Manufacturing Process-II

Wind Turbines

Huzaifa Yousaf 5/4/21 BSME 18-22

Table of Contents
1. Background: .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Components of Wind Turbine:.............................................................................................................. 4
2.1. Foundation .................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Anemometer: ................................................................................................................................ 4
2.3. Blades: ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2.4. Hub ................................................................................................................................................ 5
2.5. Brake: ............................................................................................................................................ 5
2.5.1. Aerodynamic braking: ........................................................................................................... 5
2.5.2. Mechanical braking: .............................................................................................................. 5
a) Brake Pad .............................................................................................................................................. 7
2.6. Controller: ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.7. Gear box: ....................................................................................................................................... 8
2.8. Generator: ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.8.1. Alternator .............................................................................................................................. 8
2.8.2. The Stator .............................................................................................................................. 8
2.8.3. Rotor ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.8.4. Diode ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.8.5. Voltage Regulator ................................................................................................................. 9
2.8.6. Main Assembly / Frame ........................................................................................................ 9
2.9. High-speed shaft: ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.10. Low-speed shaft: ..................................................................................................................... 10
2.11. Nacelle: ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.12. Pitch: ....................................................................................................................................... 10
2.13. Rotor: ...................................................................................................................................... 10
2.14. Tower: ..................................................................................................................................... 10
2.15. Wind vane: .............................................................................................................................. 11
2.16. Yaw drive:................................................................................................................................ 11
2.16.1. Gearbox ............................................................................................................................... 11
2.17. Yaw motor: .............................................................................................................................. 12
2.17.1. Enclosure ............................................................................................................................. 12
2.17.2. Rotor ................................................................................................................................... 12
2.17.3. Stator................................................................................................................................... 12
2.17.4. Bearing ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.17.5. Windings ............................................................................................................................. 12
 2.17.6. Commutator ........................................................................................................................ 13
2.17.7. Shaft .................................................................................................................................... 13
2.17.8. Fan ....................................................................................................................................... 13
2.17.9. Fan Cover ............................................................................................................................ 13
2.18. Fasteners: ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.18.1. Bolts: ................................................................................................................................... 13
2.18.2. Nuts: .................................................................................................................................... 14
2.18.3. Washers: ............................................................................................................................. 14
3. Manufacturing Process ....................................................................................................................... 14
4. Quality Control .................................................................................................................................... 14
5. Environmental Benefits and Drawbacks ............................................................................................. 15
6. Future .................................................................................................................................................. 15
7. References: ......................................................................................................................................... 15
1. Background:
A wind turbine is a machine that transforms kinetic energy from the wind into rotary mechanical
energy, which can then be used to generate electricity. A generator is used in more advanced
models to transform rotational energy into electricity, the most powerful source of energy.
1st century AD: For the first time in known history, a wind-driven wheel is used to power a
machine. A Greek engineer, Heron of Alexandria, creates this windwheel.
By 7th to 9th century: Windwheels are used for practical purposes in the Sistan region of Iran,
near Afghanistan. The Panemone windmills are used to grind corn, grind flour, and pump water.
By 1000 AD: Windmills are used for pumping seawater to make salt in China and Sicily.
1180s: Vertical windmills are used in Northwestern Europe for grinding flour.
The 19th Century: In 1887, the first known wind turbine used to produce electricity is built in
Scotland. The wind turbine is created by Prof James Blyth of Anderson’s College, Glasgow (now
known as Strathclyde University). In 1888, The first known US wind turbine created for electricity
production is built by inventor Charles Brush to provide electricity for his mansion in Ohio. In
1891, a Danish scientist, Poul la Cour, develops an electricity-generating wind turbine and later
figures out how to supply a steady stream of power from the wind turbine by use of a regulator, a
Kratostate and in 1895 he converted his windmill into a prototype electrical power plant. It is then
used to provide electricity for lighting for the village of Askov.
1900-1940: By 1900, approximately 2,500 windmills with a combined peak power capacity of 30
megawatts are being used across Denmark for mechanical purposes, such as grinding grains and
pumping water. In 1904, the Society of Wind Electricians holds its first course on wind electricity.
By 1908, 72 electricity-generating wind power systems are running across Denmark. The
windmills range from 5 kW to 25 kW in size. In 1931, a vertical-axis wind turbine design called
the Darrieus wind turbine is patented by Georges Jean Marie Darrieus, a French aeronautical
engineer. This type of wind turbine is still used today, but for more niche applications like on
boats, not nearly as widely as horizontal-axis wind turbines.
During World War II: Small wind turbines are used on German U-boats to recharge submarine
batteries and save fuel.
1950-2000: 1975: A NASA wind turbine program to develop utility-scale wind turbines starts.
“This research and development program pioneered many of the multi-megawatt turbine
technologies in use today, including: steel tube towers, variable-speed generators, composite blade
materials, partial-span pitch control, as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering
design capabilities. The large wind turbines developed under this effort set several world records
for diameter and power output.” In 1980, the world’s first wind farm including 20 wind turbines
is put online and Denmark starts siting offshore wind turbines. In 1987, a 3.2-megawatt wind
turbine is developed by the NASA wind turbine program. It has “the first large-scale variable speed
drive train and a sectioned, two-blade rotor,” which allows for easier transport. In 1995, Suzlon
Energy is founded in India to manufacture, install, and operate wind turbines. In 1996, Global
wind power capacity reaches 6,100 megawatts which then increases to 10,200 megawatts in 1998.
In 1999, Vestas launches a wind turbine with “OptiSpeed,” which makes it suitable for low-wind
sites. In 2000, Global wind power capacity reaches 17,400 megawatts.
The 21st Century: In 2002, Global wind power capacity reaches 31,100 megawatts. In 2003, The
UK’s first offshore wind farm opens in north Wales. It includes 30 wind turbines, each with a
power capacity of 2 megawatts. The Global wind power capacity reaches 59,091 megawatts in
2005 which then increases to 93,820 megawatts by 2007 which then reaches to 120,291 megawatts
by 2008. In 2010, China passes US to become the country with the most cumulative installed wind
power capacity in the world.

