The Security Market Line, seen here in a graph, describes a relation between the

beta and the asset's expected rate of return.

The formula

The CAPM is a model for pricing an individual security or a portfolio. For

individual securities, we make use of the security market line (SML) and its
relation to expected return and systematic risk (beta) to show how the market
must price individual securities in relation to their security risk class. The SML
enables us to calculate the reward-to-risk ratio for any security in relation to that
of the overall market. Therefore, when the expected rate of return for any
security is deflated by its beta coefficient, the reward-to-risk ratio for any
individual security in the market is equal to the market reward-to-risk ratio, thus:

The market reward-to-risk ratio is effectively the market risk premium and by
rearranging the above equation and solving for E(Ri), we obtain the Capital Asset
Pricing Model (CAPM).

where:

 is the expected return on the capital asset

 is the risk-free rate of interest such as interest arising from

government bonds

 (the beta) is the sensitivity of the expected excess asset returns to the

expected excess market returns, or also ,

 is the expected return of the market

  is sometimes known as the market premium or risk
premium (the difference between the expected market rate of return and
the risk-free rate of return).

Restated, in terms of risk premium, we find that:

which states that the individual risk premium equals the market
premium times β.

Note 1: the expected market rate of return is usually estimated by measuring

the Geometric Average of the historical returns on a market portfolio (e.g. S&P
500).

Note 2: the risk free rate of return used for determining the risk premium is
usually the arithmetic average of historical risk free rates of return and not the
current risk free rate of return.

For the full derivation see Modern portfolio theory.

[edit]Security market line

The SML essentially graphs the results from the capital asset pricing model
(CAPM) formula. The x-axis represents the risk (beta), and the y-axis represents
the expected return. The market risk premium is determined from the slope of
the SML.

The relationship between β and required return is plotted on the securities

market line (SML) which shows expected return as a function of β. The intercept
is the nominal risk-free rate available for the market, while the slope is the
market premium, E(Rm)− Rf. The securities market line can be regarded as
representing a single-factor model of the asset price, where Beta is exposure to
changes in value of the Market. The equation of the SML is thus:

It is a useful tool in determining if an asset being considered for a portfolio offers

a reasonable expected return for risk. Individual securities are plotted on the
SML graph. If the security's expected return versus risk is plotted above the SML,
it is undervalued since the investor can expect a greater return for the inherent
risk. And a security plotted below the SML is overvalued since the investor would
be accepting less return for the amount of risk assumed.

[edit]Asset pricing

Once the expected/required rate of return, E(Ri), is calculated using CAPM, we

can compare this required rate of return to the asset's estimated rate of return
over a specific investment horizon to determine whether it would be an
appropriate investment. To make this comparison, you need an independent
estimate of the return outlook for the security based on eitherfundamental or
technical analysis techniques, including P/E, M/B etc.

Assuming that the CAPM is correct, an asset is correctly priced when its
estimated price is the same as the present value of future cash flows of the
asset, discounted at the rate suggested by CAPM. If the observed price is higher
than the CAPM valuation, then the asset is overvalued (and undervalued when
the estimated price is below the CAPM valuation).[citation needed] When the asset does
not lie on the SML, this could also suggest mis-pricing. Since the expected return

of the asset at time t is , a higher expected return than

what CAPM suggests indicates that Pt is too low (the asset is currently
undervalued), assuming that at time t + 1 the asset returns to the CAPM
suggested price.[2]

[edit]Asset-specific required return

The CAPM returns the asset-appropriate required return or discount rate—i.e. the
rate at which future cash flows produced by the asset should be discounted
given that asset's relative riskiness. Betas exceeding one signify more than
average "riskiness"; betas below one indicate lower than average. Thus, a more
risky stock will have a higher beta and will be discounted at a higher rate; less
sensitive stocks will have lower betas and be discounted at a lower rate. Given
the accepted concave utility function, the CAPM is consistent with intuition—
investors (should) require a higher return for holding a more risky asset.

Since beta reflects asset-specific sensitivity to non-diversifiable, i.e. market risk,

the market as a whole, by definition, has a beta of one. Stock market indices are
frequently used as local proxies for the market—and in that case (by definition)
have a beta of one. An investor in a large, diversified portfolio (such as a mutual
fund), therefore, expects performance in line with the market.

[edit]Risk and diversification

The risk of a portfolio comprises systematic risk, also known as undiversifiable

risk, and unsystematic risk which is also known as idiosyncratic risk or
diversifiable risk. Systematic risk refers to the risk common to all securities—
i.e. market risk. Unsystematic risk is the risk associated with individual assets.
Unsystematic risk can be diversified away to smaller levels by including a greater
number of assets in the portfolio (specific risks "average out"). The same is not
possible for systematic risk within one market. Depending on the market, a
portfolio of approximately 30-40 securities in developed markets such as UK or
US will render the portfolio sufficiently diversified such that risk exposure is
limited to systematic risk only. In developing markets a larger number is
required, due to the higher asset volatilities.

A rational investor should not take on any diversifiable risk, as only non-
diversifiable risks are rewarded within the scope of this model. Therefore, the
required return on an asset, that is, the return that compensates for risk taken,
must be linked to its riskiness in a portfolio context - i.e. its contribution to
overall portfolio riskiness - as opposed to its "stand alone riskiness." In the CAPM
context, portfolio risk is represented by higher variance i.e. less predictability. In
other words the beta of the portfolio is the defining factor in rewarding the
systematic exposure taken by an investor.

[edit]The efficient frontier

Main article: Modern portfolio theory#The efficient frontier with no risk-free asset

The (Markowitz) efficient frontier. CAL stands for the capital allocation line.

