The Bible in History

The Bible in History
A chronological and biological guide

to the
Hebrew and Greek Testaments
Robert B. Waltz
by Robert B. Waltz
©2013 by Robert B. Waltz

Man deþ swá hé byþ
þonne hé mót swá hé wile —
“Man does [shows] what he is
when he may do what he wills.”
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4 The Bible in History

Table of Contents
Special Thanks .............................................................................................................................. 10
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 11
If You Like This Book ................................................................................................................... 18
The History and Rulers of the Jews .............................................................................................. 19
Outline of Judean History ........................................................................................................ 20
The Rulers of Judah .................................................................................................................. 23
Excursus: Judging the Judges .......................................................................................................... 25
Excursus: Jephthah’s Only Daughter and Her Sisters ............................................................................. 29
Excursus: Representative Democracy ................................................................................................. 31
Excursus: Quirinius de Bergerac? ..................................................................................................... 45
World History As Seen in the Bible .......................................................................................... 64
The Families of Israel ................................................................................................................... 70
Excursus: David and Goliath .......................................................................................................... 96
Excursus: We Are the Root and the Branch of David ........................................................................... 105
Excursus: The Gospel Genealogies of Jesus ....................................................................................... 119
Excursus: Who Was James the Brother of the Lord? ........................................................................... 128
Excursus: Jeremiah in the MT and LXX ......................................................................................... 137
Excursus: Two Tales of Jeroboam I ................................................................................................ 139
Excursus: Was Jesus Married? ...................................................................................................... 143
Excursus: The Eight Words of Jesus on the Cross ............................................................................... 144
Excursus: When Did Jesus Die? .................................................................................................... 145
Excursus: Lamech’s Lament .......................................................................................................... 160
Excursus: The Birth of Mary ....................................................................................................... 167
Excursus: Moses and Other Abandoned Children ................................................................................ 175
Excursus: Noah’s Flood and Everyone Else’s Flood .............................................................................. 179
Excursus: Solomon and Game Theory .............................................................................................. 199
Priests & Prophets ....................................................................................................................... 210
The Zadokites according to MT, LXX, and Josephus .......................................................................... 212
A History of Prophets & Prophecy ......................................................................................... 227
Chronological List of Prophets ............................................................................................... 230
Biographies of the Prophets .................................................................................................... 236
Excursus: Two Greek Versions of Daniel .......................................................................................... 240
Excursus: Who Did Swallow Jonah? .............................................................................................. 249
Excursus: The Sources of Samuel ................................................................................................... 253
Excursus: All Cretans Tell Half-Truths ........................................................................................... 259
The Oriental Empires ................................................................................................................. 260
Egypt ....................................................................................................................................... 261
Israel and Egypt ........................................................................................................................ 274
History of the Kingdom of Damascus ................................................................................... 279
The Rise of the Assyrian Empire ........................................................................................... 282
An Assyrian King List ................................................................................................................. 284
Genealogy of the Emperors of Assyria ............................................................................................. 286
The Emperors of Assyria ............................................................................................................. 287
The Chaldean Emperors of Babylon ..................................................................................... 295
Excursus: Nebuchadnezzar and Carchemish ...................................................................................... 297
The Persian Empire ................................................................................................................ 301
The Persian Royal Family ............................................................................................................ 306
Excursus: Do You, Esther, Take This King… .................................................................................... 306
The Glory That Was Greece ...................................................................................................... 323
Excursus: A Tantalizing View of the Trojan War ............................................................................... 334
The Diadochi .......................................................................................................................... 335
Excursus: The Battle of Ipsus and Macedonian Tactics ....................................................................... 335
The Successor Dynasties ......................................................................................................... 342
The Ptolemies ......................................................................................................................... 343
The Seleucids .......................................................................................................................... 354
The Book of Daniel and the Successors ................................................................................. 366
The Grandeur That Was Rome ................................................................................................. 371
Excursus: The Political Organization of Rome .................................................................................. 373
Excursus: The Last Gasp of the Republic ......................................................................................... 381
The Emperors of Rome ............................................................................................................... 384
The Emperors Summarized ........................................................................................................... 387
The Romans in Palestine ............................................................................................................. 389
The Roman Emperors during the Christian Era .................................................................................. 390
Excursus: Chronology of the Second Punic War ................................................................................. 407
Excursus: The Perusine War ......................................................................................................... 423
The Parthian Empire .................................................................................................................. 427

Introduction
The Maccabean and Herodian Families .................................................................................... 432

The Rise of the Maccabean and Herodian Families .............................................................. 433
Excursus: The Wicked Priest ........................................................................................................ 435
Excursus: The Battles of Judas Maccabeus ...................................................................................... 451
The First Christians .................................................................................................................... 456
The Disciples of Jesus ................................................................................................................ 457
Biographies of the Disciples .................................................................................................... 461
Excursus: The Truth Hidden in the Sand ......................................................................................... 481
Excursus: The Thorn Without a Rose ............................................................................................. 484
Excursus: I Never Knew My Father’s Name ...................................................................................... 508
The History of the Church ......................................................................................................... 523
Appendix I: The Language of the New Testament .................................................................... 536
Rare Words Used in New Testament Books ....................................................................................... 537
A New Church, A New Language ................................................................................................... 540
Tell Me Again What That Means… .............................................................................................. 546
Appendix II: Textual Criticism — Recovering the Text of the Hebrew and Greek Bibles ........ 550
Manuscripts Cited ................................................................................................................... 556
Old Testament Manuscripts .......................................................................................................... 558
New Testament Manuscripts ......................................................................................................... 560
Manuscripts To See When You Travel ................................................................................... 567
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 573
Index ........................................................................................................................................... 582
The Bible in History 7

List of Illustrations
1. The Families of Israel ....................................................................................................... 72
2. Abraham’s Ancestry in the Book of Jubilees ..................................................................... 77
3. The Zadokite High Priestly Dynasty .............................................................................. 211
4. Time Chart of the Prophets ........................................................................................... 229
5. The Eighteenth Dynasty ................................................................................................. 265
6. The Assyrians Enter Palestine ......................................................................................... 284
7. Genealogy of the Emperors of Assyria ........................................................................... 286
8. Genealogy of the Chaldean Emperors of Babylon ........................................................ 297
9. The Rise of Persia ........................................................................................................... 303
10. Genealogy of the Persian Emperors ............................................................................... 305
11. The Genealogy of Darius I ............................................................................................. 316
12. Darius’s Invasion of Greece ............................................................................................ 317
13. Xerxes’s Invasion of Greece ........................................................................................... 321
14. The Diadochi States, 316 b.c.e. ...................................................................................... 330
18. Alexander’s Successors… ................................................................................................ 340
19. Ptolemaic Egypt .............................................................................................................. 343
20. Roman Conquests 250-30 B.C.E. ................................................................................... 377
21. The Triumvirs’ Division of the World ............................................................................ 382
22. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty ........................................................................................... 385
23. The Flavian Dynasty and the “Good Emperors” ........................................................... 386
24. The Severi ....................................................................................................................... 399
25. Diocletian’s Division of the Empire ................................................................................ 403
26. The Constantide Dynasty ............................................................................................... 404
27. The Second Punic War ................................................................................................... 408
28. The Scipios and the Gracchi .......................................................................................... 411
29. Battles of the Civil War ................................................................................................... 416
30. Parthia and Rome ........................................................................................................... 431
31. The Maccabean and Herodian Dynasties ...................................................................... 434
32. The Ancestry of Josephus ............................................................................................... 449

Introduction
33. The Text of ന52 .............................................................................................................. 481

34. Hapax Legomena as a fraction of total words in the book ............................................. 539
35. Words which occur in only 1 or 2 books as a fraction of total words ............................. 539

Introduction
Special Thanks
Most scholarly books have a section of acknowledgments, both personal and academic. I
have surprisingly few of the latter. I have always been something of a lone wolf. Only a few other
scholars have directly influenced my work: Dr. Timothy Polk, the only religion professor I had
while studying physics and mathematics in college; Dr. Michael Holmes, who graciously granted
his time as I learned textual criticism; and Dr. Stephen C. Carlson, who helped me to maintain
the courage of my convictions. Dr. Carlson claims I helped encourage his work; he has certainly
done far more for me.
In practice, I probably owe more to Dr. Richard Pontinen, formerly of the Hamline
University Physics department, and his daughter Kathy (now Kathy Pontinen Hagen), for putting
me in the environment that resulted in this project.
There were three phases in the history of this book, spread over almost three decades. The
time at Hamline was the first, and Kathy and Carol Anway and Sally Amundson were largely
responsible for it. In a second phase, I took a rather rough work and added a good deal more
learning. In this period, I owe the most to Barbara Edson and Mathea Erickson (now Bulander).
The third phase was when I finally took the work and upgraded it again and made it publishable.
It was Catie Jo Pidel who inspired this move, and Elizabeth and Patricia Rosenberg who supplied
the strength to finish. To them this book is dedicated. But many others helped along the way:
Martha and John Galep. Sarah Cagley. Jeff Rolfzen. Bea Flaming. Benji Flaming. Kamakshi
Tandon. Wendy M. Grossman. For other reasons, I owe a great deal to my Ballad Index
collaborators, David Engle, Ed Cray, Don Nichols, Ben Schwartz, and Paul Stamler, and my
most recent boss, Mollie Spillman. And, of course, my parents, Dorothy and Frederick Waltz.
But this is my book, and since I may not get another chance, I’m going to list, once again, the
special friends who made this book possible (academic degrees aside). I was the agent, but they
were the inspiration — the “good people who touched up my life.” I will thank them always.
Sally Amundson
Carol Anway
Mathea Erickson Bulander
Barbara Edson
Catie Jo Pidel
Elizabeth Rosenberg
Patricia Rosenberg
May the peace of God, which surpasses all understanding, be upon them.

Introduction
Introduction
Most Bible commentaries seem to see only half the world.
The commentaries, if they look at history at all, study only how outside history influenced the
Bible. And histories, if they look at the Bible, use it only to glean a few odd facts. This is an
attempt to bridge this divide.
This is not a commentary; it is a history — but a history with a difference. Its purpose is not
to tell the story of a particular nation or people, but rather to describe how the ancient world
affected the Bible — especially the historical books, but without neglecting the others.
The Bible, on the surface of it, is the story of the evolution of a series of theological ideals.
But these ideals did not emerge in isolation; Judaism evolved as a response to the pounding
applied by outside people: the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Persians — and,
after the Old Testament was written, the Greeks and the Romans.
The Romans also were decisive in shaping Christianity, although this process is not especially
evident in the New Testament. It was the pax Romana — the Roman Peace that controlled the
entire Mediterranean world — that allowed Christianity to spread to all of Europe and parts of
Asia and Africa. Paul travelled half way around the known world of his day, but he may never
have left Roman territory. He also worked in a world accustomed to philosophical discussions and
accustomed to seeking religious truth — ideals which had been spread by the Greeks.
Nor is the Bible itself a monolithic entity. English readers tend to assume that there is a
“Bible.” If they are fairly knowledgeable, they may realize that the Old Testament was written in
Hebrew (plus a few chapters in Aramaic) and the New in Greek. But even those who know this
seem to think that it was all written on tablets of stone that still exist somewhere today — as if
Moses carried the whole thing, including the New Testament, down from the mountain, instead
of just the Ten Commandments.
This is anything but true. In fact, the three branches of Christianity have historically used
three different Bibles: the Protestant churches use the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek
New (generally in translation), but the Catholic church, until very recently, used the Latin Bible
(and added the “Apocryphal” books to the Old Testament), while the Orthodox churches used an
all-Greek Bible (again including the Apocrypha in the Old Testament).1
And none of these Bibles weathered the vicissitudes of time very well. For more on this, see
the appendix on Textual Criticism.
1.!The churches didn’t even entirely agree on the components of the Apocrypha. All included Tobit,
Judith, Widsom of Solomon, Sirach, Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, and 1 and 2 Maccabees, as well as
the Greek versions of Daniel and Esther. The Orthodox churches, however, add 1!Esdras, the Prayer
of Manasseh, and 3 Maccabees, with 4 Maccabees and Psalm 151 as appendices. The Catholics put
1!& 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh in the appendix.

Introduction
In addition, few today know the Bible in the original languages; they know it through
translations. And translations, no matter how carefully prepared, bear the stamp of their
translators. For one who is looking for such things, for instance, it is easy to tell that the New
International Version is preferred by more conservative Christians and the New Revised Standard
Version, although it is perhaps the most scholarly and authoritative English translation ever made,
is much more popular with the more liberal and less literal branches of Christianity. If most of
the words come from the original languages, still the feeling comes from the translators.
My own feelings show in a different way. I began this work from the perspective of the sort of
messy not-really-a-theology typical of American Methodists. As I came to realize that not
everyone agreed with this, I attempted, more and more, to eliminate theology and replace it with
factual data — although even this factual data is disputed. I’ve tried to point this up in a special
way. Sprinkled throughout this work are a series of excursi. These are of various types. Some are
just tables of comparison between various books of the Bible. Others summarize the history of a
particular character. But many are intended to enliven or clarify the Bible. One, for instance,
shows Solomon as history’s first known practitioner of game theory. Another shows how two
accounts of David — one history, one folktale — were combined to produce the version we see in
most Bibles today. Another is a look at the vexed question of the day on which Jesus died. These
are, to me, among the most interesting parts of the book.
This book is not definitive on any topic. If you want to study, e.g, the procurators who so
misruled Judea, a good modern annotated edition of Josephus (say that of the Loeb Classical
Library) will give you more information. For the textual problems of 1 and 2 Samuel, P. Kyle
McCarter’s volumes in the Anchor Bible remain the best. Histories of Egypt and Assyria and
Babylonia and Persia and Greece and Rome supply far more detail than I do. My only claim to
value lies in the combination of these elements in ways that I have not seen elsewhere, and with an
emphasis on trying to bring Bible and history together.
In terms of length, the book breaks down into two roughly equal parts. The first is a history
of Israel — pursued first chronologically, by listing the rulers of the Jews, and then
biographically. Associated with this are information on priests and prophets. This is not intended
to replace either individual biographies or standard works such as Bright’s History of Israel, which
is more a history of early Jewish thought than a history of events. The book you are now holding
is the only serious attempt I have ever seen to put Israel in its historical perspective. The first
portion of the work serves to relate Israel to the world around it, and to provide a framework for
its internal history during the monarchical period — as well as tracing its development in the
centuries leading up to Jesus.
This is followed by the truly historical portion of the work: references on Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and the empires of Persia, Macedonia, and Rome. Each of these sections is
prefaced by a brief outline of the nations’ history (as well as some hints as to how they affected
the Jews), and then by the usual biographical outlines.

Introduction
Unfortunately, there are a lot of holes in all of these accounts. It’s hard for a modern to
realize how poor our sources are for ancient history. In an age where information is broadcast,
then printed, then archived on microfilm, magnetic tape, and compact disc, the age of purely
non-mechanical reproduction is hard to imagine.
It is perhaps worth noting that the same need for hand reproduction that leaves us with so
few historical sources is also responsible for the damaged state of our Old and New Testament
texts. Manuscripts survive largely by chance, which means that many of the best ancient histories
are probably forgotten, and the earliest and purest Bible manuscripts are gone to dust.
Ancient records take one of four forms: literary records (that is, history books), inscriptions,
official records, and archaeological findings such as coins. All of these supplement each other.
Literary records usually reflect the biases of the author, and are often inaccurate revisions of the
work of earlier historians. And yet they are the only source that give us a connected story.
Inscriptions usually record only a single event, and are often even more biased than chronicles (a
king will want those who read the inscription to hear his side of the story!). Official records are
hard to come by, rarely form a complete sequence, and yet again are biased. And archaeological
findings offer little help to annalists (a minor exception is coinage: if a monarch is minting coins
in the year X, it generally follows that he remains on the throne in that year. Again, potsherds
occasionally records interesting events). Unless they produce written documents, the results of
excavation serve only to provide backgrounds — but often that background is vital to our
understanding.
Literary relics of ancient civilizations are exceedingly rare. Until the rise of the Greeks, there
was no real science of history. An isolated genius among the Jews wrote the brilliant history of
the reign of David found in 2 Samuel, but this unknown author left no real followers. The only
known historian of Egypt was Manetho — who lived under a Greek dynasty, and was further
removed from some of the events he described than we are removed from him. And even if his
work had been accurate — which it wasn’t — it survives only in extracts badly preserved in other
authors. As a result, Egyptian history is in horrible shape — as will come out repeatedly in the
pages below.
Contemporary historians of Assyria, Babylon, and Persia were equally lacking. Fortunately,
we have certain official records of these kings. The last great Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal, was
also a great patron of the arts — and we have his library. Moreover, the Assyrians (despite having
to work in the difficult cuneiform script) were dedicated record-takers. As a result, we have
complete and accurate lists of a thousand years of Assyrian kings. And astronomical calculations
allow us to determine events of Assyrian history with absolute accuracy — a feat often impossible
even for events of Roman times.
Unfortunately, since all these records were written under official patronage, they are
uniformly biased in favour of the monarch. Even Assyrian defeats become decisive victories in
the chronicles.

Introduction
The documentary situation is even worse for the Chaldean Empire of Babylon and its
contemporary states, the Median and Lydian Empires. Here at last we have the beginnings of a
literary source — Herodotus’s Histories. But Herodotus was inventing a new genré (the very word
“history” comes from the title of his researches), and like all pioneers, he made mistakes.
Moreover, his chief interest was not in Babylonian history, but in Persian and Greek. So our
primary source for Babylon is the Babylonian Chronicle, supplemented by other accounts such as the
Nabonidas Chronicle and inscriptions. All of these suffer from the usual biases, plus they are
incomplete.
For Persia the situation is slightly better. For the early part of the Persia era we have
Herodotus — and if his accuracy is not all that might be desired, he at least gets the names and
the dates of the Persian kings right.1 And as Herodotus gets closer to his own time (about half a
century after the events he narrates), his accuracy increases.
After Herodotus Greek historians briefly became plentiful. Herodotus’s immediate successor
was Thucydides, who (apart from the speeches he places in his characters’ mouths) was
scrupulously accurate. Regrettably, the events he was narrating were of no great significance
beyond Greece, and few of his successors were as careful as he.2
Things again went downhill after the conquests of Alexander the Great. Alexander himself
had many biographers, and several of their accounts survive. But historical accounts of his
successors are all but lost (our only significant literary account of the period is that of Diodorus,
who had no firsthand sources and did not fully understand the secondhand sources that he did
use). To make matters worse, the Old Testament record ended during early Persian times, so our
only account of Judaism during this period is that of Josephus — which is demonstrably
inaccurate at several points.
The age of the Diadochi (the successors of Alexander) did produce one outstanding
historian: Polybius of Megalopolis, probably the most accurate and thorough researcher of
ancient times. He was also a direct participant in many of the events he describes. Unfortunately,
1.!Although it must be said that Herodotus perhaps followed the Official Party Line more than is desirable. For
example, he accepts the account of Darius I that that monarch took the throne because it had been usurped by a
pseudo-Smerdis (that this is official propaganda is shown by the Darius inscription — the largest Persian
inscription known — which tells the same story). Many moderns, however, think Darius’s account was a self-
serving fiction.
2.!Thucydides did have his influence. One of Josephus’s assistants has been called a “Thucydidean hack.”
And the speeches Thucydides placed in his characters’ mouths were widely imitated. Since his
characters’ actual words were forgotten, his method was “to make the speakers say what, in my
opinion, was called for on each occasion” (History of the Peloponnesian War, I.22). Although authors as
early as Polybius felt that this was unacceptably casual, it soon became the method of ancient history
— and was seemingly adopted by, among others, Luke in writing the speeches in Acts. John the Apostle
may not have known as much Greek history as Luke, but he too clearly felt it proper to put
“appropriate” speeches in characters’ mouths in his gospel.

Introduction
he was a lousy writer, and much of his work has been lost. Moreover, he only chronicles a portion
of this period.
As Greece was sinking into this dark age, Rome was coming into the limelight. The immense
history of Livy (about a quarter of which survives) gives an annalistic panorama of Roman
affairs — often including so much detail that the general outlines are lost. Unfortunately, Livy’s
sources (apart from Polybius) are rather questionable. For instance, much of early Roman history
was derived from tombstones — which (as Livy himself pointed out) were often fraudulent.
Other accounts of pre-Christian Rome, such as the writings of Sallust and the memoirs of Julius
Cæsar, are also biased and/or incomplete.
And once we reach the crucial era of early Christianity, our records once again become
incomplete. There are no Christian historical documents for the half century after the close of
Acts (c. 61 C.E.). And the histories of writers like Eusebius show that even they had no good
histories available. Josephus’s history cuts off with the Jewish War of 66 C.E. Which forces us to
turn to Roman historians.
Regrettably, the government of first century Rome was often bad without being memorable.
Only three literary accounts of the period survive, and all have defects. The magnificent accounts
of Tacitus cover only the period 14–70 C.E. (and have many lacunae even during that era), as well
as suffering from the author’s anti-imperial bias. The biographies of Suetonius are nearly
complete — but are sort of the first century equivalent of People magazine: the author is more
interested in scandal than is truth. And the much later account of Dio Cassius, while voluminous,
also suffers lacunae, often uses unreliable sources, and is “pedestrian.”
Does this tale of literary woe mean that we should not try to examine the Bible in the light of
history? By no means! Much of what we read is incomprehensible without knowing the historical
background. It’s just that we often face lapses in our understanding. But the only way to
overcome those lapses is to make the best use possible of what we already know.
It is for this reason that I have not confined this document’s historical survey to events which
directly affected Judaism or Christianity. To give an example, it is impossible to understand the
rise of Christianity without understanding the state of Judaism at the time of Jesus. But the state
of Judaism can only be understood in the light of Roman government. Judah, for some reason,
suffered from unusually bad Roman administrators (which meant, of course, that the Jews were
always trying to get the Romans off their backs). But while it was unfortunate that Judah had to
be the place that suffered in this way, the Roman system all but guaranteed that there would be
somewhere that suffered this bollixed administration. Even Italy had suffered unjust government
until the beginning of the first century B.C.E. Prior to the time of Augustus, it happened almost
everywhere, as the corrupt Roman aristocracy treated a governorship as purely an opportunity
for self-enrichment. Augustus tried to put a stop to that, but the Empire was so huge and the
rapacity of the aristocrats so entrenched that nothing could stop the oppression entirely. And the
way by which the Romans developed their governmental system can only be understood by
examining how they rose from a small city-state which required only a few minor officials to a

Introduction
world-encircling Empire.1 In large part the Roman system was still derived from the
administration of the city of Rome, in which wealth, not skill, determined one’s official duties.
That worked fine for one city — but encouraged rapacity among provincial governors, and also
meant that these governors had no understanding of local customs.
And, when the Republic became the Empire, you also had the problem of Emperors who did
not know all the men they appointed — or who appointed friends, relatives, friends of friends,
relatives of friends of friends, slaves of relatives of friends of friends....
Pontius Pilate, for instance, was appointed governor of Judea because of his friendship with
Sejanus, prefect of the Prætorian Guard during the early years of the Emperor Tiberius (there
was no “civil service” in ancient Rome; certain offices were available to peoples of certain social
ranks. Pilate, as a knight, was eligible for provincial administration). And Pilate, like Sejanus —
and Tiberius himself — was a brutal man with little concern for his subjects. His violence
contributed significantly to the Jewish sense of grievance that led to the Jewish revolt.
The astute reader will probably sense a certain tension here, between history and faith.
Indeed, there is a double tension. One is what one wishes to believe, even if the historical data
does not support it. The other tension is between the theological view of the Biblical writers and
the information supplied by history. The Bible, for instance, condemns Ahab of Israel for his
defective faith and praises Hezekiah of Judah for his sound faith. Yet Ahab made Israel stronger
than it had ever been before, and Hezekiah brought Judah to the brink of ruin. Was Ahab truly
“bad” and Hezekiah truly “good”? I have generally tried to offer both sides to such questions, but
when in doubt, I have gone with the history. After all, the Biblical account is readily accessible.
The other side generally is not. So I would ask that you not read anything into my faith based on
what I say here.
I began this work when I was young and foolish and did not know the value of proper
documentation. The large number of books I have used in this project precludes going back to
prepare a standard bibliography. But I hope the above description gives some hint of the value of
the ancient sources I have used.
Several abbreviations should be noted. The abbreviations for biblical books are routine. But
three other ancient authors make frequent appearances on these pages.
1.!1 When the Republic was founded, it had only two significant officials, the consuls, who took over the functions of
the kings they had expelled. At first the consuls’ power to oppress was limited: Rome was small, there were two
consuls, and in any case they served for one year only. But as Rome grew, more officials were needed, which
meant that former consuls were able to retain power as proconsuls. Consuls also started to operate far afield,
meaning that their colleagues were no longer in position to check them. (In time, there came to be terminology
for this, a proconsul with imperium, meaning a governor who had consular powers — in effect, total control — in his
province.) In addition, a new office, that of praetor, or justice, was created, which meant that there were more
elections, which inevitably reduced the scrutiny to which the candidates were subjected. This, plus the increase in
revenue, led to an increase in electoral bribery and trickery (financed by the fruits of foreign conquest). The result
was a greater number of corrupt officials, more widely scattered, serving longer terms, and with greater authority.

Introduction
The first of these, by date of writing, is Herodotus. His Histories is cited under the
abbreviation Hist., and sections are cited by book and section number.
Next in time comes Josephus, the Jewish historian of the first Christian century. As our only
non-Biblical source for Jewish events, he is very often cited. His greatest, most ambitious, and
most-frequently-cited work is the Antiquities of the Jews. This is cited under the abbreviation Ant. A
shorter but much more personal work of Josephus’s is The Jewish War, cited as BJ (for Bellum
Judaicæ).
Both of Josephus’s works are cited by book, chapter, and section, as in the well-known
(though not very accurate) Whiston edition.
Josephus’s short work Against Apion is cited under that name or as Apion. His tendentious
autobiography, on those rare occasions when it is cited, is the Life
Finally, from the fourth century comes Eusebius’s Ecclesiastical History, our only real history of
the early centuries of the Christian church. It goes under the abbreviation Ecc. Hist.
Symbols in the Charts

† denotes a violent death
= denotes a marriage
How to Interpret an Entry

Most entries in this work follow the same general format: Person’s Name, translation,
comments, References.
That is, the entry will begin with the person’s name as found in the Bible (if it is found in the
Bible), e.g. Jacob, Moses, Jesus.
This is followed by a translation. Many of these are approximate, but can indicate some-thing
about the person’s environment or history.
This is followed by a description — compiled from both Biblical and secular sources — of the
person’s significance and history.
Finally comes a list of the places in scripture where the person is mentioned. Most of these
entries are comprehensive (at least for the Old and New Testaments; in the Apocrypha, where
names are a bit more hazy, I may have missed a few); these entries end with the symbol !. (An
exception: in certain entries, such as those on the Chaldeans and the Greeks, the references are
moved to the beginning.)
Many entries also have footnotes; these may refer to apocryphal works, describe textual
problems, or simply tell things about the person of lesser importance or which do not directly
affect the Biblical record. Entries can usually be read without the footnotes, but the complete
story is found only in the notes.
Certain entries have additional features. The “Families of Israel” section adds two features:
the way in which names were transliterated in the Septuagint (LXX), which also helps explain
how the New Testament names evolved, and how the names appear in Josephus.

Introduction
A note on the use of numbers after names: There are many instances of different people in
the Bible having the same name. Israel had two kings named Jeroboam. There are many, many
Azariahs. Israel and Judah both had kings named Ahaziah. Something of course must be done to
distinguish these characters.
For members of the same royal dynasty, it’s easy; we use Roman numerals. Thus the two
Kings Jeroboam are Jeroboam I and Jeroboam II. But the two Kings Ahaziah were not kings of
the same country, and do not have a “king number.” Yet they must be distinguished. So they are
given ordinary arabic numerals, Ahaziah 1 and Ahaziah 2.
If You Like This Book

This book is free. This is deliberate; I want people to have access to the information. I have
no idea if it will prove either useful or entertaining to anyone. But if you do find it worthwhile, I
would urge you to consider making a contribution. No, not to me. To the good organizations
listed below, to help them in their future work.
• The Friends of the Folk Archive Fund of the American Folklife Center at the Library of
Congress. The Folklife Center is one of the largest repositories of folklore and folk song in
the Americas, and this fund serves to support some of its best work. Learn more at
http://www.loc.gov/folklife/gift.html
• The Ramsey County Historical Society. www.rchs.com. Although I did not really use their
archives in the preparation of this book, the Society gave me strong support in the half
year during which I completed the work, and I owe them a great debt of gratitude. (Note:
because of the effort needed to file contributions, donations to the Historical Society
should be at least $10.)
• The Union of Concerned Scientists. www.ucsusa.org.

Introduction
The History and Rulers

of the Jews

Outline of Judean History

Date Event
1800? Life of Abraham
1250? The Exodus. Entry into Canaan
c. 1250-
1050 The Judges: Othniel, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, Eli, etc.
1050? Era of Samuel
1020? Accession of Saul, Israel’s first King
1000? Death of Saul. Accession of David. Israelite Empire
c. 922 Death of Solomon. End of Israeli Empire. Separation of Judah & Israel. Rehoboam
king of Judah; Jeroboam I King of Israel
c. 876 Omri King of Israel. Baal cults flourish in Israel
c. 875 Founding of Samaria by Omri
c. 869 Ahab King of Israel. Elijah and Elisha prophesy
854 Battle of Karkar. First Assyrian assault on Palestine (organized by Shalmaneser III)
defeated by local forces led by Ben-Hadad of Damascus and including troops of
Ahab of Israel
c. 842 Dynasty of Jehu in Israel. Expulsion of Baal cults. Extended wars between Israel
and Damascus
c. 786 Jeroboam II of Israel. Israel at the height of its power
c. 775 First writing prophets: Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah
745 Death of Jeroboam II. Civil war and anarchy in Israel
722/1 Samaria destroyed by the armies of Shalmaneser V and Sargon II of Assyria. Israel
destroyed. Judah dominated by Assyria
715 Hezekiah of Judah. Major cultic reforms
701 Assyrian attack on Jerusalem comes within a hair of destroying Judah.
687 Death of Hezekiah. Failure of reforms
640 Accession of Josiah. Zephaniah prophecies
631 Discovery of the “Law-book.” Deuteronomic reform. Jeremiah prophesies
612 Nahum prophesies. Fall of Ninevah
610 Fall of Haran. Assyrian Empire destroyed. Rise of Babylonian and Median Empires
609 Josiah killed by Pharoah Neco of Egypt at Megiddo. Deuteronomic reforms stall
605 Battle of Carchemish. Egyptians chased from Palestine. Judah becomes Babylonian
tributary
597 First fall of Jerusalem. Ezekiel and others exiled. Deuteronomic history (Joshua,
Judges, Samuel, Kings)
587/6 Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. Babylonian captivity. A
few nobles flee to Egypt. Final prophecies of Jeremiah

553 Cyrus of Persia conquers the Median Empire

546 Cyrus conquers Lydia. “Deutero-Isaiah” (Isaiah 40–55)
539 Cyrus conquers Babylon
538 Babylon frees Jews to return to Israel. Sheshbazzar leads a return. New Temple
begun but not finished
520 The Davidic prince Zerubbabel and the High Priest Jeshua (encouraged by Haggai
and Zechariah) lead another return to Judah
516 Completion of Temple. Disappearance of Zerubbabel. High Priests rule Judah
444 Nehemiah governor of Judah. Jerusalem rebuilt. Probable beginning of Samaritan
schism
398? Activity of Ezra. Pentateuch adopted as law (alternate date c. 455). Samaritan
schism widens
c. 350 Malachi prophesies. Age of prophecy considered closed
336 Alexander the Great prepares to attack Persia
332 Alexander conquers Palestine
330 Persian Empire falls to Alexander
323 Death of Alexander. Division of Empire
321 Jerusalem conquered by Ptolemy I
312 Battle of Gezer. Seleucid Era begins
306/5 Partition of Alexander’s Empire as all the Diadochi (“Successors”) assume crowns
301 Battle of Ipsus. Final fracturing of Alexander’s Empire
c. 260 Septuagint (LXX), Greek translation of the Old Testament, begun in Egypt
198 Judah conquered by Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III following the battle of Panion
c. 170 Murder of Onias III, last universally-acknowledged High Priest
168 Antiochus IV profanes the Temple
167 Maccabean Revolt begins
166 Judas Maccabeus leads Jewish Revolt
165 Temple cleansed. Book of Daniel. Hebrew Bible complete or nearly. LXX Prophets
approaches completion
160 Death of Judas. Jonathan leads Jewish revolt
159 High Priest Alcimus dies. High Priesthood lapses
152 Jonathan High Priest
142 Death of Jonathan. Simon High Priest & leader of Jews. Judah declared formally
independent by the Seleucid Demetrius II
76 Maccabean kingdom at the height of its power
67 Civil war in Judah
63 Pompey the Great conquers Judah. Antipater the Idumean de facto king
43 Antipater assassinated. Anarchy in Judah
40 Parthians conquer Judah. Phasael son of Antipater killed

37 Parthians expelled from Judah. Herod son of Antipater made King

18 Herod begins to rebuild and expand the Temple
c. 6 Birth of Jesus
4 Death of Herod. Archelaus rules Judah and Samaria (until 6 C.E.); Herod Antipas
rules Galilee (until 39 C.E.); Philip the Tetrarch Herod’s Gentile lands (until 34C.E.)
6 C.E. Deposition of Archelaus. Procurators rule Judah
18–36 Joseph Caiaphas High Prist
26–36 Pontius Pilate procurator of Judah
c. 29 Public ministry of Jesus
30? Death and resurrection of Jesus
c. 32–62 Career of Paul
41–44 Herod Agrippa I rules Judah and the rest of Herod’s kingdom. Brief period of peace
44 Death of Agrippa. Judah again under procurators. Unrest steadily increases
66 Jews revolt against Rome. Gospel of Mark?
70 Fall of Jerusalem. Destruction of second Temple
73 Fall of Masada. Complete end of Jewish revolt
c. 85 Gospels of Matthew & Luke?
c. 90 First major Christian heresies. Letter to Hebrews? Council of Jamnia fixes Hebrew
canon
c. 95 Persecution by the Roman Emperor Domitian. Book of Revelation?
c. 100 Gospel and letters of John?
132 Bar-Kochba revolt
135 End of Bar-Kochba revolt. Jews expelled from Judah. Jerusalem rebuilt as a Roman
city named after the Emperor Hadrian
c. 150? 2 Peter written. Last New Testament book

The Rulers of Judah
The Rulers of Judah

Few places in the world have suffered such diverse government as Palestine. At first it was a
land of petty city-states. Then the Israelites invaded it and gradually expelled or assimilated the
natives.
At first Israelite social structure was much like that of the Canaanites themselves: there was
no central government; each tribe and city ruled itself. From time to time a “Judge” would arise
to deal with a particular local crisis, and these Judges often controlled large areas and many cities.
But none of them could administer all of the Israelite territory, and their governments did not
survive their deaths. The cultic center at Shiloh may have exerted some uniting influence, but not
much.
All that changed some time around 1025 B.C.E. The Philistines were well on their way to
conquering Israel, and the people needed a single leader. The leader they chose was the
Benjaminite Saul, who was anointed King by the prophet Samuel.
A new era had come. Although Saul did not found a dynasty, and was killed by the Philistines
around 1000 B.C.E., Israel would never again be a politocracy. Israel would always have kings —
although they might not be Jewish. Saul was succeeded by his courtier David, who founded an
Israelite “Empire” (if a region smaller than the state of Minnesota can be called an Empire!).
This empire lasted for only two generations; after the death of David’s son Solomon (c. 922
B.C.E.) it broke up into the northern state of Israel and the southern nation of Judah. But both
countries were monarchies; Judah, in fact, was ruled by Rehoboam the son of Solomon.
Israel was not destined to last very long; almost exactly two centuries after the kingdoms
separated, the Israeli capitol Samaria was destroyed by the armies of Assyria (722/1 B.C.E.). And
even in this brief period it had been ruled by five dynasties and sundry non-dynastic tyrants.
Judah was much more stable. The Davidic dynasty lasted, without significant disruption, until
587/6 B.C.E., when Judah was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. But even though the
Jerusalem area was devastated, the Jewish nation was reborn a half a century later. Cyrus “the
Great” of Persia had conquered Babylon in 539, and almost immediately allowed the Jews to
return home. It was true enough that the Jews were under Persian hegemony — and when Persia
fell, they would be ruled by its successors: Alexander the Great, the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, the
Romans. But for most of this period they had local autonomy. The High Priest was responsible to
the foreign monarch, but ruled the people as he saw fit.
In the second century B.C.E. that began to change. Outside interference increased until at last
the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV set out to exterminate the Jews in 167 B.C.E. A few Jews
accepted martyrdom, but the Hasmonean family started a revolt which briefly (140–63 B.C.E.) re-
established an independent Jewish state.
For all their promising beginnings, the Hasmonean rulers quickly degenerated into impious
despots. In 67 B.C.E. a civil war prompted Roman intervention. Although the Jews occasionally
enjoyed local princes as monarchs, from that time on the Romans had ultimate control of

The Rulers of Judah
Palestinian affairs. And unfortunately the officials the Romans sent to govern the Jews were
among the most incompetent the Empire ever had. The Jews were forced into revolt in 66 and
132 B.C.E.; the latter rebellion resulted in the destruction of the Jewish state for almost two
thousand years. Jerusalem remained in Roman hands until the Empire dissolved, and was ruled
by the Byzantines for several centuries after that. In the seventh century the Arabs conquered
Palestine, and held it until the twentieth century (except for the brief interval of the Crusades,
which gave the Christians control of Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187 C.E.).
The list that follows describes the various rulers of Judah from the Israeli settlement until the
first Jewish Revolt of 66 C.E. Many of these rulers, of course, have entries in other parts of this
document. To try to clarify the matter, rulers marked * have an entry in the “families of Israel”
genealogy; those which receive the symbol “§” are to be found in the entry on the Maccabeans.
Date Ruler & Biography

1280? Moses* (LXX IDE4;#, Mouses) the Lawgiver, who guided Israel from Egypt and
led it to the borders of the Promised Land. (It should be pointed out that,
technically, Moses never ruled any portion of Canaan. But all lists of Israelite
leaders start with him. For alternatives to the date 1280 given here, see the
discussion on Egypt and The Exodus on p. 274.)
1250? Joshua 1* (LXX C;48E#, Iesous) son of Nun leads the people into Canaan. After his
death Israeli unity ends. Individual tribes and small groups are led by the Judges or
operate on their own initiative.1 “In those days there was no King in Israel; all the
people did what was right in their own eyes” — Judges 21:25.
1220? Othniel* (LXX J8+85&*%, Gothoniel) son of Kenaz and the nephew of Caleb son of
Jephunneh. He conquered Debir and fought off the Mesopotamian oppressor
Cushan-rishathaim (Judges 3:3–11. The latter name, which means “Cushan of
Double Wickedness,” is clearly false; Josephus — Ant V.iii.2 — calls him an
Assyrian; if so, the best candidates are perhaps Shalmaneser I, who reigned 1266–
1236, or Ashurdan I, reigned 1182–1137. But it is more likely that this identification
with Assyria is an error.2 Othniel is the only Judge connected to the history of
Exodus-Joshua.3
1.!A commentator made the fascinating point that, in Judges, there is only one time in which all the tribes, or at least
all the tribes but one, work together: In Judges 20, when the eleven tribes unite to destroy Benjamin.
2.!Josephus’s version of this account is strange: in Ant V.iii.3 — supported by Philo — he calls Israel’s rescuer Kenaz,
after the father, rather than Othniel, after the son. The account in Judges itself is also strange; unlike the other
major Judges, it looks as if the tale of Othniel was mostly composed by the Deuteronomist editor; there are hints
that it may be less historical than the other tales. Possibly this was an attempt to include a Judahite in the tale of
the Judges, even though few good Judahites were available at this time; the tale of Samson (Judges 15:11) implies
that the people of Judah were under Philistine domination.
3.!There has been much speculation about Othniel’s significance, since he is the only one of the major judges whose
actions are considered entirely positive and respectable — no assassinations, like Ehud, no concubines, like
Gideon, etc. On the other hand, the description of his actions is very short, so this may not be significant.

