MajorProject (Batch1)

A Major Project Report on
PERFORMANCE AND ANAYLSIS OF A GRID

CONNECTED PV SYSTEM USING FPGA
Submitted to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
HYDERABAD
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
Mr. CH. VISHNU VARMA 17831A0211
Ms. K. USHASRI 17831A0220
Mr. M. MANITEJA 18835A0210
Under the guidance of
Mr. M. NARESH
(PhD)
Assistant Professor
GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
Ibrahimpatnam (V), Ranga Reddy District -501506
2020-21
I
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “PERFORMANCE AND ANAYLSIS OF A GRID
CONNECTED PV SYSTEM USING FPGA” is being presented with report by CH. VISHNU
VARMA, K. USHASRI, M. MANITEJA bearing roll numbers 17831A0211, 17831A0220,
18835A0210 in partial fulfilment for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.
INTERNAL GUIDE PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR

Mr. M. NARESH Mr. M. NARESH
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

Dr. CH. NAGARAJA KUMARI DR.S.SREENATHA REDDY
Major project viva voice held on ……….
EXTERNALEXAMINER
II
VISION OF THE INSTITUTION
To be a world – class educational and research institution in the service of humanity by promoting high
quality Engineering and Management Education.
MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION
M1: Imbibe soft skills and technical skills.
M2: Develop the faculty to reach the international standards.
M3: Maintain high academic standards and teaching quality that promotes the analytical
thinking and independent judgment.
M4: Promote research, innovation and Product development by collaboration with

reputed foreign universities.
M5: Offer collaborative industry programs in emerging areas and spirit of enterprise.
QUALITY POLICY
GNIT is committed to provide quality education through dedicated and talented Faculty, world
class infrastructure, Labs and Advanced Research center to the students.
III
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT
To be recognized as one of the best EEE departments in the region and to develop the
department to a level of par excellence that produces Electrical Engineers who can be an asset to the
country.
MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT
➢ To nurture young individual into knowledge, skillful, and ethical professionals in their pursuit of
knowledge.
➢ To promote academic growth by offering state of the art programmers for the students and
faculties.
➢ To develop human potential to its fullest extent so that intellectuals capable of being an asset to
the country can emerge.
➢ To nurture the faculty and expose them to world class infrastructure.
➢ To sustain high performance by excellence in teaching, research and innovations.
➢ To extensive partnership and collaborations with foreign universities for

technology up gradation.
IV
DEPARTMENTOFELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEERINGPROGRAM
EDUCATIONALOBJECTIVES (PEO’S):
1. The main objective of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program is the

upliftmen to frural students through technical education. These technocrats should
be able to apply basic and contemporary science, engineering, experimentation skills
to identify Electrical/Electronic problems in the industry and academia and be able
to develop practical solutions to them and also, gain employment as an Electrical
and Electronics professional.
2. ThegraduatesofElectricalandElectronicsEngineeringProgramshouldbeabletoesta
blishthemselves as practicing professionals in Electrical Transmission Distribution,
Electrical grid, Generating Plant, or sustain a life-long career in related areas. Also,
the graduates of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program should be able to
use their skills with a strong base to prepare them for higher education.
3. The graduates of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program should be

able to develop an abilitytoan alyze the requirements, understand the technical
specifications, design and provide economical & social acceptable engineering
solutions and produce efficient product designs of equipment’s by means of
organized training or self-learning in areas related to Electrical and Electronics
Engineering.
4. ThegraduatesofElectricalandElectronicsEngineeringProgramshouldhaveanexpo
sure to emerging cutting edge technologies, adequate training and opportunities to
work as team on multidisciplinary projects with effective communication skills,
individual, supportive and leadership qualities and also be able to establishan
V
Understanding of professionalism, ethics, public policy and aesthetics that allows
them to become good professional engineers.
PROGRAMOUTCOMES(PO’S):
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
VI
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics
and responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual,
and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex
engineering activities with the engineering community and with
society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and
apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the
preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long
learning in the broadest context of technological change.
VII
MAPPING OF PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S) AND
PROGRAMOUTCOMES(PO’S)FORELECTRICALANDELECTRONICSENGINEERI
NG:
Program PROGRAMOUTCOMES(PO’S)
Education 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
al
Objectives
(PEO’s)
1 * * * *
2 * * * * *
3 * * * * * * * *
4 * * * * * * * * * *
PROJECT MAPPING WITHPOs ANDPEOs
Sl. No. PROJECTNAME PO’s PEO’s

1 PERFORMANCE AND 1,2,5,7,9,10 1,4,2
ANAYLSIS OF A GRID
CONNECTED PV
SYSTEM USING FPGA
VIII
DECLARATION
This is to certify that the work reported in the present project report titled
“Performance and Analysis of a Grid Connected PV System Using
FPGA” is a record of work done by us in the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Ibrahimpatnam.
No part of the this is copied from books / journals / internet and wherever
the portion is taken, the same has been duly referred in the text. The reported work is
based on the project work done entirely by us and not copied from any other source.
CH. VISHNU VARMA 17831A0211
K. USHASRI 17831A0220
M.MANITEJA 18835A0210
IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The major project entitled “Performance and Analysis of Grid Connected PV
System Using FPGA” is the sum of total efforts of our batch. It is our
dutytobringforwardeachandeveryonewhoisdirectlyorindirectlyinrelationwithourprojectand
without whom it would not have gained a structure
We extend our deep sense of gratitude to the principal Dr. SREENATHA

REDDY, Dean Dr. ANMOL KUMAR GOYAL and the management of Guru Nanak
Institute of Technology for providing us the best enmities to enable us complete our
project work in the stipulated time.
We owe our immense thanks to Dr. NAGARAJA KUMARI, Head of

Department of EEE for her sustained interest, constructive criticism and constant
encouragement at every stage of her endeavor. We also extend our sincere thanks for her
valuable guidance and unstinting support which gave us the confidence required to
overcome the obstacles that we faced in the completion of this project.
We also extend our thanks to Mr. M. NARESH, Assistant Professor of EEE

department for her valuable guidance and unstinting support which gave us the
confidence required to overcome the obstacles that we faced in the completion of this
project
We are very thankful to our parents, friends and other faculty of Department of
electrical and electronics Engineering for their constant support for completion of this
project
CH. VISHNU VARMA 17831A0211
K. USHA SRI 17831A0220
M.MANITEJA 18835A0210
X
ABSTRACT:
Solar photovoltaic (PV) is one of the most promising renewable energy

resources that converts solar energy into electricity with environment friendly manner.
However, it has low efficiency and high relative costs. In order t overcome these
drawbacks, a grid-connected PV energy system should be require t satisfy the load
demand.
The aim of this project is to study, design a performance analysis of grid-
connected PV system as follows Improving the efficiency of grid-connected hybrid
power system to operate at maximum power point (MPP) with the aid of perturb and
observe (P&O) tracker. The prototypes of the FPGA are monitor the grid voltage and
grid frequency at the point of common coupling (PCC) between the grid connected
inverter, the local load and the distribution transformer and processed the value of
voltage and frequency for turned off the relay between the grid connected inverter and
the utility grid . A comprehensive qualitative analysis is performed, to compare the
different implementation techniques.
In this present scheme, to get AC power, power conditioning has been proposed
in two stages; namely in first stage maximum power will be extracted and in second
stage DC power will be converted into AC power. To extract optimum DC power from
solar PV modules MPPT charge controller is designed. In this study, constant voltage
MPPT charge controller is designed based on small signal analysis of converter. This
work focuses on the design and development of FPGA-based digital controller for the
grid connected solar photo-Voltaic (PV) systems as a distributed generation.
XI
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE NO

