Mechanical Springs

Exert Force.
Provide flexibility.
Store or absorb energy.

1
Helical Spring

Helical coil spring with round wire.

Equilibrium forces at cut section anywhere in the body of the spring
indicates direct shear and torsion.

Fig. 10–1

2
Stresses in Helical Springs

Torsional shear and direct shear.

Additive (maximum) on inside fiber of
cross-section.
Tr F
 max  
J A

Substitute terms
 max   , T  F D 2, r  d 2,
J   d 4 32 A  d 2 4 Fig. 10–1b
8FD 4 F
  2
d 3
d

3
Stresses in Helical Springs
8FD 4 F
  2
d 3
d
Factor out the torsional stress
 d   8 FD 
  1 
 2 D    d 3 
D
Define Spring Index C  (10 -1)
d
Define Shear Stress Correction Factor
1 2C  1
Ks  1   (10 - 3)
2C 2C

Maximum shear stress for helical spring

8FD
  Ks (10 - 2)
d 3
4
Curvature Effect

Stress concentration type of effect on inner fiber due to curvature.

Can be ignored for static, ductile conditions due to localized cold-
working.
Can account for effect by replacing Ks with Wahl factor or Bergsträsser
factor which account for both direct shear and curvature effect.
4C  1 0.615
KW   (10 - 4)
4C  4 C
4C  2
KB  (10 - 5)
4C  3
8FD
  KB (10 - 7)
d 3
Cancelling the curvature effect to isolate the curvature factor
KB 2C (4C  2)
Kc   (10 - 6)
K s (4C  3)(2C  1)
5
Deflection of Helical Springs

Use Castigliano’s method to relate force and deflection

T 2l F 2l
U 
2GJ 2 AG
Substituting T = FD∕2, l = πDN, J = πd4∕32, and A = πd2∕4
4 F 2 D 3 N 2 F 2 DN
U 4

d G d 2G
U 8 FD 3 N 4 FDN
y   2
F 4
d G d G
8FD3 N  1  8FD3 N
y 1  2
 (10 - 8)
4
d G 2C  d 4G
d 4G
k (10 - 9)
8D3 N
Fig. 10–1a
6
Ends of Compression Springs

Fig. 10–2

7
Formulas for Compression Springs With Different Ends

Table 10–1

Type of Spring Ends

Plain and Squared or Squared and
Term Plain Ground Closed Ground
End coils, Ne 0 1 2 2
Total coils, Nt Na Na + 1 Na + 2 Na + 2
Free length, L0 pNa + d P(Na + 1) pNa + 3d pNa + 2d
Solid length, Ls d(Nt + 1) dNt d(Nt + 1) dNt
Pitch, p (L0 − d)∕Na L0 ∕(Na + 1) (L0 − 3d)∕Na (L0 − 2d)∕Na
Source: Data from Design Handbook, 1987, p. 32.

Na is the number of active coils.

8
Set Removal

Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a spring to

induce useful residual stresses.

The spring is made longer than needed, then compressed to solid height,
intentionally exceeding the yield strength.

This operation sets the spring to the required final free length.

Yielding induces residual stresses opposite in direction to those induced

in service.

10 to 30 percent of the initial free length should be removed.

Set removal is not recommended when springs are subject to fatigue.

9
Critical Deflection for Stability

Buckling type of instability can occur in compression springs when the

deflection exceeds the critical deflection ycr.
  C2 
12

ycr  L0C1 1  1  2   (10 - 10)
  eff  
Leff is the effective slenderness ratio
L
eff  0 (10 -11)
D
 is the end-condition constant, defined on the next slide.
C'1 and C'2 are elastic constants.
E
C1 
2( E  G )
2 2 ( E  G )
C2 
2G  E
10
End-Condition Constant

The α term in Eq. (10–11) is the end-condition constant.

It accounts for the way in which the ends of the spring are supported.
Values are given in Table 10–2.

End Condition Constant α

Spring supported between flat parallel surfaces (fixed ends) 0.5
One end supported by flat surface perpendicular to spring axis 0.707
(fixed); other end pivoted (hinged)
Both ends pivoted (hinged) 1
One end clamped; other end free 2
*Ends supported by flat surfaces must be squared and ground.

Table 10–2
11
Absolute Stability

Absolute stability occurs when, in Eq. (10–10),

C2 eff
2
1

This results in the condition for absolute stability

 D  2( E  G) 
12

L0  (10 -12)
  2G  E 

For steels, this turns out to be

D
L0  2.63 (10 -13)


12
Some Common Spring Steels

Hard-drawn wire (0.60 to 0.70C).

