API Storage Tanks

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
API STORAGE TANKS
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Civil and Structural For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: CSE-110.01 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Analysis and Design of Tanks, Vessels and Piping
API Storage Tanks
MODULE COMPONENT PAGE
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 7
TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF STORAGE TANKS ....................................... 8

Background ........................................................................................................ 8
API Atmospheric Storage Tanks ........................................................................ 8
Supported Cone Roof Tank ....................................................................... 8
Self-Supporting Fixed Roof Tank ............................................................... 9
Floating Roof Tank................................................................................... 11
Fixed Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank ............................................ 12
API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks .................................................................... 14
Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank.......................................................... 14
Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank ........................................................ 16
Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tank................................................................ 17
Spherical Low-Pressure Tank.................................................................. 18
Other Storage Tanks ........................................................................................ 19
APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS FOR SELECTED STORAGE
TANKS .......................................................................................................................... 20
Codes and Standards for API Atmospheric Storage Tanks.............................. 20
API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage........................... 20
API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and Reconstruction ........... 21
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing ............................................................... 22
SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for Atmospheric and Low-
Pressure Tanks........................................................................................ 22
SAES-B-007B, Air Foam Systems for Storage Tanks ............................. 22
SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks.............................. 22
SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity ....................................................... 23
32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks .............................................. 23
Codes and Standards for API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ................... 23
API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded,
Low-Pressure Storage Tanks .................................................................. 23
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing ............................................................... 24
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

API Storage Tanks
SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for Atmospheric and Low-

Pressure Tanks........................................................................................ 24
SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks.............................. 24
32-SAMSS-006, Large Welded Low-Pressure Tanks .............................. 24
TYPES, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES OF
STEELS COMMONLY USED FOR STORAGE TANKS................................................ 25
Background ...................................................................................................... 25
Design Metal Temperature ...................................................................... 25
Minimum Tensile Strength ....................................................................... 26
Minimum Yield Strength........................................................................... 26
Allowable Stresses................................................................................... 26
Allowable Types of Steels ................................................................................ 27
Atmospheric Storage Tanks..................................................................... 27
Low-Pressure Storage Tanks .................................................................. 32
CALCULATING CIVIL/MECHANICAL LOADS FOR ATMOSPHERIC
STORAGE TANKS........................................................................................................ 33
Background ...................................................................................................... 33
Estimating the Minimum Acceptable Thickness of Tank Components ............. 33
API One-Foot Method .............................................................................. 34
Minimum Shell Course Thicknesses for Construction Purposes.............. 35
Minimum Thicknesses for Tank Bottoms ................................................. 37
Weight Loads ................................................................................................... 38
Background.............................................................................................. 38
Procedures .............................................................................................. 38
Total Pressure and Equivalent Liquid Height.................................................... 41
Background.............................................................................................. 41
Procedures .............................................................................................. 45
Roof Live Load ................................................................................................. 46
Background.............................................................................................. 46
Procedure ................................................................................................ 46
Wind Loads ...................................................................................................... 48
Background.............................................................................................. 48
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

API Storage Tanks
Saudi Aramco Standards.................................................................................. 49

Formulas .......................................................................................................... 50
Wind Loads ...................................................................................................... 50
Wind Roof-Lift Loading ..................................................................................... 53
Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment ............................................................ 55
Background.............................................................................................. 55
Saudi Aramco Standards ......................................................................... 55
Seismic Zones ......................................................................................... 56
Formulas.................................................................................................. 56
Appurtenances ................................................................................................. 60
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ADDITIONS OR MODIFICATIONS
TO THE APPURTENANCES ON A STORAGE TANK.................................................. 61
Background ...................................................................................................... 61
Membrane Stress ............................................................................................. 61
Bending Stress ................................................................................................. 61
Peak Stresses .................................................................................................. 63
Changes in Dead Weight.................................................................................. 64
Attachments ..................................................................................................... 64
Ladders or Spiral Stairways ..................................................................... 64
Platforms.................................................................................................. 65
Accesses ................................................................................................. 65
Supports .................................................................................................. 67
USES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS FOR STORAGE TANKS ................ 68
General............................................................................................................. 68
Soil ................................................................................................................... 69
Preloading................................................................................................ 70
Compaction.............................................................................................. 70
Excavation and Backfill ............................................................................ 70
Types of Foundations ....................................................................................... 70
Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad.................................................... 71
Ringwalls ................................................................................................. 71
Concrete Pad........................................................................................... 73
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iii

API Storage Tanks
Piled Foundation ...................................................................................... 74

Saudi Aramco Requirements............................................................................ 76
32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks .............................................. 76
32-SAMSS-006, Large, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks............................. 78
SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity ....................................................... 78
SAES-M-100, Saudi Aramco Building Code ............................................ 79
SAES-Q-005, Concrete Foundations ....................................................... 79
EFFECTS OF TYPES OF SETTLEMENT ON STORAGE TANKS ............................... 82
Background ...................................................................................................... 82
Types of Settlement ......................................................................................... 82
Uniform .................................................................................................... 82
Planar Tilt................................................................................................. 83
Deviation from Planar Tilt......................................................................... 85
Center-to-Edge ........................................................................................ 86
Local Shell or Bottom............................................................................... 87
Evaluation of Tank Settlement.......................................................................... 88
CALCULATING TANK SETTLEMENT .......................................................................... 89
SUMMARY.................................................................................................................... 91
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES AND DATABASES FOR CALCULATING

CIVIL/ MECHANICAL LOADS FOR ATMOSPHERIC STORAGE TANKS.................... 92
Work Aid 1A: Procedure for Calculating Weight Loads ................................... 92
Work Aid 1B: Procedure for Calculating Total Pressure .................................. 94
Work Aid 1C: Procedure for Calculating Roof Live Load ................................. 96
Work Aid 1D: Procedure and Database for Calculating Wind Loads............... 96
Work Aid 1E: Procedure and Databases for Calculating Earthquake
Base-Overturning Moment ............................................................................... 98
Work Aid 1F: Procedure for Calculating Live Loads for
Appurtenances ............................................................................................... 103
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING TANK SETTLEMENT ................ 104
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................ 106
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards iv

API Storage Tanks
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Cone Roof Tank .............................................................................................. 9

Figure 2. Geodesic Dome Fixed Roof Tank ................................................................. 10
Figure 3. Floating Roof Tank........................................................................................ 11
Figure 4. Fixed Cone Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank........................................ 13
Figure 5. Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank ............................................................... 15
Figure 6. Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank.............................................................. 16
Figure 7. Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tanks ................................................................... 17
Figure 8. Spherical Low-Pressure Tank ....................................................................... 18
Figure 9. Material Groups............................................................................................. 28
Figure 10. Minimum Permissible Design Metal Temperatures for Plates Used In Tank
Shells Without Impact Testing....................................................................... 29
Figure 11. Permissible Plate Materials and Allowable Stresses (PSI).......................... 31
Figure 12. Minimum Shell Thicknesses for API 650 Tanks .......................................... 36
Figure 13. Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth Below Liquid Surface ................................ 43
Figure 14. Effect of Vapor Pressure on the Total Pressure at a Given Depth Below the
Surface.......................................................................................................... 44
Figure 15. Wind Base-Shear Force, FW, and Wind Base-Overturning Moment,
MW ................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 16. Wind Roof-Lift Load, LW ............................................................................. 49
Figure 17. Bending Stress............................................................................................ 62
Figure 18. Stress Concentration................................................................................... 63
Figure 19. Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad ....................................................... 71
Figure 20. Crushed Stone Ringwall.............................................................................. 72
Figure 21. Concrete Ringwall ....................................................................................... 73
Figure 22. Concrete Pad .............................................................................................. 74
Figure 23. Piled Foundation with Concrete Slab .......................................................... 75
Figure 24. Required Number of Reference Points ....................................................... 77
Figure 25. Required Settlement Readings ................................................................... 78
Figure 26. Safety Factors for Foundations ................................................................... 80
Figure 27. Uniform Settlement ..................................................................................... 83
Figure 28. Planar Tilt Settlement .................................................................................. 84
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards v

API Storage Tanks
Figure 29. Deviation From Planar Tilt Settlement......................................................... 85

Figure 30. Center-To-Edge Settlement ....................................................................... 86
Figure 31. Local Shell or Bottom Settlement ................................................................ 87
Figure 32. Current and Initial Tank Elevation Readings ............................................... 90
Figure 39. Height-Correction and Gust Response Factors........................................... 97
Figure 40. Factor k ....................................................................................................... 98
Figure 41. Weight Coefficients ..................................................................................... 99
Figure 42. Site Amplification Factor............................................................................ 100
Figure 43. Height Coefficients .................................................................................... 101
Figure 44. Graph For Plotting Data ............................................................................ 104
Figure 45. Example of a Plot ...................................................................................... 105
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards vi

API Storage Tanks
INTRODUCTION
CSE 110.01, API Storage Tanks, provides an overview of the

civil and mechanical engineering aspects governing the analysis
and design of storage tanks.
This module identifies the various types of storage tanks, the

components and the uses of each type, and the codes and
standards that apply to each type. The module also identifies
the common types of steels used to construct storage tanks and
their mechanical properties and allowable stresses. It discusses
loads for atmospheric tanks and demonstrates how they are
calculated. It also identifies the mechanical considerations for
additions or modifications to the appurtenances on a storage
tank. It identifies the types of foundations used for storage
tanks and the uses of each type of foundation, describes the
effects of different types of settlement, and demonstrates how
settlement is calculated.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

API Storage Tanks
TYPES, COMPONENTS, AND USES OF STORAGE TANKS
Background
This section discusses the types, components, and uses of the

following general types of storage tanks:
• API atmospheric
• API low-pressure
• Other
API Atmospheric Storage Tanks
API atmospheric storage tanks store crude oil, petroleum

products, chemicals, and water. These tanks are the most
common type of storage for petroleum products.
An API atmospheric storage tank consists of a:
• Conical steel bottom resting directly on the ground or on a

prepared foundation
• Vertical, cylindrical steel shell
• Roof (The type of roof used depends on the liquid being
stored.)
This section discusses the following types of API atmospheric
storage tanks:
• Supported cone roof

• Self-supporting fixed roof
• Floating roof
• Fixed roof with internal floating roof
Supported Cone Roof Tank
A supported cone roof tank has a fixed roof in the shape of a

cone that is supported by rafters on girders or by rafters on roof
trusses. The girders or trusses are in turn supported by
columns resting on the tank bottom.
The supported cone roof tank cannot withstand any significant

pressure or vacuum. The roof must be equipped with an open
vent, a pressure-actuated vent, or a "frangible joint". A frangible
joint is a weak welded seam at the roof-to-shell junction. The
weld is designed to fail before any major rupture can occur in

API Storage Tanks
the tank’s shell. Without proper venting, vapor pressure

changes sufficient to damage the roof or shell may result from
daily temperature fluctuations, normal filling and emptying
cycles, or from vapor generation due to a fire in the vicinity of
the tank.
Components - Figure 1 shows a supported cone roof tank and

its primary components.
Usage - Supported cone roof tanks are used when floating roof
tanks are not required or are not more economical. Supported
cone roof tanks can be larger in diameter than self-supporting,
fixed roof tanks.
Open vent
(if pressure/vacuum vent not used)
Roof
Pressure vacuum Gauge manhole Access
vent hatch
Roof truss Nozzle platform
Nozzle
Foam Top angle
Roof
support connection
column Ladder
Shell Spiral
(For small diameter tanks stairway
without spiral stairway)
Shell
Water nozzles Shell
draw-off manhole
Sump
Bottom
Figure 1. Cone Roof Tank
Self-Supporting Fixed Roof Tank
The roof of a self-supporting, fixed roof tank is supported

completely from the shell without supplementary structural
members. Therefore, it provides all of its own structural
support. The roof may be either conical or dome-shaped. A
dome-shaped roof can support itself at a larger diameter than a
cone-shaped roof. The self-supporting, fixed roof tank has the

API Storage Tanks
same characteristics and usages as the supported cone roof

tank, except for its roof support details.
Components - Figure 2 shows a geodesic dome fixed roof tank

and its primary components.
Usage - Self-supporting, fixed roof tanks are practical only

where relatively small fixed roof tanks are required.
Center dome vent
Roof Access hatch
}
Platform
Shell Appurtenances
Ladder
Bottom
Figure 2. Geodesic Dome Fixed Roof Tank

API Storage Tanks
Floating Roof Tank
A floating roof tank has an open top and a movable roof that
floats on top of the liquid being stored. A space between the
floating roof and the tank shell allows the roof to move freely as
liquid is added to or withdrawn from the tank. To minimize
evaporation losses and reduce the risk of fire, a flexible sealing
device is attached to the floating roof. This sealing device can
move freely up and down the tank shell and closes off the space
between the rim of the roof and the tank shell.
By virtually eliminating the vapor space above the liquid, the

floating roof tank greatly reduces:
• Evaporative losses
• Fire danger
• Corrosion caused by the presence of air
Components - Figure 3 shows the features of a floating roof
tank that distinguish it from a fixed roof tank.
Usage - Saudi Aramco Standard SAES-D-100 specifies that

floating roof tanks must be used to store petroleum products
with flash points below 54°C (130°F) or if the flash point is less
than 8°C (15°F) higher than the storage temperature. Examples
of these products are gasoline and naphtha. SAES-D-100 also
specifies that floating roof tanks should not to be used to store
products that tend to boil under atmospheric conditions.
Wind
girder
Continuous
fabric seal Emergency
Gauge drain Rim
hatch Automatic Roof Pontoon
bleeder vent vent
Roof supports manhole
supports Deck Pontoon
Tank manhole
shell Deck Screen
Pontoon Check Articulated

valve pipe drain Liquid
Tank
bottom
Figure 3. Floating Roof Tank

API Storage Tanks
Fixed Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank
A fixed roof with internal floating roof tank is either a self-

supporting roof tank or a supported cone roof tank with an
internal floating roof inside. The internal floating roof floats on
top of the liquid being stored. A flexible sealing device closes
off the space between the rim of the internal floating roof and
the tank shell.
The internal floating roof is usually constructed of materials

other than steel, such as aluminum or polyurethane. Usually,
the internal floating roof is designed to be assembled within a
completely constructed tank. The internal floating roof functions
the same way as the floating roof in the floating roof tank: it
virtually eliminates the vapor space above the liquid.
Components - Figure 4 shows a fixed roof with internal floating

roof tank and its primary components.
Usage - This type of tank typically is used when the service of

an existing fixed roof tank is changed and a floating roof tank
should be used for the new service. The tank is prepared for
the new service by adding the internal floating roof inside the
existing tank. This type of tank also may be required when a
floating roof tank needs a fixed roof for environmental protection
or product quality. In this case, a fixed roof is often added to an
existing floating roof tank. A fixed roof with internal floating roof
tank has the same usage as a floating roof tank.