2. Components of Wind Turbine:

Following are the main components of wind turbine.

2.1. Foundation
The foundation is under the ground for the onshore turbines; it cannot be seen because it is covered
by soil. It is a large and heavy structured block of concrete that must hold the whole turbine and
the forces that affect it.
For offshore turbines, the base is under the water and cannot be seen. In offshore turbines that are
well into the sea the base is floating, but it is of sufficient mass to support the turbine weight and
all the forces exerted on it and to hold it upright.
A typical slab foundation for a 1 MW turbine would be approximately 15 m diameter and 1.5 - 3.5
m deep. Turbines in the 1 to 2 MW range typically use 130 to 240 m3 of concrete for the
foundation. Multi-pile foundations are used in weaker ground conditions and require less concrete.

2.2. Anemometer:
An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure.
The most common type of anemometer has three or four cups attached to horizontal arms. The
arms are attached to a vertical rod. As the wind blows, the cups rotate, making the rod spin. The
stronger the wind blows, the faster the rod spins. The anemometer counts the number of rotations,
or turns, which is used to calculate wind speed. Because wind speeds are not consistent—there
are gusts and lulls—wind speed is usually averaged over a short period of time.
The most common manufacturing method for anemometer is metal casting or injection molding
depending upon the material.

2.3. Blades:
Lifts and rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin. Most turbines have
either two or three blades. The rotor blades of a wind turbine operate under the same principle as
aircraft wings. One side of the blade is curved while the other is flat. The wind flows more quickly
along the curved edge, creating a difference in pressure on either side of the blade. The blades are
“pushed” by the air in order to equalize the pressure difference, causing the blades to turn.
The most widely used technology to produce the wind blades, especially longer blades, is the resin
infusion technology. In the resin infusion technology, fibers are placed in closed and sealed mold,
and resin is injected into the mold cavity under pressure. After the resin fills all the volume between
fibers, the component is cured with heat.
By far the greatest number of blades, however, are formed from fiberglass. The manufacture of
fiberglass is a painstaking operation. First, a mold that is in two halves like a clam shell, yet shaped
like a blade, is prepared. Next, a fiberglass-resin composite mixture is applied to the inner surfaces
of the mold, which is then closed. The fiberglass mixture must then dry for several hours; while it
does, an air-filled bladder within the mold helps the blade keep its shape. After the fiberglass is
dry, the mold is then opened, and the bladder is removed. Final preparation of the blade involves
cleaning, sanding, sealing the two halves, and painting.