The Rulers of Judah
Excursus: Judging the Judges

The Book of Judges lists twelve Judges; 1 Samuel adds Eli and perhaps Samuel to the list. But
of the twelve Judges in the book of Judges, only six — Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Gideon,
Jephthah, and Samson — are characterized in any way. It has been argued that each of these is
worse personally and less successful than the one before. It is true that Samson is certainly the
worst (frankly, he’s useless — one author even suggested that he engaged in all that fighting
because he got a “rush” when the spirit of God came over him), and that Jephthah is the only
one to engage in human sacrifice — but it’s hard to see much ethical superiority of Ehud over
Deborah. This must remain an hypothesis, although there does seem to be a downward trend.
That the Big Six are somehow different from the others is, however, clear. These six are
therefore described as the “Major Judges,” with the other six — Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon,
and Abdon —!called “Minor Judges.” This may be unfair; the fact that we don’t know anything
about the Minor Judges does not mean that they didn’t do anything. But there is at least one
interesting problem with the Judges: There just wasn’t time for them all between the Exodus and
the time of Samuel. They cannot all have judged all of Israel for all the time listed. Either the
dates are wrong, or they ruled over only parts of Israel, with the latter seeming more likely.
But this raises an interesting point: As far as we can tell, Eli, the priest and judge, was priest
of all Israel. On the other hand, here is no real sign that he exercised any political authority.
Similarly, although the book of Ruth is set “in the days when the Judges ruled” (Ruth 1:1), there
is no sign of any one of them being in power, and indeed no other sign that they did anything.
There is no hint of a universal Judge. Martin Noth therefore suggested that the two roles should
be separated: A judge was not a ruler but in fact someone who passed (cultic) judgment. He
therefore proposed (A History of Israel, p. 101) that the Judges in the book of that name were in
fact of two types: Actual judges and war leaders (n!g"d). The Major Judges were war leaders (note
that only Deborah was listed as passing judgment; Judges 4:5), the Minor Judges were judges.
This certainly fits with the situation in the period of the Exodus and immediately after: Moses
led the people and Aaron was responsible for the cult. After them, Eleazar 1 was the cult leader
and Joshua 1 the secular leader. Phinehas 1 succeeded his father Eleazar, but Joshua had no
generally accepted successor. Secular leadership, insofar as there was any, fell on the shoulders of
the Major Judges. (Hamilton, p. 99, in fact outlines the Book of Judges around the organization
of leadership in Israel: Judges 1:1-3:6 he labels “In Those Days There Was no Joshua in Israel”;
3:7-16:31 is “In Those Days There Were Judges in Israel”; and the final chapters he groups as
“In Those Days There Was No King in Israel.”)
The confusion of types perhaps arose because someone (Noth thinks it was Jephthah) was on
both lists. In any case, the Deuteronomist historian who compiled the book of Judges combined
two lists and turned everyone who was either war leader or judge into a Judge with Political Power
ruling All Israel. This certainly is a sufficient hypothesis to explain the peculiar literary situation
of Judges. Whether we need such a radical hypothesis is a different question.

The Rulers of Judah
1200? Ehud (LXX KD9, Aod; Josephus —Ant V.iv.2 — “Judes”!) son of Gera, a
Benjaminite, killed Eglon King of Moab and ended a Moabite oppression (Judges
3:12–30). Josephus (Ant V.iv.3) tells us he was judge for eighty (!) years. Some have
suggested that the story of Ehud is a combination of two different sources, but they
must have agreed fairly closely.
1180? Shamgar (LXX L-?*6-!, Sameger) son of Anath, a minor judge, thought by some
to be the prototype of Samson1 (Judges 3:31; mentioned again, with even less detail,
in Judges 5:6).2 It has been suggested that he wasn’t even an Israelite; “Anath” is the
name of a Canaanite goddess. Possibly he was originally “Shamgar of Beth-Anath.”
The chronology is uncertain; the mention of him in Judges 3:31 may be an
interpolation, since we see mentions of Ehud both before and after the mention of
Shamgar.3 Josephus (Ant V.iv.3) tells us that he was a judge for only one year; Judges
gives no information at all about him except his one exploit.
1180? Deborah (LXX M*))D!-, Debbora) the wife of Lappidoth, a prophetess,4 along
with Barak son of Abinoam, roused perhaps half the tribes of Israel to beat off an
attack by Jabin and Sisera of Hazor. (Judges 4. This account says that Jabin was
King of Hazor and Sisera his general, but Jabin was also the King of Hazor who
opposed Joshua in Josh. 11:1, leading many moderns to think that two battles
against Hazor have been confused. The usual opinion is that Sisera was the actual
King of Hazor; some scholars think that Deborah’s war was an earlier phase of
Joshua’s war.5) A second account of this war, the “Song of Deborah” (Judges 5) is
widely considered to be one of the oldest sections of the Bible. Josephus (Ant V.v.4)
1.!This based in part on the similarity of names and in part on their similar exploits; Samson fought the Philistines
with a donkey’s jaw (Judges 15:15) as Shamgar fought them with an oxgoad (Judges 3:31)
2.!The mentions are so short that Campbell/O’Brien, p. 179, declare that the single verse about him is “a source of
embarrassment rather than enlightenment.”
3.!Possibly the story of Shamgar was placed where it was by an editor who did not know when he lived but observed
that he was mentioned in Judges 5:6, by which argument he must have preceded Deborah.
4.!It has been suggested that, since Deborah played two non-traditional roles for a woman — judge and prophetess
— that she must have been post-menopausal at this time, reducing the gender expectations for her. But we see
little hint in the Bible of old women going beyond their cultural roles; Deborah, whatever her age, seems simply
to have been a special case.
5.!Another possibility is that Chapter 4 of Judges is another conflate tale; one tale makes Jabin king of Hazor and the
other gives that title to Sisera; one version is about Deborah and the other about Barak. This might also explain
the name “Sisera,” which does not appear to be Caananite, and might even be Illyrian; perhaps Sisera was one
of the sea peoples invading from the coast. The counter-argument to this is that the Song of Deborah mentions
both Deborah and Barak together. The song does not, however, pay attention to Jabin, so maybe what we have
is a Joshua-(Deborah)-Jabin-Heber tale combined with a Deborah-Barak-Sisera-Jael story. The tribes involved in
the story may also vary; we have mentions of Zebulun, Naphtali, and Issachar, but Deborah herself seems to
have lived in the areas of Ephraim or Benjamin (Judges 4:5). Possibly one of our two sources, probably the Jabin
one, involved Zebulun and Naphtali, while the other involved Issachar and perhaps Ephraim. Or the tale of
Deborah may have been attracted to Ephraim by the name of Rebekah’s nurse Deborah, who presumably lived
in the area.,

The Rulers of Judah
states that after the battle Barak (not Deborah!) went on to judge Israel for forty
years.
1150? Gideon (LXX J*9*D5, Gedeon) son of Joash, also known as Jerubaal (and called
Jerubesheth in 2!Sam. 11:21; see the note on Abimelech below), inflicted a heavy
defeat on the Midianites and drove them from Israel. It has been suggested that this
is the origin of the reference to the “day of Midian” in Isa. 19:4. There are (at least)
two accounts of this event mixed together in Judges 6–8. The two can be
distinguished by the varying names they use for the Midianite princes — Oreb and
Zeeb vs. Zebah and Zalmunna — and the different names used for the city that
refused Gideon entrance — Succoth vs. Penuel. Possibly the two stories also account
for the Giseon/Jerubaal confusion. It has been suggested that, in at least one of
these accounts, Gideon is intended to be an example of the folkloric “trickster” type
of character, although there are only a few other tricksters in the Bible.1 Gideon was
also the first of the Judges to be offered the Kingship (at least over his own tribe of
Manasseh). The Bible says that he refused this offer (Judges 8:22–23),2 but if we
accept the Biblical account as stated, it seems that he did found a dynasty, because
he was succeeded by his son
1120? Abimelech (LXX K)&?*%*N, Abimelech) son of Gideon. He was Gideon’s son by a
concubine (called “Druma” by Josephus — Ant V.vii.1), and assumed power by
killing most of his half-brothers.3 But his cruelty was such that revolts against him
started almost immediately. The “king” was killed in the course of one of these
rebellions (Judges 9). His embarrassing death (he was hit by a stone thrown by a
1.!Matthews & Moyer, p. 91. Jacob also acts like a trickster in his dealings with Esau (Gen. 27) and Laban (Gen.
30-31), and perhaps Samson when he sets loose fiery foxes (Judges 15:4-5). The trickster is usually clever, amoral,
and untrustworthy. The standard trickster is Odysseus; also the Norse Loki. Br’er Rabbit is a pure trickster;
Reynard the Fox is a French trickster; Till Eulenspiegel plays the role in Germany, and Gwydion in the Welsh
Mabinogi.
2.!The commentator Lawson G. Stone, however, points out that Gideon came up with “an alternative to his own
rule: his own religion! This based on the fact that he made an ephod of treasures taken from the Midianites
(Judges 8:24-27). It is not really clear that he founded his own cult, but the comment that the ephod became a
snare to his family at least implies that he ended up in a morally ambiguous situation.
3.!Here again, some commentators see multiple accounts being blended, and give a complicated account of how
Abimelech managed to become King of Shechem by browbeating the Canaanite residents — who, according to
one version of this story, were the descendants of Hamor, the man whose son raped Dinah in Genesis. The only
justification that I can see for this are the fact that there are two stories of Gideon (one in which he is called
Gideon, the other in which he is Jerubaal), plus Jotham’s Fable as we have it is clearly a folktale and presumably
of independent origin. So if Abimelech, a Shechemite usurper, was the son of Jerubaal, and Jerubaal was
combined with Gideon, then Abimelech must be the son of Gideon, right? Of course, this requires us to assume
that Gideon and Jerubaal were in fact different people — with Gideon being an Israelite and Jerubaal very likely
a Canaanite resident of Shechem. But then why would David quote the story? The story of Abimelech appears
to have been damaged by time, but I am not convinced it is so messed up as to turn a Shechemite soldier of
fortune trying to satisfy his followers with plunder into the son of an Israelite judge!

The Rulers of Judah
woman from the walls of Thebez — Judges 9:53) was apparently long remembered.
(cf. 2 Sam. 11:21).1
1120? Tola (LXX OD%-, Tola) son of Puah son of Dodo, a minor judge from the tribe of
Issachar. Judges 10:1–2. He is, curiously, omitted by Josephus (he should have
appeared in Ant V.vii.6). There was a Tola listed as a son of Issachar in Gen. 46:13,
and he is called a clan head in Num. 26:23, but there appears to be no connection
except for the fact that the names Tola and Puah/Puvah were traditional in Issachar.
1120? Jair (LXX C-&!, Iair) the Gileadite, a minor judge with a large family.2 Judges 10:3–
5. It is possible that his name was attracted to Gilead because there was an attested
area known as Havvoth-Jair (Josh. 13:30).
1100? Jephthah (LXX C*P+-*, Iephthae) the Gileadite, an outlaw reported to have been of
illegitimate birth. He was a successful robber captain, and the Gileadites were
forced to turn to him when they were heavily oppressed by the Ammonites. He won
a great victory and became king of Gilead (Judges 10:6–11:33). Yet the victory was
dearly bought, for Jephthah had sworn an oath in his triumph that forced him to
sacrifice his only daughter (Judges 11:34–40).3 This has become a popular sort of
folklore motif. And if that weren’t enough sorrow he had to deal with the
Ephraimites, who were angry at him for winning a battle without them. Jephthah
won a complete victory — not one of the Ephraimites returned home, for Jephthah
defeated them and killed any survivors who tried to cross the Jordan. (The
Ephraimites were caught by the famous “Shibboleth” test — Judges 12:1–6.)4
1.!In the MT of 2 Sam. 11:21, when discussing the casualties which led to the death of Uriah the Hittite, Joab
predicts that David will mention “Abimelech son of Jerubesheth” being slain by a woman at Thebez. This is
probably another instance of the common substitution in these books of “boseth,” shame, for “baal,” lord, since
LXXA gives Abimelech’s father’s name as “Jerubaal (LXXB gives the name as “Jeroboam” and calls him “son of
Ner”!). LXX also quotes David as saying what Joab predicted he would, and thus mentions Abimelech again in
an addition to 11:22.
2.!It has been suggested that Jair and his numerous sons were included here to contrast with Jephthah, also from the
Trans-Jordan, who had only one child, a daughter, whom he sacrificed. The contrast is obvious; it is not so
obvious why Jephthah would have been punished with childlessness and Jair fruitful.
3.!I’ve seen it suggested that this was to punish Jephthah for not being appointed Judge by God; he was called upon
by the elders of Gilead (Judges 11:5). This makes sense in light of the Deuteronomist theology — but why punish
Jephthah rather than the elders, who didn’t wait for God to appoint a Judge? It makes no sense.
4.!This peculiarity of the Ephraimite speech (the inability to pronounce “sh”) may have affected the Hebrew
alphabet, for the letter ‫ ש‬can be pronounced either as “s” or as “sh” — in modern pointed Hebrew the “s” sound
is written ‫ ׂש‬while “sh” is ‫ׁש‬. The word “sibboleth” in Judges 12:6 is written with another letter, ‫ס‬.

The Rulers of Judah
Excursus: Jephthah’s Only Daughter and Her Sisters

The theme of a hero sacrificing a relative to fulfill a vow is common enough in folklore that
Thompson made it his motif S.241. The list below contains only a few of the many parallels.
• Hebrew: Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac in Genesis 22 (except, of course, that he didn’t have
to go through with it). Kings Ahaz and Manasseh, and Mesha of Moab, apparently also
sacrificed sons (2 Kings 16:3, 21:6; 3:27), although there is no hint that this involved a vow.
• Greek: Agamemnon and Iphigenia. Agamemnon and the Greek army was trying to set
out for Troy. But Agamemnon had offended Artemis, who made sure that the winds were
against the Greek fleet. A prophet told Agamemnon that he would have to sacrifice his
daughter Iphigenia to get the wind he needed. He finally consented, although the accounts
disagree on whether she was “really” killed or whisked away.
• Greek: Idomeneus. A very close parallel to the Jepthah story. Idomeneus was King of
Crete and led a force to the Trojan War. One story about his return from the war says that
he encountered a great storm on his way home and vowed that, if he survived, he would
sacrifice the first creature he met upon returning home. This turned out to be his own son
Idamante. A plague followed. Idomeneus was forced to give up his throne as a result.
• English: The Lambton Worm. Young Lambton catches a strange fish in the river Weir and
tosses it in a well to see how it grows up, then departs on crusade. In his absence, the
creature becomes a serpent that terrorizes the area. Lambton, on his return, realizes that
he must fight it. A witch tells him how to prepare, but also tells him, if he succeeds, that he
must kill the first living thing he meets thereafter. Lambton tries to arrange to have his dog
meet him, but instead it is his father. Lambton refuses to kill him, but the family is cursed.
Some have seen in the tale of Jepthah’s Daughter a hint of another folklore theme, of the
virgin girl who therefore lacks a champion to rescue her (as, e.g., Lancelot rescued Guinevere in
late Arthurian legends, or as is more correctly seen in the romance of Octavian and the ballad “Sir
Aldingar”). This is possible but not clear in the Biblical tale.
1080? Ibzan (LXXA Q4*)D5, Esebon; LXXB K)-&4-5, Abaisan) of Bethlehem, another
minor judge with many children (Judges 12:8–10). A targum (Jewish Aramaic
translation) of the book of Ruth identifies him with Boaz the husband of Ruth and
great-grandfather of David,1 but neither the Bible nor Josephus gives any evidence
of this. Some moderns, simply because there was a Bethlehem in Zebulun, think
Ibzan was from that tribe.
1080? Elon (LXX K&%D5, Ailon) the Zebulunite, a minor judge. Judges 12:11–12.
1.!Perhaps on the basis of graphic similarity; “Ibzan” is ‫ אבען‬and “Boaz” is ‫ּבעז‬.

The Rulers of Judah
1080? Abdon (LXXA R-)9D5, Labdon; LXXB K)9D5, Abdon) son of Hillel the
Pirathonite (so Judges; Josephus — Ant V.vii.14–15 — apparently makes him the son
of his predecessor Elon), another minor judge with a large family. Judges 12:13–15.
1080? Samson (LXX L-?SD5, Sampson) son of Manoah the Danite. This twelfth “Judge”
was more of a terrorist — and not a very good one at that; he just kept stumbling
into trouble. His birth was miraculous (Judges 13), and so were his exploits — but
his folly was the stuff of legend. Although he spent most of his life fighting the
Philistines, he obviously didn’t inflict much harm on them, probably because of his
ineptness. I have never heard any decent theological explanation for why his story is
included in Judges; my personal guess (and it’s only a guess) is that none of the other
Judges stories, except for the brief little mention in the story of Shamgar, involved
the Philistines. Since they were to become the major enemy of Israel, something
had to be done to introduce them, and the Samson legend was all that was
available. Rather than try too hard to untangle this mess, I will simply point out
that, if you want to take on this strange collection of legends for yourself, you can
read Judges 13–16.
In a way, the Samson story resembles the story of the whole Book of Judges: It starts
relatively well and ends in disaster — Samson is the only one of the major judges
who does not deliver Israel. This may be a bit of a stretch — Samson wasn’t really a
judge in any sense, and there is no evidence that he ever ruled over anyone. He
didn’t even really rule over himself !
There are some interesting aspects to the Samson story: His birth is regarded as a
special dispensation from God — the only case where the special child did not go
on to be a great moral leader. There are four incidents to his story, and all involve
the same general theme — involvement with a woman, disastrous breakdown of the
relationship, a conflict with the Philistines. But it is hard to see any progress in the
story, except that the Delilah episode1 ends in his capture, blinding, and death.2
We have more information about Samson than any other Judge, but the quality is
dubious. Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Barack, Gideon, and Jephthah were certainly
historical, even if their exploits have become confused over time. By contrast, many
scholars think that Samson just didn’t exist. They see his story as a reworking of a
myth about the sun-god Shemesh. Others, trying to find a kernel of truth in the
story, equate Samson with the earlier Shamgar. One commentator connected him
1.!Schneider made the intriguing suggestion that Delilah is the mother in the story of Micah and the Levite (Judges
17). This fits the fact that Delilah is paid 1100 pieces of silver in Judges 16:5, and Micah takes 1100 in silver from
his mother in Judges 17:2. It is a fascinating dovetail, which might show Delilah getting her comeupance, but
clearly the editor of Judges didn’t feel the urge to make the point.
2.!Well, maybe. The capture of Samson could be historically verified. But what about his final prayer and his
destruction of the Philistine temple? How could anyone have known what Samson said or did? Even if there
were survivors, could they have heard him? Plus they were all Philistines; would they have told this story in praise
of Samson?

The Rulers of Judah
to the myth of Hercules.1 My personal hypothesis is that the legend of Samson

started with the feat of Shammah who fought the Philistines at Lehi — 2 Sam.
23:11–12. Lehi was also the site of one of Samson’s battles; see Judges 15:14–17).
Whatever the actual truth, it is clear that Samson’s effect on Israel’s history was very
slight; when we turn to 1 Samuel, we find the Philistines still a major threat; they
show no signs of having suffered a major defeat. And Samson is never mentioned in
that book.
Excursus: Representative Democracy

There were twelve Judges. There were twelve tribes of Israel. Coincidence? One might be
tempted to think so. Except — there were only six judges who amounted to anything. So why pad
the list to twelve?
One suggestion is that it is that the editors of the Book of Judges included the minor judges
so that all the tribes of Israel could have one. Let’s look at the list of Judges in this light:
Judge Home Tribe
Othniel ? Judah?
Ehud ? Benjamin
Shamgar ? ?
Deborah Ramah, Bethel Ephraim? (or perhaps Issachar; see Deborah’s entry)
and Barak Kedesh Naphtali?
Gideon Abiezer Manasseh
Tola Shamir Issachar
Jair Kamon? Gilead (Gad? Manasseh?)
Jepthah land of Tob Gilead
Ibzan Bethlehem Judah?
Elon ? Zebulun
Abdon Pirath Ephraim?
Samson Zorah Dan
Tribes we see represented are Benjamin, Dan, probably Ephraim, Gilead (probably meaning
Gad), Issachar, Judah, Manasseh, Naphtali, and Zebulun. Not represented are Reuben, Simeon,
and Asher. If the hypothesis of universal representation is correct, something has clearly been lost
— perhaps the result of the six major judges being interspersed among the minor judges.
It has also been suggested that the major judges were arranged from north to south —
Othniel, the first, was from Judah, then Ehud from Benjamin, then Deborah from Ephraim, then
Gideon from Manasseh, then Jephthah from (northeastern?) Manasseh, then Samson from Dan.
But Samson comes from the old lands of Dan, not the north, plus this system gives us two
Manassaite judges. The geographic theory seems a stretch.
1.!This on the basis, primarily, that Hercules set up the Pillars of Hercules, and Samson committed suicide by
knocking down pillars. It does add a comparison of Samson and Delilah to Hercules, Omphale, and Iole.

The Rulers of Judah
1080? Eli* (LXX T%&, Eli) the High Priest of Shiloh, who was also one of the Judges
(1!Sam. 4:18). Himself a just and upright man, he was unable to control the
wickedness of his sons Hophni and Phinehas. He should, however, receive credit for
teaching the young Samuel to hear God’s word (if the story of Samuel’s association
with Eli is true. Some moderns doubt the connection). The Bible maintains that his
family’s sins were so great that their Aaronite claims to the High Priesthood were set
aside, so that Eli’s great-grandson Abiathar and his descendants were displaced by
the upstart Zadok 1.
Part of Eli’s problem was just plain bad luck. He lived at a time when Philistine
power was reaching its zenith, and the Israelites were forced to serve their
neighbours. Eventually the Philistines utterly defeated the Israelites at the Battle of
Aphek (c. 1050 B.C.E.), killed Eli’s sons, and captured the Ark of the Covenant. Eli,
by then old, tired, and blind, died when he heard the news; his city of Shiloh was
destroyed and Israel was leaderless.
1050? Samuel (LXX L-?8E;%, Samouel) the son of Elkanah the Ephraimite (1 Sam. 1:1).
A prophet, judge, and priest (which forced Chronicles to alter his genealogy to make
him a Levite; cf. 1!Ch. 6:27, Ant V.x.2), if all the biblical accounts are to be believed.
There are clearly many sources for the first part of 1 Samuel (perhaps as many as
half a dozen; see the excursus The Sources of Samuel on p. 253); at least two
narrate the story of Samuel. One of these, sometimes called the “Later
Source” (since it seems to date from a late period, when the monarchy was held in
low repute) describes Samuel as a great judge who defended the people from the
Philistines as well as, in effect, serving as High Priest. In the other source he is
nothing more than a local seer. Josephus shows how much the later Jews respected
him by reporting that he began to prophecy at the age of twelve (Ant V.x.4). But all
sources agree on one thing: that toward the end of his career he anointed the first
King of Israel, the Benjaminite Saul. Tradition reports that Samuel lived to the age
of fifty-two — but also that he judged Israel for forty years! Josephus (Ant VI.xiii.5)
says that he was a judge for twelve years, and lived for eighteen years after
anointing…
c. 1020 Saul* (LXX L-8E%, Saoul) son of Kish. By means of vigourous action he was able
to unite his kingdom and establish its borders. He won victories against both the
Philistines and the people of Trans-Jordan. Israel’s material culture advanced
significantly during his time, due mostly to the technologies he acquired from his
neighbours. But as Saul grew older, he grew more suspicious and less vigilant.
Eventually his armies were defeated by the Philistines at the Battle of Gilboa. Saul
and his three oldest sons were slain, and his kingdom — or such of it as did not fall
into Philistines hands — split into two pieces, one ruled by David and the other by
Saul’s fourth son…

The Rulers of Judah
c. 1000–997? Eshbaal* (2 Sam. 2:8 LXX C*)84+*, Iebosthe; 1 Ch. 9:39 LXX C4)--%, Isbaal)
the fourth son of Saul. Called “Ish-bosheth” in 1 Samuel.1 After the Philistine
conquest of Israel, Saul’s general Abner took Eshbaal and fled across the Jordan to
set up a rump state of Israel. It seems clear that Abner was the real power behind
the throne. But within a few months Abner was killed by David’s partisan Joab.
Eshbaal’s government, deprived of its leading officer, must have suffered; the young
“King” was soon killed. That meant that all Israel’s hopes were perforce pinned on
the other pretender to the throne, the Judean…
c. 1000–962 David* (LXX M-E&9, 9-E*&9, sometimes abbreviated 9U9; Dau(e)id). The youngest
son of Jesse the Bethlehemite. The exact details of his rise to prominence are
somewhat obscure, since 2 Samuel contains several versions of the story. But it is
clear that he was originally a courtier and then a general of Saul. He was such a
success that the old king felt the handsome boy was conspiring against him. And
perhaps he was, for one of our sources says that Samuel anointed David king of
Israel while Saul was still alive. But David’s true opportunity did not come until Saul
fell. When it did, David made the most of it. The ideal hero-king, he turned a small
nation into an Empire, established and strengthened its religion, and founded a
secure dynasty (for further details, see the entry on David in the “Families of Israel,”
p. 95). After forty years of reign, a palace coup resulted in his replacement by his
son Solomon.2
c. 962–922 Solomon* (LXX L-%D?D5, Salomon). The foolish son of a much abler father. He
did little to strengthen his realm, concentrating instead on vain luxury, idle
“wisdom,” his harem, and the Temple. None of the four did him any good, and
only the Temple was destined to last. The Temple was begun in Solomon’s fourth
year;3 it was destroyed in 587/6. David’s empire began to dissolve under his son, but
Israel at least remained loyal until the reign of his son…
c. 922–915 Rehoboam* (LXX 28)8-?, Roboam) son of Solomon. In his time the Empire of
David split into two parts: Israel in the north under Jeroboam I and Judah in the
1.!This is another instance of the substitution of the word “boseth,” shame, for “baal,” lord, for which see the note on
Abimelech, p. 27.
2.! Solomon’s coup is dated by Josephus — Ant VII.xv.3 — to thirteen hundred years before John Hyrcanus I was
attacked in Jerusalem by the Seleucid Antiochus VII Sidetes. This would be 1435/4 B.C.E., but such a date is
impossibly early. Josephus supplies a number of dates in his history, but clearly did not possess a correct
chronological scheme. Indeed, the evidence from Qumran makes it appear that no one in Judea knew the length
of the Second Temple period!
3.!Josephus equates Solomon’s fourth year with the eleventh (so Ant VIII.iii.1) or twelfth (so Against Apion I. 18) year of
Hiram of Tyre. Hiram reigned 969-936, or perhaps 980-947 (and perhaps was co-regent with with his father
Abibaal from 986? — cf. Ant VIII.v.3, Apion I.39 for his length of reign). Hence Solomon’s first year was
presumably between 979 and 962, and the Temple begun no earlier than 979 and no later than 957. Contrary to
this, Clement of Alexandria quotes a history which stated that Hiram and Solomon formed a marriage alliance
soon after the Trojan War (thought to be c. 1200). But this seems most unlikely.

The Rulers of Judah
south under Rehoboam.1 Rehoboam’s reign, in addition to witnessing the division

of the kingdom, was troubled by an invasion by Shishak of Egypt.
c. 915–913 Abijam* (LXX K)&8E, Abiou) son of Rehoboam. Also called Abijah. A king with a
short reign and bad press. He probably didn’t have time to accomplish much.
c. 913–873 Asa* (LXX K4-, Asa). Listed as the son of Abijam, but many think that he was
really his brother; see the entry on Asa in the Families of Israel, p. 86. A fairly good
king who spent much of his reign warring with Baasha king of Israel. This forced
him into an alliance with Damascus. He died of a disease in his feet.
c. 873–849 Jehoshaphat 1* (LXX CD4-P-0, Iosaphat) son of Asa. Another fairly good king,
although he maintained cordial relations with the dynasty of Omri in Israel. He was
able to significantly increase Judah’s power due to his piety and his refusal to fight
with Israel.
c. 849–842 Jehoram 2* (LXX consistently CD!-?, Ioram, unlike the Hebrew, which has both
“Jehoram” and “Joram”) son of Jehoshaphat. He married Athaliah the daughter of
the king of Israel, and followed in the footsteps of the Israeli monarchs —
murdering his brothers and even turning to idols. Several of Judah’s dependencies
revolted during his reign; his much-shrunken nation is not reported to have
mourned his death.
c. 842 Ahaziah 2* (LXX VN8'&-#, Ochozias) son of Jehoram. A pro-Israeli king,
considered to be wicked, who was assassinated by Jehu while he visited relatives in
Israel. When word came back that he was dead, power was seized by his mother…
c. 842–837 Athaliah* (LXX J8+8%&-, Gotholiah) daughter of Ahab or Omri of Israel, and
formerly wife of Jehoram. The only woman to rule Judah. Unfortunately, she
inherited all of her mother/sister-in-law Jezebel’s wicked traits. She supposedly
murdered most of her own grandchildren to ensure her power, and imported
idolatrous priests. A priestly revolt eventually deposed her and gave the throne to
the rightful king…
c. 837–800 Joash 2* (LXX CD-#, Ioas) son of Ahaziah. He was probably an infant when his
father was killed, and even allowing for Athaliah’s usurpation, he came to the
throne very young. At first he was dominated by the priestly party, and his reign was
thus very good. But he became more and more wicked as his early tutors died.
Eventually he took to bribing the Syrians with Temple treasures, and was
assassinated by his own servants.
c. 800–783 Amaziah* (LXX K?*44&-#, Amessias) son of Joash. Initially a successful king, he
was able to reconquer Edom. But them he turned his eyes to Israel, and everything
1.!For the detailed history of the decline of David’s empire and the separation of Israel and Judah, as well as the
distinctly different MT and LXX versions of this story, see the entries on Jeroboam I, p. 138 and Solomon, p.
197.

The Rulers of Judah
was downhill from there. He was heavily defeated by the Israeli king Jehoash, and
eventually assassinated.
c. 783–742 Azariah 4/Uzziah*1 son of Amaziah. Much of his reign may have been occupied
by co-regencies, first with his father Amaziah (who may have been set aside after his
defeat by Israel) and then with his son Jotham (and perhaps even, at the very end,
with his grandson Ahaz). He was generally a good king, and his reign was
prosperous. He was careful not to offend Jeroboam II of Israel, and so brought his
kingdom to the height of its power. His reign was long, and became a byword for
peace and stability. Yet there were signs of trouble: Assyria was turning its attention
toward Palestine. Assyrian records seem to imply that Uzziah was part of an anti-
Assyrian conspiracy, and the end of his reign may have been troubled by the
appearance of pro- and anti-Assyrian factions. But he died of leprosy before the
crisis came (the author of Chronicles blames the disease on his attempt to serve as a
priest).
c. 742–735 Jotham* (LXX CD-+-?, Ioatham) son of Azariah. He ruled Judah first as regent for
his father and then as king in his own right. (At least, that is the most obvious
reading of the biblical account. Some try to clarify the confused chronology by
supposing that his entire reign was served as regent for his father, and that shortly
before his father’s death he was pushed aside in a palace coup staged by his son
Ahaz and the pro-Assyrian party.) He was generally a good king, but his reign ended
just as a tremendous threat to Judah arose: the alliance of Damascus and Israel to
fight Assyria. The two nations wanted Judah to join their effort. But Jotham died
before their plans could be completed; the crisis came during the reign of his son.
c. 735–715 Ahaz* (LXX KN-', Achaz) son of Jotham. It has been suggested that he came to
power by means of a palace coup (as the head of a pro-Assyrian party) while his
father — and perhaps even his grandfather — was still alive, but biblical evidence
for this is lacking. Regarded as one of Judah’s most wicked kings, he was an idolator
who went so far as to sacrifice his own son (2 Kings 16:3). His foreign policy was
also a disaster, for he made Judah an Assyrian vassal state in return for security. This
may have caused him to adopt Assyrian religious practices; it certainly impoverished
his country. It was probably during his reign that Samaria and the nation of Israel
were destroyed.
c. 715–687 Hezekiah* (LXX Q'*,&-#, Ezekias) son of Ahaz. Viewed by the theologians as one
of the best kings of Judah — although, from the standpoint of the security and
economic success of his nation, he was a disaster — his policy was a complete
1.!The LXX equivalent of Azariah’s/Uzziah’s name is interesting. In MT of 2 Kings, we find “Azariah” in 15:1, 6-8,
17, 23, 27, “Uzziah” in 15:13, 30, 32, 34. LXX however has K'-!&-#, “Azarias” in all these places. In MT, all
references outside 2 Kings are to “Uzziah,” which becomes “V'&8#,” “Ozios” in Isa 1:1, Hos. 1:1, Amos 1:1,
Zech. 14:5, “V'&-#,” “Ozias” in Isa. 6:1.