• Cheapest general-purpose.
• Use only where life, accuracy, and deflection are not too important.
Oil-tempered wire (0.60 to 0.70C).
• General-purpose.
• Heat treated for greater strength and uniformity of properties.
• Often used for larger diameter spring wire.
Music wire (0.80 to 0.95C).
• Higher carbon for higher strength.
• Best, toughest, and most widely used for small springs.
• Good for fatigue.

13
Some Common Spring Steels

Chrome-vanadium.
• Popular alloy spring steel.
• Higher strengths than plain carbon steels.
• Good for fatigue, shock, and impact.
Chrome-silicon.
• Good for high stresses, long fatigue life, and shock.

14
Strength of Spring Materials

With small wire diameters, strength is a function of diameter.

A graph of tensile strength versus wire diameter is almost a straight line
on log-log scale.
The equation of this line is,
A
Sut  m (10 -14)
d

where A is the intercept and m is the slope.

Values of A and m for common spring steels are given in Table 10–4.

15
 Constants for Estimating Tensile Strength
A
Sut  (10 -14)
dm
Relative
ASTM Exponent A, Diameter, A, Cost of
Material No. m Diameter, in kpsi · inm mm Mpa · mmm Wire
Music wire* A228 0.145 0.004 to 0.256 201 0.10 to 6.5 2211 2.6
OQ&T wire† A229 0.187 0.020 to 0.500 147 0.5 to 12.7 1855 1.3
Hard-drawn wire‡ A227 0.190 0.028 to 0.500 140 0.7 to 12.7 1783 1.0
Chrome-vanadium wire§ A232 0.168 0.032 to 0.437 169 0.8 to 11.1 2005 3.1
Chrome-silicon wire|| A401 0.108 0.063 to 0.375 202 1.6 to 9.5 1974 4.0
302 Stainless wire# A313 0.146 0.013 to 0.10 169 0.3 to 2.5 1867 7.6 to 11
0.263 0.10 to 0.20 128 2.5 to 5 2065
0.478 0.20 to 0.40 90 5 to 10 2911
Phosphor-bronze wire** B159 0 0.004 to 0.022 145 0.1 to 0.6 1000 8.0
0.028 0.022 to 0.075 121 0.6 to 2 913
0.064 0.075 to 0.30 110 2 to 7.5 932

Table 10–4
16
Estimating Torsional Yield Strength

Since helical springs experience shear stress, shear yield strength is

needed.
If actual data is not available, estimate from tensile strength.
Assume yield strength is between 60 to 90% of tensile strength.

0.6Sut  Ssy  0.9Sut

Assume the distortion energy theory can be employed to relate the shear
strength to the normal strength.
Ssy  0.577 S y

This results in
0.35Sut  Ssy  0.52Sut (10 -15)

17
Mechanical Properties of Some Spring Wires (Table 10–5)
Elastic Limit,
E G
Percent of Sut Diameter
Material Tension Torsion d, in Mpsi GPa Mpsi GPa
Music wire A228 65 to 75 45 to 60 <0.032 29.5 203.4 12.0 82.7
0.033 to 0.063 29.0 200 11.85 81.7
0.064 to 0.125 28.5 196.5 11.75 81.0
>0.125 28.0 193 11.6 80.0
HD spring A227 60 to 70 45 to 55 <0.032 28.8 198.6 11.7 80.7
0.033 to 0.063 28.7 197.9 11.6 80.0
0.064 to 0.125 28.6 197.2 11.5 79.3
>0.125 28.5 196.5 11.4 78.6
Oil tempered A239 85 to 90 45 to 50 28.5 196.5 11.2 77.2
Valve spring A230 85 to 90 50 to 60 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
Chrome-vanadium A231 88 to 93 65 to 75 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
A232 88 to 93 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
Chrome-silicon A401 85 to 93 65 to 75 29.5 203.4 11.2 77.2
Stainless steel
A313* 65 to 75 45 to 55 28 193 10 69.0
17-7PH 75 to 80 55 to 60 29.5 208.4 11 75.8
414 65 to 70 42 to 55 29 200 11.2 77.2
420 65 to 75 45 to 55 29 200 11.2 77.2
431 72 to 76 50 to 55 30 206 11.5 79.3
Phosphor-bronze B159 75 to 80 45 to 50 15 103.4 6 41.4
Beryllium-copper B197 70 50 17 117.2 6.5 44.8
Inconel alloy X-750 65 to 70 40 to 45 31 213.7 11.2 77.2

