EMO Lab Manual

NAME: Hammad Ahmad

REG NO#: FA20-BCS-007

Section: B-1

Submitted To: Sir Imran Butt

 Experiment 01

Introduction to Lab Equipment

Experiment 02
Experiment 03
Experiment 04
 Experiment 05
To measure AC Signals using Oscilloscope and Function
Generator
Objective:
To measure the “AC signals” using Oscilloscope and Function Generator .

Apparatus:
Oscilloscope
Function Generator

Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope is also known as a O-scope, CRO, DSO or simply Scope. Oscilloscope is a
graphical display device which is used to visualize time-varying signals such as a voltage signal
changing rapidly or slowly w.r.to time which cannot be measured with multimeter. The
displayed waveform can then be analyzed for properties such as amplitude, frequency, rise
time, time interval, distortion, and others.
Uses
 To view the signals coming directly from devices such as sound cards, allowing the real-
time display of waves.
 In medicine, to display the waveform of the heartbeat as Electrocardiogram.
 In engineering,
 To test the circuits (how much noise is in your circuit)
 Determining the frequency and amplitude of a signal,
 Identifying the shape of a waveform -- sine, square, triangle, sawtooth,
complex, etc

Analog Oscilloscope or CRO

It works on the principle of CRT (TV), so it is also called as Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. CRT
displays the signal in X-Y plane. Here, Y-axis represents the incoming voltage and X-axis
represents the ramp waveform.
An electron beam is made to fall on the screen where it becomes visible as a bright blue dot.
The beam (trace) is then moved along a horizontal line using the ramp waveform voltage (saw-
tooth voltage) i.e., the trace moves across the screen as the ramp waveform voltage increases.
When the trace reaches the screen end, the waveform trace sets back to the beginning.
The fast-moving dot gives the appearance of a blue line. Then the signal to be graphed on the
screen is applied vertically so that the beam of electrons moves in a vertical access accordingly.
The result is a plot of the time varying applied signal on the oscilloscope screen.

Digital Oscilloscope or DSO

It shows the sampled version of analog signal , so termed as Digital Storage Oscilloscope. A
storage oscilloscope can capture a single event and display it continuously.
Advantages:
1. Cheaper
2. Data can be stored, transferred, or modified easily for further analysis.
Using the Oscilloscope
Horizontal Section
The horizontal section changes the divisions using the center of screen as reference.
Seconds per division (s/div) Knob: Rotating the Sec/Div knob clockwise will decrease the
number of seconds per division (“zooming in”) and counterclockwise will increase.
Position Knob: Moves the waveform to the right or left of the display, adjusting the horizontal
offset.

Vertical Section
Vertical section controls the amplitude of the signal.

Volts/Div (Vertical scale) knob: controls the amplitude per division setting for a waveform, using
ground as a reference.

Rotating the Volts/Div knob clockwise will decrease the scale, and counter-clockwise will increase. A
smaller scale – fewer volts per division on the screen – means you’re more “zoomed in” to the
waveform.

Position knob: The position knob controls the vertical offset (position) of the waveform on the screen.
Rotate the knob clockwise, and the wave will move down, counter-clockwise will move it up the
display.

AUTOSET button:
Automatically sets the scales according to the input waveform.

Trigger Section
 The trigger determines when to display or store the captured data.
 It controls the start event of a sweep.
 It tells the scope what parts of the signal to “trigger” on and start measuring.
 It is used to stabilize the waveform. It converts unstable displays or blank screens into
meaningful waveforms.
 The trigger can be set to restart automatically after each sweep or can be configured to
respond to an internal or external event.
 The principal controls of this section are the source and coupling selector switches, and
an external trigger input (EXT Input) and level adjustment.

Function generator
A function generator is a device to generate arbitrary time varying waveforms. It is used for
testing and designing circuits in a lab environment. The function generator used in this lab is
Instek AFG 2225. A function generator has a frequency range, and we can get varying
amplitude from its main output. We can verify its frequency and wave shapes by applying its
output to oscilloscope.

Generating a Signal
 Turn the power on and press the output key.

 Press the sine key, if not already active.

 Enter a value of 2 using numeric keypad and then choose units to be kHz. We can also specify time period
instead of frequency if we press the “Freq” soft key and then specify the time period.