The Rulers of Judah
reversal of his father’s. He purified the Temple and reformed the nation’s religion.
But his foreign policy was just as unsuccessful as his father’s; he invited an Assyrian
invasion that came within a hair’s breadth of destroying Judah — and would have
destroyed it had it not been for a miracle. (Or perhaps two miracles; there are two
accounts of the Assyrian invasion of Judah, and they are different enough that some
scholars think they describe different rebellions.) For whatever reason, his piety had
little effect on his people; they quickly turned to idolatry during the reign of his son.
c. 687–642 Manasseh 2* (LXX I-5-44;#, Manasses) son of Hezekiah. The worst of all the
kings of Judah from the standpoint of later orthodoxy, despite having the longest
reign of any of them. He was a loyal servant of the Assyrians, and apparently
encouraged the worship of their gods while persecuting the orthodox Jews. Like
Ahaz, he is said to have sacrificed his own son. The compiler of this section of
Kings believed that his misdeeds made the destruction of Judah inevitable. And yet
Manasseh’s foreign policy was a success, since it kept the Assyrians away from
Judah. (Although Manasseh may have felt some of their wrath, if he was in fact take
into captivity as the Chronicler describes.)
642–640 Amon* (LXX K?D5, Amon) son of Manasseh. This young king followed in his
father’s footsteps in all ways, including his worship of abominations. But he was
quickly assassinated, and his policies made little difference.
640–609 Josiah* (LXX CD4&-#, Iosias) son of Amon. The best of all the kings of Judah — at
least in the view of the clerical authors. He led the most thoroughgoing reform the
nation had ever seen. He came to the throne at the age of eight, and obviously had
good teachers, because he ordered the reformation while still in his teens. His reign
also saw the self-destruction of Assyria, which allowed Josiah to greatly expand his
nation’s boundaries. But the people had grown complacent; the nation was unable
to repent and was doomed to fall. Josiah himself was killed by the Egyptian
Pharaoh Neco in 609, and so was spared the sight of his nation’s destruction.
609 Jehoahaz 2* (LXX CD-N-#, Ioachas), a younger son of Josiah, whom the people
made king after his father’s death. Neco, however, would not accept the young ruler,
and deposed him and carried him away to Egypt. On the throne he placed Josiah’s
oldest son…
609–598 Jehoiakim* (LXX CD-,&?, Ioakim) son of Josiah. An ineffective monarch, with no
foresight and no sense of loyalty. He accepted Egyptian domination when it seemed
the safest thing to do, then meekly shifted his allegiance to Babylon. His domestic
policy was non-existent; Jeremiah condemned him for living in luxury — even
building himself a new palace — while the people starved and cried for justice.
Finally, with incredibly bad timing, he started a revolt against Babylon. He died
(probably assassinated) shortly after Nebuchadnezzar’s army reached Jerusalem.

The Rulers of Judah
598–597 Jehoiachin* (LXX CD-,&?, Ioakim — yes, the same name in Greek as his father)
son of Jehoiakim. A young king, probably only eighteen (and perhaps only eight)
when he came to the throne. His only significant royal act was to surrender
Jerusalem to the Babylonians; he and many of the country’s nobles were then taken
into captivity (although they were treated fairly well; Nebuchadnezzar seems to have
understood that the young king was guiltless). Since Jehoiachin lacked a son, the
Babylonians placed Jerusalem under the jurisdiction of…
597–587/6 Zedekiah* (LXX L*9*,&-#, Sedekias) the youngest son of Josiah. He was an
extremely weak and vacillating king (or perhaps he was regarded as regent, since
Jehoiachin was still alive). Whatever his title, he was utterly unable to control his
remaining nobles. They were constantly agitating to free themselves from
Babylonian hegemony. And Zedekiah, even though he seems himself to have been a
sincere Jew and obedient to God’s will, allowed them to persuade him. At last he
rebelled against Babylon. The result was inevitable: Jerusalem was captured, the
Temple destroyed, the nation laid waste, the leaders exiled, the Davidic dynasty set
aside. Zedekiah himself was captured and blinded after being forced to witness the
killing of his sons. Judah — or what was left of it — was placed under direct
Babylonian control.
586? Gedaliah (LXX J898%&-#, Godolias) son of Ahikam. The governor appointed by
Nebuchadnezzar after the destruction of Jerusalem. He was the son of an old
Judean family well-known for its righteousness. His father had saved Jeremiah’s life
(Jer. 26:24); his grandfather may have been Josiah’s secretary of state (2 Kings
22:12). Gedaliah himself worked hard to rebuild the fortunes of his ruined land. He
set up his capitol at Mizpah and ruled Jews and Chaldeans alike with justice
(2!Kings 25:22–24; Jer. 40:5–16). The length of his government is uncertain;
scripture merely states that it ended in the “seventh month [of the
year]” (interpreted by Josephus to mean that his administration lasted a mere thirty
days — Ant X.ix.3). However long his government lasted, it ended when Ishmael (a
member of the Davidic dynasty) killed Gedaliah and fled to Ammon to continue the
Jewish revolt (2 Kings 25:25; Jer. 41:1–18). Judah was definitively ruined; the few
remaining leaders, led by Johanan son of Kareah, fled to Egypt, taking the
unwilling Jeremiah with them (Jer. 42:1–43:7). And Nebuchadnezzar carried out yet
another deportation in 582 (Jer. 52:30). Local government was over.
586–539 Judah is governed as part of the Babylonian province of Samaria. The people are
few, poor, and scattered. The Babylonian kings are Nebuchadnezzar (586–562),
Evil-Merodach (562–560), Neriglissar (560–556), Labashi-Marduk (556),
and Nabonidas (556–539).
539 The Babylonian Empire falls to the Persians. In 538 Cyrus “the Great” (539–
529) allows the Jews to return. This pilgrimage, led by Sheshbazzar (the uncle of

The Rulers of Judah
Zerubbabel, the Davidic heir-apparent), sets out to rebuild the Temple, but is unable
to complete the work due to the resistance of the Samaritans and others.
In 529 Cyrus dies in a battle at the fringes of the Empire, and is succeeded by his
son Cambyses. The latter quickly conquers Egypt, but soon loses control of the
rest of the Empire. By 522 he is dead (the cause is uncertain) and the Persian
Empire gripped by confusion. It is not until 520 that Darius I, who is not a
member of the royal family, manages to suppress the disorder and take control. This
latter Emperor allows another Jewish return in that year.
520 Zerubbabel 1 (LXX W8!8)-)*%, Zorobabel), the grandson of Jehoiachin, and the
High Priest Jeshua lead a group of exiles back to Judah. More numerous than
those who came in 538, they succeed in rebuilding the Temple (although the
building is much less imposing than Solomon’s Temple). Zerubbabel was apparently
viewed as David’s successor, and expected to found a new Jewish state. He quickly
dropped out of sight, however — presumably deposed by the Persians — and
Jeshua and his descendants acted as local administrators of the Jews. Relations with
the Emperor were probably conducted by the governor of Samaria — a situation
hardly to the liking of pious Jews. This situation continued through the reigns of
Darius I (520–486) and his son Xerxes I (486–465) into the reign of Xerxes’s son
Artaxerxes I (465–424), who commissioned the only Special Administrator for
Jewish Affairs the Persians ever had. He was the Persian courtier…
444 Nehemiah (LXX X**?&-#, Neemias) son of Hacaliah. Although he was of Jewish
ancestry, he was the cupbearer for the Persian Emperor Artaxerxes I1, and used his
connections to gain a special commission from the Emperor to deal with Jewish
affairs. Most importantly, he was permitted to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (Neh.
2:3ƒ.; cf. Sirach 49:132). This meant that Judah was no longer administered by the
Samaritan governor Sanballat — and that its people would be relatively immune to
Samaritan pressure. As a result, Sanballat and the Samaritans violently opposed
both builder and building. But Nehemiah persevered, and even managed to stage a
1.!The reign of Artaxerxes (I) is the dating of Neh. 1:11-2:1 (=2 Esdras 11:11-12:1 LXX, where the Emperor is
called “Arthasastha”); Josephus (Ant XI.v.6), as part of his corrections to the defective Biblical chronology, dates
Nehemiah to the reign of Xerxes I (in which case Nehemiah’s date would be 466 B.C.E.). In this case, however,
Josephus is clearly wrong, because Nehemiah’s mission lasted until his Emperor’s thirty-second year (Neh. 13:6),
and Xerxes I was assassinated in his twenty-first year. It has been proposed that Nehemiah’s work came in the
reign of Artaxerxes II (i.e. 383-371); this would solve many of the chronological problems indicated in the entries
on the High Priests Jonathan and Jaddua, but it seems drastic. Besides, wouldn’t Nehemiah have told us it was the
second Artaxerxes?
2.!One of the letters found at the beginning of 2 Maccabees makes the curious assertion that Nehemiah rebuilt the
Jerusalem Temple (2 Macc. 1:18) and then brought in a perpetual flame that had been burning from the time of
the first temple, thus sanctifying the new structure (2 Macc. 1:19-36). Nehemiah of course did not rebuild the
Temple, which had been finished about seventy years before his time. Either this is a pure error, or a reference to
some sort of elaboration of the Temple by Nehemiah, or there is another Nehemiah. The first explanation seems
the most likely.

The Rulers of Judah
religious revival. Unfortunately, one of his goals was to keep Judah pure — which
meant purging it of foreigners, including foreign wives of the high nobles. One of
those who had a foreign wife was Manasseh, a younger son of the High Priest. This
young priest and his wife Nikaso (daughter of Sanballit of Samaria!) fled to Samaria
and founded a rival Temple. The Samaritan schism, although not yet final,
deepened.
Even so, Nehemiah accomplished a great deal. Judah once again had a capitol city
and a fortress; it could think of itself as a nation again. Nehemiah continued to
serve as governor until 432 or later, although he occasionally returned to the Persian
court; one such extended visit in 433 allowed the anti-isolationist party to briefly
regain power. After the time of Nehemiah, the High Priests generally continued to
rule (although a governor named Bagoas is known in 411). The Persian Emperors
of the period were Xerxes II (424), Sogdianus (424), Darius II (424–404), and
Artaxerxes II (404–358). It is hard to be sure, but it may well have been this latter
Emperor who commissioned...
398? Ezra* (LXX Q49!-#, Esdras) son of Seraiah. An enigmatic man, even the time of
his activity and the nature of his authority are unclear. He was commissioned in the
“seventh year of King Artaxerxes” (Ezra 7:8). But we cannot tell whether this was
the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 B.C.E.) or of Artaxerxes II (398 B.C.E.). Neither
date fits well; some scholars propose to emend the text to yield a date of 428 B.C.E.1
1.!In favour of the dating in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 B.C.E) it is urged that the Biblical tradition clearly
places Ezra before Nehemiah (or perhaps makes them contemporaries). Moreover, the account in Ezra does not
bother to specify which Artaxerxes is meant — surely a hint that no others were known to the author. Josephus
(Ant XI.v.2) places Ezra’s activity during the priesthood of Joakim son of Jeshua — but he also places it in the
reign of Xerxes, not Artaxerxes. These corrections were forced on him because the chronology of the Biblical
narrative of the early chapters of Ezra is seriously defective — apparently placing Artaxerxes I before his
grandfather Darius I!
These chronological confusions would seem to favour a late date for Ezra; by the time his memoirs were written,
early Persian history would seem to have been only a vague memory. There are also good reasons to think
Nehemiah preceded Ezra — most notably the fact that Nehemiah, in his reforms, never once refers to Ezra’s law.
Ezra’s situation, by contrast, implies a populated (and presumably walled) Jerusalem — a situation which existed
only after Nehemiah. Also, Ezra feared brigands — and while there were certainly robbers on the roads in the
reign of Artaxerxes I, they were far more daring during the troubled early years of Artaxerxes II.
Also favouring a late date is the state of the genealogies in Chronicles and Ezra. It is widely believed that Ezra
wrote his own book (or at least the parts in which he is the subject) as well as Chronicles — a belief going back at
least to the Talmud, and accepted by many today. 1 Ch. 3:19-24 traces the family of David from Zerubbabel 1 (fl.
520 B.C.E.) down via Hananiah, Shecaniah (who might be the Shecaniah who returned with Ezra in Ezra 8:3, but
might not), Shemaiah, Neariah, Elionai, and Hodaviah and his six siblings. Counting 20-25 years per generation,
this takes us to abou 400 B.C.E. (assuming we understand the text; the Hebrew is rather a mess). Neh. 12:10-11,
which also seems to be from the Chronicler, gives us High Priests Jeshua (fl. 520 B.C.E.), Joiakim, Eliahshib,
Joiada, Jonathan, and Jaddua, which also seems to point to a time in the range 420-400 b.c.e. Thus, if Ezra wrote
Chronicles and the relevant parts of Ezra and Nehemiah, he must have lived after the reign of Artaxerxes I.
And yet the seventh year of Artaxerxes II (398 B.C.E) is a very late date for the man who came to be regarded as
the second Moses. The difficulties involved in either assumption are so severe that many scholars emend the text

The Rulers of Judah
Whatever his date, we know that Ezra was given significant authority by the Persian
Emperor to put Judah in order. He did this by organizing a great revival, at which
the entire nation accepted the Mosaic law. (It is quite possible that Ezra was the final
representative of the “P” school of authors that edited, expanded, and published
the Pentateuch. It is certain that he was instrumental in canonizing it and in
imposing it on the Jewish people. He was thus regarded by some as the “second
Moses.”)
After Ezra finished his work (and since we don’t know when it happened, we
obviously can’t guess how long it lasted!), Judah was ruled by the High Priests under
the generally benign direction of the Persian Emperors Artaxerxes III (358–338),
Arses (338–336), and Darius III (336–330). Then the Middle East was shocked
by the conquest of
331 Alexander the Great, son of Philip of Macedon. His amazing career can hardly
be described in detail here.1 Little is known about his relations with the Jews. It was
in 332 that he began the westward campaign that gave him control of Palestine and
Egypt. In the process he was met by the High Priest Jaddua, who offered him
Judah’s loyalty and in return was confirmed in his priesthood and rule over the Jews
(Ant XI.vii.3–5). It was not until Alexander’s death in 323 that Judah fell on hard
times. In the early stages of the Diadochi era it was situated between Ptolemaic
Egypt and the realm of Antigonus Monophthalmos. When Antigonus was killed in
301, his southern possession fell into the hands of Seleucus. For the next two
centuries Judah was a bone of contention between the kings of Egypt and Syria.
The Ptolemies were closer, and held Judah for most of the reigns of Ptolemy I
(305–285), Ptolemy II (285–246), Ptolemy III (246–221), and Ptolemy IV
(221–203). The Ptolemies, being generally enlightened rulers, did not interfere with
Jewish religious practice. According to the Letter of Aristeas, they even sponsored the
translation of the Old Testament into Greek.
All that ended in the reign of Ptolemy V (203–181). He came to the throne as a
child, and the Seleucid Antiochus III (223–187) was able to annex Palestine in
198. After that the Jews came under increasing persecution. Antiochus himself was
reasonable enough (he extorted money from the Jews, but he extorted everyone else,
of Ezra 7:8, most typically to the thirty-seventh year rather than the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (i.e. 428 B.C.E). This
places Ezra after Nehemiah, but makes them almost contemporary. This is attractive; the two are twice
mentioned as contemporary (Neh. 8:9, 12:16. Note however that 1!Esdras 9:49, which parallels Neh 8:9, does not
mention Nehemiah). I personally think that the balance of evidence favours a date for Ezra after Nehemiah —
but not so much as to justify an emendation of the text without any support from the versions. I believe, like most
scholars before me, that the matter must be left open. But I think that the least unsatisfactory solution is to date
Ezra to 398 B.C.E.
1.!For that matter, Alexander is not mentioned by name in the Protestant Bible, although there are references in
1!Macc. 1:1, 7, 6:2 in the apocryphal/deuterocanonical books and veiled references in Daniel 11:3-4. A history
of Alexander is found on p. 329.

The Rulers of Judah
too). But his son Seleucus IV (187–175) began the custom of interfering in Temple
affairs. Still worse was Seleucus’s brother Antiochus IV (175–163), who appointed
his own High Priests, desecrated the Temple, and attempted to destroy Judaism. He
was trying to unite his empire. But all he accomplished was to start the Maccabean
Revolt. In 175 the last legitimate High Priest, Onias III, was deposed. In 170 he was
killed. In 168 Antiochus set up his image in the Temple. Many fled to the hills,
among them a priest named Mattathias and his sons. In 166 Mattathias died and
the fate of the Jews was in the hands of his third son…
166–160 Judas Maccabeus§ son of Mattathias. It was he who really organized the Jewish
revolt. He drove the Seleucids back on many fronts, cleansed the Temple, and won
official tolerance for Judaism from the surprised Greeks. This was the original goal
of the rebels. But their victories so encouraged them that they set about to make
Judah independent. Judas thus founded the so-called “Maccabean” (more correctly
“Hasmonean”) dynasty, although he left no direct heirs to maintain his title. And the
dynasty’s rise to power was a long, slow process. After many spectacular victories,
Judas was defeated and killed in 160. He was succeeded by his younger brother…
160–142 Jonathan§ son of Mattathias. His time as leader of the Jewish Revolt was marked
more by diplomacy than by battle, although Jonathan won his share of victories,
often at odds as great as those Judas had faced. But by this time the Seleucid Empire
was becoming involved in dynastic squabbles. Jonathan adroitly took advantage of
this to improve his own position. The last High Priest Alcimus died in 159; Jonathan
was able to have himself appointed to the post in 152. This made him the official
leader of the Jews. At last, however, he was trapped and killed by the Seleucid
pretender Trypho. He was succeeded by his older brother…
142–134 Simon§ son of Mattathias. In his time the Jews at last won formal independence
from the Seleucids. Simon could thus be called both High Priest and Prince of the
Jews. But he tended to avoid the latter title as offensive to his subjects. He was killed
by his son-in-law Ptolemy in 134.
134–104 John Hyrcanus I§ son of Simon. His reign began in tragedy and despair, as he
faced the murder of his father and an invading Seleucid army. But Hyrcanus
eventually proved equal to his tasks (aided greatly by the death of the Seleucid
Antiochus VII Sidetes and the fratricidal tendencies of his successors). By the time
he died Hyrcanus had managed to conquer Samaria and destroy its rival Temple (c.
128).
104–103 Aristobulus I§ son of Hyrcanus. He really didn’t have time to do much except
oppress his family and people. He soon died and was succeeded by his brother…
103–76 Alexander Janneus§ son of Hyrcanus. He was the most ambitious of the
Hasmoneans and the one who brought their empire to its height. Utterly ruthless,
he earned the bitter hatred of his people, and once came close to being deposed.

The Rulers of Judah
(He was saved only by the fact that the only alternatives were foreigners.) But he
held on to his diadem for almost thirty years. When he died, he gave his kingdom
into the hands of his wife, suspecting (rightly, as history proved) that neither of his
sons was entirely worthy.
76–67 Alexandra (1)§ wife of Aristobulus I and then of Alexander Janneus. Far gentler
than Janneus, she tried to treat all parties fairly. Since the High Priest was required
to be male, that post went to her son John Hyrcanus II, but it was Alexandra
handled secular administration. This so displeased her younger son Aristobulus that
he rose in revolt. But Alexandra died before he had time to accomplish much.
67–63 Aristobulus II§ son of Alexander Janneus. With Alexandra dead, John Hyrcanus
II (the older son of Janneus and Alexandra) should have become Prince of Judah.
But Hyrcanus was not aggressive, and his younger brother Aristobulus was.
Aristobulus was able to seize the kingdom — and the High Priesthood — after only
the briefest of struggles. Had it not been for the Idumean Antipater, that would
have been that. But Antipater, a firm partisan of Hyrcanus, convinced his prince
that Aristobulus would sooner or later dispose of him. So Hyrcanus was persuaded
to reassert his rights, and a real civil war began. And it just so happened that a
Roman army under Pompey was moving into Palestine. Both sides appealed to the
Romans, who arrived on the scene in 64. After extended negotiations, plotting,
trickery, attempted and actual bribery, and unjust violence, the Romans decided
against Aristobulus. Aristobulus’s partisans holed up in Jerusalem, but the Romans
conquered the city in 63. They then divided the Hasmonean Empire into five small
provinces. Hyrcanus was placed in theoretical charge of one of these, but Antipater
was the effective ruler. (Aristobulus was set aside completely, and eventually
executed after another revolt.)
63–43 Antipater§ the Idumean. Originally a minor figure, a converted Jew with no power
or influence. By sheer skill and flattery he rose high in the confidence of John
Hyrcanus II. When Hyrcanus was shoved aside by Aristobulus II, it was Antipater
who kept his cause alive and eventually won the victory for his patron. Rome then
made Antipater the de facto ruler of Hyrcanus’s territories. He was such a good
Roman viceroy that the Hasmonean territories were gradually given back to him.
But the “true” Jews hated him as a foreigner, and he was assassinated in 43.
43–40 (John Hyrcanus II§ son of Alexander Janneus.) With Antipater dead, Hyrcanus
became ruler in his own right. But he simply wasn’t up to the job. Judea was up in
arms; the people wanted self-rule and independence from Rome. Antipater’s sons
Phasael and Herod fought on behalf of the Romans, but they didn’t have their
father’s power base. The civil war grew hotter and hotter, and eventually the
Parthians decided to intervene. The Romans were driven out, and Judea was ruled
by the Parthian puppet…

The Rulers of Judah
40–37 Antigonus Mattathias§ son of Aristobulus. He was the last of the Maccabeans to
rule. But he survived only because of Parthian support, and paid them a heavy
tribute (of money, slaves, and women, according to Josephus). Antipater’s son
Phasael was killed in 40, and the Parthians drove his brother Herod into exile, but
the situation could not last. The Romans, led by Ventidius, eventually drove the
Parthians out. Herod, with Roman help, was then able to defeat and kill Antigonus.
37–4 Herod the Great§ son of Antipater. He was his father’s second son, but with his
brother Phasael dead and Phasael’s children infants, Herod stood to inherit his
father’s power. Indeed, he inherited more — for when he came to Rome to plead
for the Jewish cause, the Senate (encouraged by Mark Antony) made him King of
Judea. Herod repaid the gift by helping drive the Parthians out of Syria and
generally supporting the Roman cause. But Herod was just as much a foreigner as
his father, and equally unpopular with the Jews. He was, moreover, somewhat
unbalanced, and quickly turned to vicious cruelty to maintain his rule. Still, he kept
Judea at peace for more than thirty years. He killed many people, but his chief
victims were the remaining Hasmoneans — including two of his own sons. But
since he had ten wives, there were more than enough sons left to succeed him (and
no love lost between them). In Herod’s troubled later years he changed his will
many times, and named different sons as his heirs. His final will left most of his
lands to Archelaus. Another son, Herod Antipas, contested this, and the matter was
taken to Augustus. The Emperor chose to award portions of Herod’s lands to
Antipas and to another son, Philip “the Tetrarch” — but the bulk of the kingdom,
including Judea and Samaria, was given to Herod’s chosen heir…
4 B.C.E.–6 C.E. Archelaus§ son of Herod. He was probably the worst of all the Herodian rulers.
His government was so bad that the Jews and Samaritans — who went out of their
way to disagree on everything — agreed on wanting to be rid of him. After ten
years of protests, Rome finally listened. Archelaus was deposed, and Rome took
over direct control of Israel. Thus began the rule of the procurators, starting with…
6–8 C.E. Coponius, the first in a long line of generally bad Roman officials. The procurators
ruled the area of Judea and Samaria as part of the district of Syria. Their troops
were based in Cæsarea on the coast, and were supposed to avoid Jerusalem and
Samaria if possible. But Judea consistently had the worst Roman officials (no one
knows why, but few if any other provinces were so ill-treated), and the procurators
often violated their commissions. Coponius was not unusual. He was appointed by
Quirinius1 as part of the housecleaning that followed the deposition of Archelaus
1.!For Quirinius see the excursus below, “Quirinius de Bergerac?”

The Rulers of Judah
(Ant XVIII.ii.1; BJ II.viii.11). It was he who repressed the revolt of Judas the
Galilean, the founder of the Zealots (Acts 5:37, although the chronology of that
verse is confused. Judas revolted in 6 C.E. — Ant XVIII.i.1, BJ II.viii.1 — while
Theudas did not rebel until the time of Fadus, long after the trial of the apostles.
This has led some scholars to believe that there were two Theudases, one of them
mentioned by Luke and one by Josephus2).
Coponius’s time also saw an incident in which the Samaritans threw dead bodies
into the Temple (Ant XVIII.ii.2). But by the standards of his successors, he wasn’t
too bad....
9–12 M. Ambivius. A minor figure. Even Josephus can’t think of much to say about him
except that Herod’s sister Salome died during his administration (Ant XVIII.ii.2).
12–15 Annius Rufus. Another minor figure about whom little is known (Ant XVIII.ii.2).
15–26 Valerius Gratus. The first procurator to be appointed by the Emperor Tiberius
rather than Augustus (Ant XVIII.ii.2). He is probably best known for his shuffling of
High Priests. He deposed Annas, who had been High Priest since 6 C.E., in 15, and
went through three successors before settling on Caiaphas in 18. Little else is known
of his rule, except that no other procurator lasted as long (Josephus — Ant
XVIII.vi.5 — notes that Tiberius appointed only two procurators — Gratus and
Pilate — during his 23-year reign). Despite all his meddling, Gratus seems to have
retired quietly (Ant XVIII.ii.2).
1.!The passage in BJ states that “Archelaus’s territory was now reduced to a province, and Coponius, a
Roman of the equestrian/knightly class, was sent out as procurator, having been granted full power,
including that of capital punishment, by [Augustus] Cæsar.”
2.!Other scholars have gone so far as to propose that Luke was dependent on Josephus. A realistic assessment of the
evangelist, however, shows no signs of dependence on Josephus; the two differ widely on crucial details such as
the date of Theudas and the name of the High Priest in Jesus’s time (since Luke clearly considers Annas to be the
High Priest; cf. Luke 3:2, Acts 4:6). It is possible that Luke heard Josephus lecture in Rome, but that doesn’t make
him a source!

The Rulers of Judah
Excursus: Quirinius de Bergerac?

In dating Jesus’s birth, the King James Bible refers to “Cyrenius” as taking a census in Luke
2:1-2, as does CCD1942, but all the Protestant versions starting with RV read “Quirinius.” Why
the difference?
The problem is, Luke’s gospel is written in Greek, while any Roman official would have a
name written in the Latin alphabet. The original text of Luke 2:2 was probably AE!;5&8E,
“Kyreniou” — so ‫ א‬A C D K L J M Y Z [ ƒ1 33 1241 Byz, although ƒ13 565 579 892 1241 read
AE!&5&8E, “Kyriniou”; while B W 0177 sa have AE!(*)&58E, “Kyr(e)inou.” The very existence of
this confusion shows that there might be some uncertainty about transcribing the name in Greek.
Most of the Latin versions give the name as “Cyrino,” which appears to be the same as the
AE!(*)&58E of B W 0177; a few Latin texts (leg harl) follow Jerome in turning this into
“Quirino,” “Quirinius.” Reading “Cyrino” as “Quirino” on its face makes sense, since
“Quirinius” is a proper Roman name of the right general period. And we have a good candidate
for the position:.
Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (consul 12 B.C.E.; died 21/22 C.E. — Tacitus, Annals III.48) was
legate of Syria 6-9 C.E. He conducted a census in 6 (Ant XVII.xiii.5, XVIII.i.1, ii.1; XVIII.i.1. in
particular discusses his work in detail; cf. Acts 5:37, which correctly connects this census with the
revolt of Judas the Galilean, although the reason the census was needed was to clean up the mess
left by Archelaus).
The difficulty in the equation with Quirinius is that the chronology doesn’t work, since Luke
1:5 says that Jesus was born in the reign of Herod the Great, agreeing with Matt. 2:1ƒ. — and
Herod was ten years dead in 6 C.E. when Quirinius took his post. But there certainly isn’t any
other “Cyrinius/Quirinius” who makes better sense. The best solution appears to be to read the
verse in Luke as referring to “Saturninus” (Sentius Saturninus, legate of Syria 9-6 B.C.E.) instead
of “Quirinius.” We don’t know of any census by Saturninus, but he was in the right place at the
right time. Otherwise we must assume that Matthew, too, is wrong, and that Jesus was born
around the time of the deposition of Archelaus, making him only about twenty-four at the time
he began his ministry (instead of the “about thirty” of Luke 3:23).
And the confusion of “Quirinius” with “Saturninus” is not quite as odd as it seems,
particularly when going from language to language. K, Q , and S don’t look anything alike in
modern Roman scripts, but in Latin inscriptions, S was often written like a Greek L, because this
shape was easier to carve in stone. Similarly, Greek L was written C in most early uncial scripts,
which looks a bit like a Roman Q — or, if you stick a vertical line in from of it, IC is easily read
as K (we see examples of this confusion in many ancient writings). So to get from “Saturninus” to
“Quirinius” takes a relatively small leap.

The Rulers of Judah
26–36 Pontius Pilate. Greek /850&8# /&%-08# (or /*&%-08#), Pontios Pilatos. Matt. 27:2;
Mark 15:1; Luke 3:1, 13:1, 23:1; John 18:29; Acts 3:13, 4:27, 13:28; 1 Tim. 6:13;
etc. One of the longest-serving of the procurators, but hardly one of the best. His
treatment of Jesus seems to have been almost the only humane event of his term
(and even then he gave in when threatened); the rest of his time he spent
deliberately harassing the Jews. At least once he deliberately committed idolatry (as
defined by the Jews) by installing legionary ensigns (regarded as idols, since they
were worshipped by the troops) and images of the Emperor (also worshipped) in
Jerusalem (Ant XVIII.iii.1; BJ II.ix.2–3).1 One one occasion Tiberius had to order
him to desist. (Pilate probably didn’t care during the early part of his
administration; he had a powerful protector in the Prætorian prefect Sejanus. When
that officer fell from favour and was executed in 31, Pilate’s position became less
secure — which may have something to do with why he let the Jews have their way
with Jesus.) The procurator also tried to use Temple funds to build a waterworks,
and had his troops attack those who protested (Ant XVIII.iii.2, BJ II.ix.4). Finally, in
36, Pilate slaughtered a group of Samaritans on their holy mountain, Mount
Gerizim (Ant XVIII.iv.1). This led to such protests that the Roman legate Lucius
Vitellius (father of a future Emperor) sent him to Rome for trial (Ant XVIII.iv.2).
Nothing is known of Pilate’s later life, so we do not know the result of the trial, but
he was not returned to his post. Later legends about Pilate are many; the most
absurd make him a Christian and even a saint. Pilate is one of the few procurators
mentioned in Roman histories; Tacitus (Annals XV.44) tells us that he had Jesus
executed while Tiberius was Emperor (this account, however, is probably derived
from the statements of Christians; Tacitus does not seem to know anything more
about Pilate than he could have learned from them — or perhaps from Josephus,
whom Tacitus could easily have heard lecture in the 90s).
36–37? Marcellus or Marullus. His term was short; he was Pilate’s pro tem successor (Ant
XVIII.vi.2) appointed by the Syrian legate Vitellius rather than the Emperor. No
one, including Josephus, seems to have remembered much about him.
37–41? Marullus (#2). The existence of two procurators named Marullus/Marcellus is
one proposed solution to the problem of figuring out who was procurator in the
period between Pilate and Herod Agrippa. Josephus mentions Marcellus’s
appointment only in Ant XVIII.vi.2. In Ant XVIII.vi.1, when Agrippa becomes ruler
of Philip’s tetrarchy, Marullus becomes the Judean “cavalry commander” (a word
which in Greek is very similar to “procurator”). Josephus in Ant XIX.v.1 does not
name the procurator whom Agrippa replaced. Marcellus and Marullus may be the
same man, or the latter may have served under and/or succeeded the former. A
1.!According to Philo (as quoted by Eusebius), Pilate actually installed these images in the Temple! References to the
event are also found in the Talmud.

The Rulers of Judah
third proposal is that one Herenius Capito was procurator in 37–41. Josephus
describes Capito as procurator of the city of Jamnia (Ant XVIII.vi.3), but external
evidence seems to indicate that he ruled an area larger than one city. The matter
must be considered uncertain. What we are sure of is that Capito had a dispute
with king Herod Agrippa I about money (Ant XVIII.vi.4).
41–44 Herod Agrippa I§. Acts 12:1, 6, 11, 19, (20), 21(–23). The son of Aristobulus, who
was the son of Herod the Great by his Maccabean wife Mariamme. When Herod
died, Aristobulus had been executed by Herod and Agrippa was only six years old
— far too young to succeed to a troubled border kingdom. So he was sent off to
Rome to receive an education. Although he had a number of problems there — at
one point even being accused of treason — he also became friends with the future
Emperors Gaius and Claudius. It was Gaius who in 37 appointed him to control the
lands formerly governed by Philip “the Tetrarch”; Claudius in 41 elevated him over
almost all of the lands formerly controlled by Herod the Great. If he had lived, he
might well have prevented the Jewish Revolt and/or succeeded in suppressing
Christianity (for he persecuted the new religion — Acts 12:1–5). But he died
suddenly in 44 (Acts 12:21–23). His son Agrippa II was not yet old enough to rule,
and so Judah once again became the province of the procurators.
44–c. 46 Cuspius Fadus. Appointed by Claudius because the Emperor’s courtiers
convinced him that Agrippa II, who was only a teenager, was not old enough to rule
a large kingdom (Ant XIX.ix.2). Josephus generally approves of his behavior (he “left
native customs…alone” — BJ II.xi.6) but also notes (Ant XX.i.1) that he took the
regalia of the High Priest back into Roman custody until Claudius dissuaded him.
And, of course, there was some intriguing going on with the Parthians during his
time. In addition, a “Theudas” (presumably the one mentioned in Acts 5:36)
revolted during this period (Ant XX.v.1 — in contradiction to the Acts account,
which implies a date before the Thirties). But unrest probably was not widespread.
46–48 Tiberius Julius Alexander. The only Jew among the procurators. But he came
from Alexandria (he was, in fact, the nephew of the famous Jewish allegorizer
Philo), and may not have received much respect from the Judeans. Besides, he seems
to have lapsed from Judaism (Ant XX.v.2). Still, Josephus calls his rule generally
quiet and good (BJ II.xi.6). He is one of the few procurators mentioned outside
Josephus: Tacitus refers to him as a “distinguished knight” who served in Armenia
in 63 (Tacitus, Annals XV.28).1 Toward the end of Nero’s reign Alexander was given
charge of Alexandria (Tacitus, Histories I.11; BJ II.xv.1), and convinced its people to
1.!Alexander was apparently chief of staff or some other sort of senior advisor to Cnæus Domitius Corbulo, the
officer charged with recapturing Armenia from the Parthians (between 50 B.C.E. and the end of the Biblical
period Armenia switched between Roman and Parthian puppet-kings many times). In this case the Romans were
acting on behalf of Tigranes V, the grandson of Alexander son of Herod the Great.

