Unit 2 – Ecosystems

•Definition and concept of Ecosystem

•Structure of ecosystem (biotic and abiotic components); Functions of
Ecosystem: Physical (energy flow), Biological (food chains, food web,
ecological succession), and Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling)
processes. Concepts of productivity, ecological pyramids and
homeostasis
•Types of Ecosystems: Tundra, Forest, Grassland, Desert, Aquatic
(ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries); importance and
threats with relevant examples from India
•Ecosystem services (Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, and
Supporting); Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies;
Basics of Ecosystem restoration

Dr. Nawin Kumar Tiwary

Assistant Professor
Department of Environmental Studies
Indraprastha College for Women
University of Delhi
 CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM

The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the
Greek words Oikos- home + logos- study. So ecology deals with the study of
organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings. The
surroundings or environment consists of other living organisms (biotic) and
physical (abiotic) components.

Modern ecologists believe that an adequate definition of ecology must specify

some unit of study and one such basic unit described by Tansley (1935) was
ecosystem. An ecosystem is a self-regulating group of biotic communities of
species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment
exchanging energy and matter. Now ecology is often defined as ‘‘the study of
ecosystems’’.

The ecosystem is a unit or a system which is composed of a number of sub-units,

that are all directly or indirectly linked with each other. They may be freely
exchanging energy and matter from outside—an open ecosystem or may be
isolated from outside in term of exchange of matter—a closed ecosystem.
BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
 BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

(a) BIOTIC COMPONENTS: Different living organisms constitute the biotic

component of an ecosystem and belong to the following categories:

(i) Producers: These are mainly producing food themselves e.g., Green plants
produce food by photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight from raw materials
like water and carbon dioxide.
They are known as photo-autotrophs (auto = self, photo = light, troph = food).
There are some chemo-autotrophs, which are a group of bacteria, producing
their food from oxidation of certain chemicals. e.g. sulphur bacteria.
(ii) Consumers: These organisms get their food by feeding on other organisms.
They are of the following types:
• Herbivores—which feed on plants e.g. rabbit, insect.
• Carnivores—which feed on herbivores as secondary carnivores (e.g., frog,
small fish) or tertiary carnivores (e.g., snake, big fish), which feed on other
consumers.
• Omnivores—which feed on both plants and animals e.g., humans, rats, many
birds.
• Detritivores—which feed on dead organisms e.g., earth worm, crab, ants.
 BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
(iii) Decomposers: These are micro-organisms which break down organic matter into
inorganic compounds and in this process they derive their nutrition. They play a very
important role in converting the essential nutrients from unavailable organic form to free
inorganic form that is available for use by plants e.g., bacteria, fungi.
 BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
(b) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: Various physico-chemical components of the ecosystem
constitute the abiotic structure:

(i) Physical components include sunlight, solar intensity, rainfall, temperature, wind
speed and direction, water availability, soil texture etc.
(ii) Chemical components include major essential nutrients like C, N, P, K, H2, O2, S etc.
and micronutrients like Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu etc., salts and toxic substances like pesticides.
 LEVELS OF
ECOLOGICAL
ORGANISATIONS
LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANISATIONS
 Nutrient Flow in an Ecosystem
Nutrients (Materials) in an ecosystem move in a cyclic manner. The cycling of nutrients
takes place between the biotic and abiotic components, hence known as biogeochemical
cycles (bio = living, geo = earth, chemical = nutrients).
 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
There is uni-directional flow of energy in an ecosystem. It flows from sun and then after
being captured by primary producers (green plants), flows through the food chain or food
web, following the laws of thermodynamics. At every successive step in the food-chain, there
is huge loss of about 90% of the energy in different processes (respiration, excretion,
locomotion etc.) and only 10% moves to next level (Lindemann’s Ten per cent law of energy
flow).
 Food Chain
FOOD CHAIN: A food chain is a sequence of populations or organisms of an ecosystem
through which food and its contained energy passes.
Most food chains have no more than four or five links. There cannot be too many links in a
single food chain because the animals at the end of the chain would not get enough food
(and hence energy) to stay alive.
 Lindemann’s 10% Energy Law
Energy transfer from one trophic level to the next on average is about 10%. That means that
only 10% of the available energy is passed to the next higher trophic level.
 Food Web
FOOD WEB: It is a network of food chain which becomes interconnected at various trophic
levels.
 Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids were first devised by British ecologist Charles Elton(1927).
Ecological pyramids is graphical representation of trophic structure and function of an
ecosystem, starting with producers at the base and successive trophic level forming
the apex is known as an ecological pyramid. It is of three types:

1) Pyramid of numbers: It represent the number of individual organisms at each

trophic level. It may be upright or inverted pyramid of number depending upon the
type of ecosystem and food chain. Example:

