Solar panel

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For solar thermal panels, see solar thermal energy.

Solar PV modules mounted on a rooftop

A solar panel, or photo-voltaic (PV) module, is an assembly of photo-voltaic cells

mounted in a framework for installation. Solar panels use sunlight as a source of
energy to generate direct current electricity. A collection of PV modules is called a
PV panel, and a system of panels is an array. Arrays of a photovoltaic
system supply solar electricity to electrical equipment.

Contents

 1History
 2Theory and construction
o 2.1Order of module connection
 3Efficiency
o 3.1Radiation-dependent efficiency
o 3.2Arrays of PV modules
o 3.3Aluminum nanocylinders
 4Technology
o 4.1Thin film
 5Smart solar modules
 6Performance and degradation
 7Maintenance
 8Recycling
 9Production
 10Price
 11Mounting and tracking
 12Standards
 13Connectors
 14Applications
 15Limitations
o 15.1Impact on electricity network
o 15.2Implication onto electricity bill management and energy investment
 16Gallery
 17See also
 18References
History[edit]
See also: Solar cell §  History, and Timeline of solar cells
In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light
exposure was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel.[1] Though the
premiere solar panels were too inefficient for even simple electric devices they were
used as an instrument to measure light.[2] The observation by Becquerel was not
replicated again until 1873, when Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could
be caused by light hitting selenium. After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and
Richard Evans Day published "The action of light on selenium" in 1876, describing
the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results. [1][3]
In 1881, Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported
by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to
sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight." [4] However, these solar panels were very
inefficient, especially compared to coal-fired power plants. In 1939, Russell
Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. He
patented his design in 1941.[5] In 1954, this design was first used by Bell Labs to
create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell.[1] In 1957, Mohamed M.
Atalla developed the process of silicon surface passivation by thermal oxidation at
Bell Labs.[6][7] The surface passivation process has since been critical to solar cell
efficiency.[8]

Theory and construction[edit]

See also: Solar cell

From a solar cell to a PV system

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer-based crystalline
silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can
be either the top layer or the back layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical
damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-
film cells are also available. The cells are usually connected electrically in series,
one to another to the desired voltage, and then in parallel to increase current. The
power (watts) of the module is the mathematical product of the voltage (volts) and
the current (amps) of the module. The manufacture specifications on solar panels
are obtained under standard condition which is not the real operating condition the
solar panels are exposed to on the installation site. [9]
A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its
output interface. External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4
connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A
USB power interface can also be used.[citation needed]
Order of module connection[edit]
Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage
or in parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes) of the solar panel or
the PV system. The conducting wires that take the current off the modules are sized
according to the current rating and may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic
conductive transition metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally,
in case of partial module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still
illuminated.[citation needed]
Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused
by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost
per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.[citation needed]
Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets,
reflector shapes, and troughs to better support the panel structure.

Efficiency[edit]
See also: Solar cell efficiency

Reported timeline of champion solar module energy conversion efficiencies since 1988 (National
Renewable Energy Laboratory)

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC)
and hence the on field output power might vary. Power typically ranges from 100 to
365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given
the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a
16% efficient 230 W module. Some commercially available solar modules exceed
24% efficiency.[10][11] Currently, the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar
module efficiency) is around 21.5% in new commercial products [12] typically lower
than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar
modules[disputed  –  discuss] have power density values of up to 175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2).[13]
Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development
of multi-junction solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record
for solar photovoltaic cells.[14] The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator
solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future,
with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.
Radiation-dependent efficiency[edit]
Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a
range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar radiation range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher
efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design
concept is to split the light into six to eight different wavelength ranges that will
produce a different color of light, and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to
those ranges.[15] This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%.
Arrays of PV modules[edit]
A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations
contain multiple modules adding voltages or current to the wiring and PV system. A
photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter,
a battery pack for energy storage, charge controller, interconnection wiring, circuit
breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, voltage meters, and optionally a solar
tracking mechanism. Equipment is carefully selected to optimize output, energy
storage, reduce power loss during power transmission, and conversion from direct
current to alternating current.
Aluminum nanocylinders[edit]
Research by Imperial College London has shown that solar panel efficiency is
improved by studding the light-receiving semiconductor surface
with aluminum nanocylinders, similar to the ridges on Lego blocks.
The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the semiconductor, absorbing
more photons to be converted into current. Although these nanocylinders have been
used previously (aluminum was preceded by gold and silver), the light scattering
occurred in the near-infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly.
Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, while the
visible and near-infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered by the
aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the cost significantly
and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and less costly than gold
and silver. The research also noted that the increase in current makes thinner film
solar panels technically feasible without "compromising power conversion
efficiencies, thus reducing material consumption". [16]