The Rulers of Judah
accept the Emperor Vespasian (BJ II.xv.1).1 He later led a Roman legion at the siege
of Jerusalem (BJ V.i.6, VI.iv.3).
48–52 Ventidius Cumanus. His government was marked by “disturbances and further
disasters” (BJ II.xii.1). Tacitus, too, calls him wicked, saying that he imitated the vile
ways of Felix, who (according to Tacitus’s account in Annals XII.54) ruled Samaria
while Cumanus ruled only Galilee. As examples of his ill behavior, Josephus cites
the fact that he incited a riot on the Passover, ignored profanations of the Jewish
law, accepted bribes, and allowed an incident with the Samaritans to get out of
hand and nearly lead to war (Ant XX.v.3ƒ., BJ II.xii.1ƒ.) He was eventually deposed
and banished (Ant XX.vi.3, BJ II.xiii.6),2 but the spectre of revolt was beginning to
rise.
52–59? Marcus Antonius Felix§ (Tacitus’s name — e.g. Histories V.9; Josephus — Ant
XX.viii.1 — calls him “Claudius Felix.”) Acts 23:24, 26, 24:3, 22, 24, 25, 27, 25:14.
His dates are somewhat uncertain; see the main entry on Felix on p. 443. The only
procurator of Judah who was not a member of the Equestrian (knightly) social class.
He was the brother of the Emperor Claudius’s favorite freedman Pallas (BJ II.xii.7),
and was himself a freedman; it was his brother’s influence that won him his post.
He was anything but a pleasant character, as his unlawful imprisonment of Paul
shows (Acts 24:26ƒ.; so also Tacitus, Annals XII.54, who describes him as feuding
with Cumanus, then procurator of Galilee. Josephus had personal knowledge of his
injustice — Life 3). Shortly after his appointment, Felix took Drusilla, the daughter
of Herod Agrippa I and a Jewess, as his wife, but she hardly improved his behavior;
the “Western” text of Acts even accuses her of calling for Paul’s imprisonment (see
the entry on Drusilla on p. 442. Felix was a violent ruler; his most important act
was the bloody suppression of a riot led by an Egyptian “Messiah” in 55 (Ant
XX.viii.6, BJ II.xiii.5; this is the man Paul was mistaken for in Acts 21:38). He also
assassinated the former High Priest Jonathan when the latter began a campaign for
better government (Ant XX.viii.5). This was the first act of the Sicarii, who
eventually seriously disrupted Jewish society (BJ II.xiii.3). Eventually Felix was
recalled and forced to face charges; only Pallas’s influence saved him (Ant XX.viii.9).
His ultimate fate is unknown (although Pallas was executed in 62).
59?–62 Porcius Festus. Acts 24:27, 25:1, 4, 9, 12–14, 22–24, 26:24, 25, 32. Appointed by
Nero to replace Felix (Ant XX.viii.10), who faced charges brought by the Jews (Ant
XX.viii.9). Although nothing is known of his earlier life, Festus was one of the
1.!Tacitus (Histories CC.79) and Suetonius (Vespasian 6) indeed both say that Alexander was the first Roman to publicly
proclaim Vespasian as Emperor (July 1, 69 C.E.)
2.!Tacitus in Annals XII.54 says that Felix was one of the judges who tried Cumanus (a farce set up by the governor
of Syria to protect the court favorite Felix from the charges leveled against both procurators); it thus appears
possible that in 52 Felix ruled Samaria and Cumanus Galilee (so Tacitus) and/or Judea (so Josephus), and that the
former took over Judea after the disgrace of the latter.

The Rulers of Judah
better procurators. He treated Paul better than Felix did, and Josephus called him
wise. (On the other hand, he was willing to sacrifice Paul to the crowd; cf. Acts
25:6–12.) His administration of Judah was a relief to the population, and he was
able to suppress many of the local bandits (BJ II.xiv.1). But he died in office after
only a few years, and his successors went back to the bad old ways of Felix and
Pilate.
62–64 Lucius Albinus. His appointment is mentioned in Ant XX.ix.1. He had previously
been a military official in Alexandria. Josephus accuses him of “every possible
misdeed” (BJ II.xiv.1); bribery, not the procurator, was the true ruler of Judah. In
the period between Festus’s death and Albinus’s arrival, the Jews killed James the
brother of Jesus, and Albinus does not seem to have cared or to have done anything
to prevent future lynchings. While Josephus makes some attempt to defend the
procurator from the worst of the accusations against him, crediting him with
combatting the sicarii (Ant XX.ix.2), it is clear that conditions in Judea deteriorated
badly during his term. In the end, when he was about to be replaced, he executed
most of his prisoners and freed the less violent ones who were willing to bribe him
(Ant XX.ix.5). So he left a country full of robbers and bandits in the hands of his
successor. He was later appointed governor of Mauretania, where he continued his
vile ways (a rumour has it that he declared himself king) and was eventually
assassinated in 69 (Tacitus, Histories II.58–59).
64–66 Gessius Florus. Perhaps the worst of all procurators, his tools of government
were robbery and violence. He obtained his post based on connections, not
competence; his equally vile wife was a friend of Nero’s wife Poppæa (Ant XX.xi.1).
Josephus calls him “the most heartless of men [and] the most disgusting” (BJ
II.xiv.2). He apparently was actually proud of his wickedness (Ant XX.xi.1); he is
said to have flouted his misdeeds, whereas Albinus hid them (BJ II.xiv.2). Tacitus
(Histories V.10) seems to agree with Josephus that Florus all but forced the Jews into
revolt. Indeed, it was said that he incited the Jewish revolt to conceal his own crimes
(BJ II.xiv.3. The Jews had already appealed to higher authorities for help, and the
Syrian governor Cestius Gallus had promised them relief. But Florus, hoping to
head off an appeal to Cæsar, simply increased his brutality). At last he absconded
with a payment from the Jews of Cæsarea (BJ II.xiv.4) then appropriated more from
the Temple (BJ II.xiv.6), slaughtering those who protested. Bernice the sister of
Herod Agrippa II stood before him barefoot begging him to stop the butchery.
Jewish nobles appealed to Agrippa, to Cestius Gallus, and to Nero. But it was too
late. The Zealots were in control, and Agrippa could not dissuade them. Florus had
his revolt, which would take seven years and thousands of lives to suppress. The
procurator’s own fate is unknown.
66 Jewish Revolt.

The Rulers of Judah
In broad outline, the history of the revolt is as follows. The war began in May 66.
Cæsennius Gallus (not to be confused with Cestius Gallus) set out from Cæsarea
later in that year to suppress the revolt, but after Roman troops were driven from
Jerusalem in September, he was defeated at Beth-horon. (For Gallus’s failure cf.
Tacitus, Histories V.10, which notes that the campaign ended when Gallus died or
killed himself.) All of Judea, Idumea, and Galilee then joined the revolt or fell into
rebel hands. (The Samaritans, however, remained loyal to Rome, meaning that the
Jews of Galilee and Judea were separated and largely unable to help each other.) In
the winter of 66/67 a unified Jewish command structure was created (under which,
for instance, Josephus took charge of Galilee — BJ II.xx.4). In 67 the Emperor
Nero appointed Vespasian to suppress the revolt, giving him overall control of ten
legions (although only three were in the Jewish district). In July Vespasian captured
Josephus’s fortress of Jotapa, giving him control of all Galilee (almost without a
fight) except for Gamala (east of the Sea of Galilee), which fell in October. To make
matters worse for the Jews, tensions were rising between Zealots and moderates.
In 68 Vespasian moved on Judea, but (witnessing the factional fighting in the capitol)
chose to concentrate on outlying areas rather than Jerusalem. By midsummer the
Romans had regained all of the Jewish territory except southern Peraea in Trans-
Jordan (controlled by the great fortress of Machaerus where John the Baptist had
died) and the region of Judea to the southeast of Jerusalem (a strip of territory
roughly twenty kilometers wide, controlled by the fortresses of Jerusalem,
Herodium, and Masada). At this time, however, news arrived of the various
rebellions against Nero, and Vespasian suspended hostilities (although he easily dealt
with an attempted Jewish counteroffensive).
In July of 69 Vespasian was proclaimed Emperor and set off for Rome, leaving his
son Titus in charge of the war. Titus invested Jerusalem in the spring of 70 (Luke
12:20?), and gradually (as the Jewish factions continued their pointless dispute)
captured portions of the city. Parts of the outer wall fell in May, the Fortress
Antonia was taken in July, the Temple was occupied in August (it was burned soon
after), and resistance ended in September. Titus returned to Rome for a triumph in
71, and Herodium surrendered in that same year. Machaerus resisted for a time, but
also accepted terms in 71. That left only Masada. Besieged in 73, it fell when the
defenders committed suicide.
The whole affair shows something about the mystical attitudes of the time. A
prophecy said that at about this time a ruler of the world would come from Judea
(Tacitus, Histories V.13; Suetonius, Vespasian 4). The Jews thought this to be one of
their potential messiahs, the Christians referred it to Jesus, and the Romans saw it as
Vespasian.

Time Chart of Middle Eastern Events

Date Egypt/Africa Mesopotamia Asia/Greece Rome Israel/Syria Judah
Middle
2050 (Minos)
Kingdom
Minoan
1800 Amenemhat III Abraham
Period
1775 2nd Int. Period
1728? Hammurabi§
Hittite
1570 New Kingdom
Kingdom
1500 Dynasty 18 Israel in Egypt
1356 Ashuruballit Hittite Empire
1298 Adad-Nirari I
1290 Ramses II
1280 †Kadesh The Exodus
1266 Shalmaneser I
1250 Dynasty 19 Joshua
Tukulti-Ninurta
1235
I
1200 Ramses III (Agamemnon) Ehud Othniel
Mycenaean Deborah &
1150 Dynasty 20
Age Barak
1116 Tiglath-Pileser I (Fall of Troy)
Gideon,
1100
Jephthah
1080 Eli
1050 Dynasty 21 Samuel
1020 Kingdom of Israel Founded
1020 Saul
1000 †Gilboa
1000 David
993 Capture of Jerusalem
969 Hiram of Tyre
961 Siamun Solomon


Rezon of
950
Damascus
New Assyrian Break-up of Davidic Empire;
922
Empire Israel, Judah separate
Shishak
922 Jeroboam I Rehoboam
(Sheshonk I
915 Dynasty 22 Abijam
913 Asa
910 Adad-nirari II
901 Nadab
900 Baasha
Tukulti-Ninurta
890
II
883 Ashurnasirpal II
877 Elah
876 Zimri
876 Tibni
876 Omri
873 Jehoshaphat
869 Ahab
859 Shalmaneser III
854 †Karkar
850 Ahaziah 1
849 Jehoram
Jehoram
842 Ahaziah 2
Jehu Athaliah
837 Joash 2
Shamshi-Adad
824
V
815 Jehoahaz
Carthage
814
founded
811 Adad-nirari III
801 Jehoash


800 Amaziah
786 Jeroboam II
Azariah 4/
783 Shalmaneser IV
Uzziah
Traditional
753 Founding
of Rome
745 Piankhy Zechariah
Tiglath-Pileser
745 Dynasty 25 Shallum
III
745 (Romulus) Menahem
742 Jotham
738 Pekahiah
737 Pekah
735 Ahaz
732 Shabaka Hoshea
726 Shalmaneser V
Fall of
722 Sargon II
Samaria
Numa
716
Pompilius
715 Taharqa Hezekiah
705 Sennacherib
687 Manasseh 2
681 Esarhaddon Gyges of Lydia

Tullus
673
Hostilius
Conquest by
671
Assyria
668 Ashurbanipal
663 Fall of Thebes
652 Psamtik I
Phraortes of
647
Media
642 Amon
Ancus
641
Marcius


640 Josiah
625 Ashur-itil-ilani
Scythian
625 Nabopolassar§
Invasion
Cyaxares of
625 Media
625 Median Empire
622 Sin-shar-ishkun
Tarquinius
618
Priscus
612 Fall of Ninevah
610 Neco II Fall of Haran
Babylonian
609 †Megiddo
Empire
609 Jehoahaz 2
Jehoiakim
605 †Carchemish
Assyria Alyattes of
605 Destroyed Lydia
605 Nebuchadnezzar Lydian Empire
598 Jehoiachin
First Fall of
597
Jerusalem
597 Zedekiah
594 Solon
593 Psamtik II
588 Hophra
Destruction of
587
Jerusalem
Astyges of
585
Media
Servius
580
Tullius
569 Amasis
562 Evil-Merodach§
Croesus of
560 Neriglissar§
Lydia


Labashi-
556 Cyrus
Marduk§
Nabonidas§
Fall of Media to
553
Persian Empire
Fall of Lydia to
546
Persian Empire
Fall of Babylon
539 to Persian
Empire
Cyrus Cyrus Cyrus
538 (Sheshbazaar)
Tarquinius
534
Superbus
529 Cambyses Cambyses Cambyses
526 Psamtik III
Fall of Egypt to
525
Persian Empire
522 (False Smerdis)
520 Darius I Darius I Darius I (Zerubbabel 1)
516 (Jeshua)
510 Cleisthenes
Roman
509
Republic
493 Themistocles
1st Persian
492 Invasion of
Greece
490 †Marathon
486 Xerxes I Xerxes I Xerxes I Xerxes I
2nd Persian
480 Invasion of
Greece
480 †Thermopylæ
†Salamis,
479
Plataea
477 Delian League
465 Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes I Artaxerxes I


462 Pericles
458 (Ezra??)
445 (Nehemiah)
Peloponnesian
431
War
Death of
429
Pericles
424 Xerxes II Xerxes II Xerxes II
424 Sogdianus Sogdianus Sogdianus
424 Darius II Darius II Darius II
405 †Ægospotami
Fall of
404 Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes II
Athens
404 Local rule †Cunaxa
398 (Ezra?)
Sack of
390
Rome
Philip II of
359
Macedon
358 Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes III
Persian
341
reconquest
338 Arses Arses Arses
Alexander
336 Darius III Darius III Darius III
the Great
334 †Granicus
333 †Issus
Alexander Alexander Alexander
332
the Great the Great the Great
Alexandria
331 Gaugamela
Founded
330 Fall of Persopolis
330 Alexander the Great Alexander the Great
Death of
323
Alexander
Lamian
322
War

†Gaza
312 Ptolemy I Soter Antigonus I Monophthalmos
Seleucid dynasty established
Ptolemaic Seleucid Antigonid

306
Kingdon Empire Kingdom
306 Ptolemy I Seleucus I Antigonus I (Ruled by Ptolemy I)
Demetrius
301 †Ipsus
Poliorcetes
Antigonus II
285 Ptolemy II Ptolemy II
Gonatas
281 †Corupedium
Wars with
280 Antiochus I 1st Syrian War (to 272)
Pyrrhus
1st Punic
264
War
261 Antiochus II
260 2nd Syrian War (to 255)
Arsaces I of
247
Parthia
246 Ptolemy III Seleucus II Ptolemy III
246 3rd Syrian War (to 241)
Punic War
241
Ends
239 Demetrius II
Antigonus III
229
Doson
226 Seleucus III
223 Antiochus III
221 Ptolemy IV Philip V Ptolemy IV
219 4th Syrian War (to 216)
2nd Punic
218
War
216 †Cannae
1st
215 Macedonian
War (to 205)
Capture of
203 Ptolemy V Ptolemy V
Spain


202 †Zama
Punic War
201 5th Syrian War (to 195)
Ends
2nd
200 Macedonian
War (to 197)
198 †Panion/Banias Antiochus III
Macedonian
197
War Ends
195 Syrian War Ends
191 †Thermopylæ
190 †Magnesia
Peace of
188
Apamea
187 Seleucus IV Seleucus IV
181 Ptolemy VI
179 Perseus
175 Antiochus IV Antiochus IV
3rd
Mithridates I of
171 Macedonian
Parthia
War
170 [Ptolemy VIII]
168 †Pydna
Antigonid
167 Kingdom Mattathias (1)
Destroyed
Judas
166
Maccabeus
(Book of
165
Daniel)
163 Antiochus V
161 Demetrius I
160 Jonathan
150 Alexander Balas
3rd Punic
149
War
Corinth Carthage
146
Destroyed Destroyed


145 [Cleopatra II] Demetrius II
143 [Antiochus VI]
Demetrius II
142 Ptolemy VIII Simon
Restored
138 Antiochus VII
1st Slave
136
War
John
134
Hyrcanus I
Bequeathal
133 of
Pergamum
129 Demetrius II
125 Antiochus VIII John Hyrcanus I
116 Ptolemy IX Antiochus IX
Jugurthine
111 Antiochus VIII
War
107 Ptolemy X
104 Aristobulus I
103 Alexander Janneus
91 Social War
1st
88 Ptolemy IX Mithridatic
War
2nd
83 Mithridatic
War
82 Sulla
81/80 Ptolemy XII

Retirement
79
of Sulla
76 Alexandra (1)
3rd
74 Mithridatic
War
Spartacus’s
73
Revolt
67 Aristobulus II (Civil War)


Fall of Seleucid
64
Empire
Fall of
63
Jerusalem
63 Antipater of Idumea
First Triumvirate: Pompey,
60
Julius Cæsar, Crassus
53 †Carrhae
51 Cleopatra VII
49 Julius Cæsar
48 †Pharsalus
Death of
44
Cæsar
John
Second Triumvirate: Mark
43 Hyrcanus II
Antony, Octavian, Lepidus
(Civil War)
42 †Philippi
Antigonus
40
Mattathias
Rise of
39 Sextus
Pompeius
Herod the
37
Great
Fall of
Sextus.
36
Deposition
of Lepidus.
36 Mark Antony Mark Antony Octavian Mark Antony Mark Antony
31 †Actium
Fall of
Ptolemaic
Death of Death of Death of
30 Kingdom.
Mark Antony Mark Antony Mark Antony
Death of Mark
Antony
30 Herod the Great
27 Principate Roman Principate (Empire): Augustus

(Herod’s
18
Temple)
6? Birth of Jesus


4 Archelaus
6 c.e. Coponius
9 M. Ambivius
12 Annius Rufus
14 Tiberius
15 Valerius Gratus
26 Pontius Pilate
30? Death of Jesus
36 Marullus (?)
Gaius
37
(Caligula)
41 Claudius Herod Agrippa I
Death of
43 James son of
Zebedee
44 Cuspius Fadus
46? Tiberius Alexander
48 Ventidius Cumanus
1&2
50?
Thessalonians?
52 M. Antonius Felix
54 Galatians? Nero
1&2
55?
Corinthians
58? Romans?
59? Porcius Festus
Death of
62 James brother
of Jesus
62 Lucius Albinus
64 Gessius Florus
Death of
64 Peter?
66 Jewish Revolt
Gospel of
66 Mark?


Death of
67
Paul?
68 Galba
69 Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
Fall of
70
Jerusalem
Fall of
Masada.
73
Jewish revolt
Ends
Gospel of Gospel of
75
Luke? Matthew?
79 Titus
81 Domitian
James? Jude?
90
1!Peter?
Book of
95?
Revelation
96 Nerva
98 Trajan
Gospel &
100? Letters of
John?
117 Hadrian
1 & 2 Timothy,
120?
Titus?
Bar Kochba
132
Revolt
Jews expelled
135 from
Jerusalem
150? 2 Peter?

KEY:
† indicates a battle
BLUE INDICATES AN ASSYRIAN EMPEROR

CYAN INDICATES A BABYLONIAN EMPEROR
GREEN INDICATES A PERSIAN EMPEROR
RED INDICATES AN EVENT DIRECTLY RELEVANT TO CHRISTIANITY
A YELLOW BACKGROUND INDICATES THE RISE OF A NATION
AN ORANGE BACKGROUND INDICATES A NATION’S FALL
A GREEN BACKGROUND INDICATES A MAJOR EVENT

World History As Seen in the Bible

Year Event Bible Texts See Link
c. 1800 Middle Bronze Age: Ur, Babylon, Assyria. Abraham adopts Gen. 15:2, Mesopotamia
B.C.E. many of the customs of Nuzi in Mesopotamia. 16:1ƒ. p. 282
c. 1600 The Israelites enter Egypt, probably during the Hyksos Gen. 46:1ƒ. The Hyksos,
period. p. 264
c. 1350 The Egyptian New Kingdom establishes a strong Imperial Ex. 1:8ƒ. Ramses II,
state. Israelites oppressed. p. 267
c. 1200 The Israelites escape from Egypt as the New Kingdom falls Ex. 12:31ƒ. Merneptah,
apart. p. 267
c. 1150 The Israelites enter Palestine, then ruled by petty warlords Josh. 3:15ƒ.
as a result of the weakness of Egypt and the
Mesopotamian kingdoms.
1150– The Israelites gradually conquer Palestine due to the efforts Judges 2–16 Othniel, p.
1050 of the Judges 24, etc.
c. 1050 The Philistines oppress the disunited Israelites. Local 1 Sam. 4 Samuel, p.
leaders such as Samuel offer what resistance they can. 253
c. 1020 Saul, the first Israelite king, comes to power. 1 Sam. 9–27 Saul, p. 190
c. 1000 Defeat & death of Saul. David becomes king of Israel & 1 Sam. 28– David, p. 95
founds an Israeli Empire. 2!Sam. 24
c. 960 Solomon King of Israel. 1 Kings 1–11 Solomon, p.
197
c. 950 Damascus rebels against Solomon. 1 Kings Rezon, p. 279
11:23ƒ.
c. 920 Death of Solomon. Division of Israel and Judah. 1 Kings 12–14 Rehoboam,
Rehoboam king of Judah; Jeroboam I king of Israel. p. 187;
Jeroboam I,
p. 138
c. 880– Israel and Damascus engage in almost-constant border 1 Kings 15, Ben-Hadad,
810 war, pausing only briefly in the time of Ahab & Ben-Hadad 22, 2 Kings 8– p. 279
II to fight off the Assyrians 10, 13

The Rulers of Judah
745 Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria permanently interferes in 2 Kings 15– Tiglath-

Palestinian affairs. He sets up Menahem and Hoshea as 16, (Isa. 7) Pileser III, p.
kings of Israel, destroys Damascus, and accepts the fealty
293; Hoshea
of Ahaz of Judah (at a price!)
2, p. 122
701 Assyrians under Sargon’s son Sennacherib attack but do 2 Kings Sennacherib,
not quite destroy Hezekiah’s Judah 18:13–19:36, p. 290
Isa. 36–37
681 Sennacherib is assassinated by his sons, bringing 2 Kings 19:37 Esarhaddon,
Esarhaddon (who takes Assyria to the height of its power) p. 289
to the throne
c. 627 After a successful reign of some forty years, Esarhaddon’s 2 Kings Ashurbanipal
literate and capable son Ashurbanipal dies, beginning the 23:15–20, etc. p. 287
final decline of Assyria. Client-states such as Josiah’s Judah
begin to assert their independence and take over additional
land
612 Fall of the Assyrian capitol Ninevah to the Medes and 2 Kings 23:29, Neco II, p.
Babylonians. The Egyptian Pharaoh Neco allies with the Tobit 14:4, 15, 271
Assyrians in an attempt to avoid the founding of a Nahum 1:1ƒ.
Babylonian Empire
609 Neco, moving to support the Assyrians, kills Josiah and 2 Kings Josiah, p. 155
takes over Judah 23:29–37
605 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon defeats the Assyrians and 2 Kings 24:1, Nebuchadnezzar,
Egyptians at Carchemish and takes over Judah Jer. 46:2 p. 296
601–598 Jehoiakim of Judah rebels against Babylon; the rebellion is 2 Kings 24:2– Jehoiakim, p.
crushed 17 133
587 Zedekiah, the last King of Judah, rebels and is suppressed. 2 Kings Zedekiah, p.
Jerusalem and the Temple are destroyed and the people 24:18–25:21, 204
exiled etc.
562 Death of Nebuchadnezzar produces an instability in 2 Kings Evil-
Babylon which, although it offers hope for the Jews, bodes 25:27–29 Merodach,
ill for the Chaldean Empire
p. 298
550 Cyrus the Great of Persia conquers the Median Empire, Isa. 45:1 Cyrus “the
the first step toward the destruction of Babylon Great”, p.
313

539 Cyrus conquers Babylon, and soon grants permission for 2 Chron. Cyrus “the
the building of a new Temple 36:22–23, Great”, p.
Ezra 1:1ƒ.
313
520 Darius I becomes Emperor and allows Zerubbabel and Ezra 4:24–5:2, Darius I, p.
Jeshua to complete the rebuilding of the Temple etc. 315
486 Xerxes I Persian Emperor; makes an enemy of Greece by (Esther 1:1, Xerxes I, p.
unsuccessful invasions etc.; Ezra 4:6; 321
cf. Dan. 11:2?)
449 Artaxerxes I of Persia makes peace with Greece, allowing Neh. 1–7, 13 Artaxerxes I,
the Greeks to war among themselves (eventually allowing p. 308
the Macedonian conquest) but permitting Nehemiah to
rebuild Jerusalem
398 ? Artaxerxes II (?) commissions Ezra to reform Judaism; he Ezra 7–10; Artaxerxes II,
apparently rendered the Pentateuch authoritative Neh. 8 p. 309
336 Philip II of Macedon unites Greece and is assassinated 1 Macc. 6:2
334–330 Alexander son of Philip decisively defeats Darius III of 1 Macc. 1:1; Alexander, p.
Persia and takes over the Persian Empire cf. Dan. 11:3 329
323 The death of Alexander results in the partition of his 1 Macc. 1:2–9;
Empire cf. Dan. 11:4
c. 312 Ptolemy I takes control of Judah cf. Dan. 11:5 Ptolemy I, p.
343
201 Roman victory in the Second Punic War (defeating cf. 1 Macc. Second Punic
Carthage and Hannibal) establishes Rome as the dominant 8:3–4, Isa. War, p. 407
Mediterranean power 23:1 LXX
198 The Seleucid (Syrian) Emperor Antiochus III conquers Dan. 11:15ƒ.; Antiochus III
Judah from Egypt on his second attempt (the first had failed cf. 3 Macc. p. 356
in 217) 1:1–7
198 The Romans defeat the Macedonian Philip V, thus 1 Macc. 8:5 Philip V, p.
interfering in Greek affairs on a large scale for the first time 411
191 The Romans chase the Seleucid Antiochus III from Greece 1 Macc. 8:6ƒ.; Antiochus III
and enter Asia for the first time cf. Dan. p. 356
11:18ƒ.
175 Antiochus IV Epiphanes Seleucid Emperor 1 Macc. 1:10 Antiochus IV
p. 358

The Rulers of Judah
168 Antiochus Epiphanes desecrates the Temple 1 Macc. 1:20– Antiochus IV

24, etc. p. 358
167 The Romans defeat the Antigonid Perseus and destroy the 1 Macc. 8:5 Aemilius
Macedonian kingdom Paullus, p.
412
167 Mattathias revolts against the Seleucids 1 Macc. 2:1ƒ. Mattathias
(1), p. 452
166 Judas Maccabeus leads Jewish revolt 1 Macc. 2:66ƒ. Judas
Maccabeus,
p. 450
164 Death of Antiochus Epiphanes. Increasing anarchy in 1 Macc. 6:8ƒ., Antiochus IV
Seleucid Empire as succession quarrels become constant 2 Macc. 9:28 p. 358
160 Death of Judas Maccabeus. Jonathan leads Jewish Revolt 1 Macc. 9:28 Jonathan, p.
(made High Priest in 152) 448
142 Death of Jonathan. Simon High Priest & leader of Jews. 1 Macc. 13:23 Simon, p. 454
Granted independence soon after
129 Death of Antiochus VII Sidetes ends all hope for the (1 Macc. Antiochus
rebuilding of the Seleucid Empire 15:1ƒ.) VII, p. 364
116 Death of Ptolemy VIII Physcon accelerates decay of (1 Macc. Ptolemy VIII,
Ptolemaic Egypt 15:16; Sirach p. 348
Prologue)
91 The “Social War” forces the Roman aristocracy to begin (cf. Acts
granting Roman citizenship to provincials 16:37ƒ.,
22:25ƒ.)
82 Victory of Sulla in the civil wars arrests reforms in Rome Sulla, p. 415
and makes revolution necessary
67 Civil War in Judah between John Hyrcanus II and John
Aristobulus II Hyrcanus II,
p. 447
63 Romans under Pompey put an end to the Jewish Civil War Pompey, p.
by annexing Judah (as well as the Syria and neighbouring 417
regions)

49 Civil wars in Rome between conservatives led by Pompey Julius Cæsar,

and Julius Cæsar’s populists. The battle of Pharsalus (48) p. 390
and the death of Pompey at the hands of the Egyptians
place Cæsar in control — and sound the death-knell of the
Republic
44 Assassination of Cæsar. His assassins, his heir Octavian, his Last Gasp of
lieutenant Mark Antony, and others dispute the succession the Republic,
p. 381
40 Parthians invade Asia, Syria, and Judah Ventidius, p.
425
37 Romans repel Parthians. Herod made king of Judah Herod, p. 444
31 Civil war between Antony (supported by Cleopatra) and (Luke 2:1) Augustus, p.
Octavian. Octavian victorious at Actium. Antony commits 391; Mark
suicide (30). Octavian creates the Roman
Antony, p.
“Principate” (Empire) and is granted the title “Augustus”
422
6? Birth of Jesus Matt. 1–2, Jesus, p. 140
Luke 1–2
4 B.C.E. Death of Herod. Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip divide his Matt. 2:19 Archelaus, p.
inheritance 440; Herod
Antipas, p.
445; Philip
“the
Tetrarch”, p.
453
6 C.E. Archelaus deposed. Judea ruled by Roman procurators Coponius, p.
43
14 C.E. Tiberius Roman Emperor (Luke 3:1) Tiberius, p.
392
26 C.E. Pontius Pilate procurator of Judah (to 36) Luke 3:1, etc. Pontius
Pilate, p. 46
30 C.E.? Execution of Jesus Mark 14:23ƒ., When Did
John 18:12ƒ., Jesus Die?, p.
etc.
145

The Rulers of Judah
37 C.E. Gaius (Caligula) Roman Emperor (cf. Mark Caligula, p.

13:14, etc.?) 393
41 C.E. Claudius Roman Emperor (Acts 11:28, Claudius, p.
18:2) 393
41 C.E. Herod Agrippa I rules Judea Acts 12:20ƒ. Agrippa I, p.
436
48–60 Writings of Paul Paul, p. 497
C.E.
54 C.E. Nero Roman Emperor (Rev. 13:18?) Nero, p. 394

66 C.E. Jewish Revolt (cf. Mark Jewish Revolt,
13:14) p. 49
69 C.E. “Year of Four Emperors”: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Galba, p. 395
Vespasian
81 C.E. Domitian Roman Emperor (inspired Book of Revelation?) Domitian, p.
397

The Families of Israel

Eve Adam [930]

Cain Abel † Seth [912] {130}
Enoch Enosh [905] {105}
Irad Kenan [910] {90}
Mehujael Mahalalel [895] {70}
Me-thusha-el Jared [962] {65}
Enoch [365] {162}
Adah Lamech Zillah Methuselah [969] {65}
Jabal Jubal Tubal-cain Naamah Lamech [777] {187}
Noah [950] {182}
Shem [600] {500} Japheth {500} Ham {500}
Elam Asshur Lud Aram Arpachshad Gomer Madai Tubal Tiras Cush Mizraim Put Canaan
(Assyria) (Lydia) (Syria) [483] {100} Magog Javan Meschech (Egypt)
Nimrod
Shelah [433] {35}
Eber [464] {30} Sidon Jebusites Girgashites Arkites Arvadites Hamathites
Heth Amorites Hivites Sinites Zemarites
Peleg [239] {34} Joktan
Reu [239] {30} (Hittites)
Serug [230] {32}
Nahor [148] {30}
Terah [205] {29}
Haran {70}
Nahor Milcah Sarah 1 Abraham 2 Keturah Hagar Iscah
{70} Bethuel
[127] {80} [175] {70}
Ishmael Older Lot Younger
Laban Rebekah Isaac (6 sons) [137]{86} Daughter Daughter
[180]{100}
Moab Ben-Ammi
(Ammonites)
Esau (Edom) Leah Jacob Rachel Bilhah Zilpah
{60} [147] {60} Dan Naphtali Gad Asher
Joseph [110] Benjamin
Reuben Simeon Levi Bath-Shua Judah Tamar Issachar Zebulun Dinah
[137] Manasseh
Ephraim
Er Onan Shelah Perez Zerah Machir Beriah
Gershon Kohath Merari Rephah Aphiah
[133] Hezron Hamul Gilead
Resheph
Izhar Jerahmeel Ram Caleb Kenaz Telah Becorath
Amram Jochebed Jethro Tahan
Korah† Amminadab Hur Achsah Othniel Ladan
[137]
Nahshon Ammihud Zeror
Aaron Elisheba Miriam Moses Zipporah Salmon Rahab Naomi Elimelech Elishama
[123] [120] Nun
Abiel
Nadab Abihu Eleazar Ithamar Gershom Eliezer Boaz 2 Ruth 1 Mahlon Chilion Orpah Joshua
† † Phinehas Obed
? Jonathan
? Ahimaaz Kish Aiah Ner
Abishua Eli
Bukki Jesse Jonathan Ahinoam Saul*§ Rizpah Abner
d. 999?†
Uzzi Hophni† Phinehas† d. 1000?†
Zerahiah
Meraioth Ahitub Ichabod Armoni Mephibosheth
Amariah † †
Ahitub Ahijah Ahimelech
Zadok d. 1005?† Jonathan Abinadab/Ishvi Malchishua Eshbaal Merab Adriel
Abiathar d. 1000?† d. 1000?† d. 1000?†
Ahimaaz Jonathan (Ish-Bosheth) 5 sons
Shallum d. 998?†
Azariah Mephibosheth
Hilkiah b. 1005?
Johanan [Azariah]
Azariah Seraiah Eliab Abinadab Shammah Nethanel Raddai Ozem Zeruiah Abigail Jether D av i d * § Michal
Ahitub (Elihu?) (Ithra ) 1030?-
Ezra Jonathan Jonadab Abishai Joab Asahel Amasa 961? (40)
Abihail
Zadok d. 961?† d. 999?† d. 969?†

C h i l d re n
o f D av i d

Children of David
Amnon Chileab Absalom Adonijah Tamar Naamah Solomon (40) *§ 10 other Nathan
(by Ahinoam) (by Abigail) (by Maacah) (by Haggith) (by Maacah) (by Bathsheba) sons + b. 992?
999?-977?† 998?-997? 997?-970?† 996?-961?† b. 995? 991?-922? daughters
Kings of Israel: Jerimoth Abihail
1. Jeroboam son of Nebat (22) Tamar Maacah
2
*Rehoboam
1
Mahalath Mattatha
d. 901?; ascended 922? 961?-915? Menna
2. Nadab son of Jeroboam (2) (17)
*Abijam (3) Attai Ziza Shelomith Jeush Shemariah Zahum Melea
d. 900?†; ascended 901? d. 913?
3. Baasha son of Ahijah (24) Ethbaal Eliakim
§Omri (12) *Asa (41) Azubah
d. 877? ascended 900? king of Tyre d. 869? d. 873? Jonam
4. Elah son of Baasha (2) Jezebel *Jehoshaphat (25) 908?-849?
§Ahab (22) Joseph
d. 876?†; ascended 877? d. 842?† d. 850?†
5. Zimri Jehiel Michael Judah
(reigned 7 days in 876)† *Ahaziah *Jehoram *Athaliah *Jehoram d. 849?† d. 849?†
d. 849?† d. 842?† usurped throne 881?-842? Simeon
—. Civil War: (2) (12) of Judah 842? Azariah Zechariah Shephatiah
Tibni son of Ginath d. 837?† (6) d. 849?† d. 849?† d. 849?† Levi
Omri Matthat
Zibiah *Ahaziah (1) Jehosheba Jehoiada [130]
6. Omri (12) 864?-842?† Jorim
ascended 876? Zechariah
Jehoaddin *Joash (40) † Eliezer
undisputed after 872?
844?-800?† Joshua
7. Ahab (22)
8. Ahaziah (2) *Amaziah Jecoliah
825?-783?† (29) Er
9. Jehoram (12)
Jerusha *Azariah (Uzziah) Elmadam
10. Jehu son of Nimshi (28)
799?-742? (52) Cosam
d. 815?; ascended 842?
11. Jehoahaz son of Jehu (17) *Jotham 777?-735? (16) Addi
d. 802?; ascended 815? *Ahaz Abi Melchi
12. Jehoash son of Jehoahaz (16) 755?-715?
d. 786?; ascended 802? Hephzibah *Hezekiah (29) Maaseiah Neri
(16)
also called Joash 740?-687 d. 733?† She-alti-el
13. Jeroboam (II) son of Joash (41) Meshullemeth *Manasseh (55) Amariah Zerubbabel
d. 746?; ascended 786? 699?-642
14. Zechariah son of Jeroboam (6 months) Jedidah *Amon (2) Gedaliah Rhesa
d. 745?†; ascended 746? 664-640?† Cushi Joanan
1 2
15. Shallum son of Jabesh Zebidah *Josiah (31) Hamutal Zephaniah Joda
(reigned one month in 745)† 648?-609†
Josech
16. Menahem son of Gadi (10) Nehushta *Jehoiakim *Jehoahaz (3 months) *Zedekiah (11)
d. 738?; ascended 745? ascended 609 ascended & deposed 609 ascended 597; Seme-in
17. Pekahiah son of Menahem (2) 634?-598 b. 632? deposed at the fall Mattathias
d. 737?†; ascended 738? *Jehoiachin of Jerusalem 587
ascended 598; deposed 597; b. 616? b. 619? Maath
18. Pekah son of Remaliah (20)
d. 732?†; ascended 737? Malchiah Naggai
d. 586†
(ascended in Trans-Jordan 746?) Shealtiel Pedaiah Shenazzar Esli
19. Hoshea son of Elah (9) (Sheshbazzar?) Nahum
ascended 732; deposed during the Zerubbabel
destruction of Samaria & Israel — 722 Abiud Amos
Eliakim Mattathias
KEY: Matthew’s Luke’s
Azor Joseph
Male names are in PLAIN TEXT; female names are in ITALIC. Zadok Genealogy Genealogy Jannai
Numbers in [ ] indicate how long a person lives; dates in { } Achim of Jesus of Jesus
indicate the age of the person’s father when the child was Melchi
Eliud
born. Numbers in ( ) tell how long a monarch rule. Other Levi
Eleazar
numbers are dates of birth and/or death. Matthat
Matthan
A † indicates a violent death. Heli
Jacob ? ?
All dates are B.C.E. unless marked C.E.
* indicates the ruler of Judah; Joseph Mary Elisabeth Zacharias
§ is a king of Israel.
indicates a marriage Jesus James Joses Simon Judas John “the Baptist”
indicates an unknown blood relationship 6?-30C.E.?† d. 62 C.E.† (Joseph) 6?-29 C.E.?†
Figure 1: The Families of Israel