18
Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses

Table 10–6 Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses for Helical Compression

Springs in Static Applications
Maximum Percent of Tensile Strength
Before Set Removed After Set Removed
Material (includes KW or KB) (includes Ks)
Music wire and cold- 45 60 to 70
drawn carbon steel
Hardened and tempered 50 65 to 75
carbon and low-alloy steel
Austenitic stainless 35 55 to 65
steels
Nonferrous alloys 35 55 to 65
Source: Robert E. Joerres, “Springs,” Chapter 6 in Joseph E. Shigley, Charles R. Mischke, and Thomas
H. Brown, Jr. (eds.), Standard Handbook of Machine Design, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004.

19
Example 10–1

A helical compression spring is made of no. 16 music wire. The outside

coil diameter of the spring is 167 in. The ends are squared and there are 12 12
total turns.
(a) Estimate the torsional yield strength of the wire.
(b) Estimate the static load corresponding to the yield strength.
(c) Estimate the scale of the spring.
(d) Estimate the deflection that would be caused by the load in part (b).
(e) Estimate the solid length of the spring.
( f ) What length should the spring be to ensure that when it is compressed
solid and then released, there will be no permanent change in the free length?
(g) Given the length found in part ( f ), is buckling a possibility?
(h) What is the pitch of the body coil?

20
Example 10–1

(a) From Table A–28, the wire diameter is d = 0.037 in. From Table 10–4,
we find A = 201 kpsi ·inm and m = 0.145. Therefore, from Equation (10–
14)

A 201
Sut  m  0.145
 324 kpsi
d 0.037

Then, from Table 10–6,

Ssy  0.45Sut  0.45(324)  146 kpsi Answer

21
Example 10–1

(b) The mean spring coil diameter is D  167  0.037  0.400 in, and so
the spring index is C = 0.400/0.037 = 10.8. Then, from Equation (10–6),

4C  2 4(10.8)  2
KB    1.124
4C  3 4(10.8)  3

Now rearrange Equation (10–7) replacing τ with Ssy, and solve for F:

 d 3 Ssy  (0.0373 )146(103 )

F   6.46 lbf Answer
8K B D 8(1.124)0.400

22
Example 10–1

(c) From Table 10–1, Na = 12.5 − 2 = 10.5 turns. In Table 10–5, G =

11.85 Mpsi, and the scale of the spring is found to be, from Equation
(10–9),

d 4G 0.0374 (11.85)106
k 3
 3
 4.13 lbf in Answer
8D N a 8(0.400 )10.5

F 6.46
(d ) y   1.56 in Answer
k 4.13

23
Example 10–1

(e) From Table 10–1,

Ls  ( Nt  1)d  (12.5  1)0.037  0.500 in Answer
(f) L0  y  Ls  1.56  0.500  2.06 in. Answer

(g) To avoid buckling, Equation (10–13) and Table 10–2 give

D 0.400
L0  2.63  2.63  2.10 in Answer
 0.5
Mathematically, a free length of 2.06 in is less than 2.10 in, and buckling
is unlikely. However, the forming of the ends will control how close α is
to 0.5. This has to be investigated and an inside rod or exterior tube or
hole may be needed.
(h) Finally, from Table 10–1, the pitch of the body coil is
L0  3d 2.06  3(0.037)
p   0.186 in Answer
Na 10.5
24
Helical Compression Spring Design for Static Service

Limit the design solution space by setting some practical limits.

Preferred range for spring index.

4  C  12 (10 - 18)

Preferred range for number of active coils

3  N a  15 (10 -19)

25
Helical Compression Spring Design for Static Service

To achieve best linearity of spring constant, preferred to limit operating

force to the central 75% of the force-deflection curve between F = 0 and
F = Fs.
This limits the maximum operating force to Fmax ≤ 7/8 Fs
Define fractional overrun to closure as ξ where,

Fs  (1   ) Fmax (10 -17)

This leads to
 7
Fs  (1   ) Fmax  (1   )   Fs
 8

Solving the outer equality for ξ,   1 7  0.143  0.15

Thus, it is recommended that
  0.15 (10 - 20)
26
Summary of Recommended Design Conditions

The following design conditions are recommended for helical

compression spring design for static service.

4  C  12 (10 - 18)

3  N a  15 (10 -19)

  0.15 (10 - 20)

ns  1.2 (10 - 21)

where ns is the factor of safety at solid height.