1.1 Renewable energy resources 2
2.1 Photo voltaic energy conversion 10
2.2 Different solar modules 12
2.3 Electrical equivalent circuit of PV Cell 12
2.4 V-I Characteristics of a PV module with temperature variation 13
2.5 V-I Characteristics of a PV module with irradiance variation 14
2.6 V-I and Power Characteristics of a PV module 15
2.7 Stand alone photo voltaic system 16
2.8 Grid connected photovoltaic system 17
2.9 Perturb and observe on PV curve 19
2.10 Flowchart of conventional P and O algorithm 20
3.1 FPGA block diagram 22
4.1 Schematic of a CCM boost converter. 27
4.2 Inductor voltage and capacitor current wave forms 27
4.3 Variation of DC component of Inductor current with Duty cycle 29
4.4 Inductor current wave form 30
4.5 Hysteresis Control Scheme 30
4.6 Input Current waveform of Hysteresis Control Scheme 31
4.7 Voltage-mode controlled buck converter 32
4.8 peak current-mode controlled boost converter 33
4.9 Simplified AC–DC converters 33
4.10 Input and Output AC–DC converters responses 34
4.11 DC–AC converters 34
4.12 Input and Output DC-AC converters responses 35
4.13 Input and Output DC–DC converters responses
4.14 Single and dual stage inverter topology with coupling
capacitances 36
5.1 Block diagram of implemented system 38
5.2 Proposed and Developed Simulation Diagram 39
XII
5.3 FPGA Based MPPT Controller Simulation Diagram 39
5.4 I-V and P-V Characteristics of one module at 250C 40
5.5 I-V and P-V Characteristics of array at 250C 40
5.6 Simulation results of rapid-change in irradiance (increasing). 40
5.7 Simulation results of steady-change in irradiance. 41
5.8 Grid Voltage Waveform 41
5.9 Simulation results for inverter, grid and load under
temperature variation 42
5.10 Simulation results of power and current for inverter,
grid and load under temperature variation. 42
5.11 shows the temperature variation of solar changes capture
the variation of DC load power, Battery power and PV power. 42
5.12 Simulation results of DC load 43
5.13 Simulation results of Battery SOC 43
XIII
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array

PV Photovoltaic
DSP Digital Signal Processing
ADC Analog Digital Signal
DAC Digital Analog Signal
ALU Arithmetic logic Unit
LUT Look-up tables
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
EMF Electromagnetic force
CHCVP Cadmium telluride solar cell
CVP Concentrated PV cell
DSSC Dye-sensitized solar cell
LSC Luminescent Solar Concentrator cell
MJ Multi-junction solar cell
OPV Organic solarcell
PEC Photo electrochemical cell
TFSC Thin-film solar cell
HDL Hardware Description Language
ASIC Application–Specific Integrated Circuit
SW System Software
HW Hardware
CLB Configurable Logic Blocks
LE Logic Element
LB Logic Block
LC Logic Cell
XIV
INDEX
S.NO CONTENTS Page No

1. Certificate II
2. Declaration IX
3. Acknowledgment X
4. Abstract XI
5. List of figures XII
6. List of abbreviations XIV
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1-8
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of energy resources 2
1.2.1 Non renewable resources of energy 2
1.2.2 Renewable energy sources 2
1.3 Literature review 3
1.3.1 MPPT of PV system 6
1.3.2 Grid connected PV system 6
1.4 Project motivation 7
1.5 Scope of work 8
CHAPTER 2 SOLAR PV SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS 9-19
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Solar energy 9
2.2.1 Photo voltaic energy conversion 9
2.3 Modelling of PV Panel 11
2.3.1 Photo voltaic cell 11

2.3.2 PV module 11
2.3.3 PV Array 11
2.3.4 PV Characteristics 12
2.3.5 Open circuit voltage and temperature 13
2.3.6 Module current and irradiance 14
2.3.7 Maximum tracking point 14
2.4 Stand alone PV Systems 16
2.5 Grid connected PV system 16
2.5.1 Standards and codes for grid connected PV system 18
2.6 MPPT of PV system using Buck boost converter 19
CHAPTER 3 FIELD PROGRAMABLE GATE ARRAY 21-24
3.1 Field Programable Gate Array 21
3.2 FPGA architecture 22
3.2.1 Programmable logic blocks 22
3.2.2 Programmable input output blocks 22
3.2.3 Programmable interconnected resources 23
3.3 Advantages of FPGA 23
3.3.1 Long term availability 23
3.3.2 Updating and adaption of the customer 23
3.3.3 Very Short Time-To-Market 23
3.3.4 Fast and Efficient Systems 23
3.3.5 Acceleration of Software 24
3.3.6 Real-Time Applications 24