2.4. Hub
The function of the hub is to hold the blades and make it possible for them to rotate with respect
to the rest of the turbine body. The rotor hub is the component that usually holds the blades and
connects them to the main shaft of the wind machine.
A process for manufacturing hub comprises an iron tube being swaged in wave form that can be
cut to form a plurality of axle tubes; a plurality of bearing receiving bowls and a plurality of bowl
holders. Each axle tube has a hub flange by stamping. Each hub flange has at its face plate a
plurality of spoke holes and therein a bowl receiving recess.

2.5. Brake:
Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically or hydraulically, in emergencies. Two types of brakes
are used in wind turbine.

2.5.1. Aerodynamic braking:

It consists in turning the rotor blades 90 º to not offer resistance to the wind. The shovels are
flagged. The wind turbine will brake in a couple of turns in a smooth and effortless way or wear
parts to brake.

2.5.2. Mechanical braking:

It is a support brake for the aerodynamics and as a parking brake for maintenance tasks. Must be
operational at all times and monitored remotely. Usually consist of a disc or drum brakes.
2.5.2.1. DRUM BRAKE:
A drum brake comprises the following components:
a) Brake drum
The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat conductive and wear-
resistant. It rotates with the wheel and axle. This braking friction generates substantial heat. The
scrap and pig-iron in the required proportion are melted in the electric induction furnace. When
the molten metal attains the pouring temperature, the hot metal is transferred from furnace to the
ladle and then poured in the mold already prepared and kept ready. After cooling, the castings are
knocked out, fettled, inspected and dispatched to the customer. The main activity involved is to
cast the metal of suitable grade and machining to specifications.
b) Brake shoes
Stamping: There are two parts of a brake shoe, bare brake shoe, and brake line. The bare brake
shoe is made of steel. Therefore, the steel first needs to be stamped and from there different shapes
of bare brake shoes are formed according to different items.
Welding: The bare brake shoe also consists of two parts. The welding process is to form them
together.
Hot-pressing: The brake lining needs to be put under high temperature for a few hours in order to
have a stable performance under extreme real-life conditions
Bonding: In this process, the brake lines and the bare brake shoes are put together in normal
temperature and also a few hours under high temperature to strengthen the performance.
c) Wheel cylinder
It comprises a housing made from made from grey cast iron or – in the case of newer models –
aluminum, which is more lightweight. Other components of a wheel cylinder are:
i. Pistons:
Pistons are usually manufactured by casting and forging.
ii. Sleeves
Casting is used to manufacture sleeves on industrial scale.
iii. Gaskets
Punching is the most traditional method in the gasket manufacturing process and involves a bent
steel strip that can be moulded into a desired shape called a Rule Forme
iv. Bleeder valve.
Casting is used to make bleeder valve.
The above parts can also be manufactured by CNC Machining as described below:
Blanks Rough Machining: Automated CNC machines grind mill and turn the raw parts.
Blanks Finish Machining: Delicate machining will take place in manual grinding and milling
machines.
Assembly: All finished parts are then assembled.
d) Anchor plate
Square, round, or rectangular anchor plates are often affixed to the embedded end of galvanized
anchor rods to provide pull-out resistance. Steel templates are also used to properly space the
anchor bolts during installation. Plates are sheared and punched or burned using a variety of
equipment and processes. These plates and templates may or may not be galvanized as part of the
anchor bolt assembly.
e) Adjuster
Casting is used to manufacture adjuster industrial scale.
 f) Return springs
Manufacturing process consists of winding the wire around a shaft called an arbor or mandrel.
This may be done on a dedicated spring-winding machine, a lathe, an electric hand drill with the
mandrel secured in the chuck, or a winding machine operated by hand cranking. A guiding
mechanism, such as the lead screw on a lathe, must be used to align the wire into the desired pitch
(distance between successive coils) as it wraps around the mandrel.
Alternatively, the wire may be coiled without a mandrel. This is generally done with a central
navigation computer (CNC) machine.
Hot winding. Thicker wire or bar stock can be coiled into springs if the metal is heated to make it
flexible. Standard industrial coiling machines can handle steel bar up to 3 in (75 mm) in diameter,
and custom springs have reportedly been made from bars as much as 6 in (150 mm) thick. The
steel is coiled around a mandrel while red hot. Then it is immediately removed from the coiling
machine and plunged into oil to cool it quickly and harden it. At this stage, the steel is too brittle
to function as a spring, and it must subsequently be tempered.
2.5.2.2. Disc Brake Components:
a) Brake Pad
The production process for brake pads is based on some basic phases: mixing, molding, and curing.
The manner and technology through which these phases are executed lead to products with
different quality levels and production rates. Blending has been underestimated till now. However,
knowledge of the electrostatic charging of powders in dry mixing will contribute to improve this
important phase to achieve a better mixing and uniformity of blends. Positive and single molds are
the way to achieve best quality and reduce the production phase, as well as infrared tunnel ovens,
which allow the production rate to increase faster than convective ovens.
b) Brake Rotor
The manufacturing method used in production of brake rotor is the metal casting process and to
be more specific, it is the permanent mold casting process that takes place in the production of
these brake discs that usually gives out a good surface finish for the end product.
c) Brake Calipers
Modern CNC machining is used to manufacture brake calipers on industrial scale.