 Solar panel efficiency can be calculated by MPP (maximum power point)

value of solar panels.
 Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing the process
of maximum power point tracking (MPPT): solar inverter samples the output
Power (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies the proper resistance (load) to
solar cells to obtain maximum power.
 MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (V
mpp) and MPP current (I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the higher
value can make higher MPP.
Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel, which produces more output than
normal panels wired in series, with the output of the series determined by the lowest
performing panel. This is known as the "Christmas light effect". Micro-inverters work
independently to enable each panel to contribute its maximum possible output for a
given amount of sunlight.[17]

Technology[edit]
Main articles: Crystalline silicon and Thin film solar cell

Market-share of PV technologies since 1990

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar
cells made of multicrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon
accounted for more than 90 percent of worldwide PV production, while the rest of the
overall market is made up of thin-film technologies using cadmium
telluride, CIGS and amorphous silicon[18]
Emerging, third generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They
produce a relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other
solar technologies. Also, high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed
rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are preferably used in solar panels on
spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram lifted into
space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV
technology using MJ-cells is concentrator photovoltaics ( CPV ).
Thin film[edit]
In rigid thin-film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same
production line. The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the
electrical connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration." The
substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet,
usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe,
or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight
conversion rate of 6–12%.[citation needed]
Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If
the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film)
then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a conductor then another technique
for electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled into modules
by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side
(typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on
the other side.

Smart solar modules[edit]

Main articles: Smart module and Solar micro-inverter
Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This
enables performing MPPT for each module individually, and the measurement of
performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some of these
solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology
developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of
about 2010, such electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a
shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or
more strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the
entire module fall to zero.

Performance and degradation[edit]

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This chart illustrates the effect of clouds on solar energy production.

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions

(STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at
25 °C.[19] The actual voltage and current output of the module changes as lighting,
temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage,
current, or wattage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending on
geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of solar irradiance,
direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, soiling, state of charge, and
temperature. The fluctuations in irradiance, voltage, and current can be logged with
a multimeter or data logger and charted or graphed in an IV curve, daily solar
irradiance power curve, and annual power production solar graph.
For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules
oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. The path of the sun
varies by latitude and day of the year and can be studied using a sundial or a sun
chart and tracked using a solar tracker. Differences in voltage or current of modules
may affect the overall performance of a panel. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent
broken or shaded panels to optimize output.
Electrical characteristics include nominal power (P MAX, measured in W), open circuit
voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power
voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, (watt-peak, Wp), and
module efficiency (%).
Nominal voltage is a category to let users know if two pieces of equipment will work
together. For example, a 14v solar panel is compatible with a 14v battery bank.
Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can produce
when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. V OC can be measured with
a voltmeter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected
cable.
The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions
(not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure
approximately 1 by 2 metres (3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high
as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are
binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their
modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-
0%.[20][21][22]
The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail, heavy snow load, and
cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the
U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail.
[23]
 Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a limited warranty that
guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25
years at 80%.[citation needed]
Potential induced degradation (also called PID) is a potential induced performance
degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents.
[24]
 This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%.[25]
The largest challenge for photovoltaic technology is said to be the purchase price per
watt of electricity produced. New materials and manufacturing techniques continue to
improve the price to power performance. The problem resides in the enormous
activation energy that must be overcome for a photon to excite an electron for
harvesting purposes. Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought
about the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy
thereby making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable
electrons.[26]
Chemicals such as boron (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order
to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and
conductor bands.[27] In doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation
energy to decrease twenty-fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential
difference (EB) is so low, the boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures.
This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby
allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons.