27
Figure of Merit for High Volume Production

For high volume production, the figure of merit (fom) may be the cost of
the wire.
The fom would be proportional to the relative material cost, weight
density, and volume.
 2 d 2 Nt D
fom  (relative material cost) (10 - 22)
4

28
Design Flowchart for Static Loading

Continue on next slide

29
Design Flowchart for Static Loading
Continued from CD d
previous slide K B  (4C  2) (4C  3)
 s  8 K B (1   ) Fmax D ( d 3 )
ns  S sy  s
OD  D  d
ID  D  d
N a  Gd 4 ymax (8 D 3 Fmax )
N t : Table 10  1
Ls : Table 10  1
LO : Table 10  1
( LO )cr  2.63D 
fom  (rel. cost)  2 d 2 N t D 4

30
Design Flowchart for Static Loading

Print or display: d, D, C, OD, ID, Na, Nt , Ls, LO, (LO)cr, ns, fom.
Build a table, conduct design assessment by inspection.
Eliminate infeasible designs by showing active constraints.
Choose among satisfactory designs using the figure of merit.

31
Finding Spring Index for As-Wound Branch

In the design flowchart, for the branch with free, as-wound condition, the
spring index is found as follows:
From Eqs. (10–6) and (10–17),
S sy 8Fs D 4C  2  8(1   ) Fmax C 
 KB  (a )
ns d 3
4C  3  d 2 
Let
S sy
 (b)
ns

8(1   )Fmax
 (c )
d 2

Substituting (b) and (c) into (a) yields a quadratic in C.

2
2    2    3
C     (10 - 23)
4  4  4
32
Example 10–2

A music wire helical compression spring is needed to support a 20-lbf load after
being compressed 2 in. Because of assembly considerations the solid height
cannot exceed 1 in and the free length cannot be more than 4 in. Design the spring.
Solution
The a priori decisions are
•Music wire, A228; from Table 10–4, A = 201 000 psi-inm; m = 0.145; from Table
10–5, E = 28.5 Mpsi, G = 11.75 Mpsi (expecting d > 0.064 in)
•Ends squared and ground
•Function: Fmax = 20 lbf, ymax = 2 in
•Safety: use design factor at solid height of (ns)d = 1.2
•Robust linearity: ξ = 0.15
•Use as-wound spring (cheaper), Ssy = 0.45Sut from Table 10–6
•Decision variable: d = 0.080 in, music wire gauge #30, Table A–28. From
Figure 10–3 and Table 10–6,
201 000
Ssy  0.45 0.145
 130 455 psi
0.080
33
Example 10–2

From Figure 10–3 or Equation (10–23)

S sy 130 455
   108 713 psi
ns 1.2
8(1   ) Fmax 8(1  0.15)20
   9151.4 psi
d 2
 (0.080 )
2

2
2(108 713)  9151.4  2(108 713)  9151.4  3(108 713)
C      10.53
4(9151.4)  4(9151.4)  4(9151.4)
D  Cd  10.53(0.080)  0.8424 in
4(10.53)  2
KB   1.128
4(10.53)  3
8(1  0.15)20(0.8424)
 s  1.128  108 700 psi
 (0.080) 3

130 445
ns   1.2
108 700
34
Example 10–2

From Figure 10–3 or Equation (10–23)

OD  0.843  0.080  0.923 in
11.75(106 )0.0804 (2)
Na  3
 10.05 turns
8(0.843) 20
Nt  10.05  2  12.05 total turns
Ls  0.080(12.05)  0.964 in
L0  0.964  (1  0.15)2  3.264 in
( L)cr  2.63(0.843 0.5)  4.43 in