API Storage Tanks
2
1 3
4
5
10 11 13
6 8 9
7 12
14 15
LEGEND
1. Peripheral roof vent 9. Column negotiating device

2. Center roof vent 10. Support legs
3. Roof hatch 11. Vacuum-relief device
4. Antirotation device 12. Internal floating roof
5. Overflow vent 13. Antistatic grounding
6. Seal 14. Gauge funnel
7. Manway 15. Pontoon
8. Gauge flotewell
Figure 4. Fixed Cone Roof with Internal Floating Roof Tank

API Storage Tanks
API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
API low-pressure storage tanks store the following:
• Gases
• Liquids that require a small amount of
pressurization
• Liquids that require containment of the vapor
as well as the liquid
This section discusses the following types of API low-pressure
storage tanks:
• Single-walled
• Double-walled
• Spheroidal
• Spherical
Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank
The single-walled, low-pressure tank only uses one layer of

steel on the shell of the tank to contain the liquid and vapor.
Components - Figure 5 shows a single-walled, low-pressure

tank and its primary components.

API Storage Tanks
Roof
Pressure safety valve/ Roof manhole
vacuum vent
Compression
ring
3/4 Page Graphic

(6.5" X 5.375") Shell
Ladder
Bottom
Figure 5. Single-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

API Storage Tanks
Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank
The double-walled, low-pressure tank uses two layers of steel

for the shell of the tank to contain the liquid and vapor.
Usage - This type of tank is used for refrigerated storage.
Insulation is installed between the inner and outer layers of the
shell. The space between the shells generally is maintained at
a slightly positive pressure by a gas, such as nitrogen, that will
not liquefy at the storage temperature.
Components - Figure 6 shows one design of a double-walled,
low-pressure tank and its primary components.
Safety valve Fill/discharge

Ceiling hangers nozzle
Cone Roof
Insulated
suspended
ceiling
Inner shell
Insulation
Insulation
Outer shell
Bottom
Figure 6. Double-Walled, Low-Pressure Tank

API Storage Tanks
Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tank
The spheroidal low-pressure tank approximates the ideal shape

of a free-standing liquid droplet in which the shell stresses are
theoretically equal in all directions. The normal design pressure
of spheroidal tanks ranges from 17 kPa(ga) - 103 kPa (ga) (2.5
to 15 psig). Although commercially available, spheroidal tanks
are not used widely since spheres are generally more
economical to build.
Components - Figure 7 shows two typical spheroid and low-

pressure tank designs and their primary components.
Ordinary Spheroid
Supports
Elevation
Section Sand cushion
Noded Spheroid
Tie
Truss
Supports
Elevation
Section
Sand cushion
Figure 7. Spheroidal Low-Pressure Tanks

API Storage Tanks
Spherical Low-Pressure Tank
The most common type of pressure storage, the spherical low-

pressure tank, is a sphere on individual support columns. It
provides the maximum volume of storage for the amount of wall
material used.
Components - Figure 8 shows a spherical low-pressure tank

and its components.
Safety Valve
Shell
Platform
Appurtenances
Stairway
Support
Column
Sway
Bracing
Figure 8. Spherical Low-Pressure Tank

API Storage Tanks
Other Storage Tanks
Other general types of storage tanks exist. Generally, these

tanks are small tanks or tanks built with special storage
requirements, including shop-built tanks and chemical storage
tanks. Normally they provide atmospheric pressure storage
only.

API Storage Tanks
APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS FOR SELECTED STORAGE TANKS
This section discusses the codes and standards that apply to

storage tanks.
Codes and Standards for API Atmospheric Storage Tanks
The following codes and standards apply to API atmospheric

storage tanks:
• API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil

Storage
• API Standard 653, Tank Inspection, Repair,
Alteration and Reconstruction
• SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing
• SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for
Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
• SAES-B-007B, Air Foam Systems for Storage
Tanks
• SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure
Tanks
• SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity
• 32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks
API Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage
This standard provides the requirements for vertical, cylindrical,

aboveground, carbon-steel storage tanks. This standard
applies to the following tanks:
• Tanks with internal pressures from

atmospheric pressure to 17 kPa (ga) (2.5 psig)
• Tanks that are nonrefrigerated
• Tanks with design temperatures less than
260°C (500°F)
• Tanks that store petroleum, other liquid
products, or water
This standard covers material, design, fabrication, erection, and
testing.
The appendices in this standard cover:
• Optional design basis for small tanks

API Storage Tanks
• Recommendations for design and construction

of foundations for above ground oil storage
tanks
• External floating roofs
• Technical inquiries
• Seismic design of storage tanks
• Design of tanks for small internal pressures
• Structurally supported aluminum dome roofs
• Internal floating roofs
• Undertank leak detection and subgrade
protection
• Shop-assembled storage tanks
• Example of application of the variable-design-
point procedure to determine shell plate
thicknesses
• API Standard 650 storage tank data sheets
• Requirements for tanks operating at elevated
temperatures
• Use of materials that are on hand but are not
identified as complying with any listed
specification
• Recommendations for underbottom
connections
• Allowable external loads on tank shell openings
API 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and Reconstruction
This standard covers requirements for inspection, repair,

alteration and reconstruction of API 650 (and its predecessor
API 12C) atmospheric storage tanks that have already been
placed in service. The standard includes the following sections:
• Suitability for Service

• Brittle Fracture Considerations
• Inspection
• Materials
• Design Considerations for Reconstructed Tank
• Tank Repair and Alteration

API Storage Tanks
• Dismantling and Reconstruction

• Welding
• Examination and Testing
• Marking and Reconstruction
This standard also has appendices that cover evaluation criteria
for tank bottom settlement and checklists for tank inspection.
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing
This standard provides the pressure-testing requirements for

storage tanks.
SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
This standard provides the spacing and diking requirements for

aboveground storage tanks.
SAES-B-007B, Air Foam Systems for Storage Tanks
This standard provides the basic requirements for the

installation of air foam fire protection systems for large,
atmospheric storage tanks.
SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
This standard provides the requirements for the selection,

design, and installation of carbon-steel, stainless-steel, and
fiberglass storage tanks. The standard applies to the following
tanks:
• Tanks that store crude oils, petroleum

products, water, and other liquids
• Tanks with internal operating pressures not
greater than 103 kPa (ga) (15 psig)
• Tanks with design temperatures between -
168°C and +260°C (-270°F and +500°F)

API Storage Tanks
SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity
This standard provides the requirements for testing and

inspecting welded steel tanks that have already been put into
service and does not apply to the initial construction of tanks.
This standard parallels the API 653 Standard and covers
additions and exceptions to the API-653 Standard.
32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks
This specification covers modifications and additions to API

Standard 650. The specification is included with the purchase
order supplied to the tank vendor.
Codes and Standards for API Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
The following codes and standards apply to API low-pressure

storage tanks:
• API Standard 620, Design and Construction of

Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
• SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing
• SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for
Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
• SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure
Tanks
• 32-SAMSS-006, Large Welded Low-Pressure
Tanks
API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure
Storage Tanks
This standard provides the requirements for aboveground tanks

with a single vertical-axis-of-revolution. The standard applies to
the following tanks:
• Tanks with internal pressures greater than 3.4

kPa (ga) (0.5 psig) but not greater than 103
kPa (ga) (15 psig)
• Tanks with metal temperatures from -168°C to
+120°C (-270°F and +250°F)
• Tanks that are large enough to require field
erection

API Storage Tanks
• Tanks that store liquid or gaseous petroleum

Specifically excluded from this standard are small shop-built
tanks, tanks covered by API Standard 650, and “lift-type” gas
holders.
SAES-A-004, Pressure Testing
This standard provides the pressure-testing requirements for

storage tanks.
SAES-B-005, Spacing and Diking for Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
This standard provides the spacing and diking requirements for

aboveground storage tanks.
SAES-D-100, Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Tanks
This standard provides the requirements for the selection,

design, and installation of carbon-steel, stainless-steel, and
fiberglass storage tanks. The standard applies to the following
tanks:
• Tanks that store crude oils, petroleum

• Tanks with internal operating pressures not
greater than 103 kPa (ga) (15 psi)
• Tanks with design temperatures between -
168°C and +260°C (-270°F and +500°F)
32-SAMSS-006, Large Welded Low-Pressure Tanks
This specification covers modifications and additions to API

Standard 620. The specification is limited to single-walled,
aboveground, low-pressure tanks. The specification excludes
spheres and spheroids. The specification is included with the
purchase order supplied to the tank vendor.

API Storage Tanks
TYPES, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES OF STEELS

COMMONLY USED FOR STORAGE TANKS
Background
This section discusses the types of steels commonly used for

storage tanks. The section provides information on the
mechanical properties and allowable stresses of these steels.
The following factors are important in selecting the steel for a

storage tank:
• Design metal temperature

• Minimum tensile strength
• Minimum yield strength
• Allowable stresses
Design Metal Temperature
Since most steels become brittle at low temperature and lose

their strength at elevated temperatures, it is important to select
a steel that is appropriate for the range of temperatures at the
tank site and for the necessary storage conditions of the
contained fluid. For storage tanks a (minimum) design metal
temperature and a maximum operating temperature is usually
specified. According to API Standard 650, unless experience or
special local conditions justify another assumption, the
(minimum) design metal temperature is assumed to be 8.3°C
(15°F) above the lowest one-day mean ambient temperature in
the location where the tank is to be installed.
The (minimum) design metal temperature for refrigerated tanks

may also be determined by the temperature being maintained
by refrigeration. This temperature will usually be lower than
8.3°C(15°F) above the one-day mean ambient temperature.
The maximum operating temperature may also be important in

the design of storage tanks used for heated fluids if the
temperature is above 93°C (200°F). Above 93°C (200°F) API
650 Standard requires a reduction in the allowable stress used
in the tank’s design.

API Storage Tanks
Minimum Tensile Strength
Adequate assurance that a tank will not rupture under normal

operating loads is required; therefore, it is important to select a
steel that has sufficient tensile strength. Tensile strength is the
maximum stress to which a material can be subjected without
rupturing. The Minimum Tensile Strength is the minimum value
of the tensile strength required by the applicable material
standard which governs the manufacture of the steel.
Minimum Yield Strength
A tank must keep its shape and not permanently deform under
normal operating loads; therefore, it is important to select a steel
that has a sufficient yield strength. Yield strength is the amount
of stress a material can undergo before there is a relatively
large plastic deformation for small increases in stress. If the
stress in the tank is kept below this value, the tank will not suffer
any permanent deformation. The Minimum Yield Strength is the
minimum value of the yield strength required by the applicable
materials standard which governs the manufacture of the steel.
Allowable Stresses
The thickness of tank components such as the shell and roof

must be determined using formulas contained in the applicable
API Standard. Typically, these formulas use an allowable stress
that depends upon the materials of construction and may
depend on the maximum operating temperature. The allowable
design stress is based on applying a factor of safety to the
material’s minimum tensile and yield strength. In the case of
API 650 tanks, a maximum Allowable Product Design Stress,
Sd, and a maximum Allowable Hydrostatic Test Stress, St, is
used in the formulas to determine tank shell thickness. The
Allowable Product Design Stress is used when normal operating
fluid is contained. During hydrostatic test, a slightly higher
allowable Hydrostatic Test Stress is permitted because this is a
controlled situation. Sd is limited to 40% of the minimum tensile
strength or 2/3 of the minimum yield strength. St is limited to 3/7
of the minimum tensile strength and 3/4 of the minimum yield
strength.

API Storage Tanks
Allowable Types of Steels
Atmospheric Storage Tanks
API Standard 650 permits the use of several specifications of

steel plates for atmospheric storage tank construction. API
Standard 650 also identifies permissible specifications for
structural shapes, piping and forgings, flanges, bolting, and for
welding electrodes. These specifications are based on the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Canadian
Standards Association (CSA), and International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) specifications. The ASTM, CSA, and ISO
specifications classify steels based on alloy content,
manufacturing process, yield strengths and toughness.
The types of steels permitted by API Standard 650 are divided

into eight groups according to the steel manufacturing process
used for each material. Figure 9 identifies the material groups.
Figure 10 shows the (minimum) design metal temperature
permitted for each material group without requiring impact
testing based on plate thickness. Figure 11 provides the
allowable stresses from API 650 for particular material
specifications.

