Earth Sci Inform

DOI 10.1007/s12145-015-0239-x

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Reflectance spectroscopy and remote sensing data for finding

sulfide-bearing alteration zones and mapping geology
in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan
Laeiq Ahmad 1 & M. Tahir Shah 1 & Shuhab D. Khan 2

Received: 28 November 2014 / Accepted: 1 September 2015

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract Gilgit-Baltistan region is covering the northern and 2.33 μm. Olivine showed a slight depressed absorption
most part of Pakistan where the rocks of the Kohistan- feature at 1.07 μm. The copper-bearing phases malachite,
Ladakh island arc and Karakoram plate are exposed. The area chrysocolla, and azurite showed, respectively, a broad absorp-
has greater potential for precious and base metals deposits tion feature in the range of 0.6–0.9 μm, a small absorption at
which are needed to be explored through spectroscopy and 1.4 μm, and a deep absorption at 1.93 μm. The unmineralized
remote sensing techniques. Minerals and rocks can nowadays samples exhibited high reflectance in the wavelength ranges
be identified through the measurement of their absorption and of 0.6–0.8, 1.6–1.9, 2.0–2.3, 2.1–2.25, and 2.4–2.5 μm, re-
reflectance features by spectroscopic analysis. Spectral reflec- spectively, while the mineralized samples showed reflectance
tance analysis is also very important in selecting the appropri- bands in the wavelength ranges of 0.4–0.6, 1.3–1.8, and 2.1–
ate spectral bands for remote-sensing data analysis of un- 2.2 μm. On this basis, the band ratio combinations 7/5–4/3–6/
known or inaccessible areas. In this study, reflectance spectra 3 and 7/5–6/3–4/3 of Landsat 8 and 4/7–4/3–2/1 for ASTER
in the spectral range of 0.35–2.5 μm of different types of data were found to be very effective in the lithological differ-
unaltered and altered rocks found in the Machulu and Astor entiation of major rock units.
areas of northern Pakistan were obtained using an ASD
spectroradiometer. The fresh rock samples showed low spec- Keywords Reflectance spectroscopy . Landsat . ASTER .
tral reflectance as compared to the altered rock samples. The Alteration zones . Geology . Northern Pakistan
minerals jarosite, goethite, and hematite showed depth of ab-
sorption minima in the range of 0.4–1.15 μm due to the pres-
ence of iron (Fe), while jarosite and limonite showed absorp- Introduction
tion depth at 2.2 μm due to the presence of hydroxyl ions
(OH¯). The clay minerals montmorillonite and illite showed Gilgit-Baltistan is the northern most province of Pakistan
absorption depth at 1.93 and 2.1 μm, respectively. Muscovite which is mainly accessed from Islamabad the capital city,
showed depth of absorption minima at 1.4 and 1.9 μm in some through Karakoram Highway (KKH). Geographically, this re-
samples. Calcite showed deep absorption minima at 2.32 μm, gion is bounded by Afghanistan in the northwest, China in the
while anorthite showed absorption features at 1.4, 1.9, 2.24, northeast and province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the south-
west. This region is hosting many highest mountain peaks
Communicated by: H. A. Babaie with few of these are higher than 8000 m. The geology of
the Gilgit-Baltistan region is very complex in the context of
* Laeiq Ahmad tectonic setup. This region is mainly composed of the mafic-
laeiqgeo@yahoo.com ultramafic complexes and batholith plutons of the Kohistan-
Ladakh island arc (KLIA) and the meta-sedimentary and
1
National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, meta-igneous rocks of the Karakoram plate (Fig. 1). The
Peshawar 25120, Pakistan KLIA is an intra-oceanic Cretaceous island arc which is
2
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of formed as a result of the collision and subduction of the Indian
Houston, Houston, TX, USA plate underneath the Asian plate along Indus Suture Zone
 Earth Sci Inform