fom  2.6 2 (0.080)212.05(0.843) 4  0.417

35
Example 10–2

d 0.063 0.067 0.071 0.075 0.080 0.085 0.090 0.095

D 0.391 0.479 0.578 0.688 0.843 1.017 1.211 1.427

C 6.205 7.153 8.143 9.178 10.53 11.96 13.46 15.02

OD 0.454 0.546 0.649 0.763 0.923 1.102 1.301 1.522

Na 39.1 26.9 19.3 14.2 10.1 7.3 5.4 4.1

Ls 2.587 1.936 1.513 1.219 0.964 0.790 0.668 0.581

L0 4.887 4.236 3.813 3.519 3.264 3.090 2.968 2.881

(L0)cr 2.06 2.52 3.04 3.62 4.43 5.35 6.37 7.51

ns 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

fom −0.409 −0.399 −0.398 −0.404 −0.417 −0.438 −0.467 −0.505

36
Example 10–2

Now examine the table and perform the adequacy assessment. The shading of
the table indicates values outside the range of recommended or specified
values. The spring index constraint 4 ≤ C ≤ 12 rules out diameters larger than
0.085 in. The constraint 3 ≤ Na ≤ 15 rules out wire diameters less than 0.075
in. The Ls ≤ 1 constraint rules out diameters less than 0.080 in. The L0 ≤ 4
constraint rules out diameters less than 0.071 in. The buckling criterion rules
out free lengths longer than (L0)cr, which rules out diameters less than 0.075 in.
The factor of safety ns is exactly 1.20 because the mathematics forced it. Had
the spring been in a hole or over a rod, the helix diameter would be chosen
without reference to (ns)d. The result is that there are only two springs in the
feasible domain, one with a wire diameter of 0.080 in and the other with a
wire diameter of 0.085. The figure of merit decides and the decision is the
design with 0.080 in wire diameter (−0.417 > −0.438).

37
Example 10–3

Design a compression spring with plain ends using hard-drawn wire. The
deflection is to be 2.25 in when the force is 18 lbf and to close solid when
the force is 24 lbf. Upon closure, use a design factor of 1.2 guarding
against yielding. Select the smallest gauge W&M (Washburn & Moen)
wire.

Solution
Instead of starting with a trial wire diameter, we will start with an
acceptable spring index for C after some preliminaries. From Equation
(10–14) and Table 10–6 the shear strength, in kpsi, is

 A
S sy  0.45Sut  0.45  m  (1)
d 

38
Example 10–3

The shear stress given by Equation (10–7) replacing τ and F with τmax and
Fmax, respectively, gives
8Fmax D 8Fmax C
 max  K B  KB (2)
d 3
d 2

where the Bergsträsser factor, KB, from Equation (10–5) is

4C  2
KB  (3)
4C  3

Dividing Equation (1) by the design factor ns and equating this to

Equation (2), in kpsi, gives
0.45  A  8Fmax C 3
 m   KB (10 ) (4)
ns  d  d 2

39
Example 10–3

For the problem Fmax = 24 lbf and ns = 1.2. Solving for d gives
1 (2 m )
 K C
d   0.163 B  (5)
 A 

Try a trial spring index of C = 10. From Equation (3)

4(10)  2
KB   1.135
4(10)  3

From Table 10–4, m = 0.190 and A = 140 kpsi ·in0.190. Thus, Equation (5)
gives
1 (20.190)
 1.135(10) 
d   0.163   0.09160 in
 140 

40
Example 10–3

From Table A–28, a 12-gauge W&M wire, d = 0.105 5 in, is selected.

Checking the resulting factor of safety, from Equation (4) with Fmax = 24
lbf

Ad 2m
ns  7.363
K BC
(6)
20.190
140(0.105 5 )
 7.363  1.55
1.135(10)

which is pretty conservative. If we had selected the 13-gauge wire, d =

0.091 5 in, the factor of safety would be n = 1.198, which rounds to 1.2.
Taking a little liberty here we will select the W&M 13-gauge wire.

41
Example 10–3

To continue with the design, the spring rate is

F 18
k   8 lbf in
y 2.25
From Equation (10–9) solving for the active number of coils
d 4G dG 0.091 5(11.5)106
Na  3
 3
 3
 16.4 turns
8kD 8kC 8(8)10
This exceeds the recommended range of 3 ≤ Na ≤ 15. To decrease Na,
increase C. Repeating the process with C = 12 gives KB = 1.111 and d =
0.100 1 in. Selecting a 12-gauge W&M wire, d = 0.105 5 in. From
Equation (6), this gives n = 1.32, which is acceptable. The number of
active coils is
dG 0.105 5(11.5)106
Na  3
 3
 10.97  11 turns
8kC 8(8)12

42
Example 10–3

which is acceptable. From Table 10–1, for plain ends, the total number of
coils is Nt = Na = 11 turns. The deflection from free length to solid length
of the spring is given by
F 24
ys  max   3 in
k 8
From Table 10–1, the solid length is
Ls  d ( Nt  1)  0.105 5(11  1)  1.266 in
The free length of the spring is then
L0  Ls  ys  1.266  3  4.266 in
The mean coil diameter of the spring is
D  C d  12(0.105 5)  1.266 in
and the outside coil diameter of the spring is OD = D + d = 1.266 + 0.105
5 = 1.372 in.
43
Example 10–3

To avoid buckling, Equation (10–13) gives

D 1.266
  2.63  2.63  0.780
L0 4.266

From Table 10–2, the spring is stable provided it is supported between

either fixed-fixed or fixed-hinged ends.
The final results are:

W&M wire size: 12 gauge, d = 0.105 5 in.