API Storage Tanks
Group I Group II Group III Group IIIA

As Rolled, Semikilled As Rolled, Killed or As Rolled, Killed Normalized, Killed
Semikilled Fine-Grain Practice Fine-Grain Practice
Material Notes Material Notes Material Notes Material Notes
A 283 C 2 A 131 B 7 A 573-58 A 131 CS
A 285 C 2 A 36 2, 6 A 516-55 A 573-58 10
A 131 A 2 A 442-55 A 516-60 A 516-55 10
A 36 2, 3 A 442-60 G40.21M-260W 9 A 516-60 10
Fe 42 B 4 G40.21M-260W Fe 42 D 4, 9 G40.21M-260W 9, 10
Grade 37 3, 5 Fe 42 C 4 Grade 41 5, 9 Fe 42 D 4, 9, 10
Grade 41 6 Grade 41 5, 8 Grade 41 5, 9, 10
Group VI
Normalized or
Quenched and
Group IV Group IVA Group V Tempered, Killed
As Rolled, Killed As Rolled, Killed Normalized, Killed Fine-Grain Practice
Fine-Grain Practice Fine-Grain Practice Fine-Grain Practice Reduced Carbon
Material Notes Material Notes Material Notes Material Notes
A 573-65 A 662 C A 573-70 10 A 131 EH 36
A 573-70 A 573-70 11 A 516-65 10 A 633 C
A 516-65 G40.21M-300W 9, 11 A 516-70 10 A 633 D
A 516-70 G40.21M-350W 9, 11 G40.21M-300W 9, 10 A 537 I
A 662 B G40.21M-350W 9, 10 A 537 II
G40.21M-300W 9 A 678 A
G40.21M-350W 9 A 678 B
Fe 44 B, C, D 4, 9 A 737 B
Fe 52 C, D 9
Grade 44 5, 9
Notes:
1. Most of the listed material specification numbers refer to ASTM specifications (including Grade or Class); there
are, however, some exceptions: G40.21M (including Grade) is a CSA specification; Grades Fe 42, Fe 44, and
Fe 52 (including Quality) are contained in ISO 630; and Grade 37, Grade 41, and Grade 44 are related to
national standards (see 2.2.5).
2. Must be killed or semikilled.
3. Thickness ≤ 0.50 inch.
4. Maximum manganese content of 1.5 percent.
5. Thickness 0.75 inch maximum when controlled-rolled steel is used in place of normalized steel.
6. Manganese content shall be 0.80-1.20 percent by heat analysis for all thicknesses.
7. Thickness ≤ 1 inch.
8. Must be killed.
9. Must be killed and made to fine-grain practice.
10. Must be normalized.
11. Must have chemistry (heat) modified to a maximum carbon content of 0.20 percent and a maximum manganese
content of 1.60 percent (see 2.2.6.4).
Source: ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July 1993, Table
2-3. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Figure 9. Material Groups

API Storage Tanks
60 60
50 50
40 I 40
up V
G ro up I
Gro
30 30
20 20
up IVA I
Gro pI
ou pV
10 II A Gr Grou
10
p
ou
Gr 0
0 III
o up
See Note 1 Gr
-10 -10
V I
Group
-20 -20
-30 -30
Group IIIA
-40 -40
See Note 2
-50 -50
-60 -60
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Thickness, including corrosion allowance (inches)
Notes:
1. The Group II and Group V lines coincide at thicknesses less than 1/2 inch.
2. The Group III and Group IIIA lines coincide at thicknesses less than 1/2 inch.
3. The materials in each group are listed in Table 2-3.
4. This figure is not applicable to controlled-rolled plates (see 2.2.7.4).
5. Use the Group IIA curve for pipe and flanges (see 2.5.5.2 and 2.5.5.3).
Source: ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July 1993, Figure 2-
1. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
Note: To convert °F to °C subtract 32°F from the temperature in degrees F and multiply by 5/9. To convert inches
to mm multiply the thickness in inches by 25.4.
Figure 10. Minimum Permissible Design Metal Temperatures for Plates Used In
Tank Shells Without Impact Testing

API Storage Tanks
Cost and acceptability of the material, at the specified design

metal temperature and required thickness, determine the
selection of the steel specification. In general, higher strength
steels cost more per pound.
Note that the principal difference between “structural” steels,

such as ASTM A36, and most other specifications permitted by
API Standard 650 is that the structural steel has a higher
minimum design metal temperature and may not be able to be
used without impact testing if the required thickness is too large
(refer to Figure 11).

API Storage Tanks
Minimum Minimum Product Hydrostatic

Plate Yield Tensile Design Test
Specification Grade Strength Strength Stress Sd Stress St
ASTM Specifications
A 283 C 30,000 55,000 20,000 22,500
A 285 C 30,000 55,000 20,000 22,500
A 131 A, B, CS 34,000 58,000 22,700 24,900
A 36 -- 36,000 58,000 23,200 24,900
A 131 EH 36 51,000 71,000a 28,400 30,400
A 442 55 30,000 55,000 20,000 22,500

A 442 60 32,000 60,000 21,300 24,000
A 573 58 32,000 58,000 21,300 24,000
A 573 65 35,000 65,000 23,300 26,300
A 573 70 42,000 70,000a 28,000 30,000
A 516 55 30,000 55,000 20,000 22,500

A 516 60 32,000 60,000 21,300 24,000
A 516 65 35,000 65,000 23,300 26,300
A 516 70 38,000 70,000 25,300 28,500
A 662 B 40,000 65,000 26,000 27,900

A 662 C 43,000 70,000a 28,000 30,000
A 537 1 50,000 70,000a 28,000 30,000
A 537 2 60,000 80,000a 32,000 34,300
A 633 C, D 50,000 70,000a 28,000 30,000

A 678 A 50,000 70,000a 28,000 30,000
A 678 B 60,000 80,000a 32,000 34,300
A 737 B 50,000 70,000a 28,000 30,000
CSA Specifications
G40.21M 260W 37,700 59,500 23,800 25,500
G40.21M 300W 43,500 65,300 26,100 28,000
G40.21M 350WT 50,800 69,600a 27,900 29,800
G40.21M 350W 58,800 65,300 26,100 28,000
National Standards
37 30,000 52,600 20,000 22,500
41 34,000 58,300 22,700 25,000
44 36,000 62,600 24,000 26,800
ISO 630
Fe42 B, C 34,000 60,000 22,700 25,500
Fe44 B, C 35,500 62,500 23,700 26,600
Fe52 C, D 48,500 71,000a 28,400 30,400
a By agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, the tensile strength of these materials may be increased
to 75,000 pounds per square inch minimum and 90,000 pounds per square inch maximum (and to 85,000 pounds per
square inch minimum and 100,000 pounds per square inch maximum for ASTM A 537, Class 2, and A 678, Grade B).
When this is done, the allowable stresses shall be determined as stated in 3.6.2.1 and 3.6.2.2.
Source: ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July 1993, Table 3-
2. Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.
SI Note: To convert allowable stresses in psi to MPa multiply by 6.895 x 10-3
Figure 11. Permissible Plate Materials and Allowable Stresses (PSI)

API Storage Tanks
Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
API Standard 620 permits the use of several specifications of

steel plates for low-pressure storage tank construction. API
Standard 620 also identifies permissible specifications for
structural shapes, piping and forgings, flanges, bolting, and for
welding electrodes. These specifications are based on ASTM,
CSA, and ISO specifications. The ASTM, CSA, and ISO
specifications classify steels based on alloy content,
manufacturing process, yield strengths and toughness.
Similar to API 650, the API Standard 620 requirements for

selection of steel are based on (minimum) design metal
temperature and plate thickness and are presented in Table 2-1
of API 620. Also allowable stresses and weld-joint efficiency
are specified in Table 3-1 and Table 3-2 of the standard.

API Storage Tanks
CALCULATING CIVIL/MECHANICAL LOADS FOR ATMOSPHERIC STORAGE

TANKS
Background
This section discusses and demonstrates how to calculate the
civil/mechanical loads imposed on atmospheric storage tanks.
Civil/mechanical loads are loads with which a civil or mechanical
engineer would be concerned when designing a tank or its
foundation. The following types of loads are covered:
• Weight Loads
• Total Pressure
• Roof Live Load
• Wind Loads
• Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment
• Live Loads on Appurtenances
Before the weight loads acting on a tank or its foundation can be
calculated, the thickness of the various components of which a
tank is comprised must be known or estimated. The next
section discusses how to estimate the thickness of tank
components if these weight loads are not known.
Estimating the Minimum Acceptable Thickness of Tank Components

API 650 and API 620 have many criteria for determining the
minimum thicknesses of tank components. In this section we
will discuss only one of the methods given in API 650 for
determination of the minimum thickness of the tank shell
courses. We will also indicate the API 650 minimum thickness
requirements for tank bottoms and roofs.
Corrosion allowances, if required, should be added to the
minimum thicknesses that are calculated by the API method that
is described later in this module, or the minimum thicknesses
specified in API Standards. Corrosion allowances are usually
specified by the metallurgical engineer and any further
discussion is outside the scope of this course.
The API 650 method and minimum thickness requirements
presented in this module can be used for initial thickness
estimates for the main components of a tank for the
civil/mechanical design. Note that the specific methods and
requirements of the applicable API standard should be used in
any definitive work. PEDP course MEX 203 is recommended if
the Participant is interested in a more in-depth treatment of API
650 and API 620 requirements.

API Storage Tanks
API One-Foot Method
While the liquid contents at the top of a storage tank are

essentially at atmospheric pressure, the pressure increases with
the depth below the liquid's surface due to the weight of the
liquid above. Therefore, the lower shell courses of a tank are
usually thicker than the upper shell courses to withstand the
greater pressure. To account for the increase in pressure the
thickness of each shell course must be calculated using an
appropriate method. The API 650 One-Foot Method is one
method that can be used to estimate the thicknesses of API 650
tank shell courses.
In the One-Foot Method, the thickness of each shell course is

determined based on limiting the circumferential membrane
stress in the shell at a point that is one foot above the lowest
point of each shell course to be below an allowable stress.
(Hence the name for the method.) The other method presented
in API 650 is called the Variable-Design-Point Method. The
Variable-Design-Point Method is much more complex than the
One-Foot Method, and discussion of it is outside the scope of
this course. The Variable Design Point Method is an iterative
method that uses the shell course thicknesses determined by
the One-Foot Method as its initial starting point. Therefore, the
Variable-Design-Point Method can be considered as a means to
"fine-tune" the shell thicknesses of each course. The Variable-
Design-Point Method usually results in slightly thinner and
hence more economical tank shells. It should be noted that the
One-Foot Method is actually limited by API 650 to be used only
for tanks under 60 m (200 ft.) in diameter and that the Variable-
Design-Point Method must be used for larger tanks. However,
the One-Foot Method can still be used as a initial estimating
tool.
In the One-Foot Method, the minimum thickness of the shell is

determined as the larger of two quantities, td or tt, as described
below:
td = C1d(H-C2)G/Sd + CA
tt = C1d(H-C2)/St
td = Minimum thickness of the shell based on design
conditions in inches (millimeters).
tt = Minimum thickness of the shell based on
hydrostatic test conditions in inches (millimeters).

API Storage Tanks
C1 = Constant, which accounts for the density of

water and the dimensional unit system used,
equal to 2.6 for U.S. units and 4.9 for S.I. units.
C2 = Constant, equal to 1 foot for U.S. units and 0.3
meters for S.I. units.
d = Nominal diameter of the tank in feet (meters).
H = Design liquid level of the tank in feet (meters).
G = Specific gravity of the liquid stored with respect
to water (dimensionless).
CA = Corrosion allowance, if required, in inches
(millimeters).
Sd = Allowable Product Design Stress for design
conditions (Figure 11) in psi (MPa).
St = Allowable Hydrostatic Test Stress for hydrostatic
test conditions (Figure 11) in psi (MPa).
Note that the above equation is based on the 1993 edition of
API 650, in which the weld-joint efficiency of the tank's vertical
seams is assumed to be 1.0. In re-evaluating an existing tank,
the allowable stresses, Sd and St, may have to be multiplied by
a weld-joint efficiency, E, equal to 0.7 or 0.85, depending on the
degree of radiography used in the original construction.
Minimum Shell Course Thicknesses for Construction Purposes
API 650 also specifies minimum thicknesses for shell courses

for construction purposes based on tank diameter. These
minimum thicknesses are indicated in Figure 12 and may
govern the thicknesses of the upper shell courses. Note that
the corrosion allowance, if required, should be added to the
plate thicknesses shown in Figure 12.
Nominal Tank Diameter Nominal Plate Thickness
meters ft. mm in.
<15.25 <50 4.5 3/16

15.25 to 36.5 50 to 120 6.0 1/4
36.5 to 61.0 120 to 200 7.5 5/16
>61 >200 9.0 3/8

API Storage Tanks
Figure 12. Minimum Shell Thicknesses for API 650 Tanks

API Storage Tanks
Minimum Thicknesses for Tank Bottoms
Per API 650, the minimum new nominal thickness of the tank
bottom plates is 6 mm (1/4 in.) excluding corrosion allowance.
The minimum new nominal thickness of roofs is 4.5 mm (3/16
in.) excluding corrosion allowance. Note that API uses the
terminology nominal plate thicknesses, since the normal
tolerances on plate materials is 0.01 inch or 0.25 mm.
Sample Problem 1: Estimating the thicknesses of the lowest

shell course of an API-650 tank
Given :
A floating roof tank with:
• A diameter of 200 ft.