 Similarly press the Amplitude soft key to enter amplitude and offset soft key to enter DC offset. 
  The units can be changed by pressing first the +/- key and then entering new units.

 Similarly, by pressing the square, ramp, pulse etc. keys we can generate arbitrary waveforms of
different characteristics.

Lab Task: Measuring AC Signals using Oscilloscope

Procedure:
1. Turn on the oscilloscope and function generator.
2. Set the function generator to 1 KHz frequency by pressing 1 KHz button and multiplier
to X1. 
3. Generate different types of waveforms from function generator.
4. Now observe the signal by attaching the probe of the function generator to any probe of
the oscilloscope channel.
5. Adjust volt/div and time/div to observe proper signal.
6. Measure the amplitude of the signal (Peak and RMS value of the voltage).
7. Time per div = t =
8. No of divisions in which wave complete its 1 cycle = N =
9. Time period = T = Total No of divisions (N) x Time per div (t) =
10. Repeat the process.

Observation & Calculation

For Sinusoidal Waveform

No. of V rms
Frequency Volts V rms
S. No Vertical V P−P VP V
(Hz) ¿ V rms = P VP
Divisions √2
1 1Hz 0.1 10V/Div 100 10 7.0710 0.70710
 2 10Hz 0.01 10V/Div 200 20 141.421 7.0710

3 20Hz 0.05 10V/Div 300 30 21.213 0.70710

For Square Waveform

No. of V rms V rms

Frequency Volts V P−P VP
S. No Vertical
(Hz) ¿ V rms =V P VP
Divisions

1 1Hz 0.1 10V/Div 100 10 10 0.70710

2 10Hz 0.01 10V/Div 200 20 20 7.0710

3 20Hz 0.05 10V/Div 300 30 30 0.70710

For Triangular Waveform

No. of V rms
Frequency Volts V rms
S. No Vertical V P−P VP V
(Hz) ¿ V rms = P VP
Divisions √3
1
1Hz 0.1 10V/Div 100 10 5.7735 0.70710
2
10Hz 0.01 10V/Div 200 20 11.5470 0.70710
3
20Hz 0.05 10V/Div 300 30 17.3205 0.70710
 Experiment 06
To calculate the Time Constant of RC Circuit using
Oscilloscope and Function Generator

Objective:
To measure the “Time Constant” of RC circuit.

Apparatus:
Oscilloscope
Function Generator
Resistor 100 KΩ
Capacitor 1μF
Connecting wires
Breadboard
Series RC Circuit - An Introduction
The simplest type of RC circuit (1st order RC circuit) is shown in the figure which is composed
of one resistor and one capacitor.

Time Constant
When voltage is applied to the RC circuit, current will begin to flow. Energy will dissipate
through the resistor and in the form of charges, it starts depositing on the capacitor plates.
Initially, there is very little charge on the plates, however, as time goes, charge on the plates
builds up and the increased voltage across the capacitor will reduce the flow of current through
the circuit. After some time, circuit will be in new equilibrium or steady state condition that
means, capacitor is fully charged. Now, remove source, charge that has built up in the capacitor
flows through the resistor and circuit is again in transient state for capacitor discharging.
Thus, “the time required by the reactive components (capacitor or inductor) to attain
maximum voltage for charging or discharging state is called as time constant” or delay. This
time, also called the transient response, required for the capacitor to fully charge, is equivalent
to about 5 time constants. This transient response time T is measured in terms of τ = R x C,
in seconds, where R is the value of the resistor in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in
Farads. This then forms the basis of an RC charging circuit were 5T can also be thought of as
“5 x RC”.
Procedure:
1. Turn on the oscilloscope and function generator. 

2. Fixed the probe at multiplier to X1 and calibrate the oscilloscope.

3. Set the function generator to 1Hz frequency by pressing 1Hz button

4. Press square waveform button to generate square wave from function generator

5. Observe the generated signal by attaching the probe of the function generator to the probe of
the oscilloscope channel.

6. Adjust volt/div and time/div to observe proper signal.

7. Implement following RC circuit on breadboard.

8. Choose resister and capacitor values wisely to satisfy time constant condition i.e., τ = 5(R x C),
so that resultant charging and discharging curve is visualized clearly.

