Course Code: Educational Research (Code 0837)

Level: M.A (T. Education)

Semester: Autumn, 2020 Assignment 1.

Q.1 How Scientific method is different from other sources of

knowledge? Explain by giving examples?

There is only one accepted source of new knowledge and that is empiricism. The others,
which include, authority, rational induction, and intuition are accepted as useful sources
of hypotheses.
Intuition-knowledge based on feelings, beliefs, or "gut instinct" Authority-knowledge
based on a "credible" source national-Inductive Argument-knowledge based on past
research as well as combining that knowledge with new knowledge to comply with our
current problem. Empiricism-knowledge based on library research, forming a
hypothesis, setting up an experiment to test the hypothesis, collecting data, and then
analyzing that data to statistically conclude the research hypothesis. The only accepted
source of knowledge in modern scientific psychological research is empiricism.
The sources of new knowledge are authority, intuition, scientific empiricism, and an
educated guess. Authority, intuition, and an educated guess are all sources of
hypotheses, but scientific empiricism is the only source of new knowledge.

Different sources of knowledge are things like what you feel is right (I think that toads
give you warts), what someone you think is right says is right (mom said that toads
will give you warts), things you've seen (my brother was playing with a toad and then
he got a wart), things you've tested (I had my brother play with the toad and my
neighbor played with a lizard, and only my brother got warts). All of these are sources
of hypotheses, a way to come up with ideas to test, but only the empirical research,
testing, is an acceptable scientific source of knowledge.

There are generally four sources of knowledge; intuition, authority, rational induction,
and empiricism. Intuition is the knowledge that is gained through a feeling or thought
that might turn out to be true. Authority is a source of knowledge that you gain from
your parents or a book that tells you that this is the way. Rational induction is a source
of knowledge by reasoning and proof. This type of knowledge comes about by supposing
one thing and then giving proof of it, or any other way you want to do proof. Empiricism
is knowledge gained through careful observation, manipulation of variables through the
scientific method, repeating research designs, and taking in data to interpret.
Empiricism is the accepted role of knowledge in psychological research because
psychologists use statistics and believe in probabilistic conclusions. That people behave
generally in one way in most situations and using statistics to decide if two variables
are related. The others are not acceptable sources of psychological. Authority, intuitions
are not acceptable sources of knowledge for psychological research because they are
not grounded in any source of statistics or observable facts. Rational induction is not
an accepted source of knowledge because it involves proof and certainty, which
psychologists do not go for.

Descriptive knowledge is useful in discriminating, measuring, or defining different

behaviors or characteristics. Predictive knowledge is useful in determining a statistical
relationship between two behaviors or characteristics and whether they are related.
Understanding is useful in determining whether changes in one behavior or
characteristic influence changes in another behavior or characteristic. Descriptive
knowledge is used in attributive hypotheses and is accepted as a source of knowledge
in defining behavior or characteristics. Predictive knowledge is used in attributive
hypotheses and is useful in determining if there is a relationship between two behaviors
or characteristics. Understanding is used in causal hypotheses and is useful in
determining if there is probabilistic evidence that one behavior or characteristic affects
another behavior or characteristic.

Empirical Research is a scientifically conducted study when yields result that are
causally interpretable. While rational induction is more logical thinking based on
observation. Observation is the process of objectively viewing a situation and making
inferences based therein. Empirical Research is the only way to attain fact in modern
scientific psychological research. However, rational induction, observation, and research
are all valid ways to obtain a hypothesis.

The sources of new knowledge are rational induction, scientific empiricism, intuition,
and authority. The only acceptable source of knowledge is scientific empiricism.
Scientific empiricism requires a research hypothesis to be formed and tested, that the
study is published in an article to be scrutinized by other scientists. It also requires that
the experiment is replicated exactly as it was the first time to ensure the applicability
of the findings to that particular set of variables and subjects. Moreover, Scientific
empiricism dictates that similar studies with slight variations on the first study be
performed to confirm the generalizability of the results to similar situations. All other
sources of knowledge are acceptable for research hypotheses but are questionable
because they have not withstood the rigors of Scientific Empiricism.

The four sources of new knowledge include intuition (beliefs), authority (the influence
of someone with more experience), rational induction (relating to previous knowledge
or tying two ideas together to create a new one), and scientific empiricism
(programmatic research). Scientific empiricism is the only accepted source of new
knowledge whereas intuition, authority, and rational induction are accepted sources of
hypotheses.