• A design liquid storage height of 64 ft.
• An eight-foot shell course height
• Material is A516 Gr 65
• Corrosion Allowance of 0.125 in.
• The tank contains oil with a specific gravity of
0.75
Solution:
From Figure 11 for A516 Gr 65, Sd equals 23300 psi and St

equals 26300 psi and using the previous equations:
td = (2.6 x 200 x (64-1) x 0.75)/23300 + 0.125 = 1.180 in.
tt = (2.6 x 200 x (64-1))/26300 = 1.24 in.
A plate thickness equal to the next nominal thickness (1-1/4

inches) would probably be used. Note that the minimum
thickness required for hydrotest governs the design. Also note
that if the specific gravity of the oil was greater than 0.8, the
design case would have governed rather than the hydrotest
case, and the minimum thickness for the shell would then have
been based on the design case.

API Storage Tanks
Weight Loads
Background
When designing a tank and its foundation, the design engineer

must consider the weight loads which are the weight of the tank
and the maximum weight of its contents. Since most petroleum
products are lighter than water, the heaviest weight load occurs
during hydrostatic testing, which is done using water.
If a tank and its foundation are designed to withstand the total

hydrostatic test weight, WT, the tank foundation should also be
able to withstand the weight load imposed during normal
operation when lighter weight crude oils or petroleum products
are stored.
The total hydrostatic test weight, WT, is equal to the sum of the
hydrostatic test water weight, WH, the tank dead weight empty,
WD, and any live loads acting on the tank roof or appurtenances
during the test. The tank dead weight empty, WD, is equal to
the weight of the tank bottom, Wb, the weight of the shell, Ws,
the weight of the roof(s), Wr, the weight of any appurtenances,
Wa, and the weight of any insulation, Wi, that may be installed
at the time of the hydrostatic test.
Note that insulation is usually not installed at the time of test and
the live loads on the roof and appurtenances are usually small
compared to other loads involved, and may be considered
negligible for the purposes of estimating the total hydrostatic
test weight, WT.
Procedures
The procedures for calculating weight loads are provided in

Work Aid 1A.
Sample Problem 2: Calculating Weight Loads
Calculate the hydrostatic test water weight, the tank dead

weight empty, and total hydrostatic test weight of a floating roof
tank.
Given:
A floating roof tank with:

API Storage Tanks
• A diameter of 300 ft.
• A designed liquid storage height of 45 ft.
• A tank shell consisting of six, 8 ft. high

courses of steel plates with the following
course thicknesses:
- First course (bottom course), 1-3/8 in.
- Second course, 1-1/8 in.
- Third course, 15/16 in.
- Fourth course, 11/16 in.
- Fifth course, 7/16 in.
- Sixth course (top course), 3/8 in.
• A floating roof:
- That is 3/16 in. thick
- With pontoons and other support structure

that add 20% to the weight of the roof
• A bottom that is 1/4 in. thick
• The appurtenances on the tank add 2%

to the weight of the tank
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1A.
In Step 1, calculate the hydrostatic test water weight, WH:
WH = π/4d2HLγw
WH =π/4 x (300)2 x 45 x 62.4
WH =~198,500,000 lb.
In Step 2, calculate the weight of the tank bottom, Wb:

API Storage Tanks
π 2γ
Wb = d t st
4
Wb =(π/4 x (300)2 x 0.25/12) x 490
Wb = ~721,600 lb.
In Step 3, calculate the weight of the tank shell, Ws:
Since all of the tank shell courses have the same

height, the average thickness of the shell courses can
be computed and used to simplify the calculation:
tavg = (1-3/8 + 1-1/8 + 15/16 + 11/16 + 7/16 + 3/8)/6

= 0.8232 in. = 0.0686 ft.
Using values given for this problem:
Ws = πdth x γst
Ws = π x 300 x 0.0686 x 48 x 490
Ws = ~1,520,000 lb.
In Step 4, calculate the weight of the floating roof, Wr:
Using the values given for this problem, including 20%

for roof structure:
π 2
Wr = d t ×γst x D.F.
4
Wr = (π/4 x (300)2 x 3/16 x 490 x (1 + 0.20)
12
Wr = ~649,400 lb.
In Step 5, calculate the weight of the appurtenances, Wa:
Given that the appurtenances are 2% of the tank weight, and using the
values calculated in Steps 2 through 4:
Wa =(Ws + Wb + Wr) x 0.02
Wa =(1,520,000 + 721,600 + 649,400) x 0.02
Wa =~57,820 lb.
In Step 6, calculate the tank dead weight empty, WD:

API Storage Tanks
WD = Ws + Wb + Wr + Wa + Wi
WD = 1,520,000 + 721,600 + 649,400 + 57,820
WD = ~2,949,000 lb.
In Step 7, calculate the total hydrostatic test weight, WT:
WT = WH + WD
WT = 198,500,000 + 2,949,000
WT = ~201,450,000 lb.
Answer:
The hydrostatic test water weight is approximately 198,500,000

lb. The tank dead weight empty is approximately 2,949,000 lb.
The total hydrostatic test weight is approximately 201,400,000
lb.
Total Pressure and Equivalent Liquid Height
Background
Different pressure loads act on the tank bottom, tank shell, and
tank roof that are sometimes used in the design of these
components.
Sources of Pressure on a Tank Bottom - The total pressure

on a tank bottom is due to:
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Vapor pressure
Sources of Pressure on a Tank Shell - The sources of
pressure on a tank shell are as follows:
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Vapor pressure
• Wind pressure effects
Sources of Pressure on a Tank Roof - The sources of
pressure on a tank roof are as follows:
• Vapor pressure
• Wind pressure effects

API Storage Tanks
The hydrostatic pressure, PH, increases with the depth below

the liquid surface. The highest hydrostatic pressure occurs
during hydrostatic testing.
The vapor pressure, PV, is a function of the volatility of the liquid

contained in the tank at its storage temperature. The process
engineer determines the vapor pressure for which the tank
should be designed.
The total pressure, PT, to which a component is subjected is

equal to the sum of the individual pressures. The highest total
pressure may occur during the normal operation due to the
vapor pressure in addition to the hydrostatic pressure of the
liquid being stored.
The effects of wind pressure on the tank shell and roof will be
covered in a later section.
Effect of Depth and Liquid Density on Hydrostatic Pressure

- Figure 13 shows that the hydrostatic pressure increases as the
depth below the liquid surface increases, and as the liquid
density or specific gravity increases.

API Storage Tanks
Pressure (psi)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
16
24
sp
ec
sp
32
ific
ec
spe
gr
f ic
av
g
cifi
ity
ra
vit
=
c
40
1
y=
g ra
(w
at
vity
0.7
er
)
5
=0
48
.50
56
Figure 13. Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth Below Liquid Surface

SI Note: To convert psi to kPa multiply by 6.895 kPa/psi.
To convert feet to meters multiply by .3 m/ft.

API Storage Tanks
Effect of Vapor Pressure - Figure 14 shows the effect of

increasing vapor pressures on the total pressure at a given
depth in a tank. Note that the vapor pressure of API 650 tanks
is limited to be below 17 kPa (2.5 psig) and that the vapor
pressure of API 620 tanks is limited to 103 kPa (15 psig) at the
top of the tank.
Pressure (psi)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
16
no
24
va
va
va
po
po
po
rp
rp
32
r
re
re
pr
ss
ss
es
ur
ur
su
e
e
40
re
=
=
10
5
(s
p
pe
ps
si
48
c if
i(
(s
sp
pe
ic
ec
gr
cif
av
i fi
ic
56
c
ity
gr
gr
av
=
av
ity
0.
i ty
8
Figure 14. Effect of Vapor Pressure on the Total Pressure at a Given

Depth Below the Surface
SI Note: To convert psi to kPa multiply by 6.895 kPa/psi.
To convert feet to meters multiply by .3 m/ft.
Equivalent Liquid Height - In order to account for the effects

of vapor pressure the concept of equivalent liquid height will be
introduced. The equivalent liquid height is equal to the total
pressure divided by the specific gravity of the liquid stored in
the tank. This equivalent liquid height is then used in the API
650 equations to determine the thickness of the shell course
instead of the actual fill height.

API Storage Tanks
Procedures
The procedure for calculating total pressure and the equivalent

liquid height is provided in Work Aid 1B.
Sample Problem 3: Total Pressure

Calculate the total pressure at the bottom of a cone roof tank
and the equivalent liquid height due to vapor pressure in the
tank.
Given:
The tank has a designed liquid storage height of 64 ft. The
vapor pressure of the liquid is 2.5 psig. The specific gravity of
the oil is 0.9.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1B.
In Step 1, calculate the hydrostatic pressure, PH:
PH = γh x C.F.
PH = (62.4 x 0.9) x 64 x 1/144
PH = 25.0 psig
In Step 2, calculate the total pressure, PT:
PT = P H + PV
PT = 25.0 + 2.5
PT = ~27.5 psig
In Step 3, calculate the equivalent liquid height, Heq:
Heq = PT x C.F. /
Heq = 27.5 x 144 / (62.4 x 0.9)
Heq = 70.5 ft.
Answer:
The total pressure at the bottom of the tank is approximately
27.5 psig. The equivalent liquid height that can be used for
design of the shell course is 70.5 ft.

API Storage Tanks
Roof Live Load
Background
The roof live load consists of the weights of items on the roof
that are not a part of the permanent structure. Some examples
are as follows:
• Personnel
• Equipment
• Rainwater
• Sand or dust
The roofs, tank and its foundation must be designed with the
capability to support the roof live load. A minimum required live
load of 122 Kg/m2 or 1.2 kN/m2 (25 lb./ft.2) is specified in 32-
SAMSS-006 for low-pressure tanks. The same minimum live
load is specified in API Standard 650 for atmospheric tanks. If
more than this minimum live load must be supported, then a
higher load should be specified. Higher live loads, such as
those due to heavy personnel traffic, heavy equipment, heavy
rains or heavy accumulations of sand or dust, should be
indicated by the process engineer. If the tank is designed for a
positive vapor pressure, the roof must be designed for this also.
Procedure
The procedure for calculating roof live load is provided in Work

Aid 1C.
Sample Problem 4: Roof Live Load
Calculate the roof live load for a flat roofed tank that is 100 ft. in
diameter. Assume that the minimum roof live load is applicable.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1C, to calculate the roof live load, LRLL:
π 2
LRLL = d × RL
4
LRLL = π/4 d2RL
LRLL = π/4 (100)2 x 25
LRLL = ~196,350 lb.
Answer:

API Storage Tanks
The roof live load is approximately 196,350 lb.

API Storage Tanks
Wind Loads
Background
A strong wind can overturn or slide a tank off its foundation or

cause a tank wall to collapse. Empty tanks are especially
vulnerable to wind forces. Wind forces acting on tank
appurtenances, such as platforms and ladders, can overload
these appurtenances or their attachments to the tank. The
pressure due to the wind varies around the circumference of the
tank from a high pressure on the windward side to a low
pressure (vacuum) on the leeward side. The effects of wind
increase with increasing height above grade. Wind blowing over
the top of the tank can also cause a negative pressure or
vacuum to act on the tank roof. In tank design, the primary
loads that concern a civil/mechanical engineer are the wind
base-shear force, FW, the wind base-overturning moment, MW,
and the wind roof-lift load, LW. These loads are discussed in
detail later in this section and the procedures for the calculation
of these loads is provided in Work Aid 1D. Figures 15 and 16
provide diagrams of these wind forces.
Wind
Mw
Fw
Figure 15. Wind Base-Shear Force, FW, and Wind Base-Overturning Moment, MW

API Storage Tanks
Lw
Wind
Wind
Figure 16. Wind Roof-Lift Load, LW
The following factors affect the wind load on a tank:
• Wind velocity (V)

• Tank diameter (d)
• Tank height (H)
• Tank height to tank diameter ratio (H/d)
• The number, size, and characteristics
of appurtenances
The wind loads on the tank are a cumulative effect of the wind
pressure acting over a surface area of the tank and of wind drag
or lift coefficients. The wind pressure increases with increasing
velocity and increasing height. The wind drag coefficient is a
function of the H/d ratio of the tank. The loads on the tank
increase with increasing height and diameter of the tank and
with the number and size of appurtenances.
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-D-100 requires that all tanks be designed to withstand a

reference wind velocity, Vr, of 137 km/h (85 mph) which is
measured at 10 m (33 ft.) above grade. SAES-D-100 requires
that the tanks be designed for wind loads in accordance with
ANSI/ASCE 7-88 (formerly ANSI Standard A58.1) for exposure
Level C.

API Storage Tanks
Formulas
The following equations are based on equations presented in

ANSI/ASCE 7-88 (formerly ANSI Standard A58.1).
The wind pressure increases with increasing velocity. The wind

pressure at the reference elevation, qr, can be calculated from
the following equation:
qr = 0.0473 Vr2 (S.I. Units) (Eqn. 1 SI)
= 0.00256 Vr2 (U.S. Units) (Eqn. 1 US)
where:
qr = Wind pressure at the reference elevation, Pa (lb./ft.2)
Vr = Wind velocity at the reference elevation, km/h (mph)
Based on the design wind velocity of 137 Km/h (85 mph)
indicated in SAES-D-100, qr is equal to 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2)
Wind Loads
The wind load on the tank or an appurtenance is proportional to

the wind pressure which increases as the elevation increases,
the projected area of a portion of the tank or an appurtenance,
and a wind drag coefficient.
The wind force on a portion of the tank or an appurtenance can

then be expressed as:
f = AKhGCfqr (Eqn. 2)
where:
f = Wind force on a portion of a tank or an
appurtenance, N (lbs.)
A = Effective projected area of a portion of the tank
or an appurtenance, m2 (ft.2)
Kh = Height-correction factor which varies with height
above the reference elevation, (dimensionless).
G = Gust-response factor based on the maximum
height of the structure (dimensionless).
Cf = Surface drag coefficient (dimensionless)
qr = Wind pressure at the reference elevation, 888
Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2).