9. Adjust VC curve at the center of display area.

10. Use cursor button to turn on cursors for voltage and time.

11. Set the time cursors at the start and end of charging curve and measure the duration between
2 cursors (i.e., note down the delta value).
 12. Set the voltage cursors, at the top and bottom of charging curve and measure the voltage
difference between 2 cursors (i.e., note down the delta value). This should be maximum value
of the peak voltage.

13. This verifies that the time constant calculated by the formula τ = R x C is same as observed
by the oscilloscope.

14. Now move one of the time cursors (2 nd one) at 1τ time (100ms in this case).

15. Move the top voltage cursor to intercept the time cursor at 1τ time (100ms in this case),
while staying both the cursors on capacitor output curve.
16. At this point, measure the value of voltage (delta value), this should be 63% of the peak
voltage.

17. This verifies that the time constant calculated by the formula τ = R x C is same as observed
by the oscilloscope

18. Repeat whole process for different values of frequency, resistor and capacitor.

Table: Observation & Calculation

S.No. Resistance Capacitance Frequency Amplitude Calculated Observed
(Ohm) (Farad) (Hertz) (Volts) Time Constant Time Constant

τ (sec) τ (sec)
1 100kΩ 1µ 1 10 5×10−7 53.957s

2 100kΩ 2µ 2 15 1×10−6 1.500s

3 100kΩ 3µ 3 20 1.5×10−9 53.920s

Graphs:
 Experiment 07
Transient Analysis (Transient Response) of Series RL
Circuit using Oscilloscope

Objective:
To measure the “Time Constant” of RL circuit.

Apparatus:
Oscilloscope
Resistor 5Ω
Inductor 200mH
Connecting wires
Breadboard

Series RL Circuit - An Introduction

The simplest type of RL circuit is shown in the figure which is composed of one resistor and
one inductor.

Time Constant
Thus, “the time required by the reactive element ( inductor) to attain maximum current for
charging or discharging state is called as time constant” or delay. This time, also called the
transient response, is equivalent to about 5 time constants. This transient response time T is
measured in terms of τ = L/R, in seconds, where R is the value of the resistor in ohms and L
is the value of the inductor in Henry’s. 5T can also be thought of as “5 x L/R”.
Procedure:
1. Make a series RL circuit and apply DC voltage to it.

2. Choose the values of resister and inductor wisely to satisfy time constant condition i.e.,
τ = 5(L/R), so that resultant charging and discharging curve is visualized clearly. (In our case R =
5Ω and L = 200mH)

3. Turn on the oscilloscope and fix the probe multiplier to X1.

4. Apply the same DC voltage (input of series RL circuit) to oscilloscope at Ch1.

5. Apply the same DC voltage (input of series RL circuit) to Ch1 of Oscilloscope.

6. Apply the output of series RL circuit to Ch2 of Oscilloscope.

7. Adjust time/div and volt/div to observe the signal properly.

8. Use “Transient Analysis” from multiSIM to observe the voltage and current flowing through the
inductor.

9. Calculate the time constant τ = 5(L/R) by keeping the value of inductor fixed while changing the
value of resistor. Verify your results from scope .

10. Repeat whole process for different values of resistor and inductor.

Table: Observation & Calculation

Voltage (Amplitude) = 12 Volt Steady State Current,
V
I=
R

Calculated
Calculated
Time Observed
Steady State Measured
Resistance Inductance Constant
S.No. Current Time
(sec) Steady State
(Ohm) (Henry) Constant
V Current
L I= (sec)
5 τ =5 R
R

1 0.5 200 mH 2 23.82 2 0.4

2 1 200 mH 1 11.92 1 0.2

3 1.5 200 mH 0.65 7.9 0.65 0.133

 4 2 200 mH 0.5 5.9 0.5 0.1

5 2.5 200 mH 0.4 4.7 0.4 0.08

6 3 200 mH 0.334 3.9 0.334 0.066

7 3.5 200 mH 0.285 3.4 0.285 0.057

8 4 200 mH 0.25 2.9 0.25 0.05

9 4.5 200 mH 0.22 2.6 0.22 0.044

10 5 200 mH 0.2 2.3 0.2 0.04

Graph#1
Graph#2

Graph#3

Graph#4
Graph#5

Graph#6
Graph#7

Graph#8
Graph#9

Graph#10

Experiment 08
 Find the Impedance and Phase Angle of a Series RLC
Circuit using Multi-SIM
Objective:
Find the Impedance and Phase angle of a Series RLC Circuit.