Fig. 1 Map showing samples location of study area Machulu and Astor

(ISZ) in the south but the timing of the collision is still con- to adopt such techniques which can scan the whole region for
troversial (Molnar and Tapponnier 1975; Treloar et al. 1996; the differentiation of various lithological units and hydrother-
Hanson 1989; Beck et al. 1995; Rowley 1996; Clift et al. mally altered mineralized and un-mineralized zones. During
2002; Bignold and Treloar 2003; Tahirkheli 1979; Yin and this study the spectroscopic and remote sensing data of select-
Harrison 2000; Ziabrev et al. 2004; Yin 2006; Khan et al. ed areas have been used to accomplish the above mentioned
2009; Chatterjee et al. 2013). The KLIA has northern thrusted goals.
contact with Karakoram plate along the Northern Suture Zone Spectroscopy is the study of light as a function of wave-
(NSZ). Detailed geological work has been done on the main length that is emitted, reflected, or scattered from a liquid,
lithological units of the Gilgit-Baltistan region in regard to solid, or gas (Clark 1999). Spectral reflectance plays a vital
their mineralogy, geochemistry and genesis. However, there role in the field of remote sensing. Each element has a specific
is a great need to explore the economic potential of the region structure, each mineral comprises a specific collection of ele-
through advanced level geophysical, geochemical and spec- ments, and the aggregate of these minerals is called rock. The
troscopic and remote sensing techniques. The occurrence of differences in the spectral reflectance properties of minerals
gold particles in the Indus river and its tributaries flowing and rocks are related to their grain size, texture, and color.
through this region (Tahirkheli 1974; Austromineral 1976, Whether the material is solid, liquid, or gas, the emittance
1978; Halfpenny and Mazzucchelli 1999; Shah and Khan and reflectance spectroscopies of natural surfaces are sensitive
2004; Ali et al. 2014; Biber et al. 2014) and the hydrothermal- to specific chemical bonds in the materials. Variations in the
ly altered sulfide-bearing zones reported in various parts of the material composition cause changes in the shape and position
region (Sheikh et al. 2014; Miandad et al. 2014; Rehman et al. of the bands in the absorption spectrum, as a result of which
2015) suggest that there could be the possibility of occurrence each material yields a unique diagnostic vibrational band. The
of source rocks for precious and base metals mineralization in conduction process, electronic transition, charge transfer, and
the region. But due to the remoteness and inaccessibility to vibrational overtones of minerals and rocks all cause diagnos-
rugged terrains in this part of the Himalayan region, we need tic absorption bands in the visible, visible and near-infrared
Earth Sci Inform

(VNIR), and short-wave infrared (SWIR) regions of reflected nine (29) from the Machulu area and fifty-four (54) from the
light (Clark et al. 1990). The causes of the absorption features Astor area. For each rock sample, three (3) spectra were col-
of minerals have been well studied by Hunt (1977), Clark lected, and an average was calculated. The data were then
et al. (1990), Salisbury (1993) and Vincent (1997). processed through ViewSpec Pro version 6.0 software,
The ability to use multispectral remote sensing to discrim- changed to text format, and transferred to a Microsoft Excel
inate between materials depends on the differences between spreadsheet in the form of columns of wavelength and
their respective spectral reflectance properties. The aim of this reflectance.
research was to measure the spectral reflectances of the col- Landsat 8, has nine (9) multispectral bands, including a
lected rocks, both unaltered and altered, from the study area to panchromatic band and two (2) thermal Infrared bands. The
identify anomalies in both their absorption and reflectance resolution of the eight (8) visible spectral bands is 30 m, while
features. This information was then used to identify specific that of the panchromatic is 15 m, and that of the two thermal
minerals and to select different bands of the electromagnetic infrared bands is 100 m. Only the VNIR, NIR, and SWIR
spectrum from the Landsat data for further interpretation. bands were used for the current research work. Landsat 8 level
1B data for both study areas were acquired online from United
States Geological Survey (USGS). The data were processed
using the log residual technique with ENVI (Environment for
Methodology Visualizing Images) version 5.0 software. Different false color
combinations of red-green-blue (RGB) were used. Various
Rock samples were collected from unaltered and sulfide- band ratios were also established by using the band math
bearing altered rocks and quartz veins in the Machulu and and band ratios techniques since they were found appropriate
Astor areas of northern Pakistan during a field trip in the by spectral data for mapping the geology of the study areas.
summer of 2012 (Fig. 1). Small chips (3×2×1 cm) cut from This study also utilized The Advanced Spaceborne Ther-
the rock samples were transferred to the University of Hous- mal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data. AS-
ton, Houston, USA for spectroscopic study in a controlled TER data consist of fourteen bands, three of these bands are in
laboratory environment. A portable Spectroradiometer visible and near infrared range with spatial resolution of 15 m,
(Fig. 2) was used to acquire the spectral data (Fig. 2). This six spectral bands in SWIR are 30 m in spatial resolution.
spectrometer had a sampling interval of 2 to 3 μm with a full While the remaining 5 five spectral bands cover thermal in-
spectral range of 0.35–2.5 μm. It also had a sufficiently fast frared and are 90 m in spatial resolution.
scan time of 100 milliseconds for a complete 0.35–2.5 μm
spectrum scan, which helped to avoid errors in collecting the
data. The High Intensity Contact Probe (Fig. 2) was used to Results
acquire the spectral data. The spectra for each sample were
collected by placing the probe on the flat portion of the chip. A Spectroscopy
total of eighty-three (83) rock samples were analyzed, twenty-
This section presents spectroscopic data obtained from repre-
sentative chip samples of unaltered and sulfide-bearing altered
rocks and quartz veins found in the Machulu and Astor areas.