Aaron: Enlightened. LXX/Josephus K-!D5. Son of AMRAM and older brother of MOSES, he
was a Levite and the ancestor of the priestly caste of Israel and Judah. During the period of the
Exodus and wanderings in the wilderness he was Moses’s chief assistant. (Interestingly, his
memorial in Sirach 45 is three times as long as Moses’s!) He was said to be a good speaker (Ex.
4:14). While he tended to work well with Moses, even in the face of the people’s opposition, he
sometimes joined the people in rebellion (Ex. 32; Num. 12). He became the first High Priest of
Israel (Ex. 28, etc.). He was succeeded as High Priest by his third son ELEAZAR 1 because of the
death of his older sons NADAB and ABIHU (Lev. 10:1–3, etc.). His fourth son, ITHAMAR, was also a
priest. Aaron died at the age of 123 just before the Israelites entered Canaan (Num. 20:22–29).1
Ex.4:14–Num. 20:29; 1!Chron. 6:3, etc.; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 1:12ƒ., 5:5, 8:2, Sirach
36:22, 50:13, 16;2 Tobit 1:7; 1 Macc. 7:14; 4 Macc. 7:11; 2 Esdras 1:3.
Abel: Vapour, Vanity (or perhaps Akkadian “son”). LXX K)*%; Josephus (Ant I.i.4)
K)*%8#=Abel(os). Second son of ADAM and EVE, and the first shepherd. He was slain by his
older brother CAIN, because Abel’s offering of sheep was “more acceptable” to God than was
Cain’s offering of grain.
A rabbinic legend makes an interesting point: Since Abel was the first human being to die, he
was also the first whose dead body had to be dealt with. The story runs that Adam saw a raven
burying a fellow raven that had died — and that Adam therefore did likewise, and thus did burial
customs begin (Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer 21). For more legends about Cain and Abel, see the entry on
Cain, p. 92. Gen. 4:2, 4, 8, 9, 25; Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51; Heb. 11:4, 12:24; in the Apocrypha in
4 Macc. 18:11 !.
Abi: My Father (short form of Abijah, “Yah[weh] is Father.”). LXX K)8E=Abou. Daughter of
Zechariah, wife of AHAZ king of Judah, and mother of HEZEKIAH. 2!Kings 18:2 !.
A b i a t h a r : Fa t h e r o f a b u n d a n c e . L X X K)&-+-!; Jo s e p h u s ( A n t V I . x i i . 6 )
K)&-+-!8#=Abiathar(os). One of David’s two high priests. He was the only survivor of the
priests at Nob, who were slain by Doeg the Edomite (at the orders of SAUL) for sheltering DAVID
(1!Sam. 22:6–23). The son of AHIMELECH the high priest, Abiathar was said to have been a
descendant of ITHAMAR, son of Aaron, through ELI, the high priest and judge who preceded
Samuel. (1!Ch. 24:3. 2 Esdras makes him a descendent of Eleazar. For details of this vexed
question, see the entry on Eli) Although he was loyal to David during ABSALOM’S rebellion,
SOLOMON exiled Abiathar to Anathoth after David’s death (1!Kings 2:26–27). He had supported
ADONIJAH, David’s oldest surviving son, rather than Solomon (1!Kings 1:5–8). Sometimes called
father rather than son of Ahimelech. 1!Sam. 22, 23, 30; 2!Sam. 15, 17, 19; 1!Kings 1, 2; Mark
2:26 (although this verse really refers to Ahimelech).
1.!Islamic tradition preserves a fascinating account of this. In this story, Aaron and Moses were both summoned up
Mount Hor, without knowing which one would be taken away. On Mount Hor, they found a coffin which fit
Aaron but did not fit Moses. Aaron was carried up to heaven in the coffin, where he is occupied in instructing
priests in their duties.
2.!Also in the Hebrew of Sirach 36:22 and in most LXX manuscripts (e.g. LXXB LXX‫ א‬LXXA LXXN+V), where the
verse is numbered 36:16; NRSV omits the name following the Latin.

Abiel: Father is God. LXX K\&;%; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.6) K)&*%8#=Abiel(os). Father of KISH
the father of SAUL. Also the father of NER the father of ABNER, Saul’s general. (At least, that is
the genealogy in 1 Sam. 9:1; Abiel is not even mentioned in the genealogy in Chronicles. For
more, see the entry on Saul.)
There is a tradition that Abiel set up public street lighting so that the people could find their
way to schools and places of study after dark. Given the political situation at the time, however,
this seems highly unlikely. 1!Sam. 9:1, 14:51 !.
Abigail: My father delights. LXX/Josephus K)&6-&-=Abigaia.
ABIGAIL 1. Wife of Nabal the Carmelite. She saved his lands from destruction by DAVID
(Nabal had refused to join David’s protection racket). After Nabal’s death, she married David,
and bore his second son CHILEAB (or Daniel), who seems to have died in infancy. It has been
suggested that she, or at least her first husband Nabal, was a Kenite, but there is no direct
evidence for this. 1!Sam. 25:2–42, 27:3, 30:5; 2!Sam. 2:2, 3:3; 1!Ch. 3:1 !.
ABIGAIL 2. Daughter of JESSE and sister of DAVID; mother of AMASA, ABSALOM’S general,
who replaced Joab after Absalom’s death but was slain by Joab. Abigail is also listed as the
“daughter of Nahash” in 2 Sam. 17:25; her husband’s name was either Jether or ITHRA. 2!Sam.
17:25?;1 1!Ch. 2:16–17 !.
Abigal: Name used in 2 Sam. 17:25 NRSV, etc. for ABIGAIL 2; see above.
Abihail: Father is Might. LXX K)-&-5=Abaian (with many variations, e.g. Abiail, Abigail). Not
to be confused with the father of Esther, or three (?) other Old Testament Abihails. The wife of
JERIMOTH son of DAVID,2 and the mother of MAHALATH the first wife of REHOBOAM. She was
the daughter of ELIAB, David’s brother. 2!Ch. 11:18 !.
Abihu: He is my father. LXX K)&8E9=Abiud; Josephus (Ant III.viii.1) K)&8E#=Abios. The
second son of AARON. He was killed by God along with his older brother NADAB for offering
“unholy fire” (Lev. 10:1ƒ., Num. 3:4, 26:61) to God in the wilderness. Ex. 6:23, 24:1, 9, 28:1; Lev.
10:1; Num. 3:2–4; 26:60–61; 1!Ch. 6:3, 24:1–2 !.
Abijah: Yah[weh] is my Father.
ABIJAH 1. Alternate name for ABIJAM below.
ABIJAH 2. LXX KN&-=Achia (Ahijah). The son of JEROBOAM I. Shortly before his father’s
death he became deathly ill. His mother went to Ahijah the Shilonite to enquire about his fate,
and was brusquely told that the child would die. Which he did (1 Kings 14:1–18).3
Abijam: Yah[weh] is my Father. LXX K)&-=Abia; Josephus (Ant VIII.x.1) K)&-#=Abia(s). Also
“Abijah” (2!Ch. 11:20–22). Son of REHOBOAM and grandson of SOLOMON, he was the second
1.!MT of 2 Samuel 17:25 reads “Abigal”; LXX Vg Targum all seem to support “Abigail.” RSV NEB JPS NRSV REB have
“Abigal” in the 2 Samuel passage; KJV NAB NIV JB NJB AB read “Abigail.”
2.!So NRSV etc.; LXX of 2 Ch. 11:18 says that Rehoboam took Abihail as his wife along with Mahalath (MT could
apparently be read this way by reading one singular to a plural). But this is hard to accept: Eliab was David’s
older brother, and any daughter of his would have to be quite old by Rehoboam’s time.
3.!This is the verse numbering of MT LXXA; in LXXB this is 12:24 (see the note on Jeroboam I, p. 138)

king of the separate kingdom of Judah. He reigned for only three years,1 and was considered a
bad king (so 1!Kings 15:2–3; 2 Chronicles 13 has a more positive view, crediting him with a great
victory over JEROBOAM I of Israel). His mother, MAACAH 2, was the daughter of ABSALOM
(1!Kings 15:2).2 1!Kings 14:31–15:8; 1 Ch. 3:10; 2 Ch. 11:20–22, 12:16, 13:1–14:1; Matt. 1:73 !.
Abinadab: Father is Noble. LXX K?&5-9-)=Aminadab;4 Josephus (Ant VI.viii.1)
K?&5-9-)8#=Aminadab(os).
ABINADAB 1.Second son of SAUL, slain with his father and his brothers JONATHAN (#2)
and MALCHISHUA at the battle of Mt. Gilboa (1000 B.C.E.?). 1 Sam. (14:49),5 31:2; 1 Ch. 8:33,
9:39, 10:2 !.
ABINADAB 2. Second son of JESSE and older brother of DAVID. 1!Sam. 16:8, 17:13;6 1!Ch.
2:13 !.
Abishai: Father Exists. LXX K)*44-/ K)*&4- / K)*4-& = Abessa / Abisa / Abisai; Josephus
(Ant VI.viii.9) K)&4-&8#=Abisai(os). Son of ZERUIAH, and DAVID’s nephew. He was the chief of
David’s thirty mighty men,7 and seemingly the second-in-command, after his brother JOAB, of the
armies of Israel. He was David’s companion when David raided Saul’s camp (1!Sam. 26:6); later,
he saved David’s life by slaying the Philistine giant Ishbi-benob (2 Sam. 21:16). He is credited
(2!Sam. 23:18) with once killing three hundred men in a single battle. Like his brothers Joab and
ASAHEL, he seems to have been a vengeful but intensely loyal man. Unlike Joab, he seems to have
largely avoided politics, and so apparently lived out his life in peace (at least, we have no record
of his death, as we have of both his brothers’). 1!Sam. 26:6–9; 2!Sam. 2:18, 24, 3:30, 10:10–14,
16:9–11, 18:2–5, 12; 19:21, 20:6, 10, 21:17, 23:18; 1!Ch. 2:16, 11:20, 18:12, 19:11, 15 !.
Abishua: Father is Salvation. LXX K)&48E=Abisou; Josephus (Ant V.xi.5) apparently
K)&*'*!;#=Abiezer(es). Son of PHINEHAS (#1), son of ELEAZAR (#1), son of AARON. Ancestor of
ZADOK 1 and of EZRA. Josephus says that he was High Priest after PHINEHAS, but the Bible does
not explicitly support this claim. 1!Ch. 6:4, 5, 50; Ezra 7:5; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:2, 2
Esdras 1:2 !.
1.!Three years is the reading of MT of 1 Kings 15:2; LXXB credits him with six years; LXXA allows him a reign of
sixteen years! To accommodate the six year reign, LXXB extends the reign of JEROBOAM I to 24+ years.
2.!Note however that LXX of 2 Kingdoms=2 Sam. 14:27 says that Absalom’s daughter Tamar was his mother;
Josephus in Ant VIII.x.1 makes Maacah 2 Abijam’s mother and Tamar Maacah’s mother. For further discussion
of the problem of Asa and Abijah, see the entries on ABSALOM and ASA.
3.!So ‫ א‬B C L W ƒ1 33 892 Byz; D (in Luke) ƒ13 and many Latin texts read “Abiud”
4.! LXXB has CD5-9-)=Ionadab (Jonadab)
5.!1 Sam. 14:49 calls the second son of Saul “Ishvi.” The name “Abinadab” is used in MT of 1 Sam. 31:2, 1 Ch.
8:33, 9:39, 10:2; LXX typically uses thename “Amminadab.”
6.!LXXB omits this verse.
7.!This, at least, is the opinion of many modern scholars; the MT of 2 Samuel 23:18 reads “Three,” but the Hebrew
text of this verse (and all of chapter 23) displays an incredible confusion between “three” and “thirty,” and the
versions are almost as bad.

Abiud: NT K)&E9, from Hebrew Abihud, “Father is Majesty.” According to Matthew, a son of
Zerubbabel and the ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS (but compare 1 Ch. 3:19, where no such
name is mentioned among Zerubbabel’s children). Matt. 1:131 !.
Abner: Father is light. LXX K)*55;!=Abenner; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.6) K);5-!8#=Abenar(os).
First cousin (or uncle — see 1!Ch. 8:33, 9:39) of SAUL, and general of the armies of Israel. After
the death of Saul at Mt. Gilboa (1000 B.C.E.?), Abner set Saul’s only surviving son ESHBAAL on
the throne of Israel (2!Sam. 2:8–11). In the battles with DAVID which followed, Abner slew
ASAHEL the brother of JOAB. Joab and ABISHAI retaliated by killing Abner after he met with
David to discuss peace (999 B.C.E.? — 2!Sam. 3:30. Josephus in Ant VII.i.5 says that Joab’s real
motive for the murder was to keep David from replacing him with Abner). Eshbaal’s kingdom fell
within a year. Abner may have had a son Jaasiel, who was a leading man of Benjamin during
David’s reign (1 Ch. 27:21). 1!Sam. 14:50–51, 17:55–57,2 20:25, 26:5–16; 2!Sam. 2, 3, 4:1, 12;
1!Kings 2:5, 32; 1!Ch. 26:28; probably 1 Ch. 27:21 !.
Abraham: Popularly Father of a Multitude. LXX K)!-?=Abram then K)!--?=Abraam;
Josephus K)!-?8#=Abram(os). Originally named Abram (“Father is high”), Abraham was the
ancestor of all the Israelite tribes. Born a Mesopotamian, Abraham began his career by leaving
the land of his fathers (most of whom, from SHEM on, were then still living according to the
Biblical chronology) and migrating to Canaan. (For this reason, the later Israelites had a creed
which began “A wandering Aramean was my father” — Deut. 26:5.3) With him he took his
nephew Lot, by then an orphan (Josephus says that Abraham in fact adopted Lot — Ant I.vii.1.
This may have been the result of his worries about a lack of an heir, since — in the P account,
Gen. 12:4 — Abraham was by then seventy-five years old and still childless). By the time he
arrived in the new land, most of his ancestors were dead; the roving Semite was called to make a
new beginning. From this time on, God was to be Abram’s father. It was with Abram that God
made the second of the “great covenants” (the first was with NOAH; the next would be with
MOSES and the people of Israel), promising him wealth and progeny in return for faith. This
covenant was sealed through a sacrifice (Gen. 15), but was demonstrated through the rite of
circumcision and the changing of Abram’s name (Gen. 17:5. Josephus, who narrates most of
Abraham’s story, curiously leaves this incident out, using the name “Abram” throughout).
Abraham’s wife SARAH was barren for many years, but finally bore ISAAC, who carried on God’s
promise. Abraham had had an earlier son, ISHMAEL, by a concubine, HAGAR. After Sarah died,
he had additional children by a concubine, KETURAH. But Isaac was the special child.
Abraham was only moderately honest (he twice passed Sarah off as his sister, instead of his
half-sister and wife — Gen. 12:10–20, 20:1–18. The Qumran Genesis Apocryphon gives further
details of this, claiming Abraham was motivated by a dream). But if his virtue was finite, his faith
1.!also in Matt. 1:7 in D (in Luke) ƒ13 and many Latin texts, as an error for Abijah/Abiah/Abijam.
2.!LXXB omits these verses; see the excursus on David and Goliath, p. 96.
3.!So, at least, the MT. LXX — in one of the few major variants from the Hebrew found in the Pentateuch, replaces
“A wandering Aramaean was my father, and he went down to Egypt” with “My father forsook Syria and went
down to Egypt.”

seems to have been absolute (cf. Gen. 22:1–10 — the near-sacrifice of Isaac).Tradition also
regards him as very wise; Josephus reports (obviously falsely) that he taught the Egyptians
arithmetic and astronomy (Ant I.viii.2).
The traditions about Abraham’s ancestry seem to have been diverse. Gen. 20:12 makes Sarah
his half-sister, but this tradition seems to occur only here. It is from the E source, which does not
seem to know the name of Abraham’s father. The genealogy of Abraham, naturally, is from P,
which has a fetish about such things. The Book of Jubilees 11.14ƒ. gives Abraham another
genealogy:
!"#$%
!"""# ()%"*
&'%"# $%&'
()%"#"*
Figure 2: Abraham’s Ancestry in the Book of Jubilees
For such a major character, mentions of Abraham outside Genesis are relatively few: Gen.
11–26; Neh. 9:7, Psalm 47:10, 105:6, 9, 42, Micah 7:20, Isa. 29:22, 41:8, 51:2, 63:16; Ezek.
33:24; Rom. 4:1–25; James 2:21–23; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 44:19, 22.
Abram: Father is High. LXX K)!-?; Josephus does not use the name. Earlier name of
Abraham (which see).
Absalom: Father of Peace. LXX K)*44-%8?=Abessalom; Josephus (Ant VII.i.4) KS-%D?8# /
K)*4-%8?8# =Apsalom(os)/Abesalom(os). Third son of DAVID, and the second of the sons to reach
adulthood. His full sister TAMAR (#2) was raped by AMNON, the oldest son. Absalom took
revenge by murdering Amnon and fleeing from Jerusalem. Although reconciled to David by JOAB
four years later,1 Absalom later turned and rebelled against his father. Directed by Ahithophel,
the wisest man in Israel, the rebellion was initially successful, but failed when Absalom preferred
the counsel of Hushai the Archite (a spy of David’s) to that of Ahithophel. In a final battle, Joab
killed Absalom, despite orders from David to preserve the young man — said to be the
handsomest in Israel. Absalom’s death, although made necessary by David’s sin with BATHSHEBA
(2!Sam. 12:10–11), seems to have caused David more sorrow than any other event in his life
(2!Sam. 18:33).
1.!So 2 Sam. 15:7 Syriac Vulgate Lucian Josephus; MT LXXA LXXB LXXM LXXN+V have “forty years”! (the rabbis
explained this by saying that this meant forty years after the accession of Saul, which seems too short but is perhaps
possible); MTmss read “forty days.”

Our information about Absalom’s descendants is confused. 2 Sam. 14:27 says that he had
“three sons and a daughter named Tamar."1 In 2 Sam. 18:18, however, we find Absalom quoted
as saying, “I have no son to keep my name in remembrance.” (Of course, it is possible that the
sons were unborn when Absalom built his monument, or that they died young.) In 1 Kings 15:2
we reach that Maacah daughter of Abishalom (Absalom?) was the wife of Rehoboam and the
mother of Abijam (cf. also 2 Ch. 11:20) , but in 15:10 Maacah is the mother of Abijam’s son
Asa.2 In 2 Ch. 15:16 Maacah is called the mother of Asa but is not identified as the daughter of
Absalom. It seems clear that these difficulties were identified early. (One logical guess is that
Abijam and Asa, rather than being father and son, were brothers. But this is beyond proof.)
2!Sam. 13–19; also 2!Sam. 3:3, 20:6; 1!Kings 1:6, 2:7, 28; 1!Ch. 3:2; 2 Ch. 11:20–21; Psalm 3
(title) !.
Achim: NT KN&?, from the Hebrew for “Woes.” According to Matthew, an ancestor of
JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Matt. 1:14 !.
Achsah: Ankle bracelet. LXX KN4-/K4N-=Achsa/Ascha3. Daughter of CALEB. She was
married to Othniel as a reward for his capture of Debir (Judges 1:11–15). Joshua 15:16–17;
Judges 1:12–13; 1 Ch. 2:49 !.
Adah: Ornament. LXX K9-. Not to be confused with the Hittite wife of ESAU in Gen. 36.
One of the wives of LAMECH (#1), the other being ZILLAH. Her sons were JABAL and JUBAL. Gen.
4:19, 20, 23 !.
Adam: Man or Of the Ground. LXX K9-?; Josephus (Ant I.i.2) K9-?8#=Adam(os). The first
man, created by God and married to EVE. His and his wife’s disobedience to God caused
humanity to be cast forth from paradise. Father of CAIN, ABEL, SETH, and other sons and
daughters. According to MT and the Samaritan version he was 130 when Seth was born; LXX
and Josephus (Ant I.ii.3) give his age as 230. All sources agree he was 930 when he died. Little else
is known of his life.4 Since the word adam means man (thus “the man” of Gen. 2:8–3:12, 20, 22,
1.!LXX of this vere adds that Tamar became Rehoboam’s wife and was the mother of king Abijam —!a note
without basis in the Hebrew of the verse. This so bothered the editors of the Lucianic recension that they altered
the text from “Tamar” to “Maacah” LXXA addresses the problem by changing “children were born to Absalon”
to read “we born to the king.”
2.!“Maacah daughter of Absalom” is the reading of MT; LXX of 15:10 reads “Ana daughter of Absalam” (except
Origen had the name Maacha=Maacah). In 2 Ch. 11:20 all tets read “Maacah,” except LXXB uses the spelling
Maachan To add to the confusion, in 2 Ch. 13:2 Abijam’s mother is called “Micaiah daughter of Uriah of
Gibeah” (LXX reads “Maacha=Maaca daughter of Uriah”).
3.!Lucian 8]-=Oxa
4.!Legends, naturally, are many; one of the most widespread has it that he married a woman named Lilith before
meeting Eve. A legend has it that Lilith, like Adam, was formed from the ground — but that she was made from
offal rather than clean dust. Adam and Lilith soon quarreled — Lilith felt that she was Adam’s equal, and he
responded with force — but Lilith had already conceived; her offspring were the race of demons. (The name
“Lilith” itself seems to be derived from the name of Lilitu, a Babylonian goddess/spirit/demon.) One account
says that angels pursued her and threatened to kill her children if she did not return to Adam. As a result, she
now haunts firstborn children. Jewish mothers use amulets with symbols such as a menorah or a Star of David to
ward her off.

24), it is not always clear in the first chapters of Genesis whether Hebrew adam should be
rendered “Adam” or “the man.”1 Gen. 3:17, 21, 4:1, (so KJV; NRSV in these verses read “the
man”), 4:25, 5:1–5; 1!Ch. 1:1; (Hos. 6:7);2 Luke 3:38; Rom. 5:14; 1 Cor. 15:22, 45; 1 Tim. 2:13–
14; Jude 14; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 40:1, 49:16; 2 Esdras 3:5, 10, 21, 26, 6:54, 56 !.
Addi: NT K99&, perhaps from Akkadian “Adna.” According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2)
and JESUS. Luke 3:28 (based on 1 Esdras 9:31?) !.
Admin: NT K9?&5. According to (the best texts of) Luke 3:33, the son of ARNI and the
father of AMMINADAB. For the uncertainty about this text, see the excursus on the Gospel
Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119.
Adonijah: Yah[weh] is my lord. LXX V!5*&-/V!5*&%=Orneia/Orniel;3 Josephus (Ant VII.i.4)
K9D5&-#=Adonia(s). The fourth son of DAVID, and the oldest son to survive his father. When
David was dying, Adonijah expected to succeed him. SOLOMON, however, was chosen to be
David’s heir. In the maneuvering which followed, Adonijah asked BATHSHEBA to convince
Solomon to give Abishag the Shunammite, David’s nurse, to him (Adonijah) as wife. Solomon
interpreted this as a rebellious act, and had Adonijah executed. 2!Sam. 3:4; 1!Kings 1:1–2:25,
2:28; 1!Ch. 3:1–2 !.
Adriel: Lordship of God. LXX Q49!&*%/Q4!&*%/L*!*&/Q'!&, etc. A man of Issachar, to
whom MERAB, Saul’s older daughter, was married. (According to one version of the story of
David and Goliath, she had been promised to DAVID). Merab and Adriel had five sons, but David
allowed all of them to be killed (apparently without issue) by the men of Gibeon — 2!Sam. 21:1–
9). 1!Sam. 18:19;4 2!Sam. 21:8 !.
Ahab: Father’s brother. LXX KN--)=Achaab; Josephus (Ant VIII.xiii.1) KN-)8#=Achab(os).
Seventh King of Israel, Ahab was the son of OMRI, who was a usurper but probably the greatest
of Israel’s early kings. Ahab, like his father, was an part-time idolator, taking JEZEBEL of Sidon, a
priestess of Melkart, as his wife. As a result, God’s wrath descended upon Ahab in the form of
Elijah. Ahab was nonetheless a quite successful king. He won several battles against Damascus
(1!Kings 20),5 the great enemy of Israel. He and Ben-Hadad of Damascus also won a great battle
(the battle of Karkar, not mentioned in the Bible) against the Assyrian empire, preventing them
from invading Palestine for over a century. Clearly the Syrians thought him an excellent general,
since Ben-Hadad ordered his troops to concentrate all their fire on Ahab at the battle of
Ramoth-Gilead (1 Kings 22:31; cf. Ant VIII.xv.5). He died in battle against Syria (1 Kings 22),
1.!Note that LXX reads “Adam” in Gen. 2:16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 3:8, 9, 12, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, Deut. 32:8 where
English versions tend to read “the man,” but omits the reading (via paraphrase) in Job 31:33 where KJV (but not
NRSV) has it.
2.!MT of Hosea 6:7 is parsed to contain the name Adam (compare LXX, which reads as/like [the] human being); NRSV
emends to a place name (compare Josh. 3:16)
3.!So, in Kings, LXXB Lucian; LXXA and all texts in Chronicles read K9D5*&-=Adoneia
4.!So MT LXXA Lucian; LXXB omits the verse.
5.!This is the verse numbering of MT; in LXX (except for Origen’s recension) chapters 20 and 21 of the book of
3!Kingdoms=1 Kings are exchanged (this is the more logical arrangement, since it makes the stories of Elijah a
single unit in chapters 17-20 and the account of Ahab’s Syrian wars a single unit in chapters 21-22).

however (the Targum of this verse, and seemingly Josephus in Ant VIII.xv.5, identify his slayer as
the Naaman of 2 Kings 5; other traditions identify Ahab’s killer as Hazael the future Damascene
king), and his entire family — seventy sons — was slain a few years later by Jehu (2 Kings 10:1–
11).1 1!Kings 16–22; 2!Kings 1:1, 3:1–5, 8:16, 18, 25, 27–29, 9:7–9, 25, 29, 10:1, 10–11, 17–18,
30, 21:3, 13; 2!Ch. 18:1–3, 19, 21:6, 13, 22:3–8; Micah 6:16 !.
Ahaz: He holds. From Assyrian inscriptions it would appear that his proper name was
“Jehoahaz,” Yah[weh] holds. LXX KN-'=Achaz;2 Josephus (Ant IX.xii.1) KN-';#=Achaz(es).
Eleventh king of Judah, the son of JOTHAM and the father of HEZEKIAH. One of the most wicked
kings of Judah, Ahaz is reported to have burned his son alive (2!Kings 16:3) and possibly to have
built altars to foreign gods (2!Ch. 28:22–23). In his time, Judah was invaded by Syria and Israel,
and almost destroyed. (The chronology of this is somewhat confused; the Bible implies that his
reign followed those of his father Jotham and his grandfather AZARIAH 4/UZZIAH, but some
scholars think that Jotham was never king in his own right, merely regent for his leprous father
Uzziah, and that Ahaz staged a pro-Assyrian palace coup and took control before Uzziah’s
death.) The Syrians and Israelis wanted Ahaz to join their alliance against Assyria, and when he
refused, they attempted to replace him with “the son of Tabeel” (perhaps a Tobiad from the
Trans-Jordan). The author of Chronicles viewed this, along with the slaying of Ahaz’s son
MAASEIAH (2!Ch. 28:7) as divine punishment for the king’s sins. Isaiah counseled Ahaz to ignore
the threat, but Ahaz chose to form an alliance with Assyria instead — an alliance which almost
resulted in Judah’s destruction a few years later. After Tiglath-Pileser III destroyed Damascus, he
summoned Ahaz there as his vassal. Judah would not be fully independent again until the time of
the Maccabees. While in Damascus, Ahaz saw a pagan altar he liked so well that he ordered a
copy installed in the Temple. Politically, this may have been necessary; Assyria did not require but
may have encouraged its vassals to adopt the Empire’s religious practices. But all this was futile
and faithless, as Isaiah pointed out. Ahaz didn’t care; he may even have closed the Temple (2 Ch.
28:24–25, although this is often viewed as an exaggeration). His final resting place is unknown;
2!Kings 16:20 says he was buried with the other kings of Judah; 2 Ch. 28:27 says he wasn’t.
1.!There are many strange questions about the Omride dynasty. It appears from the Mesha Stone that Omri
conquered Moab; it also appears that he did something — we don’t know what — that caused the Assyrians to
respect him highly, since Israel was long known as the land of Omri. Yet none of this is in the Bible. The case of
Ahab is perhaps even stranger. He gets press in the Bible, but there is no mention of Karkar. And the treatment
of Ahab in 1 Kings is odd. Ahab is a major character in chapters 16 (Ahab becomes king and marries Jezebel) 17
(Elijah calls for a drought and flees), 18 (the contest on Mount Carmel), 19 (Elijah flees Jezebel), 20 (the war with
Aram), 21 (Naboth’s Vineyard), 22 (Ahab’s death). Interestingly, in the “Elijah” chapters (17-19, 21), Ahab is
almost never called “King.” He is regulary called “King” in 20 and 22. This would seem to imply multiple
sources — and probably not just two, because chapter 20 largely approves of Ahab while 22 clearly does not. So
Ahab, for whatever reason, was well-known in Israelite memory, but perhaps not liked much. It has even been
suggested that chapter 20 is not really about him but about his son Jehoram 1, and explains how Jehoram
captured Ramoth-Gilead. In a way, this makes sense, since Jehoram seems to have been the purest Yahwist of the
Omrides, so a religious author might approve of him and mention his victories. But why would a king who won
the victories described in 1 Kings 20 be overthrown?
2.!LXXB KN-#=Achas in 2 Chronicles

2!Kings 15:38–17:1, 18:1, 20:11, 23:12; 1!Ch. 3:13; 2!Ch. 27:9–28:27, 29:19; Isaiah 1:1, 7:1–17,
14:28, 38:8,1 Hosea 1:1; Micah 1:1; Matt. 1:9 !.
Ahaziah: Yah[weh] holds. LXX/Josephus VN8'&-#=Ochozias.
AHAZIAH 1. Oldest son of AHAB, and his successor as King of Israel. After ruling for a
“mere two years,”2 Ahaziah fell out of a window. He then sent to a foreign god to inquire
whether he would survive. The answer, sent by Elijah, was an emphatic No! Ahaziah had no son,
and was succeeded by his brother JEHORAM 1. 1!Kings 22:40, 49, 51; 2!Kings 1:2–5, 17–18;
1!Ch. 3:11; 2!Ch. 20:35, 373 !.
AHAZIAH 2. Nephew of Ahaziah 1, he was the fifth king of Judah. He was also called
Jehoahaz (2!Ch. 21:17, 25:23 — but this account is confused. It states that he was born two years
before his father!). When JEHORAM 1 king of Israel was wounded at the siege of Ramoth-Gilead,
Ahaziah came to visit him. During the visit, JEHU son of NIMSHI staged a rebellion and killed
both Jehoram and Ahaziah. Upon hearing of his death, ATHALIAH, Ahaziah’s mother, usurped
the throne of Judah and killed all of Ahaziah’s sons except JOASH the youngest, who would
eventually succeed to the throne. Ahaziah is not listed in Matt. 1 as an ancestor of Jesus, but
should have been.4 2!Kings 8:24–29, 9:16, 21–29, 10:13, 11:1–2, 12:18, 13:1, 14:13; 1!Ch. 3:11;
2!Ch. 22:1–11, 25:23 !.
Ahiah: Name used in 1 Sam. 14:3 KJV for AHIJAH, which see.
Ahijah: Brother of Yah[weh]. LXX KN&-=Achia.
AHIJAH 1. Josephus (Ant VI.vi.5) KN&-#=Achia(s). In some versions Ahiah.5 Brother of
AHIMELECH the high priest of Nob, and perhaps a keeper of the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam.
14:18).6 He was with SAUL at the Battle of Mishmash. Josephus (Ant VI.vi.5) seems to equate him
with his brother AHITUB. 1!Sam. 14:3, 18 !.
AHIJAH 2. The father of BAASHA, who would usurp the throne of Israel. The various
manuscripts of Josephus give his name as Seidos, Eidos, Ilos, or Macheilos, which may be
corruptions of the family name )*%--5, “Belaan” given in LXX (1 Kings 15:277). 1!Kings 15:27,
33, 21:22; 2!Kings 9:9 !.
AHIJAH 3. According to LXX, the son of JEROBOAM I who died before his father (called
ABIJAH in MT).
1.!Also Jer. 22:15 LXX, followed by the Old Latin (except LXXA and the Arabic have “Ahab”), but this appears to be
a translation error, reading ‫ בארז‬as ‫באחז‬.
2.!Nominally two years; probably actually only a few months spread over two calendar years.
3.!Also in LXX of 4 Kingdoms=2 Kings 1:3 (which mentions “Ahaziah King of Samaria” where MT has simply
“the King”); LXXA Lucian also add the name in 1:17 (reading “Ahaziah died” for “he died”)
4.!Except that the name is found in D (in Luke), in the Curetonian Syriac, and in the Coptic version.
5.!1 Sam. 14:3 KJV reads “Ahiah.” “Ahijah” is the reading of JPS MOFFATT RSV NEB JB NJB NAB NASB NIV TNIV REB NRSV
NLT; the older Catholic editions had “Achias,” and NETS has “Achia.”
6.!“Ark” is the reading of MT LXXA Vulgate KJV RSV NIVtxt NRSV; LXXB Lucian NEB NAB JB NJB AB REB read “ephod”
7.!LXXA reads, most improbably, “Baasa son of Achia of the house of Belaan” for MT “Baasha son of Ahijah of
the house of Issachar”; Lucian and Origen read “Issachar” for “Belaan.”; LXXB has “Baasa son of Achia of the
house of Belaan son of Achia.”