Apparatus:
MultiSIM
Resistors
Inductors
Capacitors

Series RLC Circuit

In a series circuit, same current flows through each component. The current I R is in-phase with
the voltage VR in the resistor. The current IL lags the voltage VL in the inductor, because it
opposes (slows down) the flow of current. In a pure inductor, current lags the voltage by 90 0.
While The current IC leads the voltage VC in the capacitor, because it opposes any sudden change in the
voltage.
In a series RL circuit, the magnitude of total impedance is the phasor sum of R and jXL

Z=√ R 2+(X ¿ ¿ L−X C )2 ¿

2
1
√ (
Z= R 2+ ωL−
ωC ) (1)

1
Where X L =ωL and XC =
ωC
and ω=2 πf

Phase angle is given as

(X ¿ ¿ L−X C )
θ=tan −1 ¿
R

θ=tan −1
(ωL− ωC1 ) (2)
R

V R1 L1
A
PR2

100Ω 100mH 100 %

Key=A Key=A
V1 100 %
120Vrms C1
60Hz 100uF
0° Key=A
100 %
Lab Task: Measuring the Impedance using MultiSIM

Procedure: Calculations
11. Make the circuit as shown in the figure.
12. Set the frequency f = 500 Hz and the values of resistor and inductor as given in the
table.
13. Use Eq. (1) to calculate the impedance.

Case-1: R and L = fixed , C = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 10 125.6472 85.4351

2 500 10 50 20 141.5178 85.9479

3 500 10 50 30 146.8102 86.0942

4 500 10 50 40 149.4568 86.1635

5 500 10 50 50 151.0448 86.2039

Case-2: R and C = fixed , L = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 10 20 18.4462 57.1721

2 500 10 20 20 47.9702 77.9677

3 500 10 30 20 78.9680 82.7248

4 500 10 40 20 110.2028 84.7397

5 500 10 50 20 141.5178 85.9479

Case-3: L and C = fixed , R = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 20 141.5178 85.9479

2 500 20 50 20 142.5738 81.9360

3 500 30 50 20 144.3167 78.0020

4 500 40 50 20 146.7218 74.1794

5 500 50 50 20 149.7575 70.4959

Procedure: Simulations
1. Make the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Set the frequency f = 500 Hz and the values of resistor and inductor as given in the
table.
3. Set the simulation mode to “Single Frequency AC”.
 V
4. Generate the expression for impedance “ ” from “Single Frequency AC” tab.
I
5. Simulate the circuit for three different case as given in tables.
6. Take a print out of all the graphs for each case.

Observation

Case-1: R and L = fixed , C = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 10 125.64722 85.43512

2 500 10 50 20 141.51789 85.94796

3 500 10 50 30 146.81027 86.09427

4 500 10 50 40 149.45681 86.16353

5 500 10 50 50 151.04483 86.20393

Case-2: R and C = fixed , L = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 10 20 18.4462 57.1721

2 500 10 20 20 47.9702 77.9677

3 500 10 30 20 78.9680 82.7248

4 500 10 40 20 110.2028 84.7397

5 500 10 50 20 141.5178 85.9479

Case-3: L and C = fixed , R = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 20 141.5178 85.9479

2 500 20 50 20 142.5738 81.9360

3 500 30 50 20 144.3167 78.0020

4 500 40 50 20 146.7218 74.1794

5 500 50 50 20 149.7575 70.4959

Graphs

Graphs For Case 1

Graph#1

Graph#2
Graph#3

Graph#4

Graph#5

Case#2 And its Graphs

Case:
Graps#1

Graph#2

Graph#3

Graph#4

Graph#5
Case#3 And Its Graph
Case:
Graph#1

Graph#2

Graph#3

Graph#4
Graph#5
 Experiment 09
Find the Impedance and Phase Angle of a Parallel RLC
Circuit using Multi-SIM
Objective:
Find the Impedance and Phase angle of a Parallel RLC Circuit.

