapour liquid ratio
(VLR) is defined as gas volume divided by liquid volume. What can be observed from the
curve is that at higher pressure ESP pumps can potentially handle higher gas volumes
than the 10% rule of thumb. As an example, at an intake pressure of 1000 psi a limiting
vapour liquid ratio of 1.2 is noted from the chart which corresponds to a free gas volume

Dunbar Chart
2
1.9
1.8
1.7 T
1.6 u
Intake Pressure (psi*10)

1.5 r
1.4 p
1.3
i
1.2
1.1 n
1
0.9 R
0.8 a
0.7 n
0.6
g
0.5
0.4 e
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4
vapour liquid ratio

of around 55% suggesting significantly higher gas handling capability.

Vapou Liquid Ratio =(free gas%/(100-free gas%))

Care should be exercised when utilising this chart. Schlumberger recommend that the
curve should be viewed as a wide band that could move to either side and that the
purpose of the curve is to give a general guideline that gas problems are worse at lower
pump intake pressures.

In addition to the Dunbar curve work has been performed by Turpin relating pump
instability to VLR. This work was performed in laboratory experiments at pressures up
to around 400 psi. In general the findings of the experiment indicated that:

- at near atmospheric pressure serious pump performance degradation occurs at gas

volumes above 7 to 10%;

- at higher intake pressures less gas compression is required at the pump;

- mixed flow impeller show less degradation than pure radial flow impellers;

- rapid deterioration occurs below the pump best efficiency point (flowrate);

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 PUMP DESCRIPTION

Failure Modes of Pumps

* The most common cause of pump failure in an abrasive environment is radial wear of
the pump bearings causing vibration, and resulting in failure of the protector and motor
seals. Abrasion and erosion of the impellers and diffusers will reduce the efficiency of the
pump.
* Operation of a pump outside its design envelope may result in upthrust or
downthrust being applied to the impellers, resulting in wear and vibration and premature
failure of the pump or thrust bearing.
* Attempting to start a motor while fluid is draining back through the pump may result
in twisting or breaking of the pump shaft.
* Corrosion of the shaft, impellers and diffusers may occur when pumping corrosive
fluids containing C02 and/or H2S.
* Deposition of wax or scale may occur within the pump reducing its efficiency.
* Incorrect handling or doglegs may result in distortion of the pump body. This will
result in rapid wear and failure of the pump.
* Shocks or flexing of the pump during transport will cause hardened bearing surfaces
to crack.

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