Ahimaaz: Brother is Counselor. LXX KN&?--#=Achimaas

AHIMAAZ 1. A son of ZADOK 1 the high priest, who carried news to DAVID of the defeat
of ABSALOM. 2!Sam. 15:27, 36, 17:17, 20, 18:19–29; 1!Ch. 6:8–9, 53 !.
AHIMAAZ 2. The father of AHINOAM (#1) the wife of SAUL. 1!Sam. 14:50 !.
Ahimelech: Brother of the king. LXX K)&?*%*N=Abimelech; Josephus (Ant VI.xii.1)
K)&?*%*N8#=Abimelech(os).1 The high priest of Nob, he helped DAVID to escape from SAUL. He
and all his fellow priests (except for Ahimelech’s son ABIATHAR) were slain by Doeg the Edomite
to punish them for helping David. Ahimelech is sometimes mistakenly called the son, rather than
the father of Abiathar (2!Sam. 8:17; 1!Ch. 24:6 — unless Abiathar had an otherwise unknown
son named Ahimelech). 1!Sam. 21:1–9, 22:9–23, 23:6, 30:7; 2!Sam. 8:17; 1!Ch. 24:3, 31; Psalm
52 (title); see also Mark 2:26, which refers to Ahimelech although Abiathar is meant !.
Ahinoam: My Brother is Joy. LXX KN&588?=Achinoom; Josephus (Ant VII.i.4)
KN&5-#=Achina(s)
AHINOAM 1. The wife of SAUL, and a daughter of AHIMAAZ #1. Mother of JONATHAN
(#2), ESHBAAL, and their brothers. 1!Sam. 14:50 !.
AHINOAM 2. A woman of Jezreel, who became DAVID’S wife during his wanderings. She
bore AMNON, David’s oldest son. It has been suggested that the Jezreel involved is not the Israelite
city but a place in Judah, making Ahinoam a Kenite. I know of no direct evidence for this.
More interesting is the point that there are only two women in the Bible named Ahinoam —
one Saul’s wife and one David’s. It was not unknown for an usurping king to take over his
predecessor’s wife to improve his claim.2 On the other hand, David could already claim to be
married to Michal daughter of Saul —!and marrying mother and daughter was prohibited by
the Mosaic Law. In any case, if Ahinoam wife of Saul was the mother of Jonathan, who was old
enough to have a son at the time of his death, would she still have been young enough to bear a
child for David? Possibly, but she surely would have been much older than her husband. To be
sure, the Bible does not say that Ahinoam was the mother of Jonathan 2, just that she was the
wife of Saul. So perhaps she was Saul’s second wife, unrelated to Jonathan and Michal. The most
likely explanation is that there were two women named Ahinoam, but there is much we don’t
know. 1!Sam. 25:43, 27:3, 30:5; 2!Sam. 2:2, 3:2; 1!Ch. 3:1 !.
Ahitub: Good brother. LXX KN&0D)=Achitob; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.5) KN&0D)8#=Achitob(os).
AHITUB 1. The older son of PHINEHAS son of ELI. Father of AHIMELECH the high priest
of Nob and of AHIJAH (#1). 1!Sam. 14:3, 22:9, 11, 12, 20 !.
1.!For “Abimelech” manuscripts of both LXX and Josephus sometimes read “Achimelech” (Ahimelech); LXXA reads
sometimes “Amimelech”
2.!The example everyone will doubtless think of is Hamlet Senior and Claudius in Hamlet. But that was ficititious. It
did, however, happen in English history: King Cnut took over Emma of Normandy, the wife of his predecessor
Ethelred II Unraed (“the Unready”) in 1016. This was in no small part to cement his (otherwise non-existent)
claim to the throne. In this book, we see Darius I of Persia take over Atossa, the wife of his predecessor Cambyses
—!although that probably had more to do with the fact that Atossa was the daughter of Cyrus “the Great”.

AHITUB 2. The father of ZADOK 1, the high priest of DAVID. 2!Sam. 8:17; 1!Ch. 6:7–8,
52, 18:16; Ezra 7:2; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:2, 2 Esdras 1:1v.
AHITUB 3. Another priest, seven generations after #2. Possible ancestor of EZRA (see Ezra
7:2), although this is probably #2. 1!Ch. 6:11–12 !.
Aiah: Vulture. LXX C-%/C8%/K&-=Ial/Iol/ Aia (Lucian L*&)-=Seiba); Josephus (Ant VII.i.4)
L&)-08#=Sibat(os). The father of RIZPAH the concubine of SAUL. 2!Sam. 3:7, 21:8–11 !.
Amariah: Yah[weh] has promised. LXX K?-!*&-; Josephus (Ant VIII.i.3) K!8P&-#=Arophia(s).
AMARIAH 1. The (alleged) grandfather of ZADOK 1, DAVID’S high priest. 1!Ch. 6:7, 52;
Ezra 7:3; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:2, 2 Esdras 1:2 !.
AMARIAH 2. A priest, whose father (AZARIAH #2) was high priest in the time of SOLOMON.
Seven generations after #1. Possible ancestor of EZRA (see Ezra 7:2), although this is probably
#1. 1!Ch. 6:11 !.
AMARIAH 3. A son of HEZEKIAH (probably the king of that name), and great-grandfather
of ZEPHANIAH the prophet. Zeph. 1:1 !.
Amasa: Burden-bearer? LXX K?-44-&/K?*44*&=Amassai/Amassei; Josephus (Ant VII.x.1)
K?-4-#/K)-44-#=Amasa(s)/Abassa(s). Son of ABIGAIL 2/ABIGAL the daughter of JESSE (1!Ch.
2:17), and hence DAVID’s nephew, Amasa was the captain of ABSALOM’S armies during the
latter’s rebellion. He survived the rebellion and was appointed captain of the armies of Israel in
place of JOAB. David seems to have done this as a gesture of reconciliation. Joab considered
Amasa to be an ineffective commander, however, and therefore murdered him and resumed
command. 2!Sam. 17:25, 19:13–14, 20:4–13; 1!Kings 2:5, 32; 1!Ch. 2:17 !.
Amaziah: Yah[weh] is strong. LXX K?*44&-#=Amessias (2 Kings 12:22) or K?-4&-#=Amasias
(2 Ch. 24:27); Josephus (Ant IX.viii.4) K?-4&-#=Amasias. The son of JOASH 2 king of Judah,
Amaziah succeeded to the throne after his father’s assassination. A good king, but not
spectacularly so (2!Kings 14:3). He fought a successful war against Edom, and subjugated that
nation, but was then thoroughly defeated by JEHOASH 1 king of Israel (2!Kings 14:8–14). Like his
father, he was assassinated by disgruntled noblemen.1 He was succeeded by his son AZARIAH 4,
also called UZZIAH). He is not mentioned in Matthew 1, but should have been listed as an
ancestor of Jesus.2 2!Kings 12:21, 13:12, 14:1–23, 15:1, 3; 1!Ch. 3:12; 2!Ch. 24:27–26:1, 26:4 !.
Ammihud: My kinsman is Splendour. LXX Q?&8E9=Emioud. A descendent of EPHRAIM and
the great-grandfather of JOSHUA 1. He was also the father of ELISHAMA, the leader of the
Ephraimites early in the Exodus. Num. 1:10, 2:18, 7:48, 53, 10:22; 1!Ch. 7:26.
1.!The dating of his death is rather in doubt. 2 Kings 14:1 says Amaziah became king in the second year of JEHOASH
of Israel; 14:2 adds that he reigned 29 years. According to 14:23, JEROBOAM II became king of Israel in
Amaziah’s fifteenth year. Then in 15:1, AZARIAH/UZZIAH son of Amaziah became king of Judah in Jeroboam’s
year 27 — on the face of it indicating a forty year reign for Amaziah. Proposals to solve the difficulty are
numerous and complex (e. g. E. R. Thiele’s involves two co-regencies); perhaps the simplest is to assume that
Amaziah’s war with Israel resulted in his deposition years before he died (cf. the odd dating formula in 2 Kings
14:27), with resulting chronological confusion.
2.!Except that the name is found in D (in Luke), in the Curetonian Syriac, and in the Ethiopic version

Amminadab: My Kinsman is Noble. LXX/NT K?&5-9-). His son NAHSHON was called the
“prince of Judah.” The great-grandfather of BOAZ, the great-grandfather of DAVID. He was the
father of AARON’S wife ELISHEBA (Ex. 6:23). Ex. 6:23; Num. 1:7, 2:3, 7:12, 17, 10:14; Ruth 4:19–
20; 1!Ch. 2:10; Matt. 1:4 (where NRSV spells “Aminadab,” as in the Greek); Luke 3:331 !.
Amnon: Faithful. LXX/Josephus K?5D5. The oldest son of DAVID, born of AHINOAM of
Jezreel. He lusted after his half-sister TAMAR 2, and feigned sickness in order to lure her to his
home. He then raped her. Tamar claimed he could have married her,2 but Amnon wasn’t
interested. And David refused to punish Amnon, because he loved his firstborn son.3 Two years
later, ABSALOM, the full bother of Tamar and the second surviving son of David, killed Amnon to
avenge her. 2!Samuel 3:2, 13:1–33, 39; 1!Ch. 3:1 !.
Amon: Faithful. LXX K?D5.4 The son of MANASSEH 2, and his successor as king of Judah.
He was almost as evil as his father, and worshiped the same idols. But his household servants
assassinated him (and were in turn slain by the people of Judah) after only two years, so he didn’t
influence history much for good or ill. He was succeeded by his son JOSIAH, the most faithful of
all the kings of Judah. 2!Kings 21:18–26; 1!Ch. 3:14; 2!Ch. 33:20–25; Jer. 1:2, 25:3; Zeph. 1:1; cf.
Matt. 1:10, where he is called “Amos” by the best texts. !.
Amorites. LXX K?8!!-&8#=Amorraios. A people of Canaan, listed as the fourth “child” of
CANAAN, the son of HAM, son of NOAH (Gen. 10:16; 1!Ch. 1:13).5 While they seem to have been
strong in the time of ABRAHAM (Gen. 14:13) and the time of the Judges (they forced the tribe of
Dan out of its land — Judges 1:34, 18:1), they had been badly hurt by the Joseph tribes by the
time of Samuel, and only remnants of them were left (2!Sam. 21:2). They were finally subjugated
permanently by DAVID and SOLOMON (2!Kings 9:20).
Amos: Burden-bearer ? NT K?D#. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS.
Not to be confused with the prophet of the same name. See also AMON. Luke 3:25 !.
Amram: Exalted people. LXX K?)!-?=Ambram; Josephus (Ant II.ix.3) K?!-?;#/
K?-!-?8#=Amram(os)/Amaram(s). A son of KOHATH, son of LEVI. He was the father of AARON,
MIRIAM, and MOSES. He seems to have married his aunt JOCHEBED (Ex. 6:20; Num. 26:59); the
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XII.4 reports that the two had been born in the same day,
1.!For the confusion over this and the following names in Luke, see the excursus on the Gospel Genealogies of Jesus,
p. 119.
2.!This marriage was illegal under later Jewish law; the rabbis came up wit the complicated explanation that Tamar’s
mother Maacah 1 had not converted to Judaism when her daughter was born, making Tamar legally unrelated to
Amnon!
3.!This explanation is found in 2 Sam. 13:21 LXX 4QSama Latin Josephus followed by NRSV; MT omits
(homoioarkton)
4.!Amon is the reading of the Lucianic text; Origen has K??D5=Ammon; LXXB LXXA have K?D#=Amos; Josephus
(Ant X.iii.2) gives K??D5-#=Ammon(as) (one important manuscript has Amosos). In the New Testament,
K?D#=Amos is the reading of ‫ א‬B C M Y /* ƒ1 33 157 1071 sa bo arm geo (plus D in Luke); KJV reads “Amon”
following E K L W /c ƒ13 565 892 Byz sin cur pesh
5.!LXXB omits the latter verse — indeed, it omits all of 1 Ch. 1:11-16, 18-26. If we can believe the Harkleian Syriac,
Origen also marked the verses in ⋇ as not being in the original LXX.

which Levi XI.8 reports to have been Live’s sixty-fourth year — a date also found in the Qumran
MS. 4Q559. Amram probably died in Egypt before the Exodus. A fragmentary apocalypse from
Qumran (the “Testament of Amram”) claims him as its author, and also supports the LXX claim
that the sojourn in Egypt lasted 215 years (as in LXX) rather than 430 years (as in MT).1 Ex.
6:18, 20; Num. 3:19, 26:58–59; 1!Ch. 6:2, 3, 18, 23:12, 13, 24:20 !.
Aphiah: Striving ? LXX KP*,=Aphek.2 A Benjaminite of the clan of Matri (or so we would
assume based on 1!Sam. 10:21; the clan is otherwise unknown), and the earliest known ancestor
of SAUL. 1!Sam. 9:1 !.
Aram. LXX K!-?; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) K!-?8#=Aram(os).
ARAM 1. A son of SHEM son of NOAH. Considered to be the ancestor of the Syrians of
Damascus, who were also known as the Aramaeans. Gen. 10:21–23; 1 Ch. 1:173 !.
ARAM 2. The LXX name for RAM, also used in Matt. 1:3–4 and in the KJV text of Luke
3:33; NRSV omits the name (see the excursus on the Gospel Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119).
Arkites. LXX K!8E,-&8#=Aroukaios. A people of Canaan, listed as the seventh “child” of
CANAAN son of HAM son of NOAH. They probably lived in the city of Arka (now Tel Arka) in
northern Syria, and had little impact on the Israelites. Gen. 10:17; 1!Ch. 1:154 !.
Armoni: Of the palace ? LXX Q!?D5*&=Ermonei.5 Son of SAUL by his concubine RIZPAH.
DAVID caused him, along with his brother MEPHIBOSHETH (#1) and five grandsons of Saul, to be
slain to appease the Gibeonites. (Of course, one must always suspect that David’s real reason was
to eliminate potential rivals for the throne.) 2!Sam. 21:8 !.
Arni: NT K!5&. According to (the best texts of) Luke 3:33, a son of HEZRON and grandfather
of AMMINADAB. For further details see the excursus on the Gospel Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119.
Arpachshad. LXX K!P-]-9=Arphaxad; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) K!P-]-9;#=Arphaxad(es).
The youngest child of SHEM son of NOAH. He was an ancestor of ABRAHAM, and seemingly of
all the Hebrew peoples. (Others list him as the ancestor of a Mesopotamian tribe.) According to
the Hebrew of Genesis and Chronicles, he was the father of SHELAH, but in LXX and in Luke
3:36, Shelah is the son of CAINAN, an otherwise unknown son of Arpachshad. Josephus considers
him to be the ancestor of the Chaldeans (an identification supported by moderns on linguistic
1.!In the fragment, Amram is said to have died at the age of 137 (agreeing with his age in MT) in year 152 of the
sojourn in Egypt. Even if Moses had been conceived in the year Amram died, this allows a maximum of 233
years for the sojourn, with the likely period being some decades less. Since LXX and Josephus give dates for the
sojourn of 210-215 years, we conclude that LXX (or a Hebrew text similar to that underlying LXX) was used as
the basis of the Testament.
The Testament of Amram was popular at Qumran, apparently existing in half a dozen or more copies, although
most are badly damaged and the text is very uncertain.
2.!LXXA* KP-N=Apach, LXXAc KP&N=Aphich
3.!LXXB omits this verse
5.!Ermonei is the reading of the Rahlfs text, accepted by NETS; LXXa reads Armoniei, LXXB has Armonei, Lucian offers
Achi

grounds). MT gives his age as 35 when his son was born; LXX, the Samaritan version, and
Josephus give it as 135. Gen. 10:22, 24, 11:10–13; 1!Ch. 1:17–18,1 24; Luke 3:36 !.
Arpaxad/Arphaxad. Alternate (especially New Testament, after the Septuagint) spelling of
ARPACHSHAD.
Arvadites. LXX K!-9&8#=Aradios. A people of Canaan, listed as the ninth “child” of
CANAAN, the son of HAM, sonof NOAH. Arvad was a town in northern Phoenicia, and its people
probably had little impact on the Israelites. Gen. 10:18; 1!Ch. 1:162 !.
Asa: Popularly “Physician”; perhaps more correctly “He has Given.” LXX K4-; Josephus
K4-58#=Asan(os). The great-grandson of SOLOMON3 and the third king of Judah. He is said to
have been the son of ABIJAM son of REHOBOAM son of Solomon. Chronological considerations,
however, have led many scholars to believe that Asa was the brother rather than the son of
Abijam. In support of this we note that both are said to have had MAACAH daughter of Absalom
as their mother (1 Kings 15:2, 10, 13). He was one of the better kings of Judah, and strove to
purify his nation’s worship. As a result, he is said to have been quite successful. But he later fought
a war with BAASHA king of Israel, which forced him to form an alliance with Syria. This act of
“unfaithfulness,” according to the author of Chronicles, resulted in his being struck by disease.
He died when he sought the help of physicians rather than God (2!Ch. 16:7–13). 1!Kings 15:8–
24, 25, 28, 32, 33, 16:8, 10, 15, 23, 29, 22:41, 43, 46; 1!Ch. 3:10; 2!Ch. 14–16, 17:2, 20:32,
21:12; Jer. 41:9; (Matt. 1:7, 8)4 !.
Asahel: God has made. LXX K4-;%=Asael; Josephus (Ant VII.i.3) K4-;%8#=Asael(os). Son
of ZERUIAH. He was thus David’s nephew and the brother of JOAB and ABISHAI. He was a very
fast runner (2!Sam. 2:18; Josephus — Ant VII.i.3 — says that he could outrun horses). At the
battle of Gibeon, the forces of David under Joab defeated those of ESHBAAL under ABNER (999
B.C.E.? — 2!Sam. 2:17). Asahel pursued Abner with determination, and Abner was forced to kill
him. 2 Ch. 27:7 lists him as the commander of one of David’s military divisions and says that he
had a son Zebadiah (otherwise unknown) who succeeded him. But it also says that he
1.!LXXB omits verses 17b-18

3.!1 Kings 15:8 makes Asa the great-grandson of Solomon; however, since his “father” Abijam/Abijah reigned for
only three years (so MT; LXXB reads “six” and LXXA “sixteen”!; a handful of LXX texts agree with MT in
reading “three”), and since his mother had the same name as Abijam’s mother (see the MT of 1 Kings 15:2, 10;
in LXX of 2 Kingdoms=2 Samuel 14:27 we read that Tamar 2 was Abijam’s mother), many scholars think that
Asa was in fact the younger brother of Abijam,. In this scenario, presumably, Abijam died young and without
children.
The LXX text’s attempts to clean up the Maacah problem were pretty dramatic. According to LXXB LXXA of
1!Kings 15:2, the mother of Asa was not Maacah daughter of Absalon but Ana daughter of Absalom. (Origen,
however, corrected this back to Maacah). LXXA took the additional step, as noted, of extending Abijam’s reight to
sixteen years, giving him time to have children. Even more surprising is the reading of LXX of 2 Sam. 14:27,
which says that “Three sons and a daughter were born to Absalom. [The daughter’s] name was Tamar; she was
a very beautiful woman, and she became the wife of Solomon’s son Rehoboam, and bore him Abijah.”
4.!The best texts of Matthew, including ന1 ‫ א‬B C (D in Luke) ƒ1 ƒ13 700 1071 k arm geo, have Asaph, Asaph here; most
late manuscripts, including E K L W M L 33 565 579 892 Byz sry KJV, read Asa, Asa

commanded 24,000 men, which is patently impossible. 2!Sam. 2:18–23, 30–32, 3:27, 30, 23:24;
1!Ch. 2:16, 11:26, 27:7 !.
Asaph: Name used in Matt. 1:7-8 NRSV for Asa. The textual evidence strongly supports the
reading “Asaph,” but the context makes it clear that Asa is meant; see the note on Asa.
Asher: Popularly “Happy”; perhaps more correctly “salvation-bringer” or related to the name of the goddess
Asherah. LXX K4;!=Aser; Josephus (Ant I.xix.7) K4;!8#=Aser(os). The second child of Jacob 1
by his concubine ZILPAH, the maid of his wife LEAH. One of the twelve tribes of Israel, Asher
was given land in the north of Israel, on the coast of the Mediterranean. The tribe had little
impact on Israel’s history, and seems to have been completely destroyed by Assyria after the fall
of Israel (Asher is mentioned only twice in the New Testament — Luke 2:36, Rev. 7:6). Asher the
person is mentioned in Gen. 30:15, 35:26, 46:17, 49:20; Ex. 1:4; Num. 26:46; 1!Ch. 2:2, 7:30,
40. All other references are to the tribe — Num. 1, 7, 10, 13, 26, 34; Deut. 27, 33; Josh. 21; Judg.
1, 5, 6, 7; 1!Ch. 6, 12; 2!Ch. 30; Ezek. 48 — or to the land of the tribe — Josh. 17:10–11; 19:24–
31; 1!Kings 4:16. There is also a town named Asher mentioned in Josh. 17:7.
Asshur. LXX K448E!=Assur; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) K448E!8#=Assur(os). The second son of
SHEM son of NOAH. Considered to be the ancestor of the Assyrians, the people who would
destroy Israel and subjugate Judah. The word “Asshur” sometimes refers to Assyria itself —
Num. 24:22, 24; Ezek. 27:23 — for it is also the Hebrew word for Assyria. Gen. 10:22; 1!Ch.
1:17 (plus some thirty uses for “Assyria,” beginning with Gen. 10:11; the name “Asshur” is used
for the people in Num. 24:22–23, Ezek. 27:23 NRSV) !.
Athaliah: Yah[weh] is great. LXX J8+8%&-=Gotholia; Josephus V+%&-#/J8+8%&-#=Othlia(s)/
Gotholoa(s). According to 2 Kings 8:18 (also 2 Ch. 21:6), the daughter of AHAB king of Israel. In
2!Kings 8:26 (also 2!Ch. 22:2) she is called the daughter of OMRI (i.e. the sister of Ahab).1 Both
statements have points to commend them; since “daughter” in Hebrew can mean
“granddaughter,” 8:26 does not necessarily contradict 8:18. Making her the daughter of Omri
works better chronologically, but making her daughter of Ahab fits the linguistic evidence.
Athaliah, it should be noted, has a name compounded with the root Yah[weh], as Ahab’s sons did
but Omri’s (known) children did not. Also, Athaliah is also accused of worshipping the same gods
as Ahab’s wife Jezebel. Both facts support the theory that she was Ahab’s child. But if she in fact
was the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, she would have had to be very young when she was
married.2 So the matter must be considered uncertain. What is known is that she was married to
JEHORAM 2 son of JEHOSHAPHAT 1, king of Judah. After the death of Jehoram, their son AHAZIAH
2 succeeded. Within a year, he went to visit his uncle JEHORAM 1, king of Israel. He was killed
1.!Except that the Lucianic text reads “daughter of Ahab” in both passages in 2 Kings
2.!Athaliah’s son AHAZIAH 2 came to the throne at the age of twenty-two in the “twelfth year of Joram of Judah.”
Assuming Athaliah was eighteen when Ahaziah was born, she would have been born about eight years before
Ahab became king according to the Biblical chronology (which is possible) but before even her grandfather Omri
became king under William F. Albright’s dating. Hence the reading adopted here depends on our chronological
scheme. Some would resolve the difficulty by proposing that Athaliah was Ahab’s daughter by a wife other than
Jezebel — since Ahab could hardly have married Jezebel before his father Omri became king.

there in the course of JEHU’S rebellion (2!Kings 9:21–28). Athaliah — seeing her father’s dynasty
slaughtered in Samaria — then usurped power in Judah. She supposedly killed all of Ahaziah’s
sons except the youngest, JOASH 2, who was hidden from her by his sister JEHOSHEBA (2!Kings
11:1–2).1 She also gave power to Mattan, a priest of Baal, probably from Phoenicia (2!Kings
11:18). Six years later, the priest JEHOIADA, husband of Jehosheba, led a rebellion. Joash was
restored to his throne and Athaliah was killed after being dragged from the temple (2!Kings
11:13–16). 2!Kings 8:26, 11:1–3, 13–16, 20; 2 Ch. 22:2, 10–12, 23:12–13, 21, 24:7 !.
Attai: Timely. LXX C*++&=Ieththi. A younger son of REHOBOAM by his second wife MAACAH
(#2). 2!Ch. 11:20 !.
Azariah: “Yah[weh] is (my) Might” or “Yah[weh] has Helped.” LXX K'-!&-#=Azarias. A very
common name, there seem to have been twenty-eight different Azariahs in the Old Testament
(most of them, of course, of no significance whatsoever), plus assorted Ezras, Zerahiahs, and
Seraiahs (all variants of the same name). Those shown in this genealogy are as follows:
AZARIAH 1. A Levite, the grandson of Zadok 1, David’s priest. 1!Ch. 6:92 !.
AZARIAH 2. Grandson of #1; priest of the Temple in the time of Solomon. 1!Ch. 6:10 !.
AZARIAH 3. The second son of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, killed along with his four
younger brothers by JEHORAM 2 when the latter came to the throne. 2!Ch. 21:1–4 !.
AZARIAH 4. LXX K'-!&-#/V'&-#=Azarias/Ozias; Josephus (Ant IX.ix.3) always
V'&-#=Ozia(s). The son of AMAZIAH and the father of JOTHAM. He was the ninth king of Judah.
Also — perhaps more frequently — called Uzziah (LXX Ozias; the name has the same meaning
as “Azariah”), which seems to have been his throne name. His father Amaziah had been
assassinated, so Azariah came to the throne at sixteen,3 and reigned for longer than any other
king of Judah except MANASSEH 2. He was considered to be generally a good king, with a long
and prosperous reign4 (his building projects on the Red Sea have recently been discovered and are
quite extensive). Assyrian records have been interpreted to indicate that he was the leading king
of Palestine after JEROBOAM II of Israel died. His time seems to have become a byword for peace,
even though he stirred up rebellions against Assyria. He died a leper (2!Kings 15:5). The author
1.!I frankly don’t buy this part; it makes no biological sense. I suspect that, if she killed anyone, it was probably half-
brothers of Ahaziah — children of his by another wife, and hence no relatives of Athaliah. But I admit that I
have no Biblical warrant for this.
2.!Also probably 1 Kings 4:2 (in LXXB this verse is 2:46+), although this refers to “Azariah son [not grandson] of
Zadok.”
3.!The exact chronology of this is obscure. 2 Kings 15:1 says that Azariah became king in the “twenty-seventh year
of Jeroboam [II] of Israel.” However, Azariah’s father Amaziah lived “fifteen years after the death of… Jehoash
[father of Jeoboam]” (2 Kings 14:17); hence Azariah should have reigned in Jeroboam’s fourteenth of fifteenth
year (so, e.g., Josephus, Ant IX.x.3). The confusion may indicate, as proposed by the rabbis and several modern
scholars, that Azariah became co-regent after his father’s defeat by Jehoash, and that these years were somehow
counted twice (or something like that). See also the chronological note on Amaziah, p. 83.
4.!Note however that it appears that he spent most of his life in co-regencies: perhaps fifteen years ruling instead of
his father Amaziah, then quite possibly sixteen years at the end of his reign when his son JOTHAM was regent, and
perhaps even a few years at the very end when his grandson AHAZ assumed/usurped the regency (there is
evidence that Ahaz was in control after Jotham’s eighth year; see the note on Jotham, p. 156.)

of Chronicles blames this on his pride (2!Ch. 26:16), which led him to attempt the duties of a
priest. It was in the last year of his reign that Isaiah began prophesying (Isa. 6:1). References: 1.
to “Azariah”: 2!Kings 14:21, 15:1–7, 8, 17, 23, 27; 1!Ch. 3:12. 2. to “Uzziah”: 2!Kings 15:13, 30,
32, 34; 2!Ch. 26:1–23, 27:2; Isa. 1:1, 6:1, 7:1; Hosea 1:1; Amos 1:1; Zech. 14:5; Matt. 1:8–9 !.
AZARIAH 5. Father of SERAIAH the High Priest at the time of the Exile (1 Ch. 6:14). It is
noteworthy that he is mentioned in the genealogy of Seraiah but not in that of EZRA. It may be
that Ezra’s genealogy simply leaves out unimportant names, but some have questioned the
existence of this Azariah.
Azor: Helper. NT K'D!. According to Matthew, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Matt.
1:13–14 !.
Azubah: Forsaken. LXX K'8E)-; Josephus (Ant VIII.xii.6) K)&9-#=Abida(s). The daughter
of Shilhi, wife of ASA the third king of Judah and mother of JEHOSHAPHAT 1 the fourth king.
1!Kings 22:42; 2!Ch. 20:31 !.
Baasha: A contraction. Perhaps “Baal Hears” or “The Sun is Baal.” LXX \--4-=Baasa; Josephus
(Ant VIII.xi.4) \-4-58#=Basanos. The son of AHIJAH 2, a man of Issachar.1 He conspired against
NADAB the son of JEROBOAM I (whom Josephus calls his friend), and killed him. Baasha thus
became the third king of Israel. But he did not succeed in establishing a dynasty, for his son
ELAH!1 and all his descendants were killed, just as Baasha himself had killed the descendants of
Jeroboam, shortly after the old king’s death. Baasha was not considered a very good king, for he
encouraged Israel to worship the golden calves which Jeroboam I had established. 1!Kings
15:16–21, 27–30, 32, 33, 16:1–7, 8, 11–13, 21:22; 2!Kings 9:9; 2!Ch. 16:1–6; Jer. 41:9 !.
Bathsheba: Daughter of Abundance. LXX \;!4-)**=Bersabee; Josephus \**+4-);/
\**!4-);=Beethsabe/Beersabe. Daughter of Eliam (2!Sam. 11:3).2 Some consider her to be
identical to the BATH-SHUA daughter of Ammiel of 1!Ch. 3:5.3 She was originally the wife of
Uriah the Hittite, one of DAVID’s thirty mighty men (in Ant VII.vii.1 Josephus says Uriah was
JOAB’S armour-bearer). But when David saw her bathing, he had Uriah killed and took her for his
wife. David’s punishment for this was that his first child by Bathsheba died (2!Sam. 12:14) and his
family was never again at peace (2!Sam. 12:10–11). But Bathsheba’s second child was SOLOMON,
who succeeded David as king. And Bathsheba retained her influence over David until the end of
1.!“Issachar” is the reading of MT. For the confusing MT readings regarding Baasha’s ancestry, see the note on
Ahijah 2, p. 81.
2.!This raises an interesting possibility: In 2 Sam. 23:34, we read that Eliam son of Ahithophel was one of David’s
Thirty Mighty Men. Ahithophel was of course the wise counselor whose advice David always took but who
supported Absalom against David. Could the two Eliams be the same? The name is used nowhere else in the
Bible, and it’s perhaps chronologically possible, although it’s hard to believe that Ahithophel would still be active
some years after his granddaughter seduced David. But if the two Eliams are the same, why would Ahithophel
have supported Absalom against David, when supporting David would have raised at least the possibility that his
own great-grandson would become King (as, indeed, proved the case)? And if Bathsheba was Ahithophel’s
granddaughter, why did Ahithophel so quickly hang himself when his advice was not taken? Could he not have
hoped that his granddaughter could win him mercy? It seems much more likely the two Ammiels are distinct.
3.!The name “Ammiel” is very close to “Eliam”; they use the same two elements. “Ammiel” may be simply a case of
“Eliam” with the two elements accidentally written backward.

his life. 2!Sam. 11:2–5, 11, 26–27, 12:9–11, 15, 24; 1!Kings 1:11–22, 28–31, 2:13–22; Psalm 51
(title). Called Bath-Shua in 1 Ch. 3:5 !.
Bath-Shua: Daughter of Shua. According to Gen. 38, JUDAH 1’S first wife was the daughter of
the Canaanite Shua (so MT; LXX gives the father’s name as Iras and the daughter’s name as
L-E-, Saua=Shua, while the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah VIII.2 reports that the
daughter was Bathshua and her father was Barsaba King of Adullam!). Their children were ER,
ONAN, and SHELAH. The Bible has nothing else to say about Bath-Shua except that she died
(Gen. 38:12), but Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah XI.3-5 reports that she arranged for
Shelah to be married to a Canaanite rather than TAMAR 1, and that God killed her in
consequence. 1!Ch. 2:3, instead of calling her “the daughter of Shua,” converts this to the proper
name Bath-Shua. An errant reference in 1 Ch. 3:5 actually refers to BATHSHEBA. Gen. 38; 1 Ch.
2:3, (3:5) !.
Becorath: first birth ? LXX \-N&!=Bachir.1 In the genealogy of the book of Samuel, the
grandfather of ABIEL, who was in turn the grandfather of SAUL and ABNER. (He is not
mentioned in the genealogy in 1 Chronicles.) Some versions call him Bechorath. 1!Sam. 9:1 !.
Ben-Ammi: Son of my people. LXX gives the name as K??-5, Amman, of my people; compare
Josephus’s K??-58#, Amman(os) (Ant I.xi.5). When LOT and his daughters fled from the
destruction of Sodom, it appeared to the girls that all of humanity had been destroyed. So the
daughters made their father drunk and lay with him. The child of the older daughter, conceived
on the first night, was named MOAB; the child of the younger daughter, conceived the next night,
was Ben-Ammi. The Ammonites, a people who lived across the Jordan from Israel (compare the
modern city of Amman, Jordan), were considered to be descended from Ben-Ammi. The low
opinion the Israelites had of the Ammonites can be seen by the baseness of this ancestry. Gen.
19:38 !.
Benjamin: Son of the Right Hand (i.e. Son of the South. It is interesting to note that Benjaminites are
known for their left-handedness; consider Ehud in Judges 3:15 or the Gibeaites in Judges 20:16). Traditionally
rendered “Son of Fortune.” LXX/Josephus \*5&-?&5, Beniamin. The youngest son of JACOB 1, and
the only one to be born in Canaan. He was the second son of RACHEL, who died bearing him.
He was born somewhere near Bethlehem. Other than JOSEPH 1, he seems to have been Jacob’s
favorite son. Ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, the inheritance of Benjamin was in
central Palestine. It was just north of Judah and south of Ephraim. Jerusalem was near its
southern boundary. The tribe was nearly destroyed in the time of the Judges by a war with the
other tribes — only six hundred Benjaminites lived through it — but was allowed to survive.
When the empire of David and Solomon broke up, Benjamin remained loyal to the kings of
Judah rather than following Jeroboam I of Israel. The tribe thus survived the destruction of
Israel.
Since Benjamin was such a popular tribe, it seems infeasible to list all references to him. Here
are some highlights: Birth — Gen. 35:16–19. JUDAH promises to protect Benjamin — Gen. 43:8–
1.!Bachir is the reading of LXXN+V; LXXB Bachei; LXXA? Origen Bechorath; Lucian Macheir

9. Joseph’s love for him — Gen. 43:26–34. Place in Canaan — Josh. 18:11–28. Near-destruction
of the tribe as a result of the massacre at Gibeah — Judges 19:1–21:24. SAUL, a man of
Benjamin, elected King — 1!Sam. 10:1, 17–27. Benjamin elects to be loyal to REHOBOAM —
1!Kings 12:21, 23, etc.
Beriah: Popularly “Unfortunate”; perhaps also “Prominent.” LXX \-!6--/\-!&-/
)-!&*=Bargaa/Baria/Barie. Not to be confused with several other Old Testament Beriahs,
including a son of Asher. A son of EPHRAIM (called the child of his sorrows) and an ancestor of
JOSHUA. 1!Ch. 7:23(–25)1 !.
Bethuel: Related to Bethel, “House of God.” Perhaps from Caananite “Batti-ilu.” LXX
\-+8E*%=Bathuel; Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) \-+8E;%8#=Bathuel(os). Son of NAHOR the brother of
ABRAHAM, and hence the first cousin of ISAAC. His daughter REBEKAH was Isaac’s wife; his son
LABAN was the father of LEAH and RACHEL, the wives of JOSEPH 1. According to Josephus (Ant
I.xvi.2), he was dead when Isaac married his daughter — and this would seem to be true, since
(although he is mentioned as being alive in Gen. 24:50) the wedding negotiations were carried
out with Laban.This means that Bethuel must either have been dead or incapacitated. Gen. 22:22–
23, 24:15, 24, 47, 50–51, 25:20, 28:2, 5 !.
Bilhah: Modesty. LXX/Josephus \-%%-=Balla. The maid of RACHEL the wife of JACOB 1.
When Rachel saw that she was barren, she gave Bilhah to Jacob as a concubine (this was
apparently a Hurrian custom; see the story of HAGAR’S relationship to SARAH), and she bore him
DAN and NAPHTALI. Later, REUBEN would lie with Bilhah (Gen. 35:22) and thus defile his
birthright (Gen. 49:3–4). According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.10, her
father was one Rotheus; the Testament also says (Naphtali 1.9) that her older sister was ZILPAH,
Jacob’s other concubine (Naphtali 1:12), and her aunt was Deborah (Naphtali I.9), who was the
nurse of REBEKAH (Gen. 35:8). Her mother’s name was said to be Hannah. Gen. 29:29, 30:1–8,
35:22, 25, 37:2, 46:25; 1!Ch. 7:13 !.
Boaz: Strength.2 LXX \88#=Boos; Josephus (Ant V.ix.2) \8-'8#=Boaz(os);3 NT \8*#/
\88#=Boes/Boos.4 The grandson of NAHSHON the prince of Judah. Boaz lived in the time of the
Judges, and owned a large amount of land. Boaz married RUTH the Moabitess, and their child
was OBED, the grandfather of DAVID. A tradition found in a Targum of Ruth identifies Boaz with
the judge Ibzan of Judges 12:8–10 but this seems unlikely; another tradition makes Boaz
contemporary with Deborah. Josephus (Ant V.ix.1) dates him to the time of ELI. Ruth 2:1–4:22;
1!Ch. 2:11–12; Matt. 1:5; Luke 3:32 !.
Booz: see BOAZ.
1.!LXXB omits these verses

2.!Note the use of the name “Boaz” for one of the pillars of Solomon’s Temple; 1 Kings 7:21, 2!Ch. 3:17
3.!LXXA intermittently \88'=Booz
4.!In Matt. 1:5 Boes is the reading of ന1 ‫ א‬B k; C 33 have Boos as in the best LXX texts; E K L ƒ1 ƒ13 892 Byz vg KJV
have the alternate LXX rendering Booz; W has first Booz then Boaz.
In Luke 3:32 we find Boos in ‫ א‬A B D L [ 33 565, while E K Y ƒ1 892 Byz vg KJV read Booz; N* omits the name

Bukki: Proved of Yah[weh]. LXX )D,-&=Bokai; Josephus (plus LXX in Ezra) )8,,&=Bokki.
The grandson of PHINEHAS 1 son of ELEAZAR son of AARON, and an ancestor of ZADOK 1 and
EZRA. 1!Ch. 6:5, 51; Ezra 7:4; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:2 (compare 2 Esdras 1:2 “Borith”)
!.
Cain: Popularly “Acquisition”; more probably “Smith.” LXX A-&5; Josephus (Ant I.ii.1)
A-&#=Kai(s). The oldest child of ADAM and EVE, and a farmer. He slew his younger brother
ABEL when Abel’s offering of sheep was more acceptable to God than Cain’s offering of grain.
But God did not punish him, instead promising him safety (Gen. 4:15). He then fled to the land
of Nod, trying to escape God, and his guilt, and perhaps his relatives. His descendants, listed in
Gen. 4:17–24, seem to have lived until the time of the flood (although it is possible that this is a
confused version of the descendants of SETH; the two lists are almost identical, and they come
from different sources — Cain’s from the J source, Seth’s from P).
There is a Jewish legend that Cain was not in fact the son of Adam; that he was fathered by
the serpent/demon Samael. Another account has it that Cain lusted after Abel’s twin sister (for
the story goes that Cain and Abel both had twin sisters, which explains where they found
wives....) In an Islamic version of the legend, Cain’s (or Kabil’s) twin was Aclima, while Abel’s
(Habil’s) was Jumella. Adam wanted Abel to marry Cain’s twin, and Cain to marry Abel’s, but
Cain was opposed. So they made sacrifices to see which one God would accept, and God took
Abel’s. This rejection caused Cain to kill Abel.1
This left the problem of disposing of the body. One account says that Cain carried it until he
saw a raven scratch a hole in the ground and bury a dead bird there, and Cain imitated it. In
another version, Adam saw the raven burying a baby, and it was Adam who performed the first
burial.
One Jewish legend has it that the “mark of Cain” of Gen. 4:15 was a horn that grew from his
forehead. Christian legend had it that Cain had a yellow beard, and yellow beards and hair came
to be associated with murderers, such as Judas. Note that Shakespeare in The Merry Wives of
Windsor refers to Slender as having “a little yellow beard, a Cain-color’d beard.”2 Gen. 4:1–17,
24, 25; Heb. 11:4; 1 John 3:12; Jude 11; in the Apocrypha in 4 Macc. 18:11 !.
Cainam: see CAINAN.
1.!As anthropology has studied the history of farming, it has discovered some interesting points which might, just
possibly, relate to the history of Cain and Abel — because farming, although first discovered some ten thousand
years ago, was rediscovered many times, and some local areas might still have oral traditions about the facts in the
early Biblical period. The early farmers were, like Cain, pretty effectively cursed compared to hunter-gatherers
like Adam and Abel; they had to work much harder (it is estimated that it took only about three hours a day for a
hunter-gatherer to gather food), and in the event of drought or famine, farmers simply had to sit down and die,
whereas hunter-gatherers could try to migrate. But the farmers killed off most of the hunter-gatherers, because
— in good times — they could breed faster and raise more children and overwhelm the nomads. Thus, in a very
vague way, the history of Cain and Abel parallels the history of farmers and pastoralists.
2.!The Merry Wives of Windsor, Act I, scene iv, line 23 (22 in some editions). I can’t help but observe that, in medaieval
paints, the best yellow was orpiment, and the best orange was realgar — both arsenic compounds, and both
known to be highly toxic. Another good yellow was yellow lead, which was also toxic. Thus a yellow beard had to
be painted with toxic paints. A most fitting way to draw Cain, is it not?