Apparatus:
MultiSIM
Resistors
Inductors
Capacitors

Parallel RLC Circuit

In a parallel circuit, same voltage appears across each component. Different current is flowing
through each component. The current IR is in-phase with the voltage VR in the resistor. The
current IL lags the voltage VL in the inductor, because it opposes (slows down) the flow of
current. In a pure inductor, current lags the voltage by 900.
In a parallel RL circuit, the magnitude of total impedance is the phasor sum of R and jXL

1 2 1 2
1 1
Z
¿  
√(
R
+ )( −
X L XC )
1 2 2
1 1
Z √(
=  
R )(
+
ωL
−ωC )
1
Z=
2 2
1 1 (1)
√( ) (
R
+
ωL
−ωC )
1
Where X L =ωL and XC =
ωC Inductor becomes short circuit at
steady state making a loop in the
and ω=2 πf circuit.

So insert a small resistor in series with

it to break the loop
In terms of admittance

Y = √   G2+( BL −BC )2

1 1
1 1 1 BC = = =ωC
Where G= , BL = = and XC 1
R X L ωL
ωC
Phase angle is given as
V
A θ=tan −1 ¿)
PR2

V1 θ=tan −1
( ωL1 −ωC )
R1 1 L1 C1
120Vrms 100Ω R 100mH 100uF
60Hz Key=A Key=A Key=A
0°
100 % 100 % 100 %
 −1
θ = tan R . ( ωL1 −ωC) (2)

V
A
PR2

R2 Right figure for simulation

1Ω

V1 R1 L1 C1
120Vrms 100Ω 100mH 100uF
60Hz Key=A Key=A Key=A
0°
100 % 100 % 100 %

Lab Task: Measuring the Impedance using MultiSIM

Procedure: Calculations
14. Make the circuit as shown in the figure.
15. Set the frequency f = 500 Hz and the values of resistor and inductor as given in the
table.
16. Use Eq. (1) to calculate the impedance.

Case-1: R and L = fixed , C = variable

 Frequency R L C Impedance Angle
S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 10 9.6 -14.2

2 500 10 50 20 8.7 -29.4

3 500 10 50 30 7.5 -41.8

4 500 10 50 40 6.4 -50.1

5 500 10 50 50 5.5 -56.4

Impedance

Phase Angle
Case-2: R and C = fixed , L = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 10 20 9.4 -18.7

2 500 10 20 20 9.0 -25.6

3 500 10 30 20 8.8 -27.8

4 500 10 40 20 8.75 -28.9

5 500 10 50 20 8.0 -29.0

Case-3: L and C = fixed , R = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 20 8.7 -29

2 500 20 50 20 13.4 -48

3 500 30 50 20 15.5 -59

4 500 40 50 20 16.1 -66

 5 500 50 50 20 16.6 -70

Procedure: Simulations
7. Make the circuit as shown in the figure.
8. Set the frequency f = 500 Hz and the values of resistor and inductor as given in the
table.
9. Set the simulation mode to “Single Frequency AC”.
V
10. Generate the expression for impedance “ ” from “Single Frequency AC” tab.
I
11. Simulate the circuit for three different case as given in tables.
12. Take a print out of all the graphs for each case.

Observation

Case-1: R and L = fixed , C = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 10 9.69659 -14.05772

2 500 10 50 20 8.70503 -29.44170

3 500 10 50 30 7.50982 -41.29809

4 500 10 50 40 6.42293 -50.01753

5 500 10 50 50 5.52809 -56.42464

Graph 2:

Graph 3:

Graph 4:

Graph 5:

Case-2: R and C = fixed , L = variable

 Frequency R L C Impedance Angle
S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 10 20 9.4 -18.7

2 500 10 20 20 9.0 -25.6

3 500 10 30 20 8.8 -27.8

4 500 10 40 20 8.75 -28.9

5 500 10 50 20 8.0 -29.0

Graph 1:

Graph 2:

Graph 4:
Graph 5:

Case-3: L and C = fixed , R = variable

Frequency R L C Impedance Angle

S. No
(Hz) (Ohms) (mH) (uF) Z (Ohms) θ

1 500 10 50 20 8.7 -29

2 500 20 50 20 13.4 -48

3 500 30 50 20 15.5 -59

4 500 40 50 20 16.1 -66

5 500 50 50 20 16.6 -70

Graph 1:
Graph 2:

Graph 3:

Graph 4:

Graph 5:
 Experiment 10
Half-Wave Rectifiers

Objective:
To study the characteristics of a diode.