3.3.7 Massively Parallel Data Processing 24
3. 4 Applications 24
CHAPTER 4 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 25-37
4.1 Electrical Grid 25
4.2 Power Electronics Consideration 26
4.2.1 The CCM Boost Converter 26
4.2.2 Hysteresis Control 30
4.2.3 Sliding Mode Control 31
4.2.4 Pulse Width Modulation Controller 32
4.2.5 AC to DC Converters 33
4.2.6 DC to AC Converters or Inverters 34
4.2.7 DC to DC Converters 35
4.3 Dual and single stage PV inverter circuit topology 36
CHAPTER 5 MATLAB SIMULATION AND RESULT 38-43
5.1 Introduction 38
5.2 Simulation And Results 39
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 44-45
6.1 Conclusion 44
6.2 Scope of Future Work 45
REFERENCES 46
Performance and Analysis of a Grid Connected Hybrid Power System Using FPGA
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The present day electronics world is moving towards miniaturization and low priced
equipments. At the risk of making a trite observation, the last two decade of advances
in microcontrollers, processors, and programmable logic have opened up tremendously
exciting possibilities for enhancing performance, applicability, and economy of power
electronics appliances. Thus implementing a digital circuit in place of analog circuit
attracts all the benefits associated with digital circuits.
In modern contest the world is moving from conventional energy sources to the
renewable one. To overcome the problems associated with generation of electricity
from fossil fuels, renewable energy sources can be participated in the energy mix. One
of the renewable energy sources that can be used for this purpose is the light received
from the sun. This light can be converted to clean electricity through the photovoltaic
process. The use of photovoltaic (PV) systems for electricity generation started in the
seventies of the 20th century and is currently growing rapidly worldwide.
Power electronic devices are working as an interface between grid and solar
power output. Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power
with the help of power semiconductor devices, which used as switch. Advent of silicon
controlled rectifier led to the development of new area of applications [1]. Simple
triggering circuit can be realised by R or Resistance and Capacitance network. They are
not expensive and little power required for its operation. However, the control and
hence the load output voltage susceptible to device temperature variations. Moreover,
feedbackcontrol incorporation is not easy.
1
Department of EEE GNIT
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES
The energy resources are generally classified into two categories:
1. Non-Renewable Resources of Energy
2. Renewable Resources of Energy
1.2.1 Non-Renewable Resources of Energy
Non-Renewable Resources are those natural resources which are exhaustible and
cannot be replaced once they are used. Nonrenewable resources are as follows:
a) Coal
b) Petroleum
c) Natural gal
d) Uranium etc.
1.2.2 Renewable Energy resources:
Renewable sources of energy are never-ending and can be used to generate energy
again and again. Renewable energy resources are categorised as given in Figure 1.1.
Figure.1.1: Renewable energy resources
2
1.3 Literature Review
Various researchers and authors have presented their work for modelling and control of
Grid connected converter. It is due to its greater abundance and environment friendly
characteristics. Control of grid connected comprised of two structures, MPPT control
and inverter control. Many methods have been proposed and discussed in literature.
The grid-connected inverter has various functions for small DG systems. First of
all is a power conversion from the dc energy sources to the ac grid and local loads [1].
This power conversion makes the ac grid current be synchronized with the grid voltage.
Another important function is a grid power quality control, especially, the control like
the compensation of the harmonic distortion at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC).
Because most of local loads are non-linear in home application, it distorts the grid
current. However, to connect the inverter to the grid, the utility standards such as
EN61000- 3-2 and IEEE1547 have to be met [2]. The inverter, therefore, has to regulate
not only the fundamental component of the current but also the harmonic currents [3].
The DG systems are usually small modular devices close to users, including solar
energy systems and fuel cells. Such systems commonly need dc–ac inverters as
interface between their single-phase grid and energy sources [4].
M. Wolf, and H. Rauschenbusch (1963) [68] represented the PV cell with an equivalent
electric circuit that composed of different lumped components, each one made up of a
current generator, a diode and a series resistance.
A. Celik, and N. Acikgoz (2007) [5] presented the modeling and experimental of
mono- crystalline PV module using four-and five-parameter analytical models. After
the model parameters were determined, the operating current was calculated using both
models and compared to the measured current produced by the PV module.
3
H.L. Tsai, C.S. Tu, and Y.J. Su (2008) [6] presented implementation of a generalized
PV model based on single diode model using Matlab/Simulink software package,
which can be representative of PV cell, module, and array for easy use on simulation
platform.
H. Patel, V. Agarwal (2008) [7] introduced Matlab-based modeling and simulation
scheme for studying the I-V and P-V characteristics of a PV array under a non-uniform
insolation due to partial shading.
V. Lo Brano, et al. (2010) [8] presented a new five-parameter for single diode model
that was capable of analytically describing the I-V characteristic of a PV module for
each generic condition of operative temperature and solar irradiance.
The parameters of the equivalent electrical circuit were extracted by solving a system
equations based on data commonly issued by manufacturers in standard test conditions
with a trial and error process.
L. Sandrolini, M. Artioli, and U. Reggiani (2010) [9]: In this Reference, a numerical
procedure for the extraction of the two-diode model parameters of PV modules was
described. A PSO algorithm was used to fit the calculated current– voltage
characteristic of a PV module to the experimental one.
K. Ishaque, and Z. Salam (2011) [10] described a differential evolution (DE) based
modelling method to compute the PV module parameters at any irradiance and
temperature point using only the datasheet information.
M. Petkov, D. Markova, and St. Platikanov (2011) [11]: In this Reference, the classical
and the modified single diode models have been used to model the electrical
characteristics of PV cells and modules. The impact of solar radiation, temperature,
shading and modules efficiency had been studied.
4
N. Pandiarajan, and R. Muthu (2011) [12] introduced a unique step-by-step procedure
for the simulation of PV modules with Matlab/ Simulink. Single diode equivalent
circuit was employed for 36 W solar modules.
K. Agroui, et al., (2011) [13] summarized the electrical and thermal characterizations of
thin film PV modules based on amorphous triple junctions (3J: a-Si) and Copper
Indium Selenide (CIS) thin film solar cells.
K. Ishaque, Z. Salam, and H. Taheri (2011) [14] proposed a Matlab Simulink simulator
for PV systems where a two-diode model had been used to represent a PV cell. The
accuracy of the simulator was verified by applying the model on five PV modules of
different types (multi-crystalline, mono-crystalline, and thin film) from various
manufacturers.
K. Ishaque, Z. Salam, and H. Taheri (2011) [15] proposed an improved modelling
approach for the two-diode model of PV module based on four parameter. The
proposed model is tested on six PV modules of different types (multi-crystalline, mono-
crystalline and thin film) from various manufacturers. The performance of the model is
evaluated against the popular single diode model.
J. Maherchandani, Ch. Agarwal, and M. Sahi (2012) [16] presented an efficient and
accurate single diode model for the estimation of the solar cell parameters using the
hybrid genetic algorithm (GA) and Nelder-Mead simplex search method from the given
voltage-current data.
Carrasco et al. [17] proposed Power-Electronic Systems for the Grid Integration of
Renewable Energy Sources and presented new trends in power electronics for the
integration of wind and photovoltaic (PV) power generators. A storage system
technology was introduced for the resources whose output changes. Kazantzakis et al.
[18] proposed a method to integrate the photovoltaic system into distribution network
5
operations. Distributed PV generator was used to improve the stability of system by
appropriate control. Power modulation should be such that power quality remains
within specified limit. D.C. Riawan et al. [19] presented a scheme for transferring