Cainan: LXX/NT A-&5-?=Kaiman or A-&5-5=Kainan. Compare KENAN. In LXX and

Luke, the father of SHELAH 1 and son of ARPACHSHAD. (In the Hebrew of Gen. 10:24 and
11:12-13, Arpachshad is the father of Shelah with no intervening names. This is also true in the
Hebrew of 1 Chronicles, and the text of LXXB, by omitting several verses, in effect has the same
reading.) Curiously, although Josephus generally agrees with LXX as to the ages of the Patriarchs
(Ant I.vi.5, etc.), he omits Cainan in company with MT. Luke 3:36–37;1 also Gen. 10:24,2 11:12–
13 LXX, as well as LXXA of 1 Ch. 1:183 !.
Caleb: Dog (servant) of —. Or perhaps from Hurrian, consistent with Caleb’s foreign origin. LXX
^-%*)=Chaleb; Josephus (Ant III.xiv.4) ^-%*)8#=Chaleb(os). Usually called “the son of
JEPHUNNEH” (e.g. Num. 13:16), he, along with Joshua 1 and ten others, was sent by MOSES to spy
out Canaan. As he was one of the two who brought back a favourable report, he was promised
that he would enter Canaan. The son of Sirach lists Caleb, along with Joshua, as one of the great
men of Israel (Sirach 46:9). In Canaan, Caleb was granted the lands around Hebron, which he
had conquered. He was the uncle and father-in-law of OTHNIEL, the first judge of Israel.
Caleb’s genealogy is confused. In 1!Ch. 2:18, 19, 42, a Caleb is listed as the great-grandson
of Judah.4 This is the version shown in the chart. This Caleb was the father of Hur. It is not clear
that this Caleb is identical to the Joshua’s colleague. The timing is about right, but Caleb the spy
was “the son of Jephunneh,” and “the Kenezzite” (Josh. 14:6), both of which are inconsistent
with this identification; the genealogy of this Caleb does not mention Jephunneh. Some have
tried to identify Caleb the spy as the grandson of the other Caleb. But it seems most likely that
this was simply an attempt by the Chronicler to turn a non-Israelite into an Israelite, or created a
genealogy to prove a point (the same thing was done with Samuel, who in the book of Samuel
seems to have been an Ephraemite). The genealogy tries to finesse this by showing the
Chronicler’s genealogy for completeness while adding Kenaz to the sons of Hezron father of
Caleb so that we can show the relationship between Caleb and his nephew Othniel. Num. 13:6,
30, 14:6, 24, 30, 38, 26:65, 32:12, 34:19; Deut. 1:36; Josh. 14:6–14, 15:13–19, 21:12; Judges
1:12–15, 20; 1!Sam. (25:3), 30:14; 1!Ch. 2:18–19, 42, 46–49, 4:15, 6:56; in the Apocrypha in
1!Macc. 2:56, Sirach 46:7, 9 !.
Canaan: Not a Semitic term; perhaps a Hurrian word meaning “red-purple.” LXX
^-5--5=Chanaan; Josephus (Ant I.vi.2) ^-5--5-&8#=Chanaana(os). The youngest son of HAM
the youngest son of NOAH. Most of the peoples of Palestine were thought to be descended from
him. He was condemned always to be a slave of his uncles SHEM and JAPHETH because his father
1.!In Luke, Kainam...Kainam, the reading found in GNT, is found in ‫ א‬L. ന75vid reads omit...Kainam. Kainan...Kainan is
found in A E K J M [ ƒ13 579 892 Byz. Kainam…Kainan is the reading of B ƒ1 33. Kainan… Kainan is found in Y.
Almost all modern translations, whatever the reading of their Greek base, give the name as “Cainan.”
2.!Kainan is the reading of LXX911 LXXM in Genesis; LXXA reads Kainam.
3.!Most LXX texts seem to read Kainan in Gen. 11. In 1 Chronicles, it is the reading of LXXA; LXXB omits this
verse.
4.!Note also “Chelubai” in 1 Ch. 2:9. If the “Jerahmeel” of 2:42 is the same as in this verse, then “Chelubai” must
be Caleb; this is made explicit in LXX, where the name “Chaleb” is used in both verses.

had viewed Noah’s nakedness (Gen. 9:25–27; the odd nature of this — punishing the son but not
the father for the father’s sin — has led some to believe that Canaan, not Ham, was originally
Noah’s son, and the story has been confused). Gen. 9:18, 22, 25–27, 10:6, 15; 1!Ch. 1:8, 131 (and
frequently as a place name, e.g. Gen. 11:31) !.
Chileab: Wasting. LXX M-%&8E&-=Daliouia.2 The second child of DAVID, by ABIGAIL 1 the
former wife of Nabal of Carmel. He is called “Daniel” in 1!Ch. 3:1 and Ant VII.i.4. He seems to
have died young (a fact which may have given rise to his name). I will offer the wild guess that he
was killed in the raid on David’s base at Ziklag described in 1 Samuel 30. This would explain why
he is never mentioned again and why his death is not described; the author of the passage did not
wish to admit that the raid on Ziklag caused casualties. 2!Sam. 3:3 !.
Chilion: Pining, Wasting. LXX ^*%-&D5=Chelaon;3 Josephus (Ant V.ix.1) ^*%%&D5-=Chelliona.
The younger son of NAOMI and ELIMELECH, and husband of ORPAH. His older brother was
MAHLON. He died in Moab (according to the Targum of Ruth, this was to punish his sin of
marrying a foreign woman). His name is probably invented to fit the purposes of the author of
Ruth. Ruth 1:2, 5, 4:9 !.
Coniah: Yah[weh] is creator. Used only in Jeremiah, this seems to have been the birth-name of
the prince who ruled Judah as JEHOIACHIN. Note that LXX translates the name Jechoniah in Jer.
22 and J(eh)oiakim in Jer. 44:1 (=37:1 MT). Jer. 22:24, 28, 37:1 !.
Cosam: NT AD4-?. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:28
!.
Cush: Black. LXX ^8E#=Chous; Josephus (Ant I.vi.2) ^8E4&-58#=Chousa(os) or
^8E48#=Chous(os). The oldest son of CANAAN the grandson of NOAH, and the father of, among
others, Nimrod the mighty hunter and king of Babel. Cush is also the usual Biblical word for the
land south of Egypt, commonly rendered translated Ethiopia (NRSV margin “Nubia”; left
untranslated in Gen. 2:13, where it might refer to almost anyplace), so Cush may be intended to
be the ancestor of the Ethiopians. Others think he is the ancestor of a tribe of Mesopotamian
Cushites. Gen. 10:6–8; 1!Ch. 1:8–10 !.
Cushi: Black. LXX ^8E4&=Chousi. Father of ZEPHANIAH the prophet and presumed great-
grandson of king HEZEKIAH. Zeph. 1:1 !.
Dan: Judge. LXX/Josephus M-5. The older child of Jacob 1 by his concubine BILHAH, the
maid of his wife RACHEL. He was the ancestor of one of the tribes of Israel. The most
noteworthy Danite was probably Samson.
2.!In 2 Sam 3:3, the Hebrew reads Chileab, but all major LXX manuscripts have Dalouia, and AB reads 4QSama as
having a name that begins with the consonants Dl. It therefore gives the name in 3:3 as Daluiah. No other English
version seems to have adopted this reading.
In 1 Ch 3:1, MT has Daniel, LXXB Damniel, almost all other LXX texts including LXXA Lucian have Dalouia as in
the LXX text of Samuel.
The names Chileab (‫ )כלאב‬and Daniel (‫ )דניאל‬are not similar in Hebrew; there is no obvious way to explain this
very confusing situation.
3.!LXXB Kelain in Ruth 1:2

The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Zebulun IV.8-11 gives us the interesting legendary detail
that it was Dan who concocted the story of JOSEPH 1 being devoured by wild beats (a tale not
found in the Testament of Dan. Dan I.1 says that he lived to the age of 125).
The Danites had a difficult time in Palestine. Their land, to the west of Benjamin, was
actually Philistine territory, and they were never truly able to settle it. Eventually they were forced
to migrate to the north of Canaan. In the process, they inflicted many indignities on their fellow
Israelites (Judges 18). When they reached the north, they demolished the innocent city of Laish
(Josh. 19:47–48; Judges 18:27–29). They then rebuilt and settled the city, renaming it Dan. It was
there that Jeroboam I set up one of his golden calves (1!Kings 12:28–29). It seems likely that the
city was captured and destroyed by Syria or Assyria long before the rest of Israel fell. Dan was
probably the first of the Israelite tribes to be exterminated.
References to Dan the man are as follows: Gen. 30:6, 35:25, 46:23, 49:16–17; Ex. 1:4. For the
territory of Dan, see Josh. 19:40–48. For the Danites’ troubles in Canaan, see Judges 1:34, 18:1–
31. The numbers of the Danites are given in Num. 1:39, 26:43. Most other references are simply
lists of the sons of Jacob.
Daniel: God is Judge. LXX M-%&8E&-=Daliouia. Not to be confused with the “prophet.”
Name used in 1 Ch. 3:1 for David’s son Chileab, p. 94.
David: Traditionally rendered “Beloved.”1 LXX probably M-E&9=Dau(v)id;2 Josephus (Ant
V.ix.4) M-E&9;#=Dau(v)id(es). After MOSES, the most important character in the Old Testament.
The “Sweet Psalmist of Israel” (2!Sam. 23:1).3 He was regarded as one of only three truly “good”
kings of Israel, JOSIAH and HEZEKIAH being the others (Sirach 49:4; cf. 47:2). He was the second
Jew among the “Nine Worthies” of medieval tradition, JOSHUA 1 being the first and Judas
Maccabeus the third. David’s story occupies much of 1!Samuel, all of 2!Samuel, the beginning
of 1!Kings, and the second half of 1!Chronicles. In addition, almost half of the psalms are
attributed (generally falsely) to him. It is impossible to tell his story with any justice in a
reasonable space, but here is a brief summary.
1.!In the Mari texts, however, we find a word david#m meaning something like officer or commander. It has been
suggested, therefore, that David is in fact an adopted name, as later kings would adopt nicknames like
“Conqueror” or “Victorious.” At this date, of course, we cannot tell whether this is the case, but it is an
interesting name for the founder of a dynasty. If David is a throne name, do we know his birth name? Probably
not — unless it was Elhanan. Note that in 2 Sam. 21:19, Elhanan son of Jaare-oregim the Bethlehemite is credited
with killing Goliath. The only way to reconcile this with the David story is to assume Davis is Elhanan.
2.!In NT, and often in LXX, manuscripts, the name is generally abbreviated 9-9 (a practice known as “nomina
sacra” or “sacred names”), so the spelling is not really certain
3.!The Bible does not give a numbering of David’s compositions, but a Qumran text credits him with 3600 psalms
plus 450 songs. Having known a number of prolific songwriters, I can only say that these numbers seem
incredibly high.

Excursus: David and Goliath

There are many peculiarities about the story of David and Goliath. The name “Goliath”
itself is intriguing; it has been speculated that it is equivalent to “Alyattes,” the name one of the
kings of Lydia. But the primary oddities are in the Biblical text itself. One peculiarity is the
account in 2!Sam. 21:19, 1 Ch. 20:5, which seem to imply that someone other than David killed
Goliath. This may possibly be because the story was originally of David killing an unnamed
Philistine — note that the name “Goliath” is used only twice in the story — and that the name
Goliath was later added to the story of David because it was the only name of a Philistine
champion that anyone knew.
Even more curiously, much of the story of David and Goliath is missing from most of the
major texts of LXX — LXXB LXXM LXXN+V all omit 3 Kingdoms=1 Sam. 17:12-31, 41, 48b,
50, 55-58, 18:1-5; also 18:10-11, 17-19, 29b-30. Of uncial texts of 1 Samuel, only LXXA, which
largely reflects the text of Origin, includes it.
Differences between LXX and MT occur in other books (notably Jeremiah), but what is
striking here is that both the short text of LXX and the sections omitted, if read in isolation, form
complete stories. From this it would appear that the MT version of the story of Goliath results
from the fusing of two separate traditions, and that only the portions found in LXXB are part of
the original text. Note that the LXX Psalm 151 (which purports to be David’s account of the
fight with “Goliad”) refers explicitly to 1 Sam. 17:43, 51, but makes no references to the passages
omitted from LXXB.
It is also interesting that the LXXB account resolves the contradiction in MT about how
David met Saul (as a musician or as the killer of Goliath). In LXXB, David came to Saul’s court
as a musician, was assigned to the king’s staff, and accompanied Saul to the battle at Socoh where
Goliath issued his challenge. He is never a mysterious youth unknown to Saul. (This
contradiction has led some defenders of the MT text to suggest that, when Saul asks in 17:58
whose son David is, Saul is trying to get David to pledge him allegiance. This would be a lot more
likely if Saul hadn’t been asking Abner the same question about David two verses earlier!)
The material omitted by LXXB has much more of the feeling of a folktale: the aged father
(17:12), the “forty days” that Goliath challenged Israel (17:16), the arguments between brothers
(17:28ƒ.), the youngest brother as hero, the instant acceptance of the newcomer by the King’s son
(18:1ƒ.). This is yet more evidence that LXXB preserves the original account of the original
author, and that the longer MT account is the result of the interpolation of popular material.
This does not prove that the folktale is recent. P. Kyle McCarter points out that in 1 Sam.
18:7, very early in David’s relationship with Saul, David is already credited with slaying ten
thousands. He suggests that the original story was of a battle with the Philistines in which David
performed heroically (perhaps a parallel to Jonathan’s exploit in 1 Sam. 14:1-22?) and the folktale
grafted in on top —!meaning that we actually have two grafts of the tale!

If you wish to see this confusing situation for yourself, the rough-and-ready translation below
shows, in the left column, the material found in both LXXB and MT, while the right column has
that found in MT only. Try reading each separately. That in the left column forms an entirely
coherent story. That in the right is coherent until near the end, when David is trying to win the
hand of a daughter of Saul; it appears that the versions overlapped enough there that the person
who conflated the editions could leave some material out. But the story of David and Goliath
occurs in two entirely different versions.
Observe that the insertion at 18:10 appears slightly out of place when we read the MT
version of the story alone; this is the only clear instance of the combiner rearranging his
material. Observe also that the promise that the slayer of Goliath would marry Saul’s daughter
was made in 17:25, and the version in which Saul offers Merab to David is in 18:17 — both of
which are MT-only sections. We have two stories of David marrying a daughter of Saul — but
the marriage to Merab is from the folktale, and based on Saul’s promise; the marriage to Michal
is from the historical source, and based on love. Note also it is only in the folklore source that this
is the first meeting of David and Jonathan.

Material in LXXB and MT Material in MT only

17 Now the Philistines gathered their armies for battle,
1
gathering at Socoh of Judah, and camping between Socoh and

Azekah, in Ephes-Dammim. 2!Saul and the Israelites gathered
and encamped in the valley [of Elah], forming ranks opposite
the Philistines. 3!The Philistines stood on the mountain on one
side, the Israelites on a mountain on the other, with the valley
between them. 4!And a mighty man came from the ranks of
the Philistines; Goliath, from Gath, whose height was six cubits [LXX says four cubits]
and a span. 5!He had a helmet on his head, and was equipped
with a coat of mail; the weight of the coat was five thousand [LXX says “iron and bronze”]
shekels of iron. 6!He had bronze greaves on his legs, and a
bronze shield between his shoulders. 7!The shaft of his spear
was like a weaver’s beam, and the head of his spear weighed
six hundred shekels of iron, and his armor-bearer went before
him. 8!He stood and shouted to the men of Israel, “Why have
you drawn yourselves up for battle like this? Am I not a
Philistine, and are you not Saul’s Hebrews? Choose a man for
yourselves, and let him come down to me. 9!If he is able to
fight me, and to strike me, then we will be your slaves, but if I
am able to kill him, then you shall be our slaves and subject to
us. 10!And the Philistine said, ”See, I defy the ranks of Israel!
Give me a man, so that we may fight.” 11!And Saul, and all
Israel, heard the Philistine’s words and were afraid.
12
!Now David was the son of an Ephrathite of Bethlehem in
Judah. His name was Jesse, and he had eight sons. In the days
of Saul he was already old and advanced in years. 14!Jesse’s
three oldest sons had gone with Saul to the battle; the names
of the three sons who went to the battle were Eliab the
firstborn, and after him Abinadab; the third was Shammah.
14
!David was the youngest; the oldest three followed Saul, 15!but
David went back and forth from Saul to tend his father’s sheep
in Bethlehem.
!The Philistine came forward and took his stand for forty
16
days, morning and evening.

!Jesse said to his son David, “Take an ephah of this parched

17
grain and these ten loaves to your brothers, and carry them
quickly to your brothers’ camp. 18!And take these ten cheeses to
the commander of their thousand. See how your brothers are
doing; bring some token from them.”
19
!Saul, and they, and all the men of Israel were in the valley of
Elah, fighting the Philistines. 20!David got up early, left the
sheep with a keeper, took the food, and went as Jesse had
ordered him. He came to the camp as the army was heading
for the battle line, shouting the war cry. 21!Israel and the
Philistines arrayed themselves for battle, army against army.
22
!David left the supplies with the baggage-keeper, ran to the
ranks, and met and greeted his brothers. 23!While they were
talking, the champion, the Philistine of Gath, named Goliath,
came out of the Philistine ranks, and spoke the same words as
before. And David heard him. 24!Seeing him, all the Israelites
fled from him and were very much afraid. 25!The Israelites
said, “Have you seen this man who has come forward? Surely
he has come forward to defy Israel. The king will greatly
enrich the man who kills him, and will give him his daughter
and grant his family freedom in Israel.”
!David said to the men standing near him, “What shall be
26
done for the man who kills this Philistine and frees Israel from
this reproach? For who is this uncircumcised Philistine that he
should defy the armies of the living God? 27!The men said the
same thing as before, “This is what will be done for the man
who kills him.”
28
!His oldest brother Eliab heard him talking to the men, and
Eliab grew angry with David. He said, “Why have you come
here? Who is keeping your few sheep in the wilderness. I know
your presumption and the evil in your heart; you came here
just to see the battle! 29!David said, ”Now what have I done? It
was only a question!” 30!He went back to talking to the others,
and they said the same things as before. 31!When they heard
the words David had spoken, they repeated them to Saul, and
he sent for him.

!David said to Saul, “Don’t let anyone’s heart fail because of

32
him; I will fight this Philistine.” 33!Saul said to David, “You

can’t go out and fight this Philistine; you are just a boy, and he
has been a warrior all his life.” 34!David answered Saul, “Your
servant used to keep sheep for his father, and when a lion or
bear came and snatched a lamb from the flick, 35!I attacked it
and struck it down, taking the lamb from its mouth. Even if it
turned against me, I would catch it by the jaw, and strike and
kill it. 36!Your servant has killed both lions and bears — and
this uncircumcised Philistine shall be like them, since he has
defied the armies of the living God.” 37!David said, “The
LORD, who saved me from the paw of the lion and the paw of
the bear, will save me from the hand of this Philistine. 38!Saul
said to David, “All right, and may the LORD be with you!”
38
!Saul equipped David with a coat and put a bronze helmet
on his head, 39!and he girded David with his sword over his
coat, and David tried once or twice to walk, but he was not
used to them. David said, “I can’t wear these, because I am not
experienced with them.” So they took them off him. 40!And he
took his staff in his hand, and chose five smooth stones from
the wadi, and he put them in his shepherd’s bag, in the pouch.
His sling was in his hand, and he approached the Philistine.
!The Philistine approached David, his shield-bearer in front
41
of him.

42
!When Goliath looked and saw David, he disdained him, for
he was only a boy, and ruddy and handsome. 43!The Philistine
said to David, “Am I a dog, that you come at me with a rod? [LXX adds “No, but worse than a
And the Philistine cursed David by his gods. !And the
44
dog” after “rod”]
Philistine said to David, ”Come to me, and I will give your
flesh to the birds of the air and the animals of the field.”
45
!David answered, “You come at me with sword, spear, and
shield, but I come at you in the name of the LORD of hosts,
the god of the armies of Israel, whom you have defied today.
46
!The LORD will give you into my hand this very day, and I
will strike you and cut off your head, and I will give the dead
bodies of the Philistines to the birds of the air and the animals
of the field on this day, so that all the world may know that
there is a God in Israel 47!and so all this assembly may know
that the LORD does not save by sword and spear — for the
battle is the LORD’S, and the LORD will give you into our
hand.”
48
!The Philistine arose and came to meet David.
David ran quickly to the battle line to meet the Philistine.
49
!David put his hand in his bag and took out a stone and slung [LXX adds that the stone went
it. It struck the Philistine on the forehead; the stone sank into through his helmet into his forehead]
his forehead and he fell on his face on the ground.
50
!So David defeated the Philistine with a sling and a stone,
striking the Philistine and killing him; there was no sword in
David’s hand.
51
!Then David ran and stood over him and drew his sword out [LXX omits “out of his sheath”
of his sheath and killed him, then he cut off his head with it. and “with it.”]
When the Philistines saw that their champion was dead, they
fled. 52!And the men of Israel and Judah rose up and shouted
and chased them as far as the Gath and the gates of Ekron, so LXX “Ascalon” for “Ekron”
that wounded Philistines fell on the way from Shaaraim to
Gath and Ekron. 53!Then the Israelites turned back from
chasing the Philistines and started to plunder their camp.
54
!David took the head of the Philistine and brought it to
Jerusalem, and he put his armor in his tent.

55
!When Saul saw David move against the Philistine, he said to
Abner, his army commander, “Abner, whose sone is this young
man.” Abner answered, “As your soul lived, O king, I do not
know.” 56!Saul said, “Find out whose son the boy is.” 57!So
when David came back from killing the Philistine, Abner
found him and brought him before Saul, with the head of the
Philistine still in his hand. 58!Saul said to him, “Whose son are
you, young man?” David answered, “I am the son of your
servant Jesse of Bethlehem.”
181!When he had finished speaking to Saul, Jonathan’s soul
was bound to the soul of David, and Jonathan loved him as his
own soul. 2!Saul engaged him that day and would not let him
return to his father’s house. 3!And Jonathan made an
agreement with David, because he loved him as his own soul.
4
!Jonathan stripped off the robe that he was wearing, and gave
it to David — and also his armor, and even his sword and his
bow and his belt. 5!David was successful wherever Saul sent
him; Saul responded by putting him over the army. And
everyone, even Saul’s servants, approved.
6
!As they were coming home, and David returned from killing
the Philistine, the revelers came out of all the towns of Israel,
with music and dancing and tambourines. 7!And the women
sang to one another as they started,
“Saul has killed his thousands
And David his ten thousands.”
8
!The words displeased and angered Saul. He said, “They
credit to David ten thousands, and to me the credit
thousands.”
What more can he have but the kingdom?
8
!So he watched David from then on.
!The next day, an evil spirit from God attacked Saul, and he
10
raved within his house while David was playing his harp, as he
did every day. Saul’s spear was nearby, 11!and Saul threw the
spear, for he thought, “I will pin David to the wall.”
12
!Saul was afraid of David,
because the LORD was with him but had departed from Saul.

13
!So Saul sent him out of his presence and made him a
commander of a thousand, and David marched in and out in
front of the people. 14!And David did well in all that he
undertook, and the LORD was with him. 15!And when Saul saw
his success, he was awe-struck by him. 16!And all Israel and
Judah loved David, because he marched in and out in from of
the people.
17
!Then Saul said to David, “Here is my older daughter
Merab. I will give her to you as a wife; only be brave for me
and fight the LORD’S battles.” For Saul thought, “I won’t raise
a hand against him; let the Philistines take care of him.”
18
!David answered Saul, “Who am I, and who are my people,
my father’s family in Israel, that I could be the king’s son-in-
law?” 19!But when Saul’s daughter Merab should have been
given to David, she was given to Adriel the Mehalothite as a
wife.
20
!Now Saul’s daughter Michal loved David. Saul was told, and
it seemed good to him. 21!Saul thought, “I will give her to him,
and she will be a snare for him,” so that the hand of the
Philistines would be against him.
So Saul said again to David, “You shall now be my son-in-
law.”
!Saul commanded his servants, “Speak to David secretly,
22
saying, ‘See, the king approves of you, and all his servants love
you, so become the king’s son-in-law.” 23!Saul’s servants
reported these words to David privately. David said, “Does it
seem a small thing to you to become a king’s son-in-law, given
that I am a poor man and of no repute?” 24!Saul’s servants
reported to him what David had said. 25!Saul said, “Here is
what you shall tell David: ‘The king desires no bride-price
except a hundred foreskins of the Philistines, for revenge on
the king’s enemies.’” Saul planned to have David fall at the
hands of the Philistines. 26!When the servants told this to
David, he was well-pleased to become the king’s son-in-law.
Before the time was up,

!David rose and went out, with his men, and killed one
27
“one hundred”: so LXX; MT “two
hundred Philistines and brought their foreskins to the king, so hundred”
as to become the king’s son-in-law. He gave him his daughter
Michal as wife. 28!And Saul saw that the LORD was with David, LXX has “all Israel” for “his
and that his daughter Michal loved David, 29!and he was even daughter Michal”
more afraid of David.
So Saul was David’s enemy from then on.
30
!Then the leaders of the Philistines came out to battle, and
whenever they came out, David had more success than all of
Saul’s servants, so that he became very famous.
David was born in about the year 1030 B.C.E. (assuming that SAUL died in the year 1000
B.C.E.) in the town of Bethlehem in Judah. He was the son of JESSE, the son of OBED, reputedly a
descendent of NAHSHON (the prince of Judah at the time of the Exodus). He was the youngest of
many brothers (1!Sam. 16:10, 17:12 claim that he has seven brothers, but list only three. 1!Ch.
2:15 lists six brothers.1 There were also two sisters: ZERUIAH the mother of JOAB and ABIGAIL 2
mother of AMASA). He was a shepherd, but was anointed king of Israel and Judah by Samuel
(1!Sam. 16:12) while Saul was still alive. (Josephus — Ant VI.viii.2 — says that David became a
prophet after his anointing, but scripture does not mention this.) David came to Saul’s attention
either as a harpist (1!Sam. 16:14–23) or as the slayer of Goliath (1!Sam. 17, but see 2!Sam. 21:19;
1!Ch. 20:5. It seems that somebody else actually killed Goliath. See also the excursus on David
and Goliath above). David became one of Saul’s generals, and was very successful (1!Sam. 18:7).
He became the close friend of Saul’s oldest son JONATHAN 2 (1!Sam. 18:1). Saul promised his
daughter MERAB to David (1!Sam. 18:17), but she was given to another (1!Sam. 18:19). Saul then
promised his younger daughter MICHAL to David (1!Sam. 18:20–27), since she loved him, but
again the marriage did not become a reality.2 By this time Saul became jealous of David (1!Sam.
19:1), and sought to kill him (1!Sam. 19:11). David fled, eventually taking service with the king of
the Philistine city of Gath (1!Sam. 27:2). He nonetheless refused to attack or kill Saul (1!Sam. 26).
When Saul and his three oldest sons died at Mt. Gilboa (1000 B.C.E.? — 1!Sam. 28, 30;
2!Sam. 1), David took up residence in Hebron and became king of Judah (2!Sam. 2:1–4). Two
years later, after the death of ABNER, Saul’s general, and ESHBAAL, the last legitimate son of Saul,
1.!Except that the Peshitta Syriac, presumably to bring the number of brothers to seven, adds another brother, Elihu.
This is probably to conform to 1 Ch. 27:18, which also mentions Elihu — but which probably refers to Eliab.
Being a seventh son could have great folkloric significance — a seventh son was usually regarded as particularly
lucky. Could this be the reason why the number of Jesse’s sons seems to have varied somewhat? We cannot at this
time say; we do not know whether the folklore about seventh sons dates back to the Davidic period.
2.!Some have suggested that it wasn’t even contracted at this time — either the relationship with Michal was a
doublet of the relationship with Merab or the only actual marriage took place after Saul was dead. Either
hypothesis is possible; neither has any scriptural support that I can see, except for the fact that Michal so easily
turned against David after their marriage.

David became king of Israel as well (2!Sam. 5:1–5). He captured Jerusalem, and took up
residence there (2!Sam. 5:6–7). He went on to establish an empire (2!Sam. 8), as well as
establishing a large family.1
Later in his reign, he became primarily an administrator rather than a soldier2 — and not a
particularly good one, as the problems with his sons shows. Unless he was trying a strategy of
“don’t name an heir and keep them guessing.” If so, it was not a great success.
David’s reign was not without trouble. He committed two great sins. One was his adultery
with BATHSHEBA (2!Sam. 11–12),3 which resulted in the revolt of David’s son ABSALOM (2!Sam.
13–18). The other was the census of Israel that he demanded (2!Sam. 24), which resulted in a
great plague. His sons were often at war — the two oldest, AMNON and Absalom, died before
their father; the third, ADONIJAH, was killed shortly after his death. But overall, David was a good
and faithful king. He died after a reign of forty years (961 B.C.E.? — 2!Sam. 5:4), and was
succeeded — in what was probably a palace coup — by SOLOMON, his son by Bathsheba
(1!Kings 1).
Excursus: We Are the Root and the Branch of David

It’s one of those things that seems to really bother people: Why are there two different
genealogies of Jesus (in Matthew 1 and Luke 3)? The attempted explanations, e.g. that Luke’s
genealogy is in fact that of Mary, generally fall flat under the weight of their inherent that’s-not-
what-it-says-edness. As for the genealogy of Matthew, even if you ignore the fact that it contains
errors, it merely traces the Davidic ancestry of Joseph, who — in its view — isn’t Jesus’s father!
So was Jesus descended from David or not?
He was.
No, that’s not based on a known genealogy. It’s based on pure, basic, simple math. Because
everybody was, and is, descended from David.
1.!The number of David’s sons varies (one wonders if this might not be because there was disagreement over who
was a wife and who was a concubine). MT and LXXA texts of 2 Sam. 3:2ƒ., 5:14ƒ. list a total of seventeen sons
(including Amnon, Absalom, and Adonijah) and eleven in Jerusalem (including Solomon and concluding with
Eliphet). LXXB and Lucian add thirteen additional names after 5:16 (and it is surely reasonable to assume that
David had at least thirty sons, given all those wives): Sama (Lucian Samaa) Iessibath, Nathan, Galamaan (Lucian
Salomon), Iebaar, Theësu (Lucian Elisua), Elphalat, Naged, Naphek (Lucian Napheth), Ianatha (Lucian Ianath), Leasmus
(Lucian Samus), Baalimath (Lucian Balidmath), Eliphath (Lucian Eliphalath).This list corresponds roughly to the
names given in 1 Ch. 14:4ƒ., even though that list is based on the one which also underlies 2 Sam. 5:14ƒ. Thus
the LXXB list would seem to be a duplicate of the MT list.
It will perhaps tell you something about the degree of sexism in the Bible that it appears that only one daughter
of David, Tamar, is mentioned.
2.!See Matthews/Moyer, p. 112
3.!There is a lot of folklore about this particular incident. One story claims that David once asked why people prayed
to “The God of Abraham” (or Isaac, or Jacob), but not “The God of David.” David was told that those three
had all been tested and had passed. David had not been tested. He asked for a test. The test was Bathsheba —
and he failed. Also, it is said that, on the night of his sin, David threw a dart at a bird that flew by him — and
failed to hit the bird but hit the curtain that separated David’s house from Uriah’s, allowing him to see Bathsheba.