There are four sources of new knowledge: intuition, authority, rational-inductive, and
scientific empiricism. Intuition is based on what one thinks will happen, authority is
based on what one is told will happen, rational-inductive is based on a sort of cause
and effect, that is, if this, then that, and scientific empiricism is based on research. All
four are good sources for a research hypothesis, but scientific empiricism is the only
accepted source of new scientific knowledge.

The only source of new knowledge is scientific empiricism. There are other sources of
research hypotheses including intuition, which is something you have a feeling about,
the authority which is taking the word of someone who was right in the past and knows
what they are talking about and rational inductive which says that one thing leads to a
second so it logically leads to a third.

There are four different types of knowledge. The first is Intuition, this is where you use
what you feel is the right answer. The second type of knowledge is authority, an
example of this would getting information from a professor who understands the
knowledge. The third type of knowledge is Rational induction, here you are gathering
past knowledge and making knowledge from that. The next type of knowledge is
empirical, this is the only acceptable type of knowledge that can be used in modern
scientific psychological research Explain the specific Characteristics of educational
research.

Q.2 Explain the specific Characteristics of educational research?

Educational research refers to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of

the educational process, generally intending to improve its efficiency. It is an application
of the scientific method to the study of educational problems.

DEFINITIONS.
a. Good. “Educational research is the study and investigation in the field of
education.”

b. Munroe. “The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principles and

develop procedures for use in the field of education.”

c. Mulay. “Any systematic study designed to promote the development of education

as a science can be considered educational research.”

d. Crawford. “Educational research is a systematic and refined technique of

thinking, using special tools to obtain a mere adequate solution of a problem.”

e. J. W. Best. “Educational research is that activity which is directed towards the

development of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim
of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve
his goals by the most effective methods.”

f. W. M. Traverse. “Educational research is that activity which is directed towards

 the development of science behavior in educational situations.”

CHARACTERISTICS.
a. Educational research is directed towards the solution of a problem in the field of
education. It may attempt to answer a question or to determine the relation
between two or more variables.

b. It emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will

help predict future occurrences.

c. Educational research usually goes beyond the specific objects, groups or

situations investigated and infer characteristics of a target population from the
sample observed.

d. Educational research involves getting new data from primary or firsthand sources
or using existing data for a new purpose.

e. Educational research accepts only what can be verified by observation. Certain

interesting questions do not tend to research procedures.

f. Although research activity may at times be somewhat random and unsystematic,

it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying
rigorous analysis. Although trial and error are often involved, research is rarely
a blind, shotgun investigation trying something to see what happens.

g. The research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions
reached. The researcher attempts to eliminate personal bias.

h. Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about
the problem and how others have investigated it.

i. Educational research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.

Pushing back the frontiers of ignorance is its goal and originality is frequently the
quality of a good research project.

j. Educational research is based on insight and imagination. It needs the service of

the man who looks beyond the present.

k. Educational research requires an interdisciplinary approach. It is related to the

study of complex relations about facts.

l. Educational research is not so exact a research as physical science. In the latter,

we can control the events but in educational research, it is not possible.
 m. Educational research has a great field. Educational psychology, educational
philosophy, methodology, class organization and management, child
development, and other subjects are the fields of education research.

Q.3 Describe the relationship between educational research and

educational planning. How they support each other?

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL PLANNING.

Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related to
the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods [1][2][3] and various
aspects of education including student learning, teaching methods, teacher training,
and classroom dynamics.

Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous and

systematic. However, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria, and
research procedures. Educational researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines
including psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. Methods may be drawn
from a range of disciplines, drawn from an individual research study may be limited by
the characteristics of the participants who were studied and the conditions under which
the study was conducted

Education research is the scientific field of study that examines education and learning
processes and the human attributes, interactions, organizations, and institutions that
shape educational outcomes. Scholarship in the field seeks to describe, understand,
and explain how learning takes place throughout a person’s life and how formal and
informal contexts of education affect all forms of learning. Education research embraces
the full spectrum of rigorous methods appropriate to the questions being asked and
also drives the development of new tools and methods.

RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Education is a broad subject, which is integrated by various related disciplines. Hence

its areas of study are also broad. Hence it is not convenient for to author to illustrate
the entire broad area of educational research in this chapter. Therefore, some important
areas of educational research have been discussed under where a researcher can
explore his problem for the study.

1. Philosophical Foundations of Education.

1. Schools of philosophy,
2. Philosophy and Curriculum
3. Philosophers and their contributions to education

2. Sociology of Education.
1. Universalization of education
2. Social equity and equality in education
3. Educational backwardness, reasons, and solutions

3. Social mobility and education

4. Educational Psychology

5. Learner and learning

1. Personality
2. Multiple Intelligence
3. Motivation, Interest, Aptitude, Attitude,
4. Learning Styles, Learning strategies
5. Educational, adjustment problems of different levels of education
6. Truancy, Juvenile delinquent, Special Education
7. Behaviorism, Constructivism, Problem posed Learning

6. Teacher and classroom

1. Teacher Personality, Attitude, teacher morale, Satisfaction,

2. Professional Development, professional ethics, Teacher welfare
3. Teaching strategies, effective teaching, classroom management, classroom
climate

7. Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

1. ICT enabled classroom and teaching

2. Teachers’ awareness and use
3. Students’ awareness and use
4. Infrastructural facilities
5. E resources
6. Digital textbook
7. Online learning
8. Virtual classrooms
9. Social media and education

8. Guidance and Counselling

1. Identifying the need for Educational guidance

2. Identifying the need for career guidance
3. Agencies, funds, and impact of Educational guidance as well as career guidance
programs

9. Teacher Education

1. In-service and pre-service teacher education program

2. Teacher education curriculum
3. Quality of Teacher education program
4. Teacher education-comparative study with world standard countries
 10. Educational Planning and Administration

1. Leadership styles, behavior, and Qualities

2. Institutional climate, institutional planning
3. Participatory approach in administration
4. Decision-making skills of administrators and supervisors

11. Research in education

1. Recent trends in educational research

2. Quality versus quantity issues
3. Research skills of research scholars
4. Interdisciplinary research
5. Research ethics
6. Problem concern with official procedures, exploitation
7. Plagiarism

12. Economics of Education

1. Privatization of education
2. Trends of Budget allocation for education
3. Demand supply analysis of education
4. Education as Human capital

Q.4 Between basic and applied research which research do you prefer
and why?

Basic and Applied Research:

Research is commonly defined as a systematic investigation with the intent to verify

facts and generate updated conclusions. Regarding its utility, research is divided into
two: basic and applied. Many researchers suggest that these are closely working with
each other as basic research is a platform that applied research often uses to solve
real-life problems. Also, basic research employs technology (which was developed by
applied research) to address its objectives. Thus, these inquiries form a cycle of
advancement.

Generally, applied research deals with particular topics which have direct practical
relevance. On the contrary, basic researches are mainly motivated by the expansion of
knowledge and seek to answer questions that are not related to direct applications. The
following concepts delve into such distinctions.

Basic Research is also known as fundamental or pure research since it is mainly

concerned with the improvement of scientific knowledge. The purpose of basic research
is simply to gather more information to further understand existing phenomena
especially in the field of natural sciences. Its focus is on supporting as well as
challenging assumptions that aim to explain various phenomena. Pure research looks
at the “big picture” in the sense that it looks for overall factors and related postulates.
Hence, fundamental research is purely theoretical as it delves into basic laws and
principles.
Though the engendered ideas may not be directly applied to current situations, such
conclusions from basic research are highly fundamental in enhancing future applied
studies. For instance, previous studies on mathematical theories have been utilized in
programming and other information technology processes.
The purpose of applied research is to know more about a certain real-world problem
and take steps to solve it. It focuses on the application of natural science principles to
practical difficulties as well as enhancing innovations. Such studies are often associated
with the fields of business, economics, health, and politics. For instance, a company
may hire an applied researcher to look into the best way of hiring applicants and placing
employees in connection with the organization’s various positions.
Many applied researchers utilize the naturalistic observation method to verify existing
social difficulties and then conduct experiments to ascertain solutions. However, data
gathering challenges such as ethics and validity issues may arise especially when
testing procedures may pose harm for humans and animals. Thus, restrictions are
applied in employing the respective study procedures.

Difference between Basic and Applied Research

Purpose of Basic and Applied Research.