Maintenance[edit]
Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by the
accumulation of dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates on the solar panels,
collectively referred to as soiling. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power
capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran,
associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the
Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly
of nanostructures.[28] The average soiling loss in the world in 2018 is estimated to at
least 3% - 4%.[29]
Paying to have solar panels cleaned is a good investment in many regions, as of
2019.[29] However, in some regions, cleaning is not cost-effective. In California as of
2013 soiling-induced financial losses were rarely enough to warrant the cost of
washing the panels. On average, panels in California lost a little less than 0.05% of
their overall efficiency per day.[30]
There are also occupational hazards with solar panel installation and maintenance.
Birds nests and other debris that can get lodged under the solar panels, which can
cause disruptions in the system, lead to fire if there are any loose connections, or
just cause the system to degrade over time. [citation needed]

Recycling[edit]
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain
semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.[31] Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently
engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules. [32]
Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

 Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled
manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill
and the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals. [33] It is
possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight. [34] This process can be
performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV
module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive
industry. The recovered glass, for example, is readily accepted by the glass foam
and glass insulation industry.
 Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such
as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor
materials.[35] For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by
crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This
recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the
 semiconductor materials contained.[36] Some commercial-scale recycling facilities
have been created in recent years by private companies. [37] For aluminium flat
plate reflector: the trendiness of the reflectors has been brought up by fabricating
them using a thin layer (around 0.016 mm to 0.024 mm) of aluminum coating
present inside the non-recycled plastic food packages. [38]
Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together
manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module
recycling.[39][40] EU law requires manufacturers to ensure their solar panels are
recycled properly. Similar legislation is underway in Japan, India, and Australia.[41]

Production[edit]
See also: List of photovoltaics companies
The production of PV systems has followed a classic learning curve effect, with
significant cost reduction occurring alongside large rises in efficiency and production
output.[42]
Top Module
Shipments in 2019 (GW) [43]

Producer

Jinko Solar 14.2

JA Solar 10.3

Trina Solar 9.7

LONGi Solar 9.0

Canadian Solar 8.5

Hanwha Q Cells 7.3

Risen Energy 7.0

First Solar 5.5

GCL System 4.8

Shunfeng Photovoltaic 4.0

In 2019, 114.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, according to the

International Energy Agency (IEA).
With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers
dramatically increased their shipments of solar modules in 2019. They actively
expanded their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players.
[44]
 According to Pulse Solar, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2019 have
experienced a rise in solar panel production by at least 25% compared to 2019. [45]
The basis of producing solar panels revolves around the use of silicon cells. [46] These
silicon cells are typically 10-20% efficient[47] at converting sunlight into electricity, with
newer production models now exceeding 22%.[48] In order for solar panels to become
more efficient, researchers across the world have been trying to develop new
technologies to make solar panels more effective at turning sunlight into energy. [49]
In 2018, the world's top four solar module producers in terms of shipped capacity
during the calendar year of 2018 were Jinko Solar, JA Solar, Trina Solar, Longi
Solar, and Canadian Solar.[50]

Price[edit]
See also: Grid parity

Swanson's law states that with every doubling of production of panels, there has been a 20 percent
reduction in the cost of panels.[51]

The price of solar electrical power has continued to fall so that in many countries it
has become cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the electricity grid since
2012, a phenomenon known as grid parity.[52]
Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small
quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers
(typically up to 10 MWp annually), and large quantity buyers (self-explanatory—and
with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term there is clearly a systematic
reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example, in 2012 it was estimated
that the quantity cost per watt was about US$0.60, which was 250 times lower than
the cost in 1970 of US$150.[53][54] A 2015 study shows price/kWh dropping by 10% per
year since 1980, and predicts that solar could contribute 20% of total electricity
consumption by 2030, whereas the International Energy Agency predicts 16% by
2050.[55]
Real-world energy production costs depend a great deal on local weather conditions.
In a cloudy country such as the United Kingdom, the cost per produced kWh is
higher than in sunnier countries like Spain.
Short term normalized cost comparisons demonstrating value of various electric generation technologies [56]

Long term normalized cost comparisons demonstrating value of various electric generation technologies [57]