Outside coil diameter: OD = 1.372 in. Answer
Total number of coils: Nt = 11 turns with plain ends.
Free length: L0 = 4.266 in.

44
Critical Frequency of Helical Springs

When one end of a spring is

displaced rapidly, a wave called a
spring surge travels down the spring.
If the other end is fixed, the wave
can reflect back.
If the wave frequency is near the
natural frequency of the spring,
resonance may occur resulting in
extremely high stresses.
Catastrophic failure may occur, as
shown in this valve-spring from an
over-revved engine.

Fig. 10–4

45
Critical Frequency of Helical Springs

The governing equation is the wave equation

 2u W  2u
 (10 - 24)
x 2
kgl 2 t 2

where k = spring rate.

g = acceleration due to gravity.
l = length of spring between plates.
W = weight of spring.
x = coordinate along length of spring.
u = motion of any particle at distance x.

46
Critical Frequency of Helical Springs

The solution to this equation is harmonic and depends on the given

physical properties as well as the end conditions.
The harmonic, natural, frequencies for a spring placed between two flat
and parallel plates, in radians per second, are
kg
  m m  1, 2, 3,
W

In cycles per second, or hertz,

1 kg
f  (10 - 25)
2 W
With one end against a flat plate and the other end free,
1 kg
f  (10 - 26)
4 W
47
Critical Frequency of Helical Springs

The weight of a helical spring is

d 2  2 d 2 DN a
W  AL  ( DN a )( )  (10 - 27)
4 4

The fundamental critical frequency should be greater than 15 to 20 times

the frequency of the force or motion of the spring.
If necessary, redesign the spring to increase k or decrease W.

48
Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

Zimmerli found that size, material, and tensile strength have no effect on
the endurance limits of spring steels in sizes under 3/8 in (10 mm).
Testing found the endurance strength components for infinite life to be
Unpeened:
S sa  35 kpsi (241 MPa) S sm  55 kpsi (379 MPa) (10 - 28a )

Peened:
S sa  57.5 kpsi (398 MPa) S sm  77.5 kpsi (534 MPa) (10 - 28b)

We’ll call these the Zimmerli endurance strength components for infinite
life.
From these components, we can estimate an equivalent completely
reversed stress, and consequently and endurance limit, from one of the
constant-life curves in Section 6-14.
49
Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

For example, select the Goodman criterion, and adapt Eq. (6-59) to shear,
and apply the Zimmerli components as the alternating and mean stresses.

S sa
S se  (10 - 29a )
S sm
1
S su

Similarly with Gerber criterion (which happens to be commonly used for

springs),
S sa
S se  2
(10 - 29b)
 S sm 
1 
 S 
su

50
Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

For example, with an unpeened spring with Ssu = 211.5 kpsi, the Gerber
ordinate intercept for shear, from Eq. (10–29b), is

S sa 35
S se  2
 2
 37.5 kpsi
 S sm   55 
1  1 
 S   211.5 
su

For the Goodman criterion, with Eq. (10-29a) it would be

Sse = 47.3 kpsi.
Each possible wire size would change the endurance limit since Ssu is a
function of wire size.

51
Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

An alternate approach, known as the Sines failure criterion, is also

available.
It has been found that for polished, notch-free, cylindrical specimens
subjected to torsional shear stress, the maximum alternating stress that
may be imposed is constant and independent of the mean stress.
Many compression springs approach these conditions.

52
Torsional Modulus of Rupture

The torsional modulus of rupture Ssu will be needed for the fatigue
diagram.
Lacking test data, the recommended value is

S su  0.67 Sut (10 - 30)

53
Stresses for Fatigue Loading

From the standard approach, the alternating and mean forces are
Fmax  Fmin
Fa  (10 - 31a )
2

Fmax  Fmin
Fm  (10 - 31b)
2

The alternating and mean stresses are

8Fa D
 a  KB (10 - 32)
d3
8Fm D
 m  KB (10 - 33)
d 3

54
Example 10–4

An as-wound helical compression spring, made of music wire, has a wire

size of 0.092 in, an outside coil diameter of 169 in, a free length of 4 83 in,
21 active coils, and both ends squared and ground. The spring is unpeened.
This spring is to be assembled with a preload of 5 lbf and will operate with
a maximum load of 35 lbf during use.