Machulu area

Unaltered rocks Spectroscopic analysis was carried out on

unaltered twenty-three (23) samples collected from the
Machulu area. These rock samples included fresh-looking ul-
tramafic, volcanic, dioritic, and granitic rocks. The ultramafic
rock samples showed different absorption and reflectance fea-
tures at various wavelengths. The hydrous sulfate mineral
jarosite produced a broad declining spectral absorption feature
between 0.40 and 0.50 μm. Antigorite showed absorption
features at 1.395 and 1.974 μm, while the clay mineral illite
and the carbonate calcite showed absorption at 2.1 and
2.35 μm, respectively (Fig. 3). In the volcanic rocks, positive
Fig. 2 Portable Spectroradiometer and high intensity contact probe absorption features were noted between 0.40 and 0.50, at
which was used to collect data in the laboratory 1.141, at 1.399, at 1.91, and at 2.35 μm, which are
 Earth Sci Inform

Fig. 3 Absorption and reflectance spectral features of different minerals Fig. 5 Graph displaying absorption and reflectance features of
of ultramafic and volcanic rocks at various wavelengths of the study area mineralized samples of Machulu area
Machulu
(Fig. 5). The absorption features shown by group-2 samples
characteristic of jarosite, phlogopite, antigorite, montmoril- suggested that these were caused at 0.434 μm by jarosite, at
lonite, and calcite, respectively (Fig. 3). The absorption spec- 0.64 μm by epidote, at 1.4 μm by muscovite, at 1.937 μm by
tra of the dioritic rocks showed a low declining absorption albite, at 2.21 μm by kaolinite, and at 2.315 μm by amphibole
feature at wavelength 0.946 μm, characteristic of jarosite. (Fig. 5). The group-3 samples showed spectral absorption fea-
Other absorption features were noted at various wavelengths, tures at 0.434 μm, indicating jarosite, at 1.4 μm, indicating
including 1.411 and 1.914 μm, indicating anorthite, paragonite, at 1.9 μm, indicating muscovite, at 2.2 μm, indi-
2.247 μm, indicating calcic-plagioclase, and 2.334 μm, indi- cating muscovite and lepidolite, and at 2.33 μm indicating
cating K-feldspar (Fig. 4). The spectral absorption features calcite (Fig. 5).
shown by the granites occurred at wavelengths of 0.49 μm
for jarosite, at 1.413 and 1.92 μm for muscovite, and at Astor area
2.203 μm for muscovite and lepidolite (Fig. 4).
Unaltered rocks Thirty-four (34) representative samples of
Sulfide-bearing altered rocks These showed more promi- unaltered granitic, dioritic and gabbroic-dioritic rocks were
nent spectral reflectance as compared to unaltered rocks due selected for the study. It was noted that each type of rock
to the differences in mineral composition, texture, and color. showed specific spectral absorption and spectral reflectance
Six (6) altered rock samples, with variations in their spectral features at various wavelengths. The granitic rocks of the
absorption and reflectance features at different wavelengths, study area showed spectral absorption features at wavelengths
were selected for spectral analysis. They were placed together of 1.413 and 1.92 μm, indicating muscovite, and at 2.205 μm,
in three groups on the basis of the similarity of their spectral indicating muscovite and lepidolite (Fig. 6). The dioritic rocks
features. The group-1 samples showed different peaks of re- showed absorption features at wavelengths of 1.412 μm, in-
flectance and depths of absorption features at various wave- dicating chlorite, and 2.205 μm, indicating calcite (Fig. 6). In
lengths. Absorption features were noted at 0.434 μm, indicat- the gabbroic diorites, a very broad absorption spectrum at
ing jarosite, at 0.93 μm, indicating chlorite, at 1.41 μm, indi- wavelength 1.074 μm was noticed due to the presence of
cating muscovite, at 1.916 μm, indicating kaolinite and smec- olivine. No prominent absorption and reflectance spectra were
tite, and at 2.203 μm, indicating muscovite and lepidolite shown by gabbroic-dioritic rocks at other wavelengths,