2.6. Controller:
Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the
machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because
they may be damaged by the high winds.
Manufacturing process controls include all systems and software that exert control over production
processes. Control systems include process sensors, data processing equipment, actuators,
networks to connect equipment, and algorithms to relate process variables to product attributes.
First, they assemble the copper circuit board, then they place the acrylic buttons, then place the
rubber tipped analogue sticks. Finally, they injection mold the casing and place it together.
 2.7. Gear box:
Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational speeds from about
30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-1,800 rpm; this is the rotational speed required
by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind
turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds
and don't need gear boxes. The majority of gearboxes at the 1.5 MW rated power range of wind
turbines use a one- or two-stage planetary gearing system, sometimes referred to as an epicyclic
gearing system. The gearbox is an intricate assembly made up of various gears, axles, rotors, and
wheels. The parts are die cast and assembled by hand. The are placed in an weather resistant
housing that is designed to accommodate the gearbox parts and the attached wheel and tail
assembly.
A simple planetary gear set is made up of three main components: the Sun gear, multiple planet
gears and the outer ring gear.
Hobbing is the most common method that is utilized in the cutting process due to its versatility
and efficiency. A hobbing machine is used in order to create the gear teeth in a quick and accurate
manner. The hobbing process often leaves burrs on the teeth. Most spur gears and helical gears are
manufactured with the help of cutting. Yet, there are many other methods like casting, rolling and
forging. In the case of plastic spur gears, in addition to tooth cutting such as with metal gears,
injection molding is used depending on the quantity of production. Milling is also used to make
the gears.

2.8. Generator:
Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction generator. The wind
turbine generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Wind turbine generators are a
bit unusual, compared to other generating units you ordinarily find attached to the electrical grid.
One reason is that the generator has to work with a power source (the wind turbine rotor) which
supplies very fluctuating mechanical power (torque). The main components of an electric
generator can be broadly classified as follows:

2.8.1. Alternator
The alternator has three main components and a voltage regulator:

2.8.2. The Stator

A method of manufacturing a motor stator assembly is disclosed including the steps of stacking
and aligning prepared laminations, inserting slot insulators to loosely confine the laminations,
inserting windings and slot wedges to further confine the laminations along with the slot insulators,
forming, connecting, insulating and lacing the windings and particularly the end turns, placing the
wound laminations over an aligning arbor, bolting the wound laminations to an assembly ring,
checking the face squareness and bolt torque, heating the compressed laminations at a temperature
of 320° plus or minus 10° Fahrenheit for 1 1/2 hours, placing an enclosure or tube over the winding
output leads, conducting compressed air through the tube, dipping or immersing the wound
laminations into an adhesive bonding material to permit bonding liquid to completely penetrate
between the laminations, removing the enclosure or tube along with excessive bonding material,
curing the bonding material to permanently bond the laminations, and removing the bonded,
wound laminations from the assembly ring.

2.8.3. Rotor
2.8.3.1. Rotor Bars and Shorting Rings
Rotor bars must be made to precision specifications that include mechanical, dimensional, and
chemical properties. The same is also true of the shorting rings, which are more complicated to
manufacture because of their shape. The initial shape of the shorting ring is usually obtained by
casting (including vertical, horizontal, and cylindrical casting) or by shape forging.
Here is a quick overview of the sequence of steps involved in the manufacture of a rotor:
• Casting of bars and ring
• Stamping or laser cutting of laminations
• Stacking, staking, and skewing of laminations.
• Bonding
• Brazing
• Final assembly
2.8.3.2. Shafts
Most rotor shafts are machined from a high-quality steel alloy, but for best performance, AISI
4140 or 4340 steel is used and typically heat-treated. The heat treatment is used to achieve a certain
depth of hardness and overall shaft strength as well as to refine the shaft so that it has proper
crystalline microstructures.