power from the photovoltaic (PV) modules to a storage battery using a solar charge
controller based on a Cuk dc/dc converter.
1.3.1 MPPT of PV system
N. Femia, et al. (2005) [41] applied a constraint on perturbation step size (ΔD) to
enable conventional P&O algorithm to overcome the deviation from MPP or instability
problem due to rapid variation of weather. Although the modification successes to track
MPP under rapid-change of weather, a higher value of step size (ΔD) caused high
power losses in steady state.
T. Kerekes, et al. (2006) [86] provided an overview of the existing MPPT algorithms
Discussions about partial shadowing case were included.
D. Peftitsis, G. Adamidis, and A. Balouktsis (2008) [87] presented classic HC
algorithm for MPPT. This algorithm selected a variable voltage step change according
to P–V curve’s slope. Buck–boost DC/DC converter was used.
D. Sera, et al. (2008) [43] suggested maximum and minimum threshold value of power
change (ΔP) to overcome the problem of conventional P&O algorithm. This suggestion
was not optimal solution due to constraints on power change that was depended mainly
on weather conditions.
1.3.2 Grid-connected PV system
D. Czarkowski, et al. (2002) [99] presented a contribution to the theory of optimal
PWM for single-phase inverters and given algorithms for efficient online calculation of
PWM switching patterns.
6
J. Myrzik and M. Calais (2003) [100] introduced an overview on recent developments
and a summary of the state-of-the-art in inverter technology for single-phase grid-
connected PV systems. This review was given for inverters for a power level up to
6kW.
N. Aphiratsakun, S. Bhaganagarapu, and K. Techakittiroj (2005) [101] presented the
design and implementation of a unipolar single-phase inverter. A diode bridge rectifier
was used and the DSP of Texas Instruments TMS320F241 for the implementation of
the inverter was used.
1.4 Project Motivation
This project introduces a surveying for PV system technology and its applications in
modern life. It presents a literature review for PV modelling, MPPT, and grid-
connected PV power systems. Also, it presents the objectives of the project and the
contents of its project. The overcome the problems associated with generation of
electricity from fossil fuels, renewable energy sources can be participated in the energy
mix. One of the renewable energy sources that can be used for this purpose is the light
received from the sun. This light can be converted to clean electricity through the
photovoltaic process. The use of photovoltaic (PV) systems for electricity generation
started in the seventies and is currently growing rapidly worldwide. In fact, many
organizations expect a bright future for these systems. The European Photovoltaic
Industry Association (EPIA) expects that the global cumulative PV capacity will reach
200 GW by the year 2020 and 800 GW by the year 2030.
PV systems are usually used in three main fields: 1)
 Satellite applications, where the solar arrays provide power to satellites,
 Off-grid applications, where solar arrays are used to power remote loads that are
not connected to the electric grid.
7
 On-grid or grid connected applications, in which solar arrays are used to supply
energy to local loads as well as to the electric grid.
1.5 Scope of Work
The aim of this project is provide more stable solution for grid-connected PV systems,
at different components of a grid-connected PV system from the solar irradiance
received by the PV arrays to the AC power injected into the grid, and makes a review of
the recent achievements and current research activities in the field. It presents a
literature review for PV modelling, MPPT, and grid-connected PV power systems.
Also, it presents the objectives of the project and the contents of its project. The overall
objective is to develop methods that improve performance and extract the PV/ FC and
Battery system. The constant voltage MPPT charge controller is designed based on
small signal analysis of converter.
8
CHAPTER 2
SOLAR PV SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an overview of grid connected inverters and the PV systems.
Grid connected technologies have been discussed. The important solar characteristics in
relations to temperature and irradiance and how the open circuit voltage is affected are
depicted in the chapter. Standards to design and installation practices of PV-grid
connected systems discussed in this chapter play the significant role at the point of
common coupling. These standards helped in the development of the proposed PV
system.
2.2 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar PV systems convert sunlight into electrical energy. Photons of light hitting
the solar panel knock electrons in the substrate material into a higher level of activity;
these electrons are then channelled off of the panel to create DC electricity. In most
cases, an inverter will be used to convert the DC power into AC power, making it more
directly usable to consumers as most modern electric appliances operate only on AC
power.
2.2.1Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
It works on the principle of simple PN junction. PV cell converts sun energy into
direct current. To get required dc power cells are connected in series and parallel to get
required power level. When cells are connected in series increases the voltage while in
parallel connection increase the current [6]. Figures 2.1 show photovoltaic energy
conversion.
9
Figures 2.1 Photovoltaic Energy Conversion
Photovoltaic system overview and inverter
Generally, the PV system comprises of PV generator which is a set of series-parallel
electrically interconnected solar panels. PV panels are delivered by the manufacturers
and are given in terms of the nominal peak power of the panel at standard test
conditions (STC). PV generator gives the total installed power which is the sum of
nominal peak power of each solar panel present in the PV installation [15]. This PV
generator is connected to an inverter which connected to an AC/DC load and/or grid.
The grid-connected inverter must be designed for the peak power and must obey
conditions that deal with issues like power quality, detection of islanding operation,
grounding; MPPT and long-life [14]. Inverter maximum power is exactly referred to the
total installed power of the PV generator and has to optimize the energy injected to
grid. Since the expected irradiance in the physical location of the PV installation is
lower than the nominal or standard one, a current practice is to select the inverter
maximum power than the nominal peak power of the PV generator. This practice is
what is known as under sizing of the Inverter and has been discussed.
10
The nominal power of the PV generator corresponds to standard irradiance
conditions. However, this irradiance is unusual. Under low irradiance, a PV array
generates power at only a part of its nominal capacity and the inverter thus operates
under part load conditions with lower system efficiency [14]. Despite of the irradiance
level affecting the PV generator characteristics, it is also important to consider the
effects of temperature when selecting inverters. The two factors contribute to inverters
maximum power and efficiency at the time of design and sizing.
2.3 Modelling of PV Panel
2.3.1 Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a semiconductor device that converts light
to electrical energy by photovoltaic effect. If the energy of photon of light is greater
than the band gap then the electron is emitted and the flow of electrons creates current.
However a photovoltaic cell is different from a photodiode. In a photodiode light fall
son n-channel of the semiconductor junction and gets converted into current or voltage
signal but a photovoltaic cell is always forward biased.
2.3.2 PV MODULE
Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and parallel to meet the
energy requirements. PV modules of different sizes are commercially available
(generally sized from 60W to 170W). For example, a typical small scale desalination
plant requires a few thousand of watts power.
2.3.3 PVARRAY
A PV array consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections.
Series connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module where as the
parallel connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array.
11
Figures 2.2 Different Solar Modules
2.3.4 Photovoltaic characteristics
Voltage and Current outputs of the PV modules is affected by temperature and
irradiance. Power electronics components of a photovoltaic system, such as grid-direct
inverters have maximum and minimum voltage inputs. During rating of power
electronics equipment, these variations should be taken into account especially for the
MPPT range of inverters.
Figure.2.3.Electrical Equivalent Circuit of PV Cell
q(V IRs ) q(V IRs )