Fig. 4 Graph showing absorption and reflectance spectral features of Fig. 6 Graph showing depth of absorption and peaks of reflectance
different minerals of granitic and dioritic rocks at various wavelengths features at different wavelengths of granitic, dioritic and gabbroic
of the Machulu study area dioritic (non-mineralized) rocks of study area Astor
Earth Sci Inform

presumably because the whole electromagnetic spectrum had data were also used for mapping different types of rock in the
been absorbed by the minerals present in it (Fig. 6). Astor area, where the band ratio combination of 7/5–4/3–6/3
distinguished major geological units (Fig. 8b). As shown in
Fig. 8b, Chalt and Yasin group rocks were recognized by a
Sulfide-bearing altered rocks and quartz veins Twenty (20) light green color, diorites of Kohistan Batholith by reddish-
representative samples were collected from sulfide-bearing brown, and the High Himalayan leucogranite and Sumayar
quartz veins and associated altered rocks in order to study their leucogranite by shiny blue.
spectral absorption and spectral reflectance features at differ- Figure 9a shows ASTER band ratio (4/7–4/3–2/1) image
ent wavelengths. Rocks with similar spectra were organized in for Machulu area. This image clearly identifies diorites of
groups, identified as group-A, group-B and group-C. For each Ladakh batholith in bluish color. Chalt and Yasin group rock
sample, analyses were performed at different angles in order can be seen in purple and greenish colors, rock alteration in
to identify spectral absorption and reflectance features at dif- volcanics can be seen in brown color. Quaternary deposits are
ferent sites. The absorption features of group-A were noted at seen in red color and Hushe gneisses in bluish color. Hushe
a wavelength of 0.836 μm, which is characteristic of the River and Shyok River can also be seen in the image.
copper-bearing phases such as malachite. The mineral Figure 9b shows ASTER band ratios for Astor area. In this
chrysocolla showed absorption features at a wavelength of figure ASTER, band ratios 4/7, 4/3, 2/1 are displayed as Red-
1.413 μm, while azurite showed absorption features at Green-Blue, respectively. Figure 9b also show different litho-
1.92 μm. The minerals jarosite and limonite showed absorp- logical units of the study area. The rocks of Chalt and Yasin
tion features at wavelengths of 1.922 and 2.269 μm, respec- groups can be seen as alternate bands in blue and brown
tively (Fig. 7). The group-B samples showed different absorp- colors, Kohistan batholith rocks are sky blue to dark blue
tion minima and reflectance maxima at different wavelengths. and the rocks of Nanga Parbat Syntaxis are light greenish
Absorption features noted at wavelengths of 0.5–0.56, 0.979– intermixing with red color (Fig. 9b). The glaciers give magen-
0.983, 1.42, and 1.92 μm indicated the presence of hematite, ta color.
goethite, montmorillonite and jarosite, respectively (Fig. 7).
Group-C samples showed absorption features only at
0.413 μm, which is characteristic of quartz (Fig. 7).
Discussion
Remote sensing
The spectral reflectances of minerals, rocks, and alteration
Landsat 8 data were used for mapping the unmapped study zones associated with particular mineralization are very help-
area and for finding the sulfide-bearing alteration zones. The ful in mineral identification. These spectral reflectance studies
Landsat 8 data were very helpful in mapping the geology in are also useful in selecting different bands for remote-sensing
both the study locations. The band ratio combination of 7/5–6/ analysis of unknown or inaccessible areas of high relief. Many
3–4/3 proved very useful in differentiating various lithologies minerals show diagnostic (or diagnostically significant) ab-
in the Machulu area (Fig. 8a). As shown in Fig. 8a, the Hushe sorption bands (Clark et al. 1990). The spectral features of
gneisses were recognized by a reddish-brown color, diorites of absorption and reflectance mainly depend on the chemical
Ladakh batholith by a brownish and smoky color, Chalt and composition, color, texture, and surface state of the rocks
Yasin group rocks by a smoky color, and metasediment by a and minerals (Bailin and Xingli 1991). The deeper the absorp-
light blue color. Saltoro River, Hushe River, and Shyok River tion band of the reflectance curve, the more abundant will be
were found to be very prominent in Fig. 8a. The Landsat 8 the particular mineral in that rock (Clark 1999). In the wave-
length region of 0.4–2.5 μm, spectral reflectance is dominated
by hydroxyl ions (OHˉ), water (H2O) and ferrous ions (Fe+2)
that are present in the crystal structure of the rocks, and most
of the absorption bands are also caused by Fe+2, OHˉ, and
H2O (Vincent 1997). According to Vincent (1997), since the
absorption band of any mineral can very easily be influenced
by the interaction of an ion with the surrounding crystal struc-
ture, it varies from mineral to mineral. The position of the
absorption minima of an OHˉ ion depends on its position in
the crystal lattice, and most of the absorption features of the
OHˉ ions can be noted at 1.4, 2.2, and 2.3 μm (Hunt and
Fig. 7 Spectral absorption minima and spectral reflectance maxima at Salisbury 1970). At 1.4 and 1.9 μm, the absorption band nor-
various wavelengths of the mineralized rocks of Astor study area mally indicates the presence of water, but if the absorption
 Earth Sci Inform