2.8.4. Diode
Among viable fabrication techniques for electronics, printing approaches have received significant
attention from both academia and industry due to their ability to bypass the mainstream rigid and
expensive silicon‐based electronics to directly deposit preconnected device structures on flexible
substrates in an efficient, scalable, and cost‐effective manner.1, 8, 9, 27 There are two primary
challenges within the process of printing, i.e., the solution‐processing of electronics materials into
inks for selected printing fabrication methods1, 2, 27 and the fabrication of multilayer structures
with high resolution, good alignment, and favorable compatibility between layers

2.8.5. Voltage Regulator

A simple voltage/current regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or series of
diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode changes
only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input.

2.8.6. Main Assembly / Frame

Cutting, Folding and welding are the main manufacturing processes of frames.
 2.9. High-speed shaft:
Drives the generator.
The most common process used to manufacture shafts is via CNC turning. Using this technique,
workers or automated processes affix or clamp bars of materials to chucks and rotate them. While
rotating, specialized tools use cutting and other subtractive processes to create and shape the end
product.

2.10. Low-speed shaft:

Turns the low-speed shaft at about 30-60 rpm.
The shaft manufacturing process is described above.

2.11. Nacelle:
Sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller,
and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.
The fiberglass nacelle, like the tower, is manufactured off site in a factory. Unlike the tower,
however, it is also put together in the factory. Its inner workings—main drive shaft, gearbox, and
blade pitch and yaw controls—are assembled and then mounted onto a base frame. The nacelle is
then bolted around the equipment. At the site, the nacelle is lifted onto the completed tower and
bolted into place.

2.12. Pitch:
Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep the rotor from
turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.

2.13. Rotor:
Blades and hub together form the rotor.

2.14. Tower:
Made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the structure of the
turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more
energy and generate more electricity.
The tower parts are made from galvanized steel. This process begins with a roll of coiled sheet
metal. The coils are put on a de-spooling device and fed to the production line. They are run under
a straightener to remove any kinks or twists. The pieces are cut to the appropriate size and shape.
In some cases, pieces may be put on a machine that rolls them and welds the seam. The ends are
passed under a crimping machine and the pieces are moved to the finishing station.
2 At the finishing station, holes are drilled in the metal parts at specific places as required by the
windmill design. The parts may also be painted or coated before being arranged in the final
windmill kit.
 2.15. Wind vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with
respect to the wind.

2.16. Yaw drive:

Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction changes. Downwind
turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind manually blows the rotor away from it.

2.16.1. Gearbox
The gearbox of the yaw drive is a very crucial component since it is required to handle very large
moments while requiring the minimal amount of maintenance and perform reliably for the whole
life-span of the wind turbine (approx. 20 years). Most of the yaw drive gearboxes have input to
output ratios in the range of 2000:1 in order to produce the enormous turning moments required
for the rotation of the wind turbine nacelle.
2.16.1.1. Gear Rim and Pinions:
The gear-rim and the pinions of the yaw drives are the components that finally transmit the turning
moment from the yaw drives to the tower in order to turn the nacelle of the wind turbine around
the tower axis (z axis). The main characteristics of the gear-rim are its big diameter (often larger
than 2 m) and the orientation of its teeth.
2.16.1.2. Yaw Bearing:
One of the main components of the yaw system is the yaw bearing. It can be of the roller or gliding
type and it serves as a rotatable connection between the tower and the nacelle of the wind turbine.
The yaw bearing should be able to handle very high loads, which apart from the weight of the
nacelle and rotor (the weight of which is in the range of several tenths of tons) include also the
bending moments caused by the rotor during the extraction of the kinetic energy of the wind.
Both races are made in almost the same way. Since they are both rings of steel, the process starts
with steel tubing of an appropriate size. Automatic machines similar to lathes use cutting tools to
cut the basic shape of the race, leaving all of the dimensions slightly too large.
The rough cut races are put into a heat treating furnace at about 1,550 degrees Fahrenheit (843
degrees Celsius) for up to several hours (depending on the size of the parts), then dipped into an
oil bath to cool them and make them very hard. This hardening also makes them brittle, so the next
step is to temper them. This is done by heating them in a second oven to about 300 degrees
Fahrenheit (148.8 degrees Celsius), and then letting them cool in air. This whole heat treatment
process makes parts which are both hard and tough.
After the heat treatment process, the races are ready for finishing. However, the races are now too
hard to cut with cutting tools, so the rest of the work must be done with grinding wheels.
The balls are a little more difficult to make, even though their shape is very simple. Surprisingly,
the balls start out as thick wire. This wire is fed from a roll into a machine that cuts off a short
piece, and then smashes both ends in toward the middle. This process is called cold heating.
The first machining process removes this flash. The ball bearings are put between the faces of two
cast iron disks, where they ride in grooves. The inside of the grooves are rough, which tears the
flash off of the balls. One wheel rotates, while the other one stays still.
The heat treatment process for the balls is similar to that used for the races, since the kind of steel
is the same, and it is best to have all the parts wear at about the same rate
After this, the balls are moved to a lapping machine, which has cast iron wheels and uses the same
abrasive lapping compound as is used on the races.
Steel cages are stamped out of fairly thin sheet metal, much like a cookie cutter, and then bent to
their final shape in a die. A die is made up of two pieces of steel that fit together, with a hole the
shape of the finished part carved inside. When the cage is put in between and the die is closed, the
cage is bent to the shape of the hole inside. The die is then opened, and the finished part is taken
out, ready to be assembled.