I=I  I (e KT 1)  I (e nKT
1)  V+IRs (2.1)
ph 01 02
Rp
q(V IRs )
V+IRs
I = Iph  I0 (e nKT
1)  R (2.2)
p
12
The I-V characteristics of PV cell shown in fig1.6.The double exponential model and
single exponential model eqn1.2 are used to characterize the PV cell. [1–3] A PV cell
behaves differently depending on the size/type of load connected to it. This behavior is
called the PV cell ’characteristics’. The characteristic of a PV cell is described by the
current and voltage levels when different loads are connected.
Where
V =PV cell terminal voltage (V).
I = PV cell terminal current (A).
Iph = photocurrent (A).
I01 =saturation current due to diffusion mechanism (A).
I02 = saturation current due to carrier recombination in space-charge region (A).
2.3.5 Open Circuit Voltage and Temperature
A PV module’s voltage output is actually a variable value that is primarily affected
by temperature. The relationship between module voltage and temperature is actually
an inverse one. As elaborated in Figure.2.4
Figure.2.4: Current and Voltage characteristics of a PV module with temperature
variation
13
The module’s temperature increases, the voltage value decreases and vice versa. It is
important to put into consideration the cold and hot temperatures during PV design as
shown in PV calculations. If the temperature of the module is less than the STC value
of 25°C, the module’s open circuited voltage, Voc value will actually be greater than
the value listed on the module’s listing label.
2.3.6 Module Current and Irradiance
The amount of current produced by a PV module is directly proportional to how
bright the sun is. Higher levels of irradiance will cause more electrons to flow off the
PV cells to the load attached. However the amount of voltage produced by the PV
module is affected by the irradiance value, but the effect is very small. As
demonstrated in Fig.
2.5 the PV module’s voltage changes very little with varying levels of irradiance.
Figure.2.5: Current and Voltage characteristics of a PV module with irradiance
variation
2.3.7 Maximum Tracking Point (MPPT)
Many MPPT methods have been reported, such as perturb and observe, incremental
conductance, neural network based and fuzzy logic control as it has been said in [7]
[10][12]. Together with the efficiency, each method has its advantage and
14
disadvantage. These approaches have been effectively used in standalone and grid-
connected PV solar energy systems and work well under reasonably slow and smoothly
changing illumination conditions mainly caused by weather fluctuations, seen also in
[5] [10].
In order to utilize the maximum power produced by the PV modules, the power
conversion equipment has to be equipped with a maximum power point tracker
(MPPT).
Figure.2.6 Current, Voltage and Power characteristics of a PV module
This is a device which tracks the voltage at where the maximum power is utilized at all
times. It is usually implemented in the DC-DC converter, but in systems without a DC-
DC converter the MPPT is included in the DC-AC inverter control [7]. MPPT will
ensure that, PV modules operate in such away maximum voltage, Vmp an maximum
current, Imp of the modules will be attained and produce maximum power, Pmp point.
However these values together with short-circuit current, Isc and open circuit
voltages, Voc as illustrated on the Fig.2.6 are specified in the PV module data sheet of
15
attached to it. The values are at standard test condition (STC) and they are called PV
performance parameters.
2.4 Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems
Stand-alone photovoltaic systems are designed to operate independent of the electric
utility grid, and are generally designed and sized to supply certain DC and/or AC
electrical loads. These types of systems may be powered by a photovoltaic array only or
may use wind, an engine-generator or utility power as an auxiliary power source in
what is called a photovoltaic-hybrid system. The simplest type of stand-alone
photovoltaic system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC output of a photovoltaic
module or array is directly connected to a DC load. The stand-alone photovoltaic
systems are usually a utility power alternate. They generally include solar charging
modules, storage batteries, and controls or regulators as shown in Fig.2.7
Figure. 2.7 Stand-alone photovoltaic systems
2.5 Grid Connected Photovoltaic Systems
Grid-connected PV systems can provide a number of benefits to electric utilities,
such as power loss reduction, improvement in the voltage profile, and reduction in the
maintenance and operational costs of the electric network. However, improper choice
16
of the location and size of the PV systems and unsuitability of the output power profile
of the PV system to the profile of the electric network can impose operational problems
on the network. The building blocks of a grid-connected photovoltaic system are shown
in Figure 1.4. The system is mainly composed of a matrix of PV arrays, which converts
the sunlight to DC power and a power conditioning unit that converts the DC power to
AC power. The generated AC power is injected into the grid and/or utilized by the local
loads. In some cases, storage devices are used to improve the availability of the power
generated by the PV system.
Figure. 2.8 Grid Connected photovoltaic systems
Inverters are very important power electronics equipment in grid connected PV
systems. Their major role is to convert DC power into AC power. Furthermore inverter
interfacing PV module (s) with the grid ensures that the PV module(s) is operated at the
maximum power point (MPPT) [1]. Based on the photovoltaic arrays output voltage,
output power level and applications, the photovoltaic grid-connected system can adopt
different topologies. These configurations describe the evolution of grid-connected
inverters as from past, present and future technologies.
17
2.5.1 Standards and Codes for Grid Connected Photovoltaic system
There are several standards on the market dealing with the interconnection of
distributed resources with the grid [7]. In this context PV system is of importance
where all practice for wiring, design and installation has been explained. This thesis is
limited to International Electro technical Commission (IEC), Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and National Electrical Code (NEC). Standards and codes
governing the design of the proposed PV system at NTNU electro building is based on
PV electrical installations practices and interfacing with grid. In the standard [13] IEEE
929-2000: Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
which gives the guidance to PV system practices. These practices include power quality
and protection functions [26]. The IEEE 929 standard also containing UL 1741
standard which has been used as the key to select inverters used in this design.
The IEC standard has been discussed in [7] and they show to give out the
characteristics of PV system and grid interface at the point of common coupling (PCC).
National Electrical Code in article 690 Photovoltaic power systems [23] as well as
explain in literatures [16] and [17] shows the necessity and important information for
proper installation of PV system. The 690 code explain most of the important
information in both design aspects and installation. Some of this important information
includes;
 PV system conductors and coding.
 Grounding system and Module connection
 PV source circuits, PV Inverter output circuits and circuit routing.
 Identification of equipment used and system circuit requirements i.e. Open
Circuit voltage and short-circuit current.
18
2.6 MPPT of PV System using Buck-Boost Converter
The PV system should be operated at a maximum power point (MPP) which is
normally unique point on the P-V curve to obtain the highest efficiency. This point
varies its location as a result of change weather conditions [8]. MPPT is intended to
monitor the terminal voltage/current of the PV system for extracting the MPP. This is
done by adjusting the duty cycle of a DC/DC converter that matches the output load
with source impedance of the PV system. Normally, the optimal MPPT should track
MPP at all times whatever the weather conditions or load variations are being. It also
should be simple, accurately and implemented economically.
Among all MPPT methods, the P&O algorithm is the most popular and widely used due
to its simplicity, ease of implementation and low cost. The two main problems of the
P&O are the oscillations around the MPP in steady-state conditions, and poor tracking
(possibly in the wrong direction, away from MPP) under rapid-change of irradiance.
Although conventional P&O has remarkable advantages and many research modified it,
the oscillation problem and tracking of MPP under rapid-change of weather are still
challenging problems.
Figure. 2.9 Perturb and observe on P-V curve.
19
Figure. 2.10 Flowchart of conventional P&O algorithm.
The successive rapid increase of irradiance causes drift or instability problem due to
conventional P&O algorithm is unable to recognize the increase in power either is
coming from weather or perturbation change. Suppose there is an increase in irradiance