API Storage Tanks
The wind force increases as the height above the reference

elevation increases. In order to determine the wind force at a
higher elevation, a height correction factor, Kh, and a gust
response factor, G, are used. Kh and G that are found in
ANSI/ASCE 7-88 are based on the height and exposure
classification of the location. Excerpts of these tables are
presented in Work Aid 1D for exposure classification C.
The wind drag coefficient, Cf, is given in ANSI/ASCE 7-88 for

typical structures with various proportions. For most tanks the
H/D (Height/Diameter) ratio is less than one and the surface
roughness of the tank is relatively smooth. Therefore, a typical
value of Cf that would be used for a tank is 0.5. The wind drag
coefficient, Cf, for an appurtenance is a function of the
appurtenance's shape and solidity (net area/gross area) ratio.
The value of Cf for appurtenances ranges from approximately
0.7 to 2.0 depending on the shape and solidity ratio. The
Participant should reference ANSI/ASCE 7-88 directly if detailed
calculations are to be made of wind load on appurtenances.
When determining the effective projected area of a tank, the

designer can include the wind force on every appurtenance in
the calculation or the designer can estimate the effect of the
appurtenances by assuming the tank has an effective diameter,
D, slightly larger than its actual outside diameter. However for
this course, the wind load on the tank will be approximated by
using the nominal tank diameter or the nominal tank diameter
plus two times the insulation thickness (if any), and the effect of
the wind load on the appurtenances will be ignored.
Since the wind load increases with height above the reference
elevation, it is typical to assume that the tank is divided up into a
number of height ranges. The wind loads acting in each height
range are calculated assuming that Kh elevated at the midpoint
of the range applies over the whole range. The wind forces
acting on each height range are then summed up to determine
the total loads acting on the tank base.
With these approximations, the formulas for the wind base-

shear force and wind base-overturning moment can be readily
calculated.
For wind base-shear force:
F w = (∑ Kh (hh − hl ))× DGC f qr (Eqn. 3)

API Storage Tanks
where:
Fw = Wind base-shear force, N (lb.).

Kh = Height-correction factor evaluated at the
center of the height range, (dimensionless).
hh = Highest point on the tank shell or roof within
the height range, m (ft.).
hl = Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within
the height range, m (ft.).
D = Effective diameter of the tank, m (ft.). If the
tank is externally insulated, use the outside
diameter of the insulation jacketing.
G = Gust-response factor based on the
maximum height of the tank
(dimensionless).
Cf = Wind drag coefficient (dimensionless), 0.5
for smooth tanks with H/D < 1.
qr = Wind pressure at reference elevation, 888
Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for Saudi Aramco
locations.
For wind base-overturning moment:
  h + hl  
Mw =  ∑ Kh (hh − hl ) h × DGCfqr (Eqn. 4)
  2 
where:
Mw = Wind base-overturning moment, N-m (ft. -

lb.)
center of the height range (dimensionless)
hh = Highest point on the tank shell or roof within
the height range, m (ft.)
hl = Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within
the height range, m (ft.)
D = Effective diameter of the tank, m (ft.). If the
tank is externally insulated, use the outside
diameter of the insulation jacketing.

API Storage Tanks
G = Gust response factor based on the

maximum height of the tank
(dimensionless).
Cf = Wind drag coefficient (dimensionless), 0.5
for smooth tanks with H/D < 1.
qr = Wind pressure at referenced elevation, 888
Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for Saudi Aramco
locations.
Work Aid 1D provides the procedures and databases needed to
calculate the wind base-shear force and wind base-overturning
moment.
Wind Roof-Lift Loading
The wind tends to lift the roof of the tank and to lift the entire
tank if the tank has a fixed roof.
ANSI/ASCE 7-88 indicates that for roofs with less than a 10°
angle, a combined gust response, G, and pressure (lift)
coefficient, Cp, should be used with the value of G Cp = 1.2.
Therefore, for a flat or cone roof tank, the following formula can
be used to calculate the wind roof-lift force, Lw:
Lw =  d2Kh GCpqr (Eqn. 5)
where:
Lw = Wind roof-lift load, N (lb.)

d = Diameter of the tank, m (ft.)
center of the tank roof (dimensionless)
GxCp = Combined gust and pressure (lift)
coefficient, equal to 1.2 for shallow roofs
with less than 10° angle
qr = Wind pressure at the reference elevation,
888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for Saudi Aramco
locations.
Work Aid 1D provides the procedures and database for
calculating the wind roof-lift load, Lw.
Sample Problem 5: Determining Wind Loads

API Storage Tanks
Calculate the wind base-shear force, Fw, the wind base-

overturning moment, Mw, and the wind roof-lift load, Lw, for a
cone roof tank.
Given:
A cone roof tank that:
• Is 100 ft. in diameter

• Has a 48 ft. shell height
• Has a cone roof whose peak is 5 ft.
above the edge of the shell
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1D.
In Step 1, calculate the wind base-shear force, Fw:
Fw = {(0. 8 × (16 − 0)) + (0. 92 × (32 − 16 ))+ (1.06 × (48 − 32 ))+ (1.12 × (53 − 48 ))}
× 100 × 1. 22 × 0. 5 × 18. 5
F w = ~ 56, 500 lb.
In Step 2, calculate the wind base-overturning moment, Mw:
Mw = {(0.8 (16 − 0 ) × (16 + 0 ) / 2) + (0. 92 × (32 − 16 ) × (32 + 16 ) / 2 )+
(1.06 × (48 − 32 )(48 + 32 ) / 2 )+ (1.12 × (53 − 48 )(53 + 48 ) / 2 )}
× 100 × 1. 22 × 0. 5 × 18. 5
Mw =~ 1, 600, 000 ft .lb.
In Step 3, calculate the wind roof-lift load, Lw:
Lw = (π/4) (100)2 (1.12) (1.2) (18.5)
Lw = ~195,300 lb.
Answer:
The wind base-shear force is approximately 56,500 lb. The
wind base-overturning moment is approximately 1,600,000 ft.-lb.
The lift-wind force is approximately 195,300 lb.

API Storage Tanks
Earthquake Base-Overturning Moment
Background
The Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia is relatively safe from

earthquakes. However, parts of the western area of the
Kingdom potentially may experience earthquakes. The design
engineer must make sure that tanks in these areas are
designed to withstand certain earthquake loads.
An earthquake can cause a tank to overturn, to slide, or to be

deformed permanently. It can also cause attached piping and
appurtenances to rupture or tear off the tank. In an open-top
tank, an earthquake may cause the contents of a tank to slosh
over the top. With petroleum tanks, all these events pose a risk
of fire.
When an engineer designs a tank to withstand earthquakes, he

considers the following two response modes of the tank and its
contents:
• A relatively high-frequency response to lateral

ground motion of the following:
- Tank shell
- Roof
- Portion of the liquid contents that moves in unison

with the shell
• A relatively low-frequency response of a

portion of the liquid contents that moves in the
fundamental sloshing mode
Saudi Aramco Standards
SAES-D-100 and 32-SAMSS-005 require that the

tank be designed for seismic loads in accordance
with API 650 Appendix E. The seismic zone
should be indicated on the Tank Data Sheet. The
following procedure is based on the procedure in
API 650, Appendix E.

API Storage Tanks
Seismic Zones
Seismic zones are assigned whole numbers from 0 to 4. The

number assigned to the seismic zone represents the relative
risk of earthquake damage and determines the amount of
seismic resistance required in structural design. Low numbers
represent low risk; high numbers represent high risk. Zone 0
requires no earthquake design. Zone 2 is the highest
classification for any Saudi Aramco location.
Formulas
If we assume that the seismic zone is Zone 1 and the tank is at

least 18.5 m (61 ft.) in diameter, the API 650 Appendix E
formula for the earthquake base-overturning moment is as
follows:
   
M E = ZI 0.60Ws H scg + 0.60Wr H t + 0.60Kw 1WC K1H L + K3 S
  k 2 d  KW 2 WCK2 H L 
(Eqn. 6)
where:
ME = Earthquake base-overturning moment, N-m

(ft.-lb.)
Z = Seismic zone coefficient, dimensionless. For

zone 0, Z = 0. For zone 1, Z = 0.075. For
zone 2, Z = 0.150.
I = Essential facilities factor, dimensionless. I = 1

for all petrochemical tanks, unless otherwise
specified by CSD.
Ws = Weight of the tank shell, N (lb.)
Hscg = Height from the base of the tank shell to the

shell’s center of gravity, m (ft.)
Wr = Weight of the tank roof(s) (fixed and/or

floating), N (lb.)
Ht = Total height of the tank shell, m (ft.)

API Storage Tanks
KW1 = Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the

tank diameter, d, to the maximum design liquid
height, HL
Wc = Weight of the tank liquid contents, N (lb.) equal

to the hydrostatic test water weight, WH,
multiplied by the liquid contents specific gravity,
G.
K1 = Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the

diameter of the tank, d, to the maximum design
liquid height, HL
HL = Maximum design liquid level, m (ft.)
S = Site amplification factor

k = Factor, based on the ratio of the diameter of
the tank, d, to the design maximum liquid
height, HL
KW2 = Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the

height, HL
K2 = Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the

height, HL
K3 = Coefficient which is a function of the first

sloshing mode of the tank equal to 1.0275 in SI
units and 3.375 in US units.
SI Note: All constants and coefficients are suitable for

use in both US and SI units except for K3.
The first term in the equation approximates the response of the

tank shell to the lateral ground motion. The second term in the
equation approximates the response of the roof to the lateral
ground motion. The third term in the equation approximates the
response of the liquid contents that move in unison with the
shell. The fourth term in the equation approximates the
response of the liquid contents that slosh.

API Storage Tanks
Work Aid 1E provides the procedures and databases for

calculating the earthquake base-overturning moment, ME.
Sample Problem 6: Determining Earthquake Base-Overturning

Moment
Determine the earthquake base-overturning moment for a

floating roof tank.
Given:
A floating roof tank with a:
• Diameter of 300 ft.

• Height of 48 ft.
• Design liquid storage height of 45 ft.
• Weight of the stored liquid of 168,725,000 lb.
• Tank shell weight of 1,500,000 lb.
• Shell center of gravity of 17.75 ft.

• Floating roof weight of 649,000 lb.
The tank is installed in seismic Zone 1.
The tank is located on soil of unknown seismic characteristics.
Solution:
Use Work Aid 1E.
In Step 1, calculate d/HL and determine factor K:
d/HL = 300/45 = 6.67

k = ~0.83
In Step 2, determine factors Kw1 and Kw2:
Kw1 = ~0.18
Kw2 = ~0.78
In Step 3, determine factor S:
S = 1.5

API Storage Tanks
In Step 4, determine factors K1 and K2:
K1 = ~0.38
K2 = ~0.52
In Step 5, calculate the earthquake base-overturning moment,

ME:
ME = (0.075)(1.0)(0.60 × 1,500,000 × 17.75) + (0.60

× 649,000 × 48) + (0.60 × 0.18 × 168,725,000 ×
0.38 × 45) + {3.375 × 1.5/((0.83)2 × 300) ×
0.78 × 168,725,000 × 0.52 × 45})
ME = ~31,625,000 ft.-lb.
Answer:
The earthquake base-overturning moment is approximately

31,625,000 ft.lb.

API Storage Tanks
Appurtenances
When designing or modifying a tank or designing a foundation,

the design engineer must allow for the weight and the forces
exerted by the appurtenances.
The primary loads contributed by tank appurtenances are their

weight. In the absence of the actual weight of the specific items
involved, the weight of all tank appurtenances may be estimated
based on the total tank weight, excluding the weight of the
contents. Depending on the particular appurtenance involved
and how it is attached to the tank, the weight of the
appurtenance may also impose a bending moment on the tank,
which the design engineer may need to consider. The design
considerations for appurtenances will be highlighted in a later
section that covers tank attachments. Some appurtenances,
such as stairs, ladders, and platforms, will also have live loads
that have to be taken into consideration in the design.
Work Aid 1F provides the formulas for calculating or estimating

the live loads on appurtenances.

API Storage Tanks
MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ADDITIONS OR MODIFICATIONS TO THE

APPURTENANCES ON A STORAGE TANK
Background
This section discusses mechanical considerations for the

appurtenances on a storage tank.
Attaching anything to a storage tank increases stresses in the

shell. Local stresses produce the greatest concern.
Attachments cause the following local stresses:
• Membrane stresses
• Bending stresses
• Peak stresses
• Changes in dead weight
If excessive, these stresses can cause tearing, leaking, or
fracturing of the storage tank. In addition, attachments cause
changes in the dead weight of the entire storage tank.
Membrane Stress
Local loads on a tank result in changes to the membrane stress

within the tank shell. Usually, the contribution of attachments to
membrane stress is not a major concern with storage tanks.
However, the build-up of membrane stress should not be
ignored, especially if a tank has an unusually large number of
heavy attachments in a relatively small area. High membrane
stresses can cause the tank to fail in an unexpected manner or
in an unexpected area.
Bending Stress
Applying a localized load to any part of a tank causes that part

to bend. The bending creates stresses within the part. When
the bending increases, the stress also increases. Normally, the
stresses are highest in the area of the applied load. Local
bending stress in the material caused by loads on the tank,
adds to the membrane stress.
If a localized load is applied near a junction within the tank, the

load may cause bending stresses in the junction. For instance,
if the shell is loaded by a ladder clip near the bottom of the tank,
the bending applies additional loads on the weld between the
shell and the tank bottom.