(a) Estimate the factor of safety guarding against fatigue-failure using a

torsional Gerber fatigue-failure criterion with Zimmerli data.
(b) Repeat part (a) using the Sines torsional fatigue criterion (steady stress
component has no effect), with Zimmerli data.
(c) Repeat using a torsional Goodman failure criterion with Zimmerli data.
(d) Estimate the critical frequency of the spring.

55
Example 10–4

Solution
The mean coil diameter is D = 0.5625 − 0.092 = 0.4705 in. The spring index is
C = D∕d = 0.4705∕0.092 = 5.11. Then
4C  2 4(5.11)  2
KB    1.287
4C  3 4(5.11)  3
From Equations (10–31),
35  5 35  5
Fa   15 lbf Fm   20 lbf
2 2
The alternating shear-stress component is found from Equation (10–32) to be
8Fa D 8(15)0.4705 3
 a  KB  (1.287) (10 )  29.7 kpsi
d 3
 (0.092) 3

Equation (10–33) gives the mean shear-stress component

8Fm D 8(20)0.4705 3
 m  KB  1.287 (10 )  39.6 kpsi
d 3
 (0.092) 3

56
Example 10–4

From Table 10–4 we find A = 201 kpsi · inm and m = 0.145. The ultimate tensile strength
is estimated from Equation (10–14) as
A 201
Sut  m
 0.145
 284.1 kpsi
d 0.092
The shear modulus of rupture is estimated from Equation (10–30)
S su  0.67 Sut  0.67(284.1)  190.3 kpsi
(a) The endurance limit based on the Gerber criterion, Equation (10–29b), and the
Zimmerli endurance strength components, Equation (10–28a), is
S sa 35
S se    38.2 kpsi
1  ( S sm S su ) 2 1  (55 190.3) 2
The Gerber fatigue criterion from Equation (6–48), adapted for shear, is
2   2 m S se  
2
1  S su    a   
n f      1  1   
2   m   S se    S su a  
 
2   2(39.6)(38.2)  
2
1  190.3   29.7     1.21
     1  1  
Answer 2  39.6   38.2    (190.3)(29.7)  
 
57
Example 10–4

(b) The Sines failure criterion ignores Ssm so that, for the Zimmerli data of
Equation (10–28a) with Ssa = 35 kpsi,
S sa 35
Answer nf    1.18
a 29.7

(c) The endurance limit based on the Goodman criterion, Equation (10–29a), and
the Zimmerli endurance strength components, Equation (10–28a), is
S sa 35
S se    49.2 kpsi
1  ( S sm S su ) 1  (55 190.3)

The Goodman fatigue criterion from Equation (6–41), adapted for shear, is
1 1
 a m   29.7 39.6 
nf       1.23
 S se S su   49.2 190.3 
Answer

58
Example 10–4

(d) Using Equation (10–9) and Table 10–5, we estimate the spring rate as
d 4G 0.0924 [11.75(106 )]
k 3
 3
 48.1 lbf in
8D N a 8(0.4705) 21

From Equation (10–27) we estimate the spring weight as

 2 (0.0922 )0.4705(21)0.284
W  0.0586 lbf
4
and from Equation (10–25) the frequency of the fundamental wave is
12
1  48.1(386) 
Answer fn    281 Hz
2  0.0586 
If the operating or exciting frequency is more than 281∕20 = 14.1 Hz, the spring
may have to be redesigned.
59
Example 10–5

A music wire helical compression spring with infinite life is needed to

resist a dynamic load that varies from 5 to 20 lbf at 5 Hz while the end
deflection varies from 12 to 2 in. Because of assembly considerations,
the solid height cannot exceed 1 in and the free length cannot be more
than 4 in. The springmaker has the following wire sizes in stock: 0.069,
0.071, 0.080, 0.085, 0.090, 0.095, 0.105, and 0.112 in.

60
Example 10–5

The a priori decisions are:

•Material and condition: for music wire, A = 201 kpsi · inm, m = 0.145, G =
11.75(106) psi; relative cost is 2.6.
•Surface treatment: unpeened.
•End treatment: squared and ground.
•Robust linearity: ξ = 0.15.
•Set: use in as-wound condition.
•Fatigue-safe: nf = 1.5 using the Sines-Zimmerli fatigue-failure criterion.
•Function: Fmin = 5 lbf, Fmax = 20 lbf, ymin = 0.5 in, ymax = 2 in, spring operates free
(no rod or hole).
•Decision variable: wire size d .