level from (400-800) W/m2, whiles the PV system operates at point MPPT.
20
CHAPTER 3
FIELD PROGRAMMABLE GATE ARAY (FPGA)
3.1 FIELD-PROGRAMMABLE GATE ARRAY (FPGA)
A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to be
configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturing – hence the term “field-
programmable”. The FPGA configuration is generally specified using a hardware
description language (HDL), similar to that used for an application-specific integrated
circuit (ASIC). Circuit diagrams were previously used to specify the configuration but
this is increasingly rare due to the advent of electronic design automation tools.
FPGAs contain an array of programmable logic blocks, and a hierarchy of
“reconfigurable interconnects” allowing blocks to be “wired together”, like many logic
gates that can be inter-wired in different configurations. Logic blocks can be configured
to perform complex combinational functions, or merely simple logic gates like AND and
XOR. In most FPGAs, logic blocks also include memory elements, which may be simple
flip-flops or more complete blocks of memory. Many FPGAs can be reprogrammed to
implement different logic functions, allowing flexible reconfigurable computing as
performed in computer software. FPGAs have a remarkable role in embedded system
development due to their capability to start system software (SW) development
simultaneously with hardware (HW), enable system performance simulations at a very
early phase of the development, and allow various system partitioning (SW and HW)
trials and iterations before final freezing of the system architecture.
Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) have large resources of logic gates and
RAM blocks to implement complex digital computations. As FPGA designs employ
very fast I/O rates and bidirectional data buses FPGAs can be used to implement any
21
logical function that an ASIC can perform. FPGAs have analog features in addition to
digital functions FPGAs were primarily used in telecommunications and networking. By
the end of the decade, FPGAs found their way into consumer, automotive, and industrial
applications
3.2 FPGA Architecture
3.2.1 Programmable logic blocks
Logic blocks can be formed from thousands of transistors to millions of transistors.
They implement the logic functions required by the design and consist of logic
components such as transistor pairs, look-up tables (LUTs), and Carry and Control
Logic (flip flops and multiplexers)
3.2.2 Programmable I/O blocks
Figure.3.1 FPGA Block Diagram
22
They are connect logic blocks with external components via interfacing pins
3.2.3 Programmable interconnect resources
They are electrically programmable interconnections (pre-laid vertically and
horizontally) that provide the routing path for the programmable logic blocks. Routing
paths contain wire segments of varying lengths which can be interconnected via
electrically programmable switches. The FPGA density depends of the number of
segments in used for routing paths
3.3 ADVANTAGES OF FPGA
3.3.1 Long-Term Availability
The use of FPGAs makes you independent of component manufacturers, because the
functionality is not in the module itself but in the configuration. This can be
programmed in such a way that it can be undertaken without any adjustments on
different FPGAs.
3.3.2 Updating and Adaptation at the Customer
In contrast to conventional computer chips, FPGAs are fully programmable. Updates
and adaptations can be carried out even after delivery, directly at the customer.
3.3.3 Very Short Time-To-Market
The use of FPGAs significantly accelerates development of prototypes, since a part
of the hardware development lies in design of the IP cores. In the course of this, it is
possible to carry out time-consuming operations such as commissioning and
troubleshooting at the same time as development.
3.3.4 Fast and Efficient Systems
As the largest possible user group is to be addressed with standard components, these
areusually a compromise between performance and compatibility. FPGAs offer the
23
possibility of developing systems that are exactly tailored to the intended task, which
thus work absolutely efficiently.
3.3.5 Acceleration of Software
Complex tasks are often solved by software implementations with fast processors.
FPGAs offer a cost-effective alternative, which, via parallelization and adaption to the
application, provide a significant speed advantage compared to processor-based
solutions.
3.3.6 Real-Time Applications
FPGAs are ideal for application in time-critical systems. In contrast to software-
based solutions with real-time operating systems, an actually deterministic behaviour
can be achieved using FPGAs. Due to the offered flexibility, even complicated
calculations canbe carried out in an extremely short time.
3.3.7 Massively Parallel Data Processing
The amount of data to be processed in current systems is steadily increasing, which
means that they can no longer be processed in a timely manner using sequentially
operating systems. The use of FPGAs offers an outstandingly scalable solution via the
parallel processing of data
3. 4 APPLICATIONS
An FPGA can be used to solve any problem which is computable. This is trivially
proven by the fact that FPGAs can be used to implement a soft microprocessor, such as
the Xilinx Micro Blaze or Altera Nios II. Their advantage lies in that they are
significantly faster for some applications because of their parallel
nature and optimality in terms of the number of gates used for certain processes.
24
CHAPTER 4
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
4.1 ELECTRICAL GRID
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers
toconsumers. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents.
It consists of:
 Power stations: often located near energy and away from heavily populated areas
 Electrical substations to step voltage up or down.
 Electric power transmission to carry power long distances.
 Electric power distribution to individual customers, where voltage is stepped
down again to the required service voltage(s).
Although electrical grids are widespread, as of 2016 1.4 billion people worldwide
were not connected to an electricity grid.[2]. As electrification increases, the number of
people with access to grid electricity is growing. About 840 million people (mostly in
Africa) had no access to grid electricity in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in
2010.[3]Electrical grids can be prone to malicious intrusion or attack; thus, there is a
need for electric grid security. Also as electric grids modernize and introduce computers,
cyber threats also start to become a security risk.[4].
Particular concerns relate to the more complex computer systems needed to
manage grids.[5]Grids are nearly always synchronous, meaning all distribution areas all
operate with three phase alternating current (AC) frequencies synchronized (so that
peaks occur at virtually the same time). This allows transmission of AC power
throughout the area, connecting a large number of electricity generators and consumers
and potentially enabling more efficient electricity markets and redundant generation.
25
The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity
delivery, known as the "power grid" in North America, or just "the grid". In the United
Kingdom, India, Tanzania, Myanmar, Malaysia and New Zealand, the network is known
as the National Grid. Electric utility companies established central stations to take
advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation,
distribution, and system management.[6] After the war of the currents was settled in
favor of AC power, with long-distance power transmission it became possible to
interconnect stations to balance load and improve load factors.
4.2 Power Electronics Consideration
As described earlier, a variety of PFC circuit topologies [26] can be used which
include the boost converter and the buck converter. Though soft switched Zero-Voltage-
Transition (ZVT) techniques can be used for switching all the above topologies, the hard
switched boost converter PFC circuit [4] is more popular due to its simplicity and ability
to achieve a low distortion input current waveform. The Continuous Conduction Mode
(CCM) and Critical Conduction Mode (CRM) PFC circuit topologies are the most
popular. However, both have their advantages and disadvantages. In the following
section, the CCM boost converter is discussed.
4.2.1 The CCM Boost Converter
Since the remaining part of the work is now based on a CCM PFC circuit, a detailed
discussion on the boost converter is presented below. A CCM boost converter
schematic is shown in the Fig. 4.1. Now, from the above equations, the inductor voltage
and capacitor current waveforms are plotted in Fig. 4.2, D is the on-time duty cycle of
the Q1and TS is the switching period.
26
L
iL(t) D
+ VL(t) - +
ic(t)
Q1 R V
Vg C
Figure 4.1 Schematic of a CCM boost converter.
VL(t)
Vg
(1-D) Ts
D Ts
V g-V
Ic(t)
(1-v)/R
(1-D) Ts
D Ts
-v/R
Figure 4.2 Inductor voltage and capacitor current wave forms.
The total volt-seconds applied to the inductor over one switching period is given by,
TS
 vl (t)dt  vg  DTS  vg  v 1 DTS