Top carnivores Top carnivores

Lion, Tigers
Hawks, other
birds Carnivores Snakes, Foxes
Frogs, birds
Carnivores
Herbivores Insects, birds
Herbivores Insects
Producers Tree
Producers Grasses
Forest ecosystem ( narrow on both
Grassland ecosystem ( upright) end and broader in the middle
 Ecological Pyramids

Hyper parasite Fleas, microbes

Parasite Lice, bugs
Herbivores Birds
Producer Trees
Parasitic food chain( Inverted)
2) Pyramid of Biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry weight) at each trophic
level in a food chain. It can be upright or inverted. Example:

Tertiary Carnivores Big fish

Carnivores
Carnivores Small fish
Snake, frog, birds
Herbivores insect

Herbivores Squirrel, rabbit, insect producer phytoplankton

Producer Tree, herbs, grasses
Pond ecosystem
Forest ecosystem
 Ecological Pyramids
3) Pyramid of energy: The amount of energy present at each trophic level is
considered for this type of pyramid. It is always upright, because there is huge loss of
energy (about 90%) in the form of heat and respiration at each successive trophic
level. Thus at each energy level only 10% of the energy passes on.

0.1 Top carnivores

Carnivores(1)

Herbivores(10)

Producer(100)

Pyramid of energy
 PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. It is usually expressed
in units of mass per unit surface (or volume) per unit time, for instance grams per square meter
per day. The mass unit may relate to dry matter or to the mass of carbon generated.

Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that of

heterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity.
 PRODUCTIVITY
1. Primary production - Primary production is the synthesis of new organic material from
inorganic molecules such as H2O and CO2. It is dominated by the process of
photosynthesis which uses sunlight to synthesise organic molecules such as sugars,
although chemosynthesis represents a small fraction of primary production. Organisms
responsible for primary production include land plants, marine algae and some bacteria
(including cyanobacteria). It is of two types:

Gross primary productivity – The total organic matter synthesized by the producers in the
process of photosynthesis per unit time and area.

Net primary productivity – It is equal to the rate of organic matter created by photosynthesis
(GPP) minus the rate of respiration and other losses.
 PRODUCTIVITY
2. Secondary production - Secondary production is the generation of biomass of
heterotrophic (consumer) organisms in a system. This is driven by the transfer of organic
material between trophic levels, and represents the quantity of new tissue created
through the use of assimilated food.

On the land maximum productivity rate is found in Tropical rain forests followed by tropical
deciduous forest, temperate forests, savannah, temperate grasslands and desert scrubs.
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is a series of changes in a community in which new populations of
organisms gradually replace existing ones.
1. Primary succession: Primary ecological succession is the changing sequence of
communities from the first biological occupation of a place where previously there were
no living beings. For example, the colonization and the following succession of
communities on a bare rock.
• Change in community composition on a site which previously had no living
organisms
• Lichens are the pioneer community
• No soil present in the early stages of the succession
• May take 100’s or 1000’s of years to complete
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
2. Secondary Succession: A sequence of community changes that takes place when a
community is disrupted by natural disaster or human actions. This takes place on existing
soil.
Example of Secondary Succession: - A fire levels portions of a forest and plants regrow after
the fire, A farmer plows his field and crops grow.

• Grasses are the pioneer community

• Soil is present in the early stages of the succession
• Completes in a short span of time (10 – 100 yrs)
 Biogeochemical Cycling or Nutrient Cycling
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus
as elements and compounds makeup 97% of the
mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the
mass of all living organisms. In addition to these,
about 15 to 25 other elements are needed in some
form for the survival and good health of plants and
animals. These elements or mineral nutrients are
always in circulation moving from non-living to living
and then back to the non-living components of
the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. This
circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling
(bio for living; geo for atmosphere). Among the most
important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient
cycle and the nitrogen nutrient cycle.

Based on the nature of the reservoir, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Gaseous or

Sedimentary cycle.
• Gaseous Cycle: the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere — water cycle, carbon
cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc.
• Sedimentary Cycle: the reservoir is the earth's crust (soluble elements mostly found in
earth’s crust) — phosphorous cycle, sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle etc.
 abiotic reservoir:
Carbon cycle  CO2 in atmosphere
enter food chain:
CO2 in Combustion of fuels =
 photosynthesis
atmosphere carbon fixation in
Industry and home
Calvin cycle
Photosynthesis recycle:
Diffusion Respiration

return to abiotic:
Plants respiration
Animals combustion

Dissolved CO2

Bicarbonates
Photosynthesis Deposition
Animals of dead
material
Plants and algae

Fossil fuels
Deposition of
Carbonates in sediment (oil, gas, coal)
dead material
 Nitrogen cycle abiotic reservoir:
 N in atmosphere
enter food chain:
 nitrogen fixation by soil & Atmospheric
Carnivores aquatic bacteria nitrogen
recycle:
Herbivores
 decomposing & nitrifying
bacteria
return to abiotic:
 denitrifying bacteria