2.17. Yaw motor:

Powers the yaw drive.
Following are the components of yaw motor:

2.17.1. Enclosure
CNC machining is a versatile, subtractive manufacturing process that uses digital CAD files to
direct tools in shaping a part from a block of raw material called a “workpiece” or “blank.” The
process is highly repeatable — meaning the same design file enables engineers to produce identical
copies of a part simultaneously on multiple machines — and can be used to create both plastic and
metal enclosures.
The injection molding process involves repeatedly and rapidly filling durable metal molds with
molten plastics, thereby enabling the large-volume production of identical parts. Manufacturers
often use this method to create simple enclosures from rigid or non-rigid plastics, such as those
used in game controllers, electronic keys, kiosk displays, and many other products.

2.17.2. Rotor
The manufacturing process of rotor is already described above.

2.17.3. Stator
The manufacturing process of stator is already discussed in early section.

2.17.4. Bearing
The manufacturing process of bearing is described earlier in report.

2.17.5. Windings
Both High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings are done using Coil Winding Machines.
The Copper or Aluminum strips/wires used in winding are meticulously selected for its quality to
give the best output. The Copper or Aluminum strips/wires are paper covered and acts as
insulators. This helps to increase short-circuit strength, thermal strength and higher efficiency.

2.17.6. Commutator
Copper lengths (normally multiple of segment length) received in trapezoidal form are cut to
Segment Length (Segment length is Brush Length + Riser Width) with machining allowance.
Segment is punched into 'L' shaped & 'V' grooves (with machining allowance for plain & profile
turning). Slots are milled on riser width for large Commutators with higher depths. Separator Mica
is punched as per Copper segment with additional length for Mica Projection on Riser side.
Commutator is assembled with alternate Copper & separator mica and checked for number of
segments / skews etc. Copper and mica segment assembly is then held in split ring with taper at
both the ends with pressure plates and compressed under predetermine pressure are tighten with
pre-loaded torque wrench. This ensures radial movement of Copper and Separator Mica. 'V' Rings
are profiled machined as per profile gauge in the assembled Commutator (normally 3 & 30 degree).
Commutator is assembled with Mica 'V' Cones and Steel 'V' Rings / Spider and is Seasoned using
successive cycles of heating / rotating and tightening.

2.17.7. Shaft
The manufacturing process of shaft is described earlier in report.

2.17.8. Fan
Industrial fan blades are usually made of cast or fabricated aluminum, fabricated steel, or stainless
steel, or exotic metals such as nickel alloys.
The fan blade is made by shaping molten metal in a hot press. When removed, each blade skin is
welded to a mate, and the hollow cavity in the center is filled with a metal honeycomb.

2.17.9. Fan Cover

The manufacturing process of metal wire fan guards involves cutting, bending, welding, and
surface treatment. Metal fan guards are fabricated in a variety of ways including CNC wire coil
forming and automated wire mesh welding.

2.18. Fasteners:
2.18.1. Bolts:
A summary of the production process:
Wire - Uncoiled, straightened and cut to length.
Cold forging - Molding the steel into the right shape at room temperature.
Bolt head - Progressively formed by forcing the steel into various dies at high pressure.
Threading - Threads are formed by rolling or cutting.
Heat treatment - The bolt is exposed to extreme heat to harden steel.
Surface treatment - It depends on the application. Zinc-plating is common to increase corrosion
resistance.