Apparatus:
Multi-SIM
Resistors
Diodes

Rectifier
Rectifier is an electronic device that converts alternating current into direct current by allowing
the current to flow through it in one direction only.

Rectifier

Half wave Rectifier Full wave Rectifier

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
 Rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC).
 The process is called rectification.
 Input can be single or multi-phase (e.g. 3-phase).

Applications:
 DC welder.
 DC motor drive.
 Battery charger.
 DC power supply.

Single-phase rectifiers:
Half-Wave Rectification:
 Single diode rectifier is connected across an alternating voltage source.
 Since the diode only conducts when the anode is positive with respect to the cathode,
current will flow only during the positive half cycle of the input voltage.
  The harmonic content of the rectifier’s output waveform is very large and consequently
difficult to filter.

Output frequency of HWR:

 Output frequency of HWR is equal to input frequency.
 This means when input AC completes one cycle, rectified wave also completes one
cycle.

fout = fin

The waveforms for source voltage Vs and output voltage Vo.

 The output voltage varies between the peak voltage Vm and zero in each cycle. This
variation is called “ripple”, and the corresponding voltage is called the peak-to-peak
ripple voltage, Vp-p.
Multisim Half Wave Simulation:
 Experiment 11
Full Wave Rectifiers
Full wave Rectifier
There are two types of full wave rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier

Center Tapped Rectifier Bridge Rectifier

Center Tapped Rectifier
A full wave rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal to DC using both halves (positive
and negative) of input (AC) signal. A full wave rectifier is an efficient mechanism for
converting alternating current into direct current.
It uses two diodes, one conducts during positive half cycle while the other conducts during the
negative half cycle of the applied alternating voltage. During the positive half cycle, diode D1
becomes forward biased and D2 becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and D2 remains
OFF. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across the load resistor RL will
be equal to the input voltage. During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1
becomes reverse biased and D2 becomes forward biased. Hence D1 remains OFF and D2
conducts.

Bridge Rectifier
This type of rectifier uses four diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special center tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to
one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown in the figure.
The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle.
During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes
D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is
the same direction as before.

Procedure: Simulations
1. Make the circuits as shown in the figures.
2. Set some appropriate value for the resistor.
3. Set the simulation mode to “Interactive”.
4. Simulate both the circuits to observe the Half wave and Full wave rectification.

Center Tapped Rectifier:

Multisim Circuit:
Full Wave Rectifier:
Multisim Circuit:
 Experiment 12
Draw the Characteristic Curve of a Diode and Calculate its
Forward and Reverse Resistance

Objective:
To study the characteristics of a diode.

Apparatus:
Diode
Resistor
Power supply
Connecting wires

Diode
Diode is a semiconductor device that allows the current to flow in one direction
only. Therefore, it is sometimes called a Rectifier. A diode has two terminals labelled as anode
A (+ve) and cathode K (-ve).

Diode Characteristics Apparatus

Modes of Operations
Forward Bias
The circuit diagram shows the operation of diode in forward bias mode. When the applied
voltage across the diode exceeds 0.7V in Silicon and 0.3V in Germanium, current flows
through it whose magnitude is in milli amperes (mA).
Procedure:
5. Increase the voltage in small steps of 0.05 volts and measure the current (mA) in each
step.
6. Take 20 readings up to 1 volt (voltmeter needle moves to the left side).

Reverse Bias
The circuit diagram shows the operation of diode in reverse bias mode. When the applied
voltage across the diode gets below 0V, a minute reverse current flows through it whose
magnitude is in micro amperes (µA).

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Procedure:

1. Increase the voltage in small steps of 1 volt and measure the current (µA) in each step.
2. Take 20 readings up to 20 volts (voltmeter needle moves to the right side).
Calculations and Graph:
Draw a graph of Voltage Vs Current on the paper by using the calculated values. Take voltage
across x-axis and current across y-axis. The graph (diode characteristics) should look like this.
In the forward bias region, the current first increases slowly and the rapidly while in the reverse
bias region, a very minute current flows until the breakdown region and the increases rapidly.