According to U.S. Energy Information Administration, prices per megawatt-hour are

expected to converge and reach parity with conventional energy production sources
during the period 2020–2030. According to EIA, the parity can be achieved without
the need for subsidy support and can be accomplished through organic market
mechanisms, namely production price reduction and technological advancement.
Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of
non-microinverter solar modules (as wiring, converters, racking systems and various
components) make up about half of the total costs of installations.
For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the
electricity transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match the
wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid parity' or
'busbar parity'.[52]
Some photovoltaic systems, such as rooftop installations, can supply power directly
to an electricity user. In these cases, the installation can be competitive when the
output cost matches the price at which the user pays for his electricity consumption.
This situation is sometimes called 'retail grid parity', 'socket parity' or 'dynamic grid
parity'.[58] Research carried out by UN-Energy in 2012 suggests areas of sunny
countries with high electricity prices, such as Italy, Spain and Australia, and areas
using diesel generators, have reached retail grid parity. [52]

Mounting and tracking[edit]

Main articles: Photovoltaic mounting system and Solar tracker
Solar modules mounted on solar trackers

Workers install residential rooftop solar panels

Ground-mounted photovoltaic systems are usually large, utility-scale solar power

plants. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to
ground-based mounting supports.[59][60] Ground based mounting supports include:

 Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in
concrete.
 Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings
 Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to
secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground
penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where
excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies
decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.
Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks
or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports. [61] Roof-based mounting
supports include:

 Rail mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use
additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.
 Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to
secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This
mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel
systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.
 All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting
equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and should be run
in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions
Solar trackers increase the energy produced per module at the cost of mechanical
complexity and increased need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun
and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light. [62]
[63]
 Alternatively, fixed racks hold modules stationary throughout the day at a given tilt
(zenith angle) and facing a given direction (azimuth angle). Tilt angles equivalent to
an installation's latitude are common. Some systems may also adjust the tilt angle
based on the time of year.[64] Similarly, to maximize total energy output, modules are
often oriented to face south (in the Northern Hemisphere) or north (in the Southern
Hemisphere). On the other hand, east- and west-facing arrays (covering an east–
west facing roof, for example) may also be useful. Even though such installations
might not produce the maximum possible total energy, their power output would
likely be more consistent throughout the day and possibly larger during peak
demand.[65]
Standards[edit]
Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules:

 IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film performance)

and 61730 (all modules, safety), 61853 (Photovoltaic module performance
testing & energy rating)
 ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary.
 UL 1703 from Underwriters Laboratories
 UL 1741 from Underwriters Laboratories
 UL 2703 from Underwriters Laboratories
 CE mark
 Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-
110).
Connectors[edit]
Outdoor solar panels usually include MC4 connectors. Automotive solar panels may
also include a car lighter and/or USB adapter. Indoor panels (including solar pv
glasses, thin films and windows) can integrate microinverter (AC Solar panels).
Applications[edit]
There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It
can first be used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar
panels can be used to refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for
infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large
variety of electric devices:

 Photovoltaic power stations

 Rooftop solar PV systems
 Standalone PV systems
 Solar hybrid power systems
 Concentrated photovoltaics
 Solar planes
 Solar-powered water purification
 Solar-pumped lasers
 Solar vehicles
 Solar panels on spacecraft and space stations
Limitations[edit]
Impact on electricity network[edit]
With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes
2-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported
to the grid. However, an electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with
the 2- way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For
example, in Queensland Australia, more than 30% of households used rooftop PV by
the end of 2017. The famous Californian 2020 duck curve appeared often for a lot of
communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may result as the electricity
flows from PV households back to the network.[66] There are solutions to manage the
over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and
energy control equipment at the electricity distributor level, re-conducting the
electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and
costs related to these solutions.
When electric networks are down, such as during the October 2019 California power
shutoff, solar panels are often insufficient to fully provide power to a house or other
structure, because they are designed to supply power to the grid, not directly to
homes.[67]
Implication onto electricity bill management and energy
investment[edit]
There is no silver bullet in electricity or energy demand and bill management,
because customers (sites) have different specific situations, e.g. different
comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns.
Electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily access and metering charge,
energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the
highest 30min energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for
reducing energy charge when electricity price is reasonably high and continuously
increasing, such as in Australia and Germany. However, for sites with peak demand
charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late
afternoon to early evening, for example residential communities. Overall, energy
investment is largely an economical decision and it is better to make investment
decisions based on systematical evaluation of options in operational improvement,
energy efficiency, onsite generation and energy storage. [68][69]
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