API Storage Tanks
The addition of reinforcing plates or pads where attachments

are made to the tank reduces the bending stress. These plates
or pads distribute the applied loads over a wider area of the tank
and reduce the localized stresses.
Figure 17 shows bending stress.
Appurtenance
weight
Tank wall
Force
Pipe
Bending
moment
Force
Pipe
support
Exaggerated result
Figure 17. Bending Stress

API Storage Tanks
Peak Stresses
Peak stresses occur wherever a local area of material is

subjected to significantly higher stress than the material in the
surrounding area. This peak stress typically occurs at stress
concentrations or at abrupt geometric discontinuities in the
structure. Stress is concentrated at storage tank attachment
points. In general, stress concentration effects need to be
considered only when the loads are applied cyclically. If the
combination of stress level and the number of cycles is high
enough, cyclic stresses could result in a fatigue crack of the
tank material or in failure of the tank.
Figure 18 shows stress concentration.

Force
Tank wall
Reference lines
Mounting plate
Force Force
Force
Peak stresses
at corners
Result
Figure 18. Stress Concentration

API Storage Tanks
Changes in Dead Weight
The changes in dead weight that result from attachments or

modifications are cumulative. When material is added to a
storage tank, the weight of the structure is increased by the
weight of the added material. When material is removed from a
storage tank, the weight of the structure is decreased by the
weight of the removed material.
Attachments
Some typical examples of attachments or modifications that are

made to storage tanks are as follows:
• Ladders or stairways
• Platforms
• Accesses
• Piping connections
• Supports
The following discussions of these attachments and
modifications illustrate the problems that attachments and
modifications may cause and the methods available for
minimizing the problems.
Ladders or Spiral Stairways
Ladders or spiral stairways are installed on a storage tank to

gain access to the tank roof for service and/or inspection.
Potential Problems - When a ladder or stairway is attached to
a tank, each attachment point becomes a source of bending
stress and stress concentration. The attachments must be
strong enough to support the weight of the ladder or stairway,
the personnel who use the ladder or stairway, and the
equipment that may be placed on or be brought up the ladder or
stairway. Because of the effects of thermal
expansion/contraction, the ladder attachments must permit
some small relative movement between the ladder or stairway
and the tank shell.

API Storage Tanks
Methods of Minimizing - When a ladder or stairway is attached

to a tank, the attachments must not be made in areas of the
tank that are already under higher stress, such as the joints
between shell courses, between the shell and the bottom, or
between a fixed roof and the shell. Also, the reinforcing pads or
plates added at the attachment points must be large and thick
enough to distribute the applied loads adequately.
Platforms
Platforms are installed on a storage tank to provide relatively

safe and convenient areas for inspection, maintenance, and/or
equipment mounting. Typically, a platform is installed at the top
of the ladder or stairway and near the gauging/sampling nozzles
and roof-access manway.
Potential Problems - When a platform is attached to a tank,

each attachment point becomes a source of bending stress and
stress concentration. The attachments must be strong enough
to support the weight of the platform, the personnel who use the
platform, and the equipment that may be placed on the platform.
Methods of Minimizing - When platforms are attached to a

tank, the attachments must not be made in areas of the tank
that are already under higher stress, such as the joints between
shell courses, between the shell and the bottom, or between a
fixed roof and the shell.
Accesses
Accesses are installed in the tank shell and roof to enable

inspection of the tank contents, inspection of the tank interior,
and/or maintenance of the tank interior.
Potential Problems - An access is a source of stress

concentration. An access may be a source of bending stress
and/or a weak location in the tank.
Methods of Minimizing - Accesses must not be installed in

areas of a tank that are already under higher stress, if other
locations are equally satisfactory. The area around the access
must be reinforced and the access must be as small as
possible. The access cover must be strong enough, but not
excessively thick. The access must not be installed at the seam
between shell courses or plates. Design details specified in the

API Storage Tanks
appropriate API standard that addresses these concerns must

be used.
Limitations - The reasons for installing an access determine the

access’s location. How the access is to be used determines its
minimum size.
Piping Connections
Piping connections are installed in a tank to allow material to be

transferred into and out of the tank, to facilitate cleaning and
draining of the tank, and to provide connections for safety
valves.
Potential Problems - A piping connection is a source of stress

concentration and bending stress due to the applied loads from
the connected piping system. A piping connection causes a
local weakening in the tank where the piping connection is
installed.
Methods of Minimizing - A piping connection must not be

installed in an area of a tank that is already under higher stress,
if other locations are equally satisfactory. The area around the
piping connection must be reinforced. API Standard 650
specifies design details and an evaluation procedure that should
be followed to reduce local tank stresses. A piping connection
must not be installed at a seam between shell courses, at the
seam between the bottom and the shell of the tank, or at a
seam between shell plates. The piping system must be
provided with adequate flexibility to adjust to tank settlement
and to adjust to tank expansion and contraction that results from
both temperature changes and hydrostatic head.
Limitations - The reasons for installing a piping connection and

the layout of the piping system determine the location and size
of a piping connection. Designing a piping system that allows
for tank settlement may be difficult and expensive for cases of
significant settlement, and the difficulty increases with the pipe
diameter.

API Storage Tanks
Supports
Supports are attached to certain types of tanks, such as

spheres and spheroids, to support the weight of the tank and its
contents. The support connections along with their reinforcing
pads or plates must be designed to support the weight of the
tank and its contents without overstressing the tank. Flat (or
conical) bottom tanks are continuously supported on a
foundation.
Potential Problems - Support connections are a source of

stress concentration and bending stress. The supports must
adjust to the expansion and contraction of the tank. The
supports must be able to tolerate shifting loads that result from
uneven settlement.
Methods of Minimizing - Supports must not be attached in

areas of a tank that are already under higher stress. The
reinforcing pads or plates must be sufficiently strong. The
possible expansion and contraction of the tank during operation
must be considered in the support design. Properly designed
and constructed foundations can minimize tilting that results
from foundation settlement.
Limitations - Designing and constructing supports that properly

connect to a tank and that tolerate tank expansion and
contraction can be expensive. Better foundations are more
expensive to construct and may not be cost effective.

API Storage Tanks
USES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS FOR STORAGE TANKS
General
The foundation supports the tank and prevents it from settling

or sinking into the ground. The foundation under a tank should:
• Provide a stable surface for supporting the tank

• Limit total settlement to amounts that can be
tolerated by the connecting pipes
• Limit differential settlement around the tank
circumference and across the bottom to
amounts that can be tolerated by the tank shell
and bottom
• Provide adequate drainage
An improperly designed or constructed foundation can cause a
tank to:
• Distort
• Leak
• Rupture
• Break its connecting pipes
• Have surface-water drainage problems
• Corrode on the bottom
Appendix B of API 650 gives recommendations and SAES-D-
100 presents the following requirements for the design and
construction of tank foundations:
• The grade or surface on which the tank bottom

rests should be at least 0.30 m (1 ft.) above the
surrounding ground surface. This grading
provides drainage, keeps the bottom of the
tank dry, and compensates for minor
settlement. The elevation specified for the tank
bottom surface should also consider the
amount of total settlement that is expected.
• Unless the foundation is concrete, the top 75 -

100 mm (3 or 4 in.) of the finished grade
should consist of sand, gravel, or small
crushed stone [not more than 25 mm (1 in.) in
diameter]. The finished grade may be oiled (or

API Storage Tanks
stabilized in some other manner) preserve the

contour during construction and to protect the
tank bottom from moisture that will cause it to
corrode.
• To facilitate drainage, the finished tank grade is

usually sloped upward or downward from the
outer periphery to its center depending on
whether an upward cone or downward cone is
specified for the tank bottom. SAES-D-100
requires that the underside of the tank's bottom
be coned downward in services where a water
drawoff is required unless otherwise stated on
the tank data sheet. When high settlement is
expected at the tank center the tank bottom
frequently is coned upward. The radial slope,
upward or downward is, 1 in 120.
Pressurized tanks are anchored to their foundations. In the

case of a flat-bottomed tank with internal pressure, anchoring
helps prevent the pressure from rounding the tank’s bottom and
lifting the tank off its foundation when the liquid level is low.
Rounding creates stresses within the bottom of the shell and the
outer edge of the bottom that could cause the tank to fail.
Atmospheric storage tanks are not normally anchored, unless

anchoring is needed for wind or earthquake loading.
Soil
Before the foundation and tank are constructed, the design

engineer must estimate how much settlement will occur during
the operating life of the tank. In some cases, it may be
necessary to prepare the soil to better support the loads that will
be placed on the soil. Common soil-preparation techniques are
as follows:
• Preloading
• Compaction
• Excavation and backfill

API Storage Tanks
Preloading
Preloading the soil is the preferred method of preparation. The

soil is preloaded by placing material on top of the ground that
will be supporting the foundation and tank. The amount of
material piled on top usually equals or exceeds the weight of the
tank and foundation when the tank is filled. The material must
be left in place long enough to allow the soil to compact under
the weight. This time period depends on the type of soil and the
rate at which it consolidates. The preload time could be six
months or more.
Compaction
When there is insufficient time to preload the soil and the

existing soil is to be maintained, the soil may be stiffened by
compaction. The soil is compacted by beating or pounding the
surface with equipment specially designed for this purpose.
Excavation and Backfill
When the existing soil does not provide the appropriate

characteristics for the foundation, it may be removed and
replaced by a more satisfactory soil or engineered fill. The
existing soil must be removed to a depth sufficient to ensure
proper support of the foundation and filled tank. The new soil or
engineered fill must then be properly compacted during
placement and before the foundation and tank are constructed.
Types of Foundations
The following sections discuss these types of foundations:
• Compacted earth with oiled sand pad
• Ringwalls
- Crushed stone ringwall
- Concrete ringwall
• Concrete pad
• Piled foundation

API Storage Tanks
Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad
The compacted earth with oiled sand pad foundation is the

simplest and least expensive type of foundation. This type of
foundation is used for small flat-bottomed tanks constructed on
stable soil. Figure 19 shows the construction of the compacted
earth and oiled sand pad foundation.
Tank
Stable soil Stable soil

Oiled sand layer
Compacted earth
Figure 19. Compacted Earth with Oiled Sand Pad
Ringwalls
A ringwall foundation consists of a ring of support material

enclosing an area of compacted fill.
Ringwalls are used for the following:
• Larger tanks
• Tanks with high shells
• Tanks with skirts
• Tanks built on soil that is likely to erode
Ringwalls help prevent shell distortion in floating roof tanks.
When compared to an oiled sand pad, ringwalls provide the
following advantages:
• Better distribution of the shell load

• A level, solid starting plane for construction of
the shell
• Better means of leveling the tank grade

API Storage Tanks
• Preservation of the tank grade contour during

construction
• Retention of the fill under the tank bottom and
prevention of material loss due to erosion
• Minimal moisture under the tank
The disadvantages of ringwalls are as follows:
• A different material is used in the ringwall and

the compacted fill. As a result, the compacted
fill can settle, creating stresses on the bottom
of the tank at the boundary between the
ringwall and the compacted fill.
• Ringwalls are more expensive to construct than

compacted earth and oiled sand pads.
Crushed Stone Ringwall - Construction of the crushed stone

ringwall is illustrated in Figure 20.
Tank
Crushed
stone Crushed
stone
Stable soil Stable soil
Compacted fill
Figure 20. Crushed Stone Ringwall

API Storage Tanks
Concrete Ringwall - Construction of the concrete ringwall is

illustrated in Figure 21.
When a tank needs to be anchored, the concrete ringwall

provides a more convenient anchoring than the crushed stone
ringwall.
When compared to the crushed stone ringwall, the concrete

ringwall is more likely to have differential settlement between
the ringwall and the fill inside the ringwall. Also, the concrete
ringwall is more expensive to construct than the crushed stone
ringwall.
Tank
Grade Compacted fill
Reinforced
concrete
Figure 21. Concrete Ringwall
Concrete Pad
The concrete pad is used with tall, small-diameter tanks. The

concrete pad is a solid, reinforced-concrete slab placed directly
on the soil. The concrete pad provides a means of anchoring
the tank. Figure 22 illustrates a concrete pad.