Basic research is meant to expand one’s current knowledge while applied research is
aiming to solve particular life problems.

Nature.
Basic research is more theoretical since it generally generates theories and explores
information that may not be presently applied. It is also focused on improving current
academic concepts. On the other hand, applied research is more practical and
descriptive as it seeks to alleviate current problems in various fields and is mostly
concerned with end-usage.

Scope.
The scope of basic research is often universal as it may be applied to diverse concepts.
However, applied research is largely particular as it is focused on very specific topics
which seek to answer certain problems.

Technology.
As compared to basic research, applied research is more often linked with the
improvement of technology as it covers the direct application of knowledge.

Future.
While basic research aims to predict future phenomena, applied research seeks to
prevent predicted problems or come with solutions for future challenges. The former
deals with knowing what could happen while the latter goes beyond by coming up with
probable actions.
Drive.
Basic research is driven by curiosity while applied research is driven by clients as the
former is conducted to understand fundamental concepts while the latter is done to
help solve individuals’ or groups’ problems.

Commercial Objectives.
As compared to basic research, applied research is closely associated with commercial
processes since it aims to create relevant products and services.

Economy.
As compared to basic research, applied research is more closely connected with the
development of the economy as numerous surveys, experiments, and case studies are
conducted to verify the efficacy of products, market strategies, and other economically
related procedures.

Academic Publications.
As compared to applied research, basic researches more often appear in academic
publications as they delve into generating new knowledge.

Environment.
Basic research occurs in a sterile or highly-controlled environment such as laboratories.
Conversely, applied research mainly takes place in real-world settings where other
unexpected variables may intervene.

Q.5 Difference between historical and descriptive research.

Descriptive research is used to describe the characteristics of a population or

phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the
characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the “what” question (what are the
characteristics of the population or situation being studied?) while the historical method
is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting events and/or conditions
that occurred in the past. An attempt is made to establish facts to arrive at conclusions
concerning past events or predict future events.

Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or
qualitative research methodologies, but instead, it can utilize elements of both, often
within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research
question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive
statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect. The
type of question asked by the researcher will ultimately determine the type of approach
necessary to complete an accurate assessment of the topic at hand. Descriptive studies,
primarily concerned with finding out “what is,” might be applied to investigate the
following questions: Do teachers hold favorable attitudes toward using computers in
schools? What kinds of activities that involve technology occur in sixth-grade
classrooms and how frequently do they occur? What have been the reactions of school
administrators to technological innovations in teaching the social sciences? How have
high school computing courses changed over the last 10 years? How do the new
multimutated textbooks compare to the print-based textbooks? How are decisions being
made about using Channel One in schools, and for those schools that choose to use it,
how is Channel One being implemented? Descriptive research can be either quantitative
or qualitative. It can involve collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated
along a continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the number of times
a person chooses to use a certain feature of a multimedia program, or it can describe
categories of information such as gender or patterns of interaction when using
technology in a group situation. Descriptive research involves gathering data that
describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data
collection (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). It often uses visual aids such as graphs and charts
to aid the reader in understanding the data distribution. Because the human mind
cannot extract the full import of a large mass of raw data, descriptive statistics are very
important in reducing the data to a manageable form. When in-depth, narrative
descriptions of small numbers of cases are involved, the research uses description as a
tool to organize data into patterns that emerge during analysis. Those patterns aid the
mind in comprehending a qualitative study and its implications. Descriptive research is
unique in the number of variables employed. Like other types of research, descriptive
research can include multiple variables for analysis, yet unlike other methods, it
requires only one variable (Borg & Gall, 1989). For example, a descriptive study might
employ methods of analyzing correlations between multiple variables by using tests
such as Pearson’s Product Moment correlation, regression, or multiple regression
analysis on the other hand, descriptive research might simply report the percentage
summary on a single variable. Examples of this are the tally of reference citations in
selected instructional design and technology journals by Anglin and Towers (1992);
Barry’s (1994) investigation of the controversy surrounding advertising and Channel
One; Lu, Morlan, Lerchlorlarn, Lee, and Dike’s (1993) investigation of the international
utilization of media in education (1993); and Pettersson, Metallinos, Muffoletto, Shaw,
and Takakuwa’s (1993) analysis of the use of verbo-visual information in teaching
geography in various countries. Some examples of descriptive research include case
studies and preliminary observation of a group. Case studies are examples of a relevant
event that can be analyzed to learn about a specific group or topic.
Observation is an essential part of descriptive research and is the main way of gathering
information.