2.18.2. Nuts:
Nuts are usually produced with the cold or hot forming procedure as well. Summary is explained
below:
Steel wire rod
Straightening
Machine Cutting
Drilling
Threading

2.18.3. Washers:
The primary method used to manufacture metallic washers is stamping and, in addition, processing
may include many types of heat treating and surface coating. The standard metallic washers made
with steel, copper or aluminum as well as rubber washers for fittings has a much extended use.

3. Manufacturing Process
Manufacturers must first assess a suitable location for the siting of wind farms before they can
consider the construction of individual wind turbines. Winds must be reliable, with a pace of at
least 15.5 miles per hour on a daily basis (25 kilometres per hour). If the winds are stronger during
some seasons, it is preferable for them to be strongest during times when the most energy is
consumed. Wind speed peaks in the summer when demand is strong in California's Altamont Pass,
which is home to the world's largest wind farm. Winds are strongest in the winter in some areas of
New England where wind turbines are being considered, as the need for heating increases the use
of electrical power. Wind farms thrive in clear, gently rolling terrain surrounded by mountains.
Wind farms must also be placed near utility lines to facilitate the transfer of the electricity to the
local power plant. The utility box for each wind turbine and the electrical communication system
for the wind farm is installed simultaneously with the placement of the nacelle and blades. Cables
run from the nacelle to the utility box and from the utility box to the remote control center.

4. Quality Control
Unlike other manufacturing processes, wind turbine production has no regard for quality control.
Since wind turbine mass production is still relatively new, no standards have been developed. Both
the government and manufacturers are now putting forth efforts in this field.
While wind turbines on duty are expected to work 90% of the time, several structural flaws,
especially with the blades, are still noticed. Cracks may occur soon after a product is manufactured.
Alignment and assembly failures are typical causes of mechanical failure. Power surges sometimes
cause electrical sensors to malfunction. Non-hydraulic brakes are more effective, while hydraulic
braking systems are more prone to failure. Plans are being built to address these issues using
current technologies.

5. Environmental Benefits and Drawbacks

No pollution is generated by a wind turbine that generates electricity from inexhaustible winds.
Coal, oil, and natural gas, on the other hand, emit one to two pounds of carbon dioxide (a
greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming) per kilowatt-hour emitted. When wind energy
is used to meet electricity needs, the need for fossil fuels is reduced. Wind turbines currently
produce enough electricity to power four million barrels of oil or one million tons of coal per year
(3.7 billion kilowatt-hours).
Wind turbines are not without environmental disadvantages. Many people think they're
unattractive, particularly when they're built near pristine wilderness areas. There have been reports
of bird deaths, and the whirring blades make a lot of noise. Selecting places that do not coincide
with wilderness areas or bird migration routes, as well as researching ways to minimize noise, are
among the efforts being made to mitigate these impacts.

6. Future
Wind resource research is currently being conducted. This entails a growing number of areas being
evaluated for the possibility of locating wind farms in areas where the wind is consistent and heavy.
Plans are in place to extend the machine's life from five to 20 to 30 years, enhance the reliability
of the blades, provide better controls, create longer-lasting drive trains, and improve surge safety
and grounding. Wind turbines will become more prevalent in upcoming years.

7. References:
[1]. Assessment of Research Needs for Wind Turbine Rotor Materials Technology. National
Academy Press, 1991.
[2]. Eggleston, David M. Wind Turbine Engineering Design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987.
[3]. Hunt, Daniel V. Windpower: A Handbook on Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1981.
[4]. Kovarik, Tom, Charles Pupher, and John Hurst. Wind Energy. Domus Books, 1979.
[5]. Park, Jack. The Wind Power Book. Cheshire Books, 1981.
[6]. Putnam, Palmer Cosslett. Power from the Wind. Van Nostrand Company, 1948.
[7]. Frank, Deborah. "Blowing in the Wind," Popular Mechanics, August, 1991, pp. 40-43+.
[8]. Mohs, Mayo. "Blowin' in the Wind," Discover. June, 1986, pp. 68-74.
[9]. Moretti, Peter M. and Louis V. Divone. "Modern Windmills," Scientific American. June,
1986, pp. 110-118.