API Storage Tanks
Tank
Soil Concrete slab
Figure 22. Concrete Pad
Piled Foundation
A piled foundation for a tank consists of a concrete slab or pile

cap on which the tank rests and piles (columns) embedded into
the soil below the slab.
The pile material may be either reinforced concrete, steel, or

timber. The size, length, and number of piles depends on soil
conditions and on the size and weight of the tank. A
geotechnical specialist usually determines the pile requirements
based on the results of a soil investigation program.
A piled foundation is used where the following conditions exist:
• Unstable soil
• Tank weight may cause soil to push out from under the tank
• Too much settlement may result from excessive compression of

soil under the tank
The advantages of a piled foundation are as follows:
• It may be used with any size of tank
• It provides convenient anchoring for the tank
Disadvantages are as follows:

API Storage Tanks
• It is the most difficult foundation to correct if

problems occur
• It is the most expensive foundation to construct
A piled foundation gets its supporting capacity from the piles

driven into the ground. The two sources of the vertical load
supporting capacity for a pile are (1) the friction along the length
(sides) of the pile and (2) the bearing capacity at the bottom end
of the pile. Figure 23 illustrates a piled foundation.
;;;;;
Tank
Concrete Slab
Soil
Finished
Grade
Piles
Figure 23. Piled Foundation with Concrete Slab

API Storage Tanks
Saudi Aramco Requirements
The following Saudi Aramco standards apply to foundations:
• 32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks
• 32-SAMSS-006, Large, Low Pressure Storage

Tanks
• SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity
• SAES-M-100, Saudi Aramco Building Code
• SAES-Q-005, Concrete Foundations
32-SAMSS-005, Atmospheric Steel Tanks
32-SAMSS-005 provides the requirements for testing and

inspecting welded steel tanks that store oil, water, and
chemicals at approximately atmospheric pressure. The
standard applies to newly constructed tanks during initial test
and inspection.
32-SAMSS-005 requires the following of newly constructed

tanks:
• The tank foundation must be inspected prior to tank

erection for compliance with all design
requirements.
• Tank bottoms inspected must be as required in API
Standard 650.
• Tank welds must be inspected in accordance with
the requirements in API Standard 650.
• Hydrostatic test water must meet the requirements
of par. 5.3.6.
- Cone roof tanks must be filled to 50 mm (2 in.) above
the top angle.
- Any settlement of cone roof tanks that exceeds one
percent of the tank diameter shall be referred to CSD
for analysis.
- Floating roof tanks must be filled to within 450 mm (18
in.) of the top angle.
- Any floating roof tank shall be considered for jacking
when excessive ovalization has occurred. Ovalization

API Storage Tanks
is generally excessive if the difference between the

maximum and minimum diameters at the top reaches
300 mm (12 in.). Any such tank where uneven
settlement reaches 2.8 mm per meter (1 in. per 30 ft.)
of circumference is to be checked for shell-to-floating
roof clearance.
• The following additions or modifications to the
testing apply to tanks with a capacity over 800 cm3
(5,000 barrels):
- Elevation measurements must be taken during the
initial hydrostatic test:
+ For this purpose, reference points equally spaced around the
circumference shall be established. The reference points
shall be nuts or other similar items welded to the tank’s shell
100 mm (4 in.) above the bottom edge. One of the reference
points must be placed at the catch basin.
+ The reference points must be placed at approximately equal
distances around the circumference of the tank. The
number of reference points for various tank diameters is
given in Figure 24.
Tank Diameter No. of Reference Points
15 m (50 ft.) and less 4
Over 15 m (50 ft.) and less than 45 m (150 ft.) 8
45 m (150 ft.) and over 16
Figure 24. Required Number of Reference Points
+ The observed elevations must be referenced to a permanent

benchmark. The instrument making the measurements must
be set up at a distance from the tank of at least 1-1/2 times
the tank diameter.
+ Six sets of settlement readings must be taken. (See Figure

25.)

API Storage Tanks
Reading When To Be Taken

1 Before the start of the hydrostatic test
2 With the tank 1/4 full ± 0.60 m (2 ft.)
5 With the water level at or above the maximum working
filling height (32-SAMSS-005, par. 5.5.6 gives additional
time conditions for this step for special tanks)
6 After the tank has been emptied of test water
Figure 25. Required Settlement Readings
+ Any differential settlement greater than 1.5 mm per meter

(1/2 in. per 30 ft.) of tank circumference or uniform
settlement greater than 50 mm (2 in.) must be reported to
the Chief Engineer.
+ A record of elevation observations shall be filed in the Plant

Inspection Record Book by the Buyer's Inspector.
- The tank must be continually inspected as it is filled to

note any leaks or other signs of weakness in the tank, its
roof, and its foundation.
32-SAMSS-006, Large, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
This standard contains similar requirements for the design,

inspection, testing and monitoring of foundations as API 650
and 32-SAMSS-005.
SAES-D-108, Storage Tank Integrity
SAES-D-108 covers additions and exceptions to the

requirements of API 653 governing the structural integrity of
welded-steel storage tanks constructed to API 650 or to API
12C. This SAES applies to existing tanks during Test and
Inspections (T&Is) and not to tanks during initial construction.
SAES-D-108 requires the following of existing tanks:
• They be inspected using the standards

established in the API Standard 653, Tank
Inspection, Repair, Alteration and
Reconstruction.

API Storage Tanks
• They be inspected and tested after any repair

or modification that might affect the strength or
safety of the tank.
• They have periodic inspections as required by

the Equipment Inspection Schedule.
SAES-M-100, Saudi Aramco Building Code
All construction must meet the requirements of

the Saudi Arabian Uniform Building Code as
modified by SAES-M-100.
SAES-Q-005, Concrete Foundations
SAES-Q-005 specifies that the foundations for atmospheric

storage tanks be constructed in accordance with the instructions
in API Standard 650. In addition, the standard provides
requirements for soil analysis, foundations, concrete ringwalls,
and anchor bolts.
SAES-Q-005 requires that the soil analysis include the following

soil-related characteristics:
• Stratigraphy of subsurface materials

• Maximum allowable soil-bearing pressure
• Recommended depth of the bottom of the
foundation
• Unit soil weight
• Internal friction angles
• Soil-shearing capacity
• Groundwater location, chemistry, and
fluctuation
• For pile-type foundations, data that establishes
the minimum pile group spacing based on the
type of pile and load-carrying capacity

API Storage Tanks
SAES-Q-005 requires the following of foundations:
• They be founded on undisturbed soil at least

600 mm (2 ft.) below the existing or finished
grade surface.
• If subject to water pressure, they be designed

to resist a uniformly distributed uplift equal to
the full hydrostatic pressure.
• The top of the concrete be at least 150 mm (6

in.) above the finished grade.
• They have the safety factors as shown in

Figure 26.
SITUATION/CONDITION SAFETY FACTOR

Overturning during construction or erection 1.5
Sliding 1.5
For compression piles, ultimate capacity 2.0
For tension piles, ultimate capacity 3.0
All other conditions 2.0
Figure 26. Safety Factors for Foundations

API Storage Tanks
SAES-Q-005 requires that concrete ringwalls meet the

requirements of foundations and that they meet the following
requirements:
• They have a minimum width of 300 mm (12 in.)
• They have an average unit soil loading under the ringwall equal
to the soil pressure under the confined earth at the same depth.
• They be designed to resist horizontal active earth pressure.
• They have a concrete compression strength of at least 27,600

kPa (4,000 psi) after 28 days.
SAES-Q-005 requires the following when anchor bolts are used:
• The distance from the anchor bolts or anchor-

bolt sleeves to the outer edge of the concrete
be at least 75 mm (3 in.)
• The anchor bolts that are subject to uplift or

vibration be equipped with a nut that locks the
anchor bolt.

API Storage Tanks
EFFECTS OF TYPES OF SETTLEMENT ON STORAGE TANKS
Background
The excessive settling of a tank can cause serious tank

operating problems and lead to tank failure. Therefore, a key
step in tank design is estimating the amount of settlement the
tank’s shell will undergo in its lifetime. The desired maximum
lifetime settlement is usually less than 0.3 m (1 ft.). When
settlement exceeds 0.3 m (1 ft.), there may be serious problems
with the storage tanks, shell, annular plate or bottom.
Types of Settlement
The settling of a tank is classified by the type of shell settlement

and the type of bottom settlement.
When a tank shell settles, the settlement can be classified as

uniform, planar tilt, or deviation from planar tilt. When a tank
bottom settles, the settlement can be classified as center-to-
edge or local shell and bottom.
The following sections discuss these types of settlement:
• Uniform
• Planar tilt
• Deviation from planar tilt
• Center-to-edge
• Local shell or bottom
Uniform
When the tank shell remains level as the tank settles, uniform
settlement has occurred. Uniform settlement does not cause
significant stresses or distortions in the tank. This type of
settlement requires correction only when the foundation or
piping connections develop problems. Figure 27 illustrates
uniform settlement.

API Storage Tanks
Shell settles but remains level
Potential
Drainage problem for overstress
of piping
nozzle
Figure 27. Uniform Settlement
Uniform settlement can cause the following:
• Overstressing of the connecting piping and

associated tank nozzle.
• Blockage of surface water drainage from the

tank pad, which could cause corrosion of the
tank shell or bottom
Planar Tilt
When the tank’s shell tilts as the tank settles and the bottom of
the shell remains in a single plane, planar tilt settlement has
occurred. The bottom plane does not distort; it only tilts. Figure
28 illustrates planar tilt.

API Storage Tanks
Shell settles and tilts
Figure 28. Planar Tilt Settlement
As the shell tilts, stresses are introduced that change the shape
of the shell. As a result of these stresses, the top of the tank
becomes elliptical.
Planar tilt settlement can cause the following:
• Malfunction of floating roof seals
• Binding of a floating roof
• Problems with connecting pipes
• Problems with surface water drainage from the

tank pad
• Buckling in flanges or webs of wind girders

API Storage Tanks
Deviation from Planar Tilt
When the shell does not remain in a plane as it settles,

deviation from planar tilt or differential settlement has occurred.
Figure 29 illustrates deviation from planar tilt.
Shell may
buckle
Differential settlement around shell
Figure 29. Deviation From Planar Tilt Settlement
Deviation from planar tilt settlement can cause the following:
• Malfunction of floating roof seals
• Binding of a floating roof
• Problems with connecting pipes
• Problems with surface water drainage from the

tank pad
• Buckling in flanges or webs of wind girders
• Shell buckling
• Overstress of the shell or bottom plates

API Storage Tanks
Center-to-Edge
When the support under the bottom of the tank settles more
than the support under the shell of the tank, center-to-edge
settlement has occurred. Figure 30 illustrates center-to-edge
settlement.
Figure 30. Center-To-Edge Settlement
Excessive center-to-edge settlement is most likely to cause the

following:
• In tanks under 45 m (150 ft.) in diameter,

buckling of the bottom shell course
• In tanks over 45 m (150 ft.) in diameter, failure

in the bottom plates
• Inaccuracies in tank gauging

API Storage Tanks
Local Shell or Bottom
When the shell and bottom do not settle together or if local

areas of the bottom settle differently from the rest of the bottom,
local shell or bottom settlement has occurred. Figure 31
illustrates local shell or bottom settlement.
Local bottom
settlement
Shell settles more

than tank bottom
Figure 31. Local Shell or Bottom Settlement
In local shell or bottom settlement, significant stress may

develop in the bottom plates, their attachment welds, the
bottom-to-shell junction weld, or the lower section of the shell.
This stress can cause the bottom of the tank to fail.

API Storage Tanks
Evaluation of Tank Settlement
API 653, Appendix B presents criteria for determining if the

settlement around the tank shell or the tank bottom is excessive.
If the settlement is excessive, then repairs to the tank and/or
foundation may be required. Since repairs to a tank foundation,
although possible, are very expensive and time consuming, the
criteria in API 653 are often used as an initial screening criterion
to determine whether a more sophisticated analysis using
computer modeling of the tank settlement problem is required.
If the tank settlement is too large, various types of repairs to the

foundations can be made. If the ringwall has suffered local
differential settlement, a portion of a ringwall that has settled too
much may be replaced. Releveling of the entire ringwall by
using an epoxy grout is sometimes done to correct for excessive
tilt. Replacing/recompacting and/or releveling the entire tank
pad is sometimes done if tank bottom settlement is excessive.
In most cases, these repairs are made when the tank is out-of-
service at a scheduled Test & Inspection interval. In some
cases, the foundation repairs are made along with repairs that
are required for the tank bottom, the annular plate or to the shell
and that are caused by excessive corrosion, distortion, or
cracking of the steel.
Since repairs to the tanks foundation may be carried out along

with repairs to the tank steel components, the work must be
properly coordinated. If the job is to be done in an economical
fashion, the civil and mechanical engineers assigned to the job
must work together during the assessment of settlement, the
evaluation of various repair alternatives and during the ultimate
repair.

API Storage Tanks
CALCULATING TANK SETTLEMENT
Settling of tanks must be measured and analyzed during the life

of the tanks. Work Aid 2 provides a procedure for determining
the amount and kind of settlement.
Sample Problem 7: Calculate Tank Settlement
Calculate the amount and kinds of tank settlement.
Given:
A tank is 35 m in diameter. The initial readings and current

readings in Figure 32 have been taken on this tank.
Answer:
The instructor will lead the Participants through the solution of

this problem during class.

API Storage Tanks
READING ORIGINAL CURRENT

NUMBER ELEVATION (cm) ELEVATION (cm)
1 205.65 151.27
2 205.65 149.97
3 205.65 151.23
4 205.65 153.74
5 205.65 152.48
6 205.66 153.76
7 205.66 162.44
8 205.66 165.03
9 205.66 163.77
10 205.66 157.62
11 205.65 157.48
12 205.65 153.72
Figure 32. Current and Initial Tank Elevation Readings

API Storage Tanks
SUMMARY
This module has provided an overview of API storage tanks.

The Participant should be able to select an appropriate type of
storage tank and identify the specifications that govern the
storage tank’s design and maintenance. In addition, the
Participant should understand the restrictions in adding or
modifying appurtenances to a storage tank, the physical
structure of a foundation used to support a storage tank, and the
possible effects of settlement on a storage tank. Also, the
Participant should be able to calculate some of the common
loadings on a storage tank.