Fig. 8 a Landsat 8 image

showing band ratio 7/5–6/3–4/3
displayed as Red-Green-Blue,
respectively. Image is showing
different lithologies present in the
study area. b Landsat 8 image
showing band ratios 7/5, 4/3, 6/3
displayed as Red-Green-Blue,
respectively. The image
discriminate different lithologies
of this area. Brown color circles
show sample locations of the
study area

band is absent at 1.9 μm, then it shows that OHˉ ions are hydroxides. According to Hunt and Salisbury (1970), Fe+2
present in the mineral structure (Hunt and Salisbury 1970). produces a number of absorption bands that depend upon
Iron (Fe) is a ubiquitous element in almost all the earth’s the crystalline structure in which it is present, as well as on
material and usually occurs in the form of oxides and the impurities in that structure. The Fe+2 ion shows an
Earth Sci Inform

Fig. 9 a ASTER band ratio 4/7–

4/3–2/1 displayed as Red-Green-
Blue, respectively showing
lithological units and other
features for Machulu area. b
ASTER band ratios 4/7, 4/3, 2/1
displayed as Red-Green-Blue,
respectively. This image
discriminate different lithologies
of Astor area

absorption band near 1.1 μm, while various positive absorp- Kaolinite, which is the alteration product of aluminum silicate
tion minima are shown by ferric ion (Fe+3) at wavelength 0.4– minerals such as feldspar, shows depths of absorption features
0.9 μm (Bailin and Xingli 1991). Fayalite exhibits shallow around 1.4 μm due to the presence of OHˉ ions (Hunt and
reflectance at 1.0 μm caused by Fe +2 (Vincent 1997). Salisbury 1970). Clay minerals such as montmorillonite and
 Earth Sci Inform