The CAPM assumes that the risk-return profile of a portfolio can be optimized—
an optimal portfolio displays the lowest possible level of risk for its level of
return. Additionally, since each additional asset introduced into a portfolio
further diversifies the portfolio, the optimal portfolio must comprise every asset,
(assuming no trading costs) with each asset value-weighted to achieve the
above (assuming that any asset is infinitely divisible). All such optimal portfolios,
i.e., one for each level of return, comprise the efficient frontier.

Because the unsystematic risk is diversifiable, the total risk of a portfolio can be
viewed as beta.

[edit]The market portfolio

An investor might choose to invest a proportion of his or her wealth in a portfolio

of risky assets with the remainder in cash—earning interest at the risk free rate
(or indeed may borrow money to fund his or her purchase of risky assets in
which case there is a negative cash weighting). Here, the ratio of risky assets to
risk free asset does not determine overall return—this relationship is clearly
linear. It is thus possible to achieve a particular return in one of two ways:

1. By investing all of one's wealth in a risky portfolio,

2. or by investing a proportion in a risky portfolio and the remainder in cash

(either borrowed or invested).
For a given level of return, however, only one of these portfolios will be optimal
(in the sense of lowest risk). Since the risk free asset is, by
definition, uncorrelated with any other asset, option 2 will generally have the
lower variance and hence be the more efficient of the two.

This relationship also holds for portfolios along the efficient frontier: a higher
return portfolio plus cash is more efficient than a lower return portfolio alone for
that lower level of return. For a given risk free rate, there is only one optimal
portfolio which can be combined with cash to achieve the lowest level of risk for
any possible return. This is the market portfolio.

[edit]Assumptions of CAPM

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All investors:

1. Aim to maximize economic utilities.

2. Are rational and risk-averse.

3. Are broadly diversified across a range of investments.

4. Are price takers, i.e., they cannot influence prices.

5. Can lend and borrow unlimited amounts under the risk free rate of
interest.

6. Trade without transaction or taxation costs.

7. Deal with securities that are all highly divisible into small parcels.

8. Assume all information is available at the same time to all investors.

[edit]Shortcomings of CAPM

 The model assumes that either asset returns are (jointly) normally
distributed random variables or that investors employ a quadratic form of
utility. It is however frequently observed that returns in equity and other
markets are not normally distributed. As a result, large swings (3 to 6
standard deviations from the mean) occur in the market more frequently
than the normal distribution assumption would expect.[3]

 The model assumes that the variance of returns is an adequate

measurement of risk. This might be justified under the assumption of
normally distributed returns, but for general return distributions other risk
measures (like coherent risk measures) will likely reflect the investors'
 preferences more adequately. Indeed risk in financial investments is not
variance in itself, rather it is the probability of losing: it is asymmetric in
nature.

 The model assumes that all investors have access to the same information
and agree about the risk and expected return of all assets (homogeneous
expectations assumption).[citation needed]

 The model assumes that the probability beliefs of investors match the true
distribution of returns. A different possibility is that investors' expectations
are biased, causing market prices to be informationally inefficient. This
possibility is studied in the field of behavioral finance, which uses
psychological assumptions to provide alternatives to the CAPM such as the
overconfidence-based asset pricing model of Kent Daniel, David
Hirshleifer, and Avanidhar Subrahmanyam (2001)[4].

 The model does not appear to adequately explain the variation in stock
returns. Empirical studies show that low beta stocks may offer higher
returns than the model would predict. Some data to this effect was
presented as early as a 1969 conference in Buffalo, New York in a paper
by Fischer Black, Michael Jensen, and Myron Scholes. Either that fact is
itself rational (which saves the efficient-market hypothesis but makes
CAPM wrong), or it is irrational (which saves CAPM, but makes the EMH
wrong – indeed, this possibility makesvolatility arbitrage a strategy for
reliably beating the market).[citation needed]

 The model assumes that given a certain expected return investors will
prefer lower risk (lower variance) to higher risk and conversely given a
certain level of risk will prefer higher returns to lower ones. It does not
allow for investors who will accept lower returns for higher risk. Casino
gamblers clearly pay for risk, and it is possible that some stock traders will
pay for risk as well.[citation needed]

 The model assumes that there are no taxes or transaction costs, although
this assumption may be relaxed with more complicated versions of the
model.[citation needed]

 The market portfolio consists of all assets in all markets, where each asset
is weighted by its market capitalization. This assumes no preference
between markets and assets for individual investors, and that investors
choose assets solely as a function of their risk-return profile. It also
assumes that all assets are infinitely divisible as to the amount which may
be held or transacted.[citation needed]

 The market portfolio should in theory include all types of assets that are
held by anyone as an investment (including works of art, real estate,
human capital...) In practice, such a market portfolio is unobservable and
people usually substitute a stock index as a proxy for the true market
portfolio. Unfortunately, it has been shown that this substitution is not
 innocuous and can lead to false inferences as to the validity of the CAPM,
and it has been said that due to the inobservability of the true market
portfolio, the CAPM might not be empirically testable. This was presented
in greater depth in a paper by Richard Roll in 1977, and is generally
referred to as Roll's critique.[5]

 The model assumes just two dates, so that there is no opportunity to

consume and rebalance portfolios repeatedly over time. The basic insights
of the model are extended and generalized in the intertemporal CAPM
(ICAPM) of Robert Merton, and the consumption CAPM (CCAPM) of Douglas
Breeden and Mark Rubinstein.[citation needed]

 CAPM assumes that all investors will consider all of their assets and
optimize one portfolio. This is in sharp contradiction with portfolios that
are held by individual investors: humans tend to have fragmented
portfolios or, rather, multiple portfolios: for each goal one portfolio —
see behavioral portfolio theory [6] and Maslowian Portfolio Theory [7].

[edit]