API Storage Tanks
WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES AND DATABASES FOR CALCULATING CIVIL/

MECHANICAL LOADS FOR ATMOSPHERIC STORAGE TANKS
Work Aid 1A: Procedure for Calculating Weight Loads
1. Calculate the hydrostatic test water weight using the

following formula:
π 2
WH = d H Lγ w (Eqn. 7)
4
where:
WH = Hydrostatic test water weight, N (lb.)
HL = Design maximum height of liquid in the tank, m
(ft.)
γw = Weight density of water 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4
lb./ft.3)
2. If not already known, calculate the weight of the tank
bottom using the following formula:
π
Wb = d2tbγst (Eqn. 8)
4
where:
Wb = Weight of the tank bottom, N (lb.)
tb = Thickness of the tank bottom, in meters (ft.)
γst = Weight density of steel, 77 kN/m3 (490 lb./ft.3)
3. If not already known, calculate the weight of the tank shell
using the following formula:
Ws = πdtavgh γst (Eqn. 9)
where:
Ws = Weight of a tank shell, N (lb.)
tavg = Average thickness of the tank shell, in
meters (feet)
h = Height of the tank, m (ft.)
γst = Weight density of steel, 77 kN/m3 (490
lb./ft.3)
4. If not already known, estimate the weight of the tank
roof(s) using the appropriate formula(s) from the following:

API Storage Tanks
For a flat roof:

π 2
Wr = d tr γst x D.F. (Eqn. 10a)
4
where:
Wr = Weight of the roof, N (lb.)
tr = Thickness of the roof, in meters (in feet)
D.F. = Design factor to account for the additional weight of the roof
support structure. If not specified assume this design factor
is equal to 1.20.
For a cone roof:

1/2
π  d2 
W r = dtr γ st  + h2r × D.F. (Eqn. 10b)
2  4 
where:
Wr = Weight of the cone roof, N (lb.)

tr = Thickness of the roof, in meters (in feet)
hr = Height of the peak of the roof above the tank shell, m (ft.)
D.F. = Design factor to account for the additional weight of the roof
support structure. If not specified assume this design factor is
equal to 1.20.
5. If not already known, estimate the weight of the appurtenances.
Wa = (Ws + Wb + Wr) x D.F. (Eqn. 11)

Wr = Weight of the tank roof(s), N (lb.)
Wa = Weight of the appurtenances, N (lb.)
D.F. = Design factor to account for the additional weight of
appurtenances. If not specified assume this design factor is
equal to 0.02.

API Storage Tanks
6. Using the following formula, calculate the tank dead weight empty.
WD = Ws + Wb + Wr + Wa + Wi (Eqn. 12)
where:
WD = Tank dead weight empty, N (lb.)
Wr = Weight of the tank roof(s), N (lb.)
Wa = Weight of the appurtenances, N (lb.)
Wi = Weight of insulation, if any, N (lb.)
7. Using the following formula, calculate the total hydrostatic test weight.
WT = WH + WD (Eqn. 13)
where:
WT = Total hydrostatic test weight
WH = Hydrostatic test water weight
WD = Tank dead weight empty
Work Aid 1B: Procedure for Calculating Total Pressure
1. Using the following formula, calculate the hydrostatic pressure.
PH = γ h x C.F. (Eqn. 14)
where:
PH = Hydrostatic pressure, kPa (psi)
γ = Specific weight of the liquid, kN/m3 (lb./ft.3). For water, the specific
weight is 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb./ft.3). For other liquids multiply the
specific weight of water by the specific gravity, G, of the liquid.
h = Height of the liquid above the point being considered, m (ft.)
C.F. = Conversion factor equal to 1 kPa/1 kN/m2 (1 psi/144 lb./ft.2)

API Storage Tanks
2. Using the following formula, calculate the total pressure.
P T = PH + PV (Eqn. 15)
where:
PT = Total pressure, kPa (psi)
PH = Hydrostatic pressure, kPa (psi)
PV = Vapor pressure, if not specified, assume 0 kPa (psi)
3. Using the following formula, calculate the equivalent liquid height.
Heq = (PT x C.F.)/γ (Eqn. 16)
where:
PT = Total pressure, kPa (psi)
γ = Specific weight of the liquid as defined above, kN/m3 (lb/ft3)
C.F. = Conversion factor equal to 1 kN/m2/1 kPa (144 lb/ft2/psi)

API Storage Tanks
Work Aid 1C: Procedure for Calculating Roof Live Load
Calculate the roof live load based on the specified or minimum roof live loading and the
horizontal projected area of the roof using the following formula:
π 2
LRLL = d RL (Eqn. 17)
4
where:
LRLL = Roof live load, lb.
d = Diameter of the roof, ft.
RL = Roof live loading, 1.2 kN/m2 (25 lb./ft.2)
Work Aid 1D: Procedure and Database for Calculating Wind Loads
1. Using the following formula, calculate the wind base-shear force.
F w = (∑ Kh (hh − hl ))× DGC f qr (Eqn. 3)
where:
Fw = Wind base-shear force, N (lb.)
Kh = Height correction factor evaluated at the center of the height

range from Figure 39
hh = Highest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m
(ft.)
hl = Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m
(ft.)
D = Effective diameter of the tank, m (ft.). If the tank is externally

insulated, use the outside diameter of the insulation jacketing.
G = Gust response factor for maximum height of the tank

(dimensionless) from Figure 39.
Cf = Wind-drag coefficient, (dimensionless), 0.5 for smooth tanks with

H/D < 1.
qr = Wind pressure at the reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2)

for Saudi Aramco locations.

API Storage Tanks
Height above grade in Kh G

meters (ft.) (evaluated at (Evaluated at top
midpoint of range) of range)
0-5 (0-16) .8 1.32
5-10 (16-32) .92 1.26
10-15 (32-48) 1.06 1.23
15-20 (48-64) 1.17 1.20
20-25 (64-80) 1.25 1.18
SI Note: Kh and G is the same for both SI and US customary units
Figure 39. Height-Correction and Gust Response Factors
2. Using the following formula, calculate the wind base-overturning moment.
  h + hl  
Mw =  ∑ Kh (hh − hl ) h × DGCfqr (Eqn. 4)
  2 
where:
Mw = Wind base-overturning moment, N-m (ft.-lb.)
Kh = Height correction factor evaluated at the center of the height

range (dimensionless), from Figure 39
hh = Highest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m
(ft.)
hl = Lowest point on the tank shell or roof within the height range, m
(ft.)
D = Effective diameter of the tank, m (ft.). If the tank is externally

insulated, use the outside diameter of the insulation jacketing.
G = Gust response factor for maximum height of the tank

(dimensionless) from Figure 39.
Cf = Wind-drag coefficient, (dimensionless) 0.5 for smooth tanks with

H/D < 1.
qr = Wind pressure at reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2) for

Saudi Aramco locations.

API Storage Tanks
3. Using the following formula, calculate the wind roof-lift load.
Lw = π/4 d2 Kh GCpqr (Eqn. 5)
where:
Lw = Wind roof-lift load, N (lb.)
Kh = Height correction factor evaluated at the mid-point of the roof
(dimensionless) from Figure 39
GxCp = Combined gust and pressure lift coefficient (dimensionless)
equal to 1.2 for shallow roofs with less than 10° angle.
qr = Wind pressure at the reference elevation, 888 Pa (18.5 lb./ft.2)
for Saudi Aramco locations.
Work Aid 1E: Procedure and Databases for Calculating Earthquake Base-
Overturning Moment
1. Calculate the value of d/HL (d = diameter of the tank, HL = the design maximum
height of the liquid contents) and determine the value for factor k from Figure 40.
1.0
0.8
k
0.6
0.5
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
d/H L
Source: Based on ANSI/API Standard 650, Ninth Edition, Washington, D.C., American Petroleum Institute, July
1993, Fig. E-4.
Figure 40. Factor k

API Storage Tanks
2. Determine the values for the weight coefficients Kw1 and Kw2 from Figure 41.
1.0
Kw 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Kw 2
0.2
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
d/H L
1993, Fig. E-2.
Figure 41. Weight Coefficients

API Storage Tanks
3. Determine the value for the site amplification factor S from Figure 42.
Soil Profile Type Site

Soil Soil Characteristics Amplification
Profile Factor
Code S
S1 Either: 1.0
Rock of any characteristic, whether shale-like or
crystalline in nature, characterized by a shear-wave
velocity greater than 2,500 ft/s
or
Stiff soil less than 200 ft. deep in which the soil that
overlies rock consists of stable deposits of sands,
gravels, or stiff clays
S2 Deep cohesionless or stiff clay, including soil that is 1.2
more than 200 ft. deep in which the soil that overlies
rock consists of stable deposits of sands, gravels, or
stiff clays
S3 Soft to medium-stiff clays and sands characterized by 1.5
30 ft. or more of soft to medium-stiff clay with or
without intervening layers of sand or other
cohesionless soils
S4 A soil profile containing more than 40 ft. of soft clay 2.0
Unknown When the soil profile is not known in sufficient detail 1.5
to determine the soil profile type, assume soil profile
S3
1993, Table E-3.
SI Note: The site amplification factor is dimensionless. To convert feet to meters multiply 1 m/ 3.28 ft.
Figure 42. Site Amplification Factor

API Storage Tanks
4. Determine the value for the height coefficients K1 and K2 from Figure 43.
1.0
0.8
K2
0.6
K1
0.4
0.2
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0
d/H L
1993, Fig. E-3.
Figure 43. Height Coefficients

API Storage Tanks
5. Using the following formula, calculate the earthquake base-overturning moment.

 S 
ME = ZI (0.60WsHscg + 0.60WrHt + 0.60Kw1WcK1HL + K3  2  KW2WcK2HL) (Eqn. 6)
k d
where:
ME = Earthquake base-overturning moment, N-m (ft.-lb.)
Z = Seismic zone coefficient, dimensionless. For zone 0, Z = 0. For zone 1, Z
= 0.075. For zone 2, Z= 0.150.
I = Essential facilities factor, dimensionless. I = 1 for all petrochemical tanks,
unless otherwise specified by CSD.
Hscg = Height from the base of the tank shell to the shell’s center of gravity, m (ft.)
Wr = Weight of the tank roof(s) (fixed and/or floating), N (lb.)
Ht = Total height of the tank shell, m (ft.)
KW1 = Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the
maximum design liquid height, HL, from Figure 41
Wc = Weight of the tank liquid contents equal to the hydrostatic test water weight,
WH, multiplied by the specific gravity of the tank contents, N (lb.)
K1 = Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the diameter of the tank, d, to the
HL = Maximum design liquid level, m (ft.)
S = Site amplification factor from Figure 42
k = Factor, based on the ratio of the diameter of the tank, d, to the design
maximum liquid height, HL, from Figure 40
KW2 = Weight coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the
K2 = Height coefficient, based on the ratio of the tank diameter, d, to the
K3 = Coefficient which is a function of the first sloshing mode of the tank and
equal to 1.0275 in SI units and 3.375 in US units.
SI Note: All constants and coefficients are suitable for use in either SI or US units
except for K3.

API Storage Tanks
Work Aid 1F: Procedure for Calculating Live Loads for Appurtenances
Platforms, ladders and their attachments to the tank should be designed to support their
own weight plus a live load equal to the greater of 4450 N (1,000 lb.) or 2.4 kPa (50
lb./ft.2) on the floor and tread areas, A, unless otherwise specified.
when A < 1.85 m2 (20 ft.2):

LLL = 4450 N (1,000 lb.) (Eqn. 18)
when A > 1.85 m2 (20 ft.2):

LLL = A x 2.4 kPa in SI units (Eqn. 19)
or LLL = A x 50 lb./ft.2 in US units
where:
LLL = Live load on appurtenances, N (lb.)
A = Total floor and tread area, m2 (ft.2)

API Storage Tanks
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING TANK SETTLEMENT
1. Obtain the data on the original elevation readings of the tank shell.
2. Subtract the actual settlement readings from the corresponding original elevation
readings.
3. The minimum difference between an original elevation reading and the

corresponding actual settlement reading is the amount of uniform settlement.
4. Subtract the uniform settlement from the maximum difference between the original
elevation reading and the corresponding actual settlement reading. The result is
the amount of planar tilt settlement.
5. Plot the actual settlement readings around the circumferences of the tank starting
with the highest point at 0°. Figure 44 provides a graph that can be used for
plotting the data.
Elevation
Angle
Figure 44. Graph For Plotting Data

API Storage Tanks
6. Plot a cosine curve that most closely matches the actual settlement readings.
Figure 45 shows an example of a plot of data.
Actual settlement readings
High point 0°
Planar tilt
Elevation
Deviation from
planar tilt
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 290 300 330 360

Angle (0)
Figure 45. Example of a Plot
7. The vertical difference between the best-fit cosine curve and the plot of actual
settlement readings is the deviation from planar tilt and represents the differential
circumferential settlement.

API Storage Tanks
GLOSSARY
ANSI American National Standards Institute

API American Petroleum Institute
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
crown A rise in soil elevation toward the center of an area.
CSA Canadian Standards Association
design metal For tankage, the design metal temperature is usually set at 8°C
temperature (15°F) above the lowest one-day mean. The design metal
temperature is not the maximum temperature but the minimum
temperature for tankage. It is used to select material with
adequate toughness to prevent brittle fracture.
frangible joint Weak welded joint at the top of a tank that fails if the tank is
overpressured.
ISO International Organization for Standardization
km/h Kilometers per hour
ksi 1,000 pounds per square inch
maximum For tankage, is the maximum temperature at which the contents
operating of the tank is stored. If above 93°C (200°F) then additional
temperature considerations are required in the design.
mph Miles per hour
periphery The outer edge of an area
psi Pounds per square inch
slosh The movement of a liquid that is not synchronous with the
movement of the container storing the liquid.
Specific Gravity The ratio of the weight density of a liquid to the weight density of
water (dimensionless).
small tank Tank with a diameter of 15.25 m (50 ft.) or less.

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