The figure of merit will be the cost of wire to wind the spring, Equation (10–22)
without density. The design strategy will be to set wire size d, build a table, inspect
the table, and choose the satisfactory spring with the highest figure of merit.
61
Example 10–5

Set d = 0.112 in. Then

20  5 20  5
Fa   7.5 lbf Fm   12.5 lbf
2 2
Fmax 20
k   10 lbf in
ymax 2
201
Sut  0.145
 276.1 kpsi
0.112
S su  0.67(276.1)  185.0 kpsi

Ssy  0.45(276.1)  124.2 kpsi

62
Example 10–5

From Equation (10–28a), with the Sines criterion, Sse = Ssa = 35 kpsi.
Equation (10–23) can be used to determine C with Sse, nf, and Fa in place
of Ssy, ns, and (1 + ξ)Fmax, respectively. Thus,
S se 35 000
   23 333 psi
nf 1.5

8Fa 8(7.5)
   1522.5 psi
d 2
 (0.112 )
2

2
2(23 333)  1522.5  2(23 333)  1522.5  3(23 333)
C      14.005
4(1522.5)  4(1522.5)  4(1522.5)

63
Example 10–5

D  Cd  14.005(0.112)  1.569 in
Fs  (1   ) Fmax  (1  0.15)20  23 lbf
d 4G 0.1124 (11.75)(106 )
Na  3
 3
 5.98 turns
8D k 8(1.569) 10
Nt  N a  2  5.98  2  7.98 turns
Ls  d Nt  0.112(7.98)  0.894 in
Fs 23
L0  Ls   0.894   3.194 in
k 10
ID  1.569  0.112  1.457 in
OD  1.569  0.112  1.681 in
ys  L0  Ls  3.194  0.894  2.30 in
2.63D (1.569)
( L0 )cr   2.63  8.253 in
 0.5
64
Example 10–5

4(14.005)  2
KB   1.094
4(14.005)  3

 2 d 2 DN a  2 0.1122 (1.569)5.98(0.284)
W   0.0825 lbf
4 4

386k 386(10)
f n  0.5  0.5  108 Hz
W 0.0825

65
Example 10–5

8Fa D 8(7.5)1.569
 a  KB  1.094  23 334 psi
d 3
 0.112 3

Fm 12.5
m  a  23 334  38 890 psi
Fa 7.5
Fs 23
s  a  23 334  71 560 psi
Fa 7.5
S sa 35 000
nf    1.5
a 23 334
S sy 124 200
ns    1.74
s 71 560
fom  (relative material cost) 2 d 2 Nt D 4
 2.6 2 (0.1122 )(7.98)1.569 4  1.01
66
Example 10–5

Inspection of the results shows that all conditions are satisfied except for 4 ≤ C ≤
12. Repeat the process using the other available wire sizes and develop the
following table:
d: 0.069 0.071 0.080 0.085 0.090 0.095 0.105 0.112
D 0.297 0.332 0.512 0.632 0.767 0.919 1.274 1.569
ID 0.228 0.261 0.432 0.547 0.677 0.824 1.169 1.457
OD 0.366 0.403 0.592 0.717 0.857 1.014 1.379 1.681
C 4.33 4.67 6.40 7.44 8.53 9.67 12.14 14.00
Na 127.2 102.4 44.8 30.5 21.3 15.4 8.63 6.0
Ls 8.916 7.414 3.740 2.750 2.100 1.655 1.116 0.895
L0 11.216 9.714 6.040 5.050 4.400 3.955 3.416 3.195
(L0)cr 1.562 1.744 2.964 3.325 4.036 4.833 6.703 8.250
nf 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
ns 1.86 1.85 1.82 1.81 1.79 1.78 1.75 1.74
fn 87.5 89.7 96.9 99.7 101.9 103.8 106.6 108
fom −1.17 −1.12 −0.983 −0.948 −0.930 −0.927 −0.958 −1.01

67
Example 10–5

The problem-specific inequality constraints are

Ls  1 in
L0  4 in
f n  5(20)  100 Hz
The general constraints are
3  N a  15
4  C  12
( L0 )cr  L0
We see that none of the diameters satisfy the given constraints. The 0.105-in-
diameter wire is the closest to satisfying all requirements. The value of C = 12.14
is not a serious deviation and can be tolerated. However, the tight constraint on
Ls needs to be addressed. If the assembly conditions can be relaxed to accept a
solid height of 1.116 in, we have a solution. If not, the only other possibility is to
use the 0.112-in diameter and accept a value C = 14, individually package the
springs, and possibly reconsider supporting the spring in service.
68