0
(4.1)
Equating this expression to zero and collecting terms, we have
vg D 1 D  v 1 D  0 (4.2)
vg
V (4.3)
1 D
27
From the above, it is apparent that the output voltage increases as D increases.
However, when component non-idealises are included, there is a limit to the maximum
possible output voltage of a boost converter.
The DC component of the inductor current (I) is derived from the fact that the
total charge on the output capacitor is always balanced. When the Q1 turns on, the load
current depletes the charge from the output capacitor while the capacitor recharges once
the Q1 turns off.
The net charge in the capacitor is found by integrating the above capacitor
current waveform
ic t  , over one switching period we have,

TS V  V
i t dt   DT  I  1 DT
 c  R S  R
S (4.4)
0    
Equating this equation to zero and collecting terms we get,

 V 
  D 1 D  I 1 D  0 (4.5)
 
R
 
V
I (4.6)
1 D R
Substituting equation (3.3) above, we get
Vg
I (4.7)
1 D 
2
R
From the plot of this equation shown in Fig. 3.3, it is apparent that the inductor
current’s DC component increases as the duty cycle increases.
The inductor current’s DC component is greater than the load current The inductor
current’s DC component is greater than the load current since the boost converter’s
output voltage is greater than the input voltage. The inductor winding resistance and
28
semiconductor voltage drops, through which the inductor current flows, are sources of
power loss. Thus, as the inductor current increases with increasing duty cycle, the
efficiency also decreases.
Figure 4.3 Variation of DC component of Inductor current with Duty cycle.
Referring to Fig. 4.1, when the Q1 turns ON, the slope of the inductor current is given
by,
dil t  vl t  Vg
  (4.8)
dt L L
When the Q1 turns OFF, the inductor current slope is given by,
dil t  vl t  Vg V
  (4.9)
dt L L
Fig. 4.3 shows the inductor current waveform with il representing the total inductor
ripple current.
Vg
i  DT (4.10)
l S
L
29
Figure 4.4 Inductor current wave form.
From the above expression, it is apparent that the inductor ripples current increases with
lower inductance. The increase in ripple increases the RMS inductor current and this
4.2.2 HYSTERESIS CONTROL
Figure 4.5 shows this type of control in which two sinusoidal current references IPref,
IVref are generated, one for the peak and the other for the valley of the inductor current.
According to this control technique, the switch is turned on when the inductor current
goes below the lower reference IVref and is turned off when the inductor current goes
above the upper reference IPref, giving rise to a variable frequency control. Also with this
control technique the converter works in CICM.
Figure 4.5 Hysteresis Control Scheme
30
Figure 4.6 Input Current waveform of Hysteresis Control Scheme
Advantages:
 No need of compensation ramp.
 low distorted input current waveforms.
Disadvantages:
 Variable switching frequency.
 Control sensitive to commutation noises
4.2.3 Sliding Mode Control
In the course of the entire history of automatic control theory, the intensity of
investigation of systems with discontinuous control actions has been maintained at a
high level. In particular, at the first stage, relay, or “on-off’ regulators, ranked highly
for design of feedback systems. The reason was twofold: ease of implementation and
high efficiency of hardware. A number of processes in mechanics, electrical
engineering, and other areas, are characterized by the fact that the right hand sides of
the differential equations describing their dynamics feature discontinuities with respect
to the current process state. The sliding mode control approach is recognized as one of
the efficient tools to design robust controllers for complex high-order nonlinear
dynamic plant operating under uncertainty conditions.
31
The major advantage of sliding mode is low sensitivity to plant parameter
variations and disturbances which eliminates the necessity of exact modelling. Sliding
mode control enables the decoupling of the overall system motion into independent
partial components of lower dimension and, as a result, reduces the complexity of
feedback design. Sliding mode control implies that control actions are discontinuous
state functions which may easily be implemented by conventional power converters
with “on-off ” as the only admissible operation mode sliding mode control has been
proved to be applicable to a wide range of problems in robotics, electric drives and
generators, process control, vehicle and motion control.
4.2.4 Pulse Width Modulation Controller
The fixed-frequency PWM control is by far the most popular control technique used
forthe regulation of DC–DC converters. It is well known that switching converters are
severe noise generators. With proper filtering, grounding, bonding, and shielding,
switching converters can be successfully used in “electromagnetic interference”
sensitive applications. The fixed-frequency PWM controllers assume two specific
forms, namely voltage feedback control and current-programmed control, also known
as voltage-mode control and current-mode control, respectively.
Figure. 4.7 voltage-mode controlled buck converter
32
Figure. 4.8 peak current-mode controlled boost converter
The voltage-mode control is a single-loop control where the output voltage is regulated
by closing a feedback loop between the output voltage and the duty-ratio signal.
4.2.5 AC to DC Converters
An AC to DC converter circuit can convert AC voltage into a DC voltage. The DC
output voltage can be controlled by varying the firing angle of the thyristors. The AC
input voltage could be a single phase or three phase.
Figure 4.9 Simplified AC–DC converters
33
Figure 4.10 Input and Output AC–DC converters responses
An AC to DC converter is also called a rectifier, which converts AC supply from main
lines to DC supply for the load. The block diagram of an AC to DC converter is shown
in figure below. Here, the transformer adjusts the primary AC source supply to the
input of rectifier stage. Usually it is a step-down transformer that reduces the supply
voltage to a circuit operating range. The rectifier converts the low voltage AC supply
into DC supply. It comprises diode and/or thyristors based on type of rectifier. The
output of the rectifier is of pulsed DC and hence it is filtered using filter circuit, which
is usually made with a capacitor or a choke.
4.2.6 DC to AC Converters or Inverters
These converters are connected between DC source of fixed input, and variable AC
load. Most commonly, these DC to AC converters are called as inverters. An inverter is
a static device that converts fixed DC supply voltage to variable AC voltage.
Figure 4.11 DC–AC converters
34
Here the fixed DC voltage is obtained from batteries or by DC link in most power
electronic converter.
Figure 4.12 Input and Output DC-AC converters responses
The output of the inverter can be variable/ fixed AC voltage with variable/fixed
frequency. This conversion from DC to AC along with variable supply is produced by
varying the triggering angle to the thyristors. Most of the thyristors used in inverters are
employed with forced commutation technique. These can be single phase or three phase
inverter depending on the supply voltage. These converters are mainly divided into two
groups. One is PWM based inverters and other multilevel inverters. Further, these are
classified voltage source inverter and current source inverter. Each type is subdivided
into different types such as PWM, SVPWM, etc. Multilevel inverters are more popular
in industrial applications.
4.2.7 DC to DC Converters
The DC-DC converter is chosen in the design among the different converter
topologies discussed above. This converter is used in the DC- DC input stage, in which
it will convert the low and varying voltage from the PV array through the input
capacitor PV C to a constant 400V DC voltage at the capacitor link, DC C. The
topology has numerous advantages as discussed. The primary benefit of using a Full-
Bridge DC/DC converter in the DC to DC stage is its power handling capabilities,
stability, and symmetry. The DC-DC converter will have to maintain a constant 400V
DC output with a varying DC input range from the combination of series and parallel
connected
35
PV arrays. This is accomplished by using Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control. By
increasing or decreasing the duty cycle (D) of the square-wave pulses to the switches
S1-S4, the output voltage can be held constant with a varying input voltage.
These converters can converter a fixed DC input voltage into variable DC voltage or
vice versa. The DC output voltage is controlled by varying of duty cycle.
Figure 4.13 Input and Output DC–DC converters responses
4.3 Dual and single stage PV inverter circuit topology
PV inverter circuit topology with DC-DC converter is termed as dual stage, and in
this topology the DC‐DC converter will handle the MPPT and some voltage
amplification ifneeded [7]. As discussed in reference [29] to date, the single-phase grid-
tied P inverter has been constructed using either single-stage or two-stage topology as
illustrated in Fig.4.14.
Figure.4.14: Single and dual stage inverter topology with coupling capacitances
36
Single-stage topology Fig.3.1 (a) presents the most reliable and cost effective solution
but with the operational limitation of minimum PV voltage being larger than the peak
ac grid voltage in order to avoid the over-modulation operation resulting in the large
series connection of PV panels which is unwanted from the optimal operation point of
view and can be attenuated by connecting to a line frequency transformer. However this
topology is bulky and less efficient.
Meanwhile the AC output power ripple which has double fundamental frequency
oscillation unavoidably introduces the double-line-frequency voltage ripple unlike the
balanced operation of maximum power point tracking as discussed in section 1.3.3. To
minimize the DC voltage ripple and then enhance the solar energy transfer efficiency, a
large value DC link capacitor is normally employed, which however cannot fully
eliminate this problem and leads to the increase of system size and cost.
Alternatively, a two-stage solution as shown in Fig.3.1 (b) consisting of DC-DC
boost converter and DC-AC inverter can operate in a large range of PV voltage
ensuring the proper PV energy conversion under wide operational range. Moreover, the
inserted DC-DC converter decouples the direct connection of PV panel and ac output so
that the ac output power ripple will not induce the double-line-frequency ripple of PV
voltage. The MPPT efficiency can then be enhanced by using a relatively small input
capacitor to just attenuate the high frequency input voltage ripple in the DC-DC voltage
conversion. Using a DC-DC converter in front, the efficiency of whole inverter would
decrease since more passive and active components are involved in the energy
processing when compared to the single-stage topology but when considering the
improved MPPT efficiency and wide operation range the two-stage solution is superior
to the single-stage inverter .
37
CHAPTER 5
MATLAB SIMULATION AND RESULT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The realization of controller was done by simulation in MATLAB program. The
controller was designed which is based on the mathematical modelling as discussed in
Chapter 4. The grid-connected inverter system has two major parts which are the grid
and a power conversion system. Fig. 1 shows a configuration of the proposed grid-
connected inverter system. The FPGA controller consists of a soft-core processor, a
dedicated current controller and other peripherals. The processor performs the higher
level control and gives a current command to the dedicated current controller. The
dedicated current controller is implemented by Hardware Description Language (HDL).
It samples the inverter output current, the grid current and the grid voltage through
Analog-to-Digital (AD) converters and executes the control algorithm. Then, it sends
out the inverter gating signal to the full-bridge inverter. When a satisfactory result is
obtained via simulation, implement their design using SIMULINK to allow the user to
view the response plot.
DC Bus
PV Panel
First Stage
VDC VDC
DC Loads
DC-DC
Converter
Solar
Radiations
DC-AC
MPPT Converter
Grid
FPGA
Battery Based
Controller
Figure 5.1 block diagram of implemented system
38
5.2 SIMULATION AND RESULTS
This model has been developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK based on FPGA. The
result obtained is shown below with the table describing the parameter value used for
simulation
Figure 5.2 Proposed and Developed Simulation Diagram
Figure 5.3 FPGA Based MPPT Controller Simulation Diagram
39
Figure5.4 I-V and P-V Characteristics of one module at 250C
Figure5.5 I-V and P-V Characteristics of array at 250C
Figure 5.4.a shows I-V and P-V Characteristics of one module at 250C and Figure 5.5 a
shows the I-V and P-V Characteristics of array at 250C depend on the solar radiation.
Figure 5.6 Simulation results of rapid-change in irradiance (increasing).