illite show strong water absorption at wavelengths of 1.4 μm map the unmapped areas, and various alteration zones were
and 1.9 μm, while the depth of absorption at 2.2 μm is due to targeted for formulating exploration strategies for precious
OHˉ ions (Hunt and Salisbury 1970). However, according to and base metal mineralization. Very good results were obtain-
Clark et al. (1990), it is very difficult to distinguish between ed by applying band ratios in mapping the major geological
the absorption bands of illite, muscovite and montmorillonite units in Astor and Machulu areas. For example, volcanic and
in the 2.35–2.45 μm absorption bands. Due to the electronic sediments of Chalt and Yasin group show iron leaching and
transition of Cu+2, a copper-bearing mineral such as malachite has clay minerals thus band ratio 4/3 in Landsat 8 and band
shows a positive absorption edge between 0.4 and 0.6 μm and ratios of 2/1 and 4/3 in ASTER data helped discriminate these
a broad absorption band at a wavelength of 0.8 μm (Bailin and rocks. Most of the granites in the study areas show absorption
Xingli 1991). features at 0.49 μm that is band 3 of Landsat 8 and band 2 of
Considering the above mentioned causes, namely the var- the ASTER data. Spectral data for diorite samples show ab-
iations in the spectral features of absorption and reflectance, sorption features at various wavelengths, including 1.411 μm
the behavior of spectral features in the unaltered and altered and 1.914 μm, 2.247 μm, and 2.334 μm, indicating higher
rocks of the study area has been synthesized here. It is noticed amounts of feldspar thus band ratio 7/5 in Landsat 8 and 4/7 in
that the unaltered rock samples of the study area show low ASTER data were found very useful for mapping these rocks.
spectral reflectance as compared to those of altered rock sam- Although, band ratio images showed very prominent varia-
ples. Some samples show high depth of absorption features at tions in their color, thus differentiating the various lithologies
particular wavelengths, indicating an abundance of particular of the study area. But, due to smaller size of alteration zones
minerals in that sample. Jarosite, goethite, and hematite show satellite remote sensing turned out to be less useful.
depth of absorption features in the range of 0.4–1.15 μm,
which can be due to the presence of Fe (Hunt and Salisbury
1970; Bailin and Xingli 1991). The minerals jarosite and li-
monite also show absorption minima at 2.2 and 2.26 μm, Conclusions
which can be attributed to the presence of OH¯ ions. The
absorption features in the mineral antigorite at wavelengths Reflectance spectroscopic study of the unaltered and sulfide
of 1.14, 1.935, and 1.974 μm are due either to the Fe+2 ion bearing altered rocks of the two studies sites in northern Pa-
or the OH¯ ion. The clay minerals illite, montmorillonite, and kistan helped identified several ore minerals like jarosite, goe-
muscovite show absorption features at the wavelengths of 1.4 thite, and hematite; also the copper-bearing phases malachite,
and 1.9 μm due to the presence of OH¯ ions and H2O, while chrysocolla, and azurite were identified. Besides recognizing
muscovite also shows absorption minima at the wavelength of mineralogical variations, reflectance spectroscopy helped in
2.2 μm due to the presence of the OH¯ ion (Hunt and selecting useful wavelengths for creating band ratios for
Salisbury 1970; Clark et al. 1990). Calcite shows a deep ab- Landsat 8 and ASTER data for mapping major geological
sorption feature at 2.32 μm. Plagioclase (anorthite) shows units. Band ratios 7/5–4/3–6/3 for Landsat 8 and 4/7, 4/3,
absorption features at 1.4, 1.9, 2.24, and 2.33 μm, which can 2/1 for ASTER data proved best to differentiate between var-
be attributed to the OH¯ ion (Hunt and Salisbury 1970). A ious lithologies in the study areas. Higher spatial and spectral
slightly depressed absorption feature at wavelength 1.07 μm resolution data will be needed for mapping mineralized zones.
in olivine can be caused by the presence of the Fe+2 ion
(Vincent 1997). A broad absorption feature in the range of
0.6–0.9 μm in malachite, a small absorption at 1.4 μm in
chrysocolla, and a deep absorption at 1.93 μm in azurite can References
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