Birds
Plankton with Plants
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria Death, excretion, feces
Fish Nitrogen-fixing
Decomposing bacteria bacteria
(plant roots)
amino acids
excretion
Ammonifying bacteria Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
loss to deep sediments (soil)
Nitrifying bacteria
Denitrifying
soil nitrates bacteria
 abiotic reservoir:
Phosphorus cycle  rocks, minerals, soil
enter food chain:
 erosion releases soluble
phosphate
 uptake by plants
recycle:
Land  decomposing bacteria &
Plants Animal tissue
animals fungi
Urine and feces
Soluble soil return to abiotic:
phosphate  loss to ocean
Decomposers
sediment
Loss in (bacteria and
drainage fungi)
Rocks and
minerals
Decomposers Phosphates
(bacteria & fungi) in solution

Animal tissue
and feces Aquatic Plants and
animals algae
Precipitates

Loss to deep sediment

Types of Ecosystems
 Forest ecosystem
A forest is a complex ecosystem which is predominantly composed
of trees, shrubs and is usually a closed canopy. It is a community of
living trees or plants and associated organisms covering a
considerable area, utilizing sun-shine, air, water and material from
the soil to sustain and reproduce itself. Forests provide wood canes,
gums, resins, dyes, tannins, fibres, medicines, food etc., to humans.
Forests are storehouses of a large variety of life forms such as plants,
mammals, birds, insects and reptiles etc. Also the forests have
abundant microorganisms and fungi, which do the important work
of decomposing dead organic matter thereby enriching the soil.

As per the India State of Forest Report, 2009, the total forest cover
of the country (2007 assessment) is 690,899 km² and this constitutes
21.02 percent of the geographic area of the country. The most
‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly in our National Parks
and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
 Importance of Forest Ecosystem

1. Ecological Balance: Forests and wildlife are essential to maintain ecological balance of an
area.
2. Renewable Natural Resources: Forests are important renewable natural resources.
3. Eco-system: Trees dominate forest ecosystem; their species content varieties in different
parts of the world.
4. Economic Development: Forest contributes to the economic development of the country
because they provide goods and services to the people and industry.
5. Environment Quality: The forest enhances the quality of environment by influencing the
life supporting system.
6. Safeguard against Pollution: Forest check air pollution and soil erosion. Thus, they
exercise safety and against pollution.
7. Soil Conservation: Forest save the hill-slopes from landslides.
8. Wind Erosion: In deserts, trees reduce wind erosion by checking wind velocity.
9. Check the Extension Balance: The forest checks strong gales and keeps the soil intact
beneath the roots of trees and thus checks extension of desert.
10. Maintains Ecological Balance: The forest check pollution of air through increasing
oxygen content of the air.
11. Attract Rainfall: By causing condensation of water vapour in clouds, forests attract
rains.
12. Control Floods: The floods are controlled because forests dry up rainwater like sponge.
 Importance of Forest Ecosystem
13. Linked with Cultural and Civilization: Forests are linked with our cultural and
civilization.
14. Supply of Raw Material: Forest supply wood, which is used as under:
(i) Fuel,
(ii) Raw material for various industries as pulp, paper, newsprint, board;
(iii) Timber for furniture items;
(iv) To be used in packing articles like fruits, tea etc.
(v) For preparing matches, sport goods etc.
15. Minor forest products: Some examples of minor forest products, are canes, gums,
resins, dyes, flocks, medicines, tannins, lac, fibres, katha etc.
1. For tribal people are provided with food like tuber, roots, leaves, fruits, meat
from birds and other animals etc.
16. Employment opportunities: About eight crore people are employed in wood based
industries like paper and match and small and cottage industries. Besides, those who are
employed in the forest department in various states.
17. Revenue Receipts: The forest provide Rs. 400 crores per year as revenue to the
government.
18. Fodder for Cattle: Forest provide fodder to cattle.
19. Foreign Exchange Earners: Forest produce a great number of articles like essential oils,
resins and dyes. Which find market in foreign countries. Nearly Rs. 50 crores are earned in
foreign exchange through selling lac, terpentine oil and sandal wood oil to abroad.
Thus, forests are nation’s wealth. They are useful to us directly and indirectly.
 Types of Forest Ecosystem

Moist tropical Montane sub tropical

Wet evergreen Broad leaved
Semi-evergreen Pine
Moist deciduous Dry evergreen
Littoral and swamp
Dry tropical Montane temperate forests
Dry deciduous Wet
Thorn Moist
Dry evergreen Dry
Sub Alpine Alpine
Moist
Dry
2. Grassland Ecosystem
a) Shola Grasslands
b) Terai Grasslands
c) Semi-arid Grasslands
3. Desert Ecosystem
a) Thar Desert
b) Rann of Kutchh
c) Cold Desert