40
Figure 5.7 Simulation results of steady-change in irradiance.
The steady-change of weather will cause wrong decision of P&O algorithm at first
perturbation as discussed in rapid-change of weather, but the next perturbation will
correct this wrong action. Suppose increasing in irradiance level from (600-800) W/m2
and the PV system operates at MPP1 as shown in Fig. 5.6. The increasing of PV power
and voltage will increase voltage perturbation and the operating point from MPP2 will
divert at point 2 as shown in Fig. 5.7. The next perturbation on the same P-V curve –
without weather change - will be negative change in PV power (ΔP < 0) and the positive
change in PV voltage (ΔV > 0) causing decrease in the voltage perturbation
Figure 5.8 Grid Voltage Waveforms
Fig.5.8 shows the 3-phase output current & voltage response at grid side. The peak value of
voltage is 380 V and peak value of current is 0.4 A under grid connected mode
41
Figure 5.9 Simulation results for inverter, grid and load under temperature variation
Fig.5.9 shows the temperature variation of solar changes capture the variation of. Inverter, grid
and load under temperature variation
Fig. 5-10 Simulation results of power and current for inverter, grid and load under temperature
variation.
Figure 5-11 Simulation results of power of PV, load and Battery
Fig.5.11 shows the temperature variation of solar changes capture the variation of DC load
power, Battery power and PV power.
42
Figure 5-12 Simulation results of DC load
Figure 5.13 Simulation results of Battery SOC
Fig.5.12 shows the input DC voltage and Fig.5.13 shows the SOC of Battery depends
variation of solar changes.
43
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 Conclusion
In this Project attempts have been applied to apply the sliding mode control concept
for the Boost converter using MATLAB/SIMULINK based on FPGA The Grid
connected PV module of 80W, MPP P&O tracker, half bridge inverter, series-resonance
and high- pass filters, step-up transformer, coupling inductor, and an ideal switch to
feed residential load with utility connected grid. To satisfy the results, the PV Module is
simulated under the following conditions: It is envisaged that the proposed model can be
a valuable design tool for PV and MPP field applications. The proposed model is
powerful and accurate for solar PV modules. The conventional P&O algorithm has
many drawbacks such as failure to extract MPP during rapid-change of weather,
oscillations around the MPP and instabilities. A modified P&O algorithm is proposed to
enhance the conventional P&O algorithm for overcoming previously drawbacks. This
proposed algorithm is based on load technique to enable conventional P&O algorithm to
recognize the cause of power change either i coming from weather or load change. The
results of modified P&O algorithm using DC/DC buck-boost converter showed a good
excellent maximum power tracking due to rapid variations in weather or load as
compared with simulation and experimental results of previous published research
works.
The conversion topology has been proposed without transformer in PV system and
verified its results in MA TLAB Simulink which is interfaced with FPGA based Xilinx
system generator. In this topology no common mode voltage is generated, thus changes
in the behaviour of the inverter in terms of high efficiency and insures that no DC will be
44
injected into the load. The FPGA based control logic for single stage grid connected
photovoltaic system has been implemented.
6.2 Scope of Future Work
The following are the few areas of future study which can be considered for further
work.
 Analyze the impact on the grid performance (power quality) when multiple
inverters are connected to a local grid.
 Especially, the effect from different waveform generators, for the current
reference, and different current control strategies should be investigated. Both
when the grid voltage is a pure sinusoidal and when it contains harmonics
45
REFERENCES
[1] L. Huber and M. M. Jovanovic, “Singe-stage, single-switch, isolated
power supply technique with input-current shaping and fast output-
voltage regulation for universal line input-voltage range application”,
IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conf (APEC) Proc. 1997.
[2] C. Qian and K. M. Smedly, “A topology survey of single-stage power
factor correction with a boost type input-current shaper”, IEEE Applied
Power Electronics Conf., Feb. 2000.
[3] IEEE Standard 519-1992: “IEEE Recommended practices and
requirements for harmonic control in electrical power systems”, IEEE,
1992.
[4] N. Mohan, T.M. Undeland and W.P. Robbins, “Power Electronics,
converters, applications, and design”, John Wiley & Son, Inc., New
York 1995, 2nd Edition.
[5] Ping-Lung Pan, Jao-HwaKuang and Tzuen-Lihchern, “Sliding Mode
Control for PWM Single Phase Boost Power Factor Correction” 5th
IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Application, 2010.
[6] V. Utkin, “Sliding Modes in Control Optimization”. Berlin: Springer
Verlag, 1992.
[7] V. Utkin, J. Guldner, and J. X. Shi , “Sliding Mode Control in
Electromechanical Systems. London”, U.K.: Taylor and Francis, 1999.
[8] H. Sira-Ramirez, “On the generalized PI sliding mode control of DC-DC
power converters”, A tutorial, International Journal of Control, 2003.

46
[9] K. Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1997.
[10] Amir Arashnia, Seyed Mohammad, and Amir Sharafoddin, “Improving
Power Factor Correction by changing sliding surface of SM controller”
The 5th Power Electronics, Drive Systems and Technologies Conference
(PEDSTC 2014), 2014.
[11] SI Gangquan, ZHAO Weili, GUO Zhang, and SHI Jianquan, “A Novel
Double Closed Loops Control Strategy of Three-phase Voltage Source
PWM Rectiﬁer with Disturbances” Proceedings of the 33rd Chinese
Control Conference, July 28- 30, 2014.
[12] Zong-xiang Chen, Jian Wang, Lu-sheng Ge, Ting Jiang, and Yi-fan Liu,
“Double Integral Sliding Mode Control of Paralleled DC/DC
Converters” 10th Conference IEEE Industrial Electronics and
Application (ICIEA), 2015.
[13] Martin H.L.Chow, Vim-Shu Lee, Chi K.Tse, “Single-stage single-switch
isolated PFC regulator with unity power factor, fast transient response,
and low-voltage stress, ” IEEE Trans.Power Electron., vol.l5,No.I,
pp.156-163, Jan 2000
[14] M.G. Umamaheswari, G. Uma and K.M. Vijayalakshmi, “Design and
implementation of reduced-order sliding mode controller for higher-
order power factor correction converters” Published in IET Power
Electronics. 2011.
[16] S.C.Tan, YM.Lai, M.K.H, Cheung, and C.K.Tse, "On the practical
47
design of a sliding mode voltage controlled buck converter, "IEEE
Trans. Power Electronis., Mar 2005.
[17] J. P. M. Figueiredo, F. L. Tofoli, and B. L. A. Silva, “A review of
single-phase PF topologies based on the boost converter,” in Proc.
9thIEEE/IAS International Conference on Industry Applications
(INDUSCON), 2010.
48

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A Major Project Report on

PERFORMANCE AND ANAYLSIS OF A GRID

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Mr. CH. VISHNU VARMA 17831A0211

Ms. K. USHASRI 17831A0220

Mr. M. MANITEJA 18835A0210

Under the guidance of

GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)

Ibrahimpatnam (V), Ranga Reddy District -501506

INTERNAL GUIDE PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

Major project viva voice held on ……….

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

M1: Imbibe soft skills and technical skills.

M2: Develop the faculty to reach the international standards.

M4: Promote research, innovation and Product development by collaboration with

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

➢ To nurture the faculty and expose them to world class infrastructure.

➢ To sustain high performance by excellence in teaching, research and innovations.

➢ To extensive partnership and collaborations with foreign universities for

1. The main objective of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program is the

3. The graduates of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Program should be

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze

PROJECT MAPPING WITHPOs ANDPEOs

Sl. No. PROJECTNAME PO’s PEO’s

CH. VISHNU VARMA 17831A0211

We extend our deep sense of gratitude to the principal Dr. SREENATHA

We owe our immense thanks to Dr. NAGARAJA KUMARI, Head of

We also extend our thanks to Mr. M. NARESH, Assistant Professor of EEE

CH. VISHNU VARMA 17831A0211

K. USHA SRI 17831A0220

Solar photovoltaic (PV) is one of the most promising renewable energy

FIGURE NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE NO

FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array

S.NO CONTENTS Page No

5. List of figures XII

6. List of abbreviations XIV

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1-8

1.2 Classification of energy resources 2

1.2.1 Non renewable resources of energy 2

1.2.2 Renewable energy sources 2

1.3 Literature review 3

1.3.1 MPPT of PV system 6

1.3.2 Grid connected PV system 6

1.4 Project motivation 7

1.5 Scope of work 8

CHAPTER 2 SOLAR PV SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS 9-19

2.2 Solar energy 9

2.2.1 Photo voltaic energy conversion 9

2.3 Modelling of PV Panel 11

2.3.1 Photo voltaic cell 11

2.3.5 Open circuit voltage and temperature 13

2.3.6 Module current and irradiance 14