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use
primary sources and other evidence, including the evidence of archaeology, to research
and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. The question of nature,
and even the possibility, of a sound historical method, is raised in the philosophy of
history as a question of epistemology. The study of historical methods and of different
ways of writing history is known as historiography. Historical research can also mean
gathering data from situations that have already occurred and performing statistical
analysis on this data just as we would in a traditional experiment. The one key
difference between this type of research and the type described in the first paragraph
concerns the manipulation of data. Since historical research relies on data from the
past, there is no way to manipulate it. Studying the grades of older students, for
example, and younger students may provide some insight into the differences between
these two groups, but manipulating the work experience is impossible. Therefore,
historical research can often lead to present-day experiments that attempt to further
explore what has occurred in the past.

Difference between historical and descriptive research.

The main difference between descriptive and experimental research is that descriptive
research describes the characteristics of the study group or a certain occurrence while
experimental research manipulates the variables to arrive at conclusions.
Descriptive research and experimental research are two types of research people use
when doing varied research studies. Both these research types have their methods that
facilitate the researcher to gain maximum outcomes.

Descriptive Research.

Descriptive research is a type of research that studies the participants that take part in
the research or a certain situation. Descriptive research does not limit to either
quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead, it uses elements of
both, often within the same study. Therefore, a descriptive researcher often uses three
major ways to collect and analyze the data. They are observations, case studies, and
surveys.
Descriptive studies are aimed at finding out “what is,” therefore, observational and
survey methods are frequently used to collect descriptive data (Borg & Gall, 1989).
Thus, the main focus of descriptive research is to answer the question ‘what’ with
concern to the study group. Moreover, descriptive research is primarily concerned with
finding out “what is,” that might be applied to investigate the particular study group or
the situation. Therefore, descriptive research does not give answers to the cause and
effect of the particular occurrence that is studied.

Therefore, descriptive research assists to make specific conclusions regarding situations

such as marketing products according to the needs of the customers, estimating the
percentages of units in a specified population according to a certain behavior, etc. Some
examples of descriptive researches include population census and product marketing
surveys.

Experimental Research.

Experimental research is the research study where the scientist actively influences
something to observe the consequences. Experimental research uses manipulation and
controlled testing to understand causal processes. Therefore, in this type of research,
the researcher manipulates one given variable and controls the others to conclude.
This type of research typically includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be
manipulated, measured, calculated, and compared. Eventually, the collected data and
results will either support or reject the hypothesis of the researcher. Therefore, one
could call this research type a true experiment.
In this research type, the researcher manipulates the independent variables such as
treatment method and teaching methodology and measures the impact it has on the
dependent variables such as cure and student comprehension to establish a cause-
effect relationship between these two variables. Therefore, this research type can
answer the questions of cause, effect, and results, thus, making it possible to make
hypothetical assumptions based on the gathered data. Therefore, unlike descriptive
research which answers’ what is’, experimental research answers the question ‘what if’.
Therefore, usually, this type of research uses quantitative data collection methodology.

Evidently, this type of research is mostly conducted in a controlled environment, usually

a laboratory. Experimental research is mostly used in sciences such as sociology and
psychology, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc.

Difference between Descriptive and Experimental Research Definition.

Definition.

Descriptive research is the type of research where characteristics of the study group or
a certain occurrence are described while experimental research is the research type
that manipulates variables to conclude. This is the main difference between descriptive
and experimental research.

Use.
Descriptive research is useful in gathering data on a certain population or a specific
occurrence while experimental research is useful in finding out the cause-effect of a
causal relationship, correlation, etc.

Focus.
The descriptive research aims to describe the characteristics of the study group, thus
answering the question ‘what is’ while the experimental research aims to manipulate
the given variables to support or reject the assumed hypothesis. Hence it answers the
question ‘what if’.

Type of Studies.
Descriptive research typically includes sociological and psychological studies while
experimental research typically includes forensic studies, biological and other
laboratory studies, etc.

Data Collection.
Descriptive research uses both qualitative and quantitative methodologies while
experimental research primarily uses a quantitative methodology.