This follows from a standard model of mathematical population growth. I’m going to line out
the math, although you are free to skip to the conclusions.
First, we have to guess the population of Judah at the time of Herod the Great. On this point,
we have no data at all. What we do have is the census figures from Numbers and from 2 Samuel
24, plus some items from Ezra and Nehemiah about the return from Babylon.
The most relevant data is 2 Sam. 24:9, which gives the population of Israel and Judah as 1.3
million men (adult males). There are very good reasons for thinking this number too high, but
let’s take it and assume it’s correct. That means a total population of about four million in total.
And that was when Israel/Judah were at their most prosperous. In Herod’s time, the number was
almost surely smaller, since all that still counted was Judah. But we’ll assume a constant
population of four million.
Second, we will assume that each person averages two offspring. This is probably low for the
early Davidides — after all, they all had extremely large harems. But if we assume more than two
children per parent, we will eventually overflow our four million upper bound.
Third, we will assume a generation time of 25 years — a little high, but close enough. We
start with the year 990, and end with the year 10 B.C.E. This means roughly 39 generations from
David to Jesus.
If we assume two children per generation and no interbreeding, we have what is called a
simple geometric progression, and the entire population of Judah would be descended from David by
the year 440.
Of course, there is the slight problem of pruning. David’s three eldest sons eliminated
themselves, e.g., and we know that there were other instances of princes being eliminated in favor
of rival princes. Solomon had only one listed son, e.g. (Rehoboam). So instead of assuming a
geometric increase starting with David, let’s start our increase with Asa, around 890. Do that and
we still find that everyone in Judah is descended from David by the year 340.
Of course, that assumption pulls a fast one on you, because we can’t just assume Davidides
shove aside non-Davidides. Instead, we have to assume people get married and have kids. So, in
any given generation, we assume that there is a population D of Davidides, and a population N
of non-Davidides. Since the total population is four million, D+N=4000000. In each generation,
there are two million marriages, each of which produces two offspring. Marriages can be of
“type” DD, DN, or NN. DD and DN both produce type D offspring; NN marriages produce type
N offspring. So, in each generation, we have to calculate the number of DD, DN, and NN
marriages. If we assume that marriages happen randomly (not quite true, but close enough for
this), then the probability of a DD marriage is calculated by taking the square of the fraction of
Ds in the population, i.e. D2/(D+N)2. The probability of an NN marriage is N2/(D+N)2. And the
probability of a DN (or ND) marriage is 2DN/(D+N)2. And we have two million marriages, and
two offspring per marriage. So
Dn+1=(Dn2+2DnNn)/(4000000).

This line of argument gives us a rather different curve, eventually much slower than a simple
geometric increase. But still, on this argument, half the population is Davidide by 340, and the
entire population of Judah is Davidide by 215 B.C.E.
And while it is open to question whether Joseph was Jesus’s father, there is no question that
Mary was his mother. And Mary was a citizen of Judah. And all citizens of Judah were
descended from David. So Jesus was descended from David. We don’t know by what line of
ancestry, but he was.
Dinah: Controversy ? LXX/Josephus M&5-. The only daughter of JACOB 1 (for the extreme
improbability of this, see the entry on Leah, p. 161), born to LEAH, the last of the latter’s children
(Gen. 30:20). The Bible tells us only one story about her. She was coveted by Shechem the son of
Hamor, a Canaanite prince. She cannot have been more than fifteen when he raped her, but he
then asked her hand in marriage. Her family was willing to grant it, on the condition that all of
the people of Hamor be circumcised. The Shechemites accepted this bargain, but Dinah’s
brothers SIMEON and LEVI slaughtered the entire people to avenge the insult to their sister.1 This
is the last mention of Dinah except for a probable gloss in Gen. 46:15.
One of the rabbis had an explanation for her disappearance. This commentator suggested
that, had he known of her existence, ESAU might have demanded the right to marry her to heal
his quarrel with Jacob. Jacob therefore hid her when he once again met his brother. God
therefore decreed that Dinah marry a Canaanite. Another legend, however, says that she later
married her full brother Simeon; their child was Saul/Shaul (described in Gen. 46:10 as “the son
of a Canaanite woman”). Still another legend makes her the second wife of Job. And another
theory says that she was the mother of Asenath the wife of Joseph; for this idea, see the entry on
Joseph 1, p. 152. Gen. 30:21, 34:1–31, 46:15 !.
Eber: A shoot ? LXX (‘)Q)*!=(H)eber; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) (‘)Q)*!8#=(H)eber(os). The son of
SHELAH and the great-grandson of SHEM. Josephus reports that the Hebrews were named for
him (cf. the ethnic name “Eber” in Num. 24:24). He was the father of PELEG (in whose days “the
earth was divided”) and JOKTAN. According to MT he was 34 when Peleg was born; LXX, the
Samaritan version, and Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) give his age as 134. Gen. 10:21, 24, 25, 11:14–17;
1!Ch. 1:18–19, 25;2 Luke 3:35 !.
E d o m : R e d . L X X Q9D?; Jo s e p h u s K9D?8#= A d o m ( o s ) ( e. g. A n t I I . i . 1 ) o r
C98E?-&-#=Idumaia(s). The name given to ESAU because of his desire for the red lentil pottage
of his younger brother Jacob. Also the name given to the nation founded by Esau. For his story,
see the entry on Esau, p. 112. Esau the man is called Edom in Gen. 25:30, 36:1, 8, 19 !.
1.!Some scholars have seen in this an echo of the history of the fall of Troy; in both stories, a city was sacked as a
response to kidnapping a girl. But in the Bible there is no jilted husband; the parallelism is slight. Besides, it is
generally believed that the account in Genesis tells the history of tribes, not individuals; this story tells how the
“Dinah tribe” fell from sight.
2.!LXXB omits all references in 1 Chronicles.

Egypt: Hebrew Mizraim. LXX K&6E"08#=Aigyptos. Mizraim, the second son of CANAAN, is
so clearly identified with Egypt that most modern translators use “Egypt” instead of
transliterating the Hebrew, or at least footnote this meaning. He was the ancestor of the peoples
of Egypt. Gen. 10:6, 13; 1!Ch. 1:8, 11.1
Elah: Oak. LXX T%-; Josephus (Ant VIII.xii.4) T%-58#=Elan(os).
ELAH 1. The oldest son of BAASHA the third king of Israel. Elah reigned as the fourth
king for a little over a year. He was then assassinated by ZIMRI, the commander of half of Israel’s
chariots. Zimri reigned for only seven days before committing suicide, but the entire family of
Baasha and Elah had already been destroyed. 1!Kings 16:6, 8–14 !.
ELAH 2. The father of HOSHEA the last king of Israel. 2!Kings 15:30, 17:1, 18:1, 9 !.
Elam: Akkadian “Highland.” LXX Q%-?; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) Q%E?8#=Elym(os). The oldest
son of SHEM son of NOAH. He became the ancestor of the Elamites, who occupied territory east
of what eventually became Persia. Ashurbanipal destroyed the nation in the 630s. Their nation
was also called Elam (e.g. Gen. 14:1, 9, Isa. 11:11, 21:2, 22:6, Jer. 25:25, 49:34–39, Ezek. 32:24–
25). Gen. 10:22; 1!Ch. 1:17 !.
Eleazar: God is helper. LXX Q%*-'-!; Josephus (Ant III.viii.1) Q%*-'-!8#=Eleazar(os).
ELEAZAR 1. The third son of AARON, and the oldest son to survive his father. (His older
brothers, NADAB and ABIHU, had been slain by God for offering “unholy fire” — Lev. 10:1ƒ.,
Num. 3:4, 26:61.) He thus became the High Priest of Israel after Aaron’s death. His younger
brother was ITHAMAR. When the priestly families were divided into “courses,” sixteen of the
twenty-four were drawn from the descendants of Eleazar, while only eight were drawn from the
descendants of Ithamar. In addition, ZADOK 1 and all the high priests after him were (allegedly)
of the family of Eleazar.
Eleazar is a rather shadowy figure throughout his life. The high priest at the time of the
entry into Canaan, he lived until after the death of JOSHUA 1. Yet most of the significant priestly
activities seem to have been carried on by his son PHINEHAS 1. In addition, Eleazar must have
been under twenty at the time of the Exodus (else he would have died before the entry into
Canaan). Yet all other indications would seem to make him older than this. The question does
not appear solvable. Ex. 6:23, 25, 28:1; Lev. 10:6, 12, 16; Num. 3, 4, 16, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 31,
32, 34; Deut. 10:6; Josh. 14:1, 17:4, 19:51, 21:1, 22:13, 31, 24:33; Judges 20:28; 1!Ch. 6:3–4, 50,
9:20, 24:1–6; Ezra 7:5; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:7; Sirach 45:23, 50:27; 2 Esdras 1:2 !.
ELEAZAR 2. According to Matthew, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Matt. 1:15.
Eli: [Yahweh is] exalted. LXX (‘)T%&=(H)eli; Josephus (Ant V.ix.1) T%&-#=Eli(as). The thirteenth
judge of Israel, following Samson. He was the high priest at Shiloh (although he may have retired
from active service before he died; at least, Josephus — Ant V.xi.2 — reports that his son
PHINEHAS 2 was acting as High Priest at the time of the Battle of Aphek), and the foster-father of
Samuel. We know little of his early history. According to Josephus (Ant V.xi.5), he received the
High Priesthood from his distant cousin, UZZI descendant of ELEAZAR. Himself a gentle and
1.!LXXB omits these verses.

righteous man, Eli was unable to train his sons in his ways. The youths, HOPHNI and Phinehas,
used their positions to their own advantage (1!Sam. 2:12–17, 22–25). They were slain by the
Philistines at the battle of Aphek while caring for the Ark of the Covenant (c. 1050 B.C.E.? —
1!Sam. 4:1–11), and the Ark was captured. When news of this was brought to Eli at Shiloh, it
brought him such grief that he fell down, struck his head, and died. (According to Josephus, he
had previously told his sons not to return unless they brought the Ark with them — Ant V.xi.2).
He was ninety-eight years old, and had judged Israel for forty years (1!Sam. 4:12–18).1 He had
also trained Samuel — the first of Israel’s great prophets — to recognize the word of God. It was
predicted that the house of Eli would never again be in favour, and this seems to have been true,
with the single exception of ABIATHAR.
The author of Chronicles states that Eli’s family was descended from ITHAMAR, AARON’S
youngest son (1!Ch. 24:3), although this ancestry is not described in detail. Tradition has it that
they are descended from MOSES. But many moderns feel that the house of Eli was descended
from ELEAZAR 1, Aaron’s oldest surviving son; should not the High Priest have been a desdendant
of Eleazar? This view is also supported by the apocryphal account of 2 Esdras 2, which explicitly
traces the family to Eleazar. In this account, Eli was the son “of Amariah, son of Azariah, son of
Maraioth, son of Arna, son of Uzzi, son of Borith, son of Abishua, son of Phinehas, son of
Eleazar.” If 2!Esdras is to be believed (and it should be noted that this account is at least four
centuries more recent than that of Chronicles), then it would seem that ZADOK and Abiathar
were brothers. (But compare the account of the High Priests given by Josephus in Ant V.xi.5).
Perhaps the most likely explanation — canonical records aside — is that Eli’s house was the true
Aaronic priesthood and Zadok was an upstart. Possibly Zadok’s ancestry should be transferred to
Eli instead. Happily for historians, this makes little practical difference. 1!Sam. 1:3–4:19, 14:3;
1!Kings 2:27; in the Apocrypha in 2 Esdras 1:2 !.
Eliab: God is father. LXX Q%&-); Josephus (Ant VI.viii.1) Q%&-)8#=Eliab(os). Not to be
confused with Eliab the father of Dathan and Abiram (who rebelled against Moses). The oldest
son of JESSE, and the brother of DAVID. Perhaps the “Elihu” of 1!Ch. 27:18.2 He was the father
of ABIHAIL, the mother of REHOBOAM’S wife MAHALATH (2!Ch. 11:18).3 1!Sam. 16:6, 17:13, 28;4
1!Ch. 2:13; 2!Ch. 11:18 !.
Eliakim: God raises up. LXX Q%&-,&?.
ELIAKIM 1. The birth name of JEHOIAKIM (2 Kings 23:34, 2 Ch. 36:4).
ELIAKIM 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Luke 3:30 !.
1.!The statement in 1 Sam. 4:15 that he was ninety-eight years old is that of MT and is supported by Josephus; LXX
reads “ninety.” LXX of 4:18 says that he judged Israel twenty years rather than forty. AB omits verse 4:15 and
follows LXX in reading “twenty” in 4:18.
2.!1 Ch. 27:18 makes “David’s brother Elihu” the chief officer of Judah during David’s reign. No other list of the
children of Jesse lists a son “Elihu,” so we can only guess that this is Eliab, the oldest of Jesse’s sons.
3.!So MT (apparently); for the LXX reading of 1 Ch. 11:18 see the entry on Abihail, p. 95.
4.!LXXB omits 17:13, 28; see the excursus on David and Goliath, p. 96.

ELIAKIM 3. According to Matthew, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS, but one who
lived much later than #2. Matt. 1:13 !.
Eliezer: My God is my Help. LXX Q%&*'*!; Josephus (Ant II.xiii.1) Q%*-'-!8#=Eleazar(os).
Cf. also Eleazar.
ELIEZER 1. The second son of MOSES and ZIPPORAH. His brother was GERSHOM. Despite
their exalted ancestry, his descendants were considered to be ordinary Levites. Even this may
have been a major concession, since his mother was not an Israelite. Ex. 18:4; 1!Ch. 23:15, 17,
26:25 !.
ELIEZER 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Luke 3:29 !.
Elimelech: God is King. LXX Q%&?*%*N.1 A man of Judah. He originally lived near
Bethlehem (Ruth 1:1). Since he was a close relative of BOAZ, he was probably a descendent of
AMMINADAB and surely a descendant of HEZRON. His wife was NAOMI; their children were
MAHLON and CHILION. During a famine, he and his family emigrated to Moab, where he died.
The two boys married RUTH and ORPAH, and then died themselves. Ruth 1:1–5, 2:1, 3, 4:3, 9 !.
Elisabeth: NT Q%&4-)*0=Elisabet, Greek form of “Elisheba.” Called “Elizabeth” in the NRSV
and modern versions.2 A Levite woman (Luke 1:5), the wife of ZACHARIAS the priest. She became
the mother of JOHN the Baptist (6 B.C.E.?) even though considered to be too old to bear a child
(Luke 1:7). She was a relative of MARY the mother of JESUS, and the first to greet Mary as “the
mother of the Lord” (Luke 1:43). Luke 1:5–25, 36, 39–45, 57–603 !.
Elishama: God has Heard. LXX QR&4-?-=Elisama. An Ephraimite, the father of NUN the
father of JOSHUA. He was a leader of Ephraim in the wilderness. Num. 1:10, 2:18, 7:48, 53,
10:22; 1!Ch. 7:26 !.
Elisheba: God is fortune. LXX Q%&4-)*+=Elisabeth. The wife of AMRAM, mother of AARON,
MOSES, and MIRIAM. She was the daughter of AMMINADAB of Judah and the sister of NAHSHON
the Judean prince. Ex. 6:23 !.
Eliud: NT Q%&8E9, from Hebrew: God is —. According to Matthew, an ancestor of JOSEPH
(#2) and JESUS. Matt. 1:14–15 !.
Elizabeth: name used in the modern versions (e.g. NRSV) for Elisabeth, (which see).
1.!Q%&?*%*N, Elimelech (the reading of Origen) is the closest Greek equivalent to the Hebrew name, but the best LXX
texts, including LXXB, read K)&?*%*N, Abimelech (compare Josephus, Ant V.ix.1, Abimelechos); LXXA often reads
Alimelech.
2.!In the Vulgate, Elisabeth, whence the English spelling with th rather than t. The spelling “Elisabeth” is found in KJV
RV PHILLIPS; MOFFATT GOODSPEED CCCD1941 RSV NASB NKJV NEB JB NJB NIV NAB NRSV REB TNIV NLT SV have
“Elizabeth.”
3.!The Old Latin manuscripts a b l* also mention her in Luke 1:46, crediting her rather than Mary with uttering the
Magnificat (an interpretation supported by many modern scholars on the basis that the poem makes more sense
in Elisabeth’s mouth). Origen and Irenaeus may also have known this reading. Others have suggested that there
was no name in the original. However, the name “Mary” is found in ‫ א‬A B E F G H K L W J M Y Z / [ ƒ1 ƒ13
28 33 157 565 579 700 892 1071 1241 Byz sin pesh hark sa bo arm eth geo (C* D aur c e f ff2 q r1 vg have
I-!&-, Maria instead of the I-!&-?, Mariam of most witnesses).

Elmadam: NT Q%?-9-?.1 According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke

3:28 !.
Enoch: Follower ? LXX Q5DN (intermittently Q5D#=Enos); Josephus K5DN8#=Anoch(os).
ENOCH 1. The son of Cain son of Adam. He built a city, also named Enoch. Gen. 4:17–
18 !.
ENOCH 2. The father of METHUSELAH and great-grandfather of NOAH. He followed six
generations after ADAM. “Enoch walked with God; and he was not, for God took him” (Gen.
5:24). This is usually interpreted as meaning that he was carried up to heaven alive. (Josephus, for
instance, says “he returned to the Divinity,” Ant I.iii.4.) In support of this hypothesis, it is also
pointed out that Enoch only lived to be 365, while his father and son lived to be 962 and 969,
respectively. As a result of this, he is often cited as an example of righteousness, and several
pseudepigraphal books are attributed to him (one of which is quoted in Jude 14–15). But, for all
we can prove, the passage in Genesis might mean that he was the first person to die of disease.
MT and the Samaritan version say he was 65 when his son Methuselah was born; LXX and
Josephus give his age as 165. The rabbis credited him with discovering astronomy. Gen. 5:18, 21–
24; 1!Ch. 1:3; Luke 3:37; Heb. 11:5; Jude 14; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 44:16, 49:14 !.
Enos: see ENOSH, ENOCH.
Enosh: Mankind. LXX/NT Q5D#, Enos; Josephus K5D48#=Anos(os). The son of SETH son
of ADAM. “[In his] time men began to call upon the name of the Lord” (Gen. 4:26). According to
MT and the Samaritan version, he was 105 when his son KENAN was born; LXX and Josephus
(Ant I.iii.4) give his age as 205. He died at the age of 905. Gen. 4:26, 5:6–11; 1!Ch. 1:1; Luke 3:38
(which reads “Enos”)2 !.
Ephraim: Popularly “Doubly fruitful”; apparently a place name “fruitful land” ? LXX QP!-&?;
Josephus (Ant II.vi.1) QP!-&?;#=Ephraim(es). The second son of JOSEPH 1 by Asenath, the
daughter of Potiphera the priest of On (Gen. 41:50–52). Although he was the younger son of
Joseph, he received JACOB’S deathbed blessing as if he were the older son (Gen. 48). This favour
was reflected in several ways. For instance, although Ephraim was only a grandson of Jacob, he
founded one of the twelve tribes of Israel. JOSHUA 1, MOSES’S successor, was an Ephraimite. The
tribe was militarily dominant from the Exodus until the time of the Judges. Although Ephraim’s
power was broken by Jephthah (Judges 11), the tribe regenerated well enough that Ephraim was
often used in Judah as a synonym for Israel (see, for instance, Isa. 7:8). Ephraim’s lands in
Canaan were just north of Benjamin, and contained many hills. While Ephraim was one of the
tribes deported by Assyria after the destruction of Israel, enough Ephraimites seem to have fled
to Judah or been conquered by Josiah to have allowed the tribe to survive.
Ephraim’s allotment in Canaan is described in Josh. 16:5–10. References to Ephraim the man
are given in Gen. 41:52, 48:1–20, 50:23; Num. 26:28; 1!Ch. 7:20, 22.
Er: Watcher. LXX/NT T!.
1.!Elmadam: so ‫ א‬B L Nvid 33 1424 vg; ന4 reads Elmasam; A E J M (Y) [ ƒ1 ƒ13 892 Byz hark KJV have Elmodam
2.!Also in the Hebrew text of Sirach 49:16 in the Apocrypha, but the name is not in LXXB LXX‫ א‬LXXA.

ER 1. The oldest son of JUDAH. His mother was a daughter of Shua the Canaanite (Gen.
38:2–3). Judah had intended that his son marry TAMAR (#1). But Er “was wicked in the sight of
the Lord; and the Lord slew him” (Gen. 38:7). According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
Judah X.2, this took place on the third night after their wedding. Gen. 38:3–7, 46:12; Num.
26:19; 1!Ch. 2:3 !.
ER 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Luke 3:28 !.
Esau: Popularly “Hairy.” LXX T4-E; Josephus (Ant I.xviii.1) Q4-E#=Esau(s). Twin brother of
JACOB 1, Esau was ISAAC’S first-born child. He was his father Isaac’s favorite, but his mother
REBEKAH preferred Jacob. A somewhat simple man, who preferred hunting to herding, Esau was
tricked several times by his twin. Once when Esau returned from an unsuccessful hunt, he found
his brother making a pottage of red lentils. Esau was so hungry that he was willing to part with
his rights as older son in order to eat some of the pottage. Thus he gained the name “Edom,”
meaning red (Gen. 25:29–34). Later, when Isaac was dying, he asked Esau to bring him food
from the field. In return, Isaac would bless Esau. But Jacob heard of this, and cheated Esau
again. By disguising himself, Jacob managed to convince Isaac that he was Esau, and received
Isaac’s blessing (Gen. 27). This time Jacob felt it necessary to flee to Paddan-Aram. But Esau held
no lasting grudge, and welcomed Jacob upon his return twenty years later.
(At least, the Bible reports no lasting conflict; The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah IX.2
reports that Esau once again attacked Jacob when Judah was forty years old. Jacob then killed
Easu, according to Judah IX.3).
Esau had several wives. Most of them were Canaanites — a fact which displeased his parents
greatly, though it’s hard to know what he was supposed to do given that segregation distorter gene
the patriarchs had which prevented them from having daughters. To make up for all those
Canaanite wives. Esau also married Mahalath the daughter of ISHMAEL (Gen. 28:6–9). His
descendants became the Edomites, a people who lived to the east and south of the Dead Sea.
They opposed Israel’s entry into Canaan, but were conquered by DAVID. Thereafter they were
usually subject to Judah. Herod, the king of Palestine at the time of Jesus’s birth, was an Edomite
(or Idumean, as they were then called) who had adopted Judaism. References to Esau the man
include Gen. 25, 27, 28, 32, 33, 36.1 Also Gen. 26:34; Josh. 24:4; 1!Ch. 1:34–35; Mal. 1:2–3. The
name Esau is also applied (although rarely) to the land or peoples of Edom.
Esli: NT Q4%&, perhaps Hebrew Azaliah, “Yah[weh] is noble.” According to Luke, an ancestor
of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:25 !.
Esrom: see Hezron on p. 119.
Eshbaal: Man of Baal. LXX K4-)-%=Asabal. Later “corrected” to Ish-Bosheth, “Man of
Shame” (LXX C*)84+;=Iebosthe); Josephus (Ant VII.i.3) C*)84+8#=Iebosth(os). NRSV typically
1.!LXX adds the name in Gen. 25:31, 33, 27:36, 29:1, 32:5, 35:7 (MT reads “he” in most of these cases). In
addition, Esau is mentioned twice in the LXX afterword to the Book of Job, which says (among other things) that
Job was the son of Zare son of Esau, and that his friend Eliphaz the Temanite was also a “son of Esau” (cf. Gen.
36:10). This legend also mentions that Job’s mother was Bodora, that he was named Jobab at birth, and that he
was King of Edom following Balak (MT Bela) son of Beor (for this cf. Gen. 36:31-33).

“Ishbaal.” The fourth and youngest son of SAUL king of Israel. When his father and older
brothers were slain at the battle of Mt. Gilboa (1000 B.C.E.? — 1!Sam. 31), he was said to have
been forty years old (2!Sam. 2:10). This is widely thought to be a corruption, however — none of
his older brothers seem to have been very old. Jonathan, the oldest, had only one son, an infant.
The other brothers seemingly had none. Eshbaal was probably in his teens — and hence too
young to go into battle, but old enough to be made king. ABNER, Saul’s general, fled with him
beyond the Jordan, and crowned him king over Israel there. But then arguments broke out
between Abner and Eshbaal, and Israel was weakened. When JOAB murdered Abner, Israel
began to fall apart. Soon after, two captains of Saul’s raiding bands (Baanah and Rechab —
2!Sam. 4:3) murdered Eshbaal and brought his head to DAVID (who rewarded them by slaying
them — 2!Sam. 4:12). He had reigned for only two years, and was succeeded by David.
In most passages the name of this son of Saul is given as Ish-Bosheth. The name Eshbaal is
found only in 1!Ch. 8:33, 9:39. We suspect that it was also found in the references in Samuel, but
some editor of the books found this so unacceptable that he changed “Eshbaal” to “Ish-
Bosheth” (since Baals were shameful, “Eshbaal” became the “man of shame”). 2!Sam. 2:8–17,
3:6–16, 4:1–12, 1!Ch. 8:33, 9:391 !.
Ethbaal: Man of Baal. LXX C*+*)--%=Iethebaal; Josephus (Ant VIII.xiii.1)
C+D)-%8#=Ithobal(os). Called Ittobaal in contemporary inscriptions. The king of Sidon and Tyre
in the time of OMRI king of Israel. He was the father of JEZEBEL, who became the wife of AHAB.
From sources outside the Bible it seems that he had gained his throne by means of murder (e.g.
Against Apion I.19), and that he held it for thirty-two years. 1!Kings 16:31 !.
Eve: Life (or perhaps “serpent”?). LXX/Josephus QE-=Eu(v)a, but also (in Gen. 3:20) WD;, Zoe
(the Greek word for life). The name of the first woman, the wife of Adam. Two stories are told of
her creation: One, that she was created along with the man (Gen. 1:27, P source) and the other
that she was created much later, from Adam’s rib (Gen. 2:27, J source).2 The story of Lilith
(Adam’s first wife) may have arisen to reconcile the differences between the two accounts.3
Despite her obvious importance, the Bible give little other information about Eve, except for the
1.!In some of these passages LXX incorrectly calls him “Mephibosheth,” e.g. 2 Sam. 3:7 (LXXB LXXA*), 3:8 (LXXB),
3:11, 4:1, 2
2.!One legendary account, however, has it that God created Eve from Adam’s tail, and the tailbone is the only
remnant of the amputated appendage.
3.!According to the standard version of this story, God created a woman, Lilith, at the same time as Adam. But Lilith
was created from lesser material than Adam, and they quickly quarreled. Lilith abandoned Adam (who is
reported to have abused — perhaps even raped — her), and Adam demanded another wife from God. God
satisfied Adam by producing Eve. One account says that Lilith, who had already conceived, gave rise to the race
of demons.

fact that she took fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil before her husband did.1
Gen. 2:18–4:1,2 (25); 2 Cor. 11:3; 1 Tim. 2:13; in the Apocrypha in Tobit 8:6 !.
Ezra: [Yahweh] Helps? — Variant of Azariah. LXX Q49!-#=Esdras;3 Josephus (Ant XI.v.1)
Q49!-#/Q'9!-#/Q'!-# = Esdras/Ezdras/Ezras. One of the most important figures in the
history of Judaism, but one about whom very little is known. The great lawgiver of Judah clearly
claimed to be a Zadokite, but it is hard to say much beyond that. His genealogy is given in Ezra
7:1, but contains far too few generations between ZADOK 1 and Ezra — it lists only three names
between Zadok and SERAIAH, who lived almost half a millenium apart. The chart shows an
alternate conjecture, assuming that only famous figures are included in the genealogy, by filling in
entries from the High Priestly line, but cannot hide the fact that a century or more elapsed
between the death of Seraiah, Ezra’s supposed father, and the time of Ezra. The likeliest
explanation is that Ezra’s genealogy omits unimportant figures, thus, Zadok the High Priest of
Solomon in included, then SHALLUM (1), who is not known to us, then HILKIAH who was JOSIAH’S
High Priest, then Seraiah, Hilkiah’s grandson, who was High Priest when the Temple was
destroyed. Since Seraiah’s son Jehozadak and his son JESHUA (who rebuilt the Temple) are not
listed, we guess that Ezra was descended from a younger son of Seraiah.
The Apocryphal Latin 2 Esdras 1:2–3 describes still a third alternative, tracing back from
Zadok to ELI to PHINEHAS 1 to AARON). His “father” was Seraiah, which was the name of the last
High Priest of Judah before the exile.
If Seraiah was truly Ezra’s father, and not merely one of his ancestors, then Ezra was the
uncle of the first post-resurrection High Priest Jeshua. This is chronologically difficult. Ezra
claims to have lived during the reign of Artaxerxes king of Persia (Ezra 7:1). Persia had three
kings named Artaxerxes (and two more name Xerxes), and it is impossible to tell which one is
meant. So we can’t tell Ezra’s date (the theory I find least unlikely is that Artaxerxes II is meant,
which makes the date 398 B.C.E. The hypothesis that the king is Artaxerxes I and the year 458 is
at least as popular. A third group would amend the text in such a way as to read 428, with
Artaxerxes I again being meant. In any case, this is far too late for someone who must have been
born before 587!).4 And the books of Ezra and Nehemiah have become mixed together, so it
difficult to tell who did what when. But Ezra’s basic story seems to run as follows:
The Jews had just returned from the Babylonian exile. Encouraged by Jeshua the priest,
ZERUBBABEL 1 the prince, and Haggai and Zechariah 2 the prophets, they had rebuilt the
Temple. Nehemiah had gained permission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. It is at this point that
1.!This tale was elaborated by the rabbis in a way that, perhaps, alleviates her guilt. In this account, Adam knew that
it was safe to touch the Tree of Knowledge, but Eve did not. Adam, to keep her away from it, told her that it was
not safe to eat the fruit or touch the tree (hence Eve’s statement to the serpent in 3:3). The serpent then pushed
her against the tree, so that she touched it. Eve, having found the tree safe to touch, assumed that this meant that
it was also safe to eat the fruit. And the rest follows as in Genesis.
2.!In MT the name “Eve” occurs only in Gen. 3:20, 4:1; LXX has “Eve” in 4:1 and “Zoe” in 3:20, but adds the
name “Eve” in 4:25.
3.!LXXB (only) reads Q4!-#=Esras
4.!For a fuller discussion of this vexed chronological question, see the discussion of Ezra on p. 39.

Ezra, a scribe (lawyer), appears on the scene. He brought with him from Babylon a copy of the
recently completed Pentateuch (Genesis through Deuteronomy). With this in hand, he brought
about a major revival and made the Israelites expel all foreigners — including their wives and the
children of these wives — from their midst.
Ezra is credited — perhaps even correctly credited — with writing the books of Ezra and
1!and 2!Chronicles, as well as parts of Nehemiah (which is one book with Ezra in the MT). Later
writers attributed the (apocryphal) books of 1 and 2 Esdras to him.1 His importance in the history
of Judaism is hard to overestimate, for it is he who established the Pentateuch as the law of Israel.
Yet the son of Sirach did not list him as one of the famous men of Israel — although Nehemiah
and the relatively minor figures Jeshua and Zerubbabel are listed. So it is hard to tell what his
contemporaries though of him. Josephus (Ant XI.v.5) believes that he was honoured in his old age
and given a fine burial in Jerusalem; the rabbis thought he was buried in Persia. He seems to have
been a proud, prickly, and self-righteous man, with little understanding of or sympathy for
human feelings and frailties. Ezra 7, 10; Neh. 8, 12; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8–9.
Gad: Popularly “Fortune”; perhaps more correctly “to penetrate” or the name of a god of fortune. LXX
J-9; Josephus (Ant I.xix.7) J-9-#=Gad(as). (Not to be confused with the prophet of the same
name, who lived in the time of DAVID.) The older son of JACOB 1 by his concubine ZILPAH, the
maid of his wife LEAH. He was the ancestor of one of the tribes of Israel. The tribe is often
called Gilead after the region in which they settled, but this is not correct — Gilead was the
grandson of MANASSEH 1 (Num. 26:29).
According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Gad I.1, he lived to the age of 125.
The Gadites recieved land east of the Jordan, north of Reuben and south of Manasseh. They
were thus more exposed to attacks by foreigners and less involved in the affairs of Israel than
most of the other tribes (see, for instance, Judges 5:17). The tribe seems to have been completely
destroyed by Assyria at the time of the destruction of Israel. For the description of the land of
Gad, see Num. 32:34–36; Josh. 13:24–28. References to Gad the man are in Gen. 30:10, 35:26,
46:16, 49:19; Ex. 1:4; 1!Ch. 5:11.
Gadi: [God is] my Fortune. LXX J-99&=Gaddi.2 The father of MENAHEM, who assassinated
SHALLUM king of Israel and made himself the sixteenth king of that nation. 2!Kings 15:14, 17 !.
Gedaliah: Yah[weh] is great. LXX J898%8-#=Godolias. Not to be confused with the Judean
whom Nebuchadnezzar appointed to be governor of Judah after the fall of Jerusalem. The
grandson of HEZEKIAH king of Judah, and grandfather of ZEPHANIAH the prophet. Zeph. 1:1 !.
Gergesites: see GIRGASHITES
Gershom: Wanderer. LXX J;!4-?=Gersam; Josephus (Ant II.xiii.1) J;!4-#=Gersa(s). The
older son of MOSES and ZIPPORAH. He, like his brother ELIEZER, was considered to be an
1.! 1 Esdras appears to be a damaged edition of the original LXX translation of the MT Ezra/Nehemiah, so the
claim could possibly be true in a limited way of 1 Esdras. 2 Esdras, however, is a Latin composition and very late
(much of it from Christian authors). It is noteworthy that no Christian group treats 2 Esdras as anything but
apocryphal.
2.!LXXA variously Geddai, Gallei

ordinary Levite, not a member of the priestly caste. Apparently the father (or at least the
ancestor) of JONATHAN 5 the priest of Micah the Ephraimite (Judges 17:30). Ex. 2:22, 18:3; Judg.
18:30; 1!Ch. 23:15, 16, 26:24. See also GERSHON !.
Gershon: Variant of “Gershom.” LXX J;!485=Gerson (Gen. 46:11, etc.) or J*94D5=Gedson
(Ex. 6:16, etc.); Josephus (Ant II.vii.4) J8%68?;#=Golgom(es !). The oldest son of LEVI 1, also
called Gershom (so NRSV in 1 Ch. 6:1, 16–20, 43, etc.). According to the Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs Levi XI.1-2, his father was about 28 when he was born. His descendants were
responsible for transporting the tent of meeting (Num. 4:24–26); they were given thirteen cities in
Canaan (Josh. 21:33), and were counted in Num. 4:38–41. References to Gershon the man
include Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16–17; Num. 3:17, 18 (21), (25), (26:57); 1!Ch. 6:1, 16, 17, 20, 43, (62),
(71), 15:7, 23:6–7.
Gilead: Rocky. LXX J-%--9=Galaad. The son of MACHIR son of MANASSEH 1. He gave his
name to a large part of the Israelite land east of the Jordan. Jephthah was called the son of
Gilead (Judges 11:1), but Gilead must have been long dead when Jephthah was born. Either
another Gilead is meant or “son” should be read as “descendant/inhabitant.” Num. 26:29–30,
27:1, 36:1; Josh. 17:1, 3; 1!Ch. 2:21, 23, 7:14, 171 !.
Ginath: Protection ? LXX JD5-+=Gonath. The father of TIBNI. Tibni unsuccessfully disputed
the throne of Israel with OMRI. 1!Kings 16:21–22 !.
Girgashites. LXX J*!6*4-&8#=Gergesaios. A people of Canaan, listed as the fifth “child”
of CANAAN. They lived in the region that the Israelites conquered, but they do not seem to have
given anyone any particular trouble or to have been of any particular note. Gen. 10:16; 1!Ch.
1:14;2 also Gen. 15:21; Deut. 7:1; Josh. 3:10, 24:11; Neh. 9:8; in the Apocrypha in Judith 5:16
(where NRSV reads “Gergesites”) !.
Gomer: Completion ? LXX J-?*!=Gamer.3 Not to be confused with the harlot who was the
wife of Hosea in Hos. 1:3. The oldest son of JAPHETH son of NOAH. Perhaps the ancestor of the
Cimerians, Cimbri, and Celts (note the similarity between Gomer and Cymry, a name for the
Welsh); Yiddish sources perhaps imply a link to Germania, Germany. Gen. 10:2–3; 1!Ch. 1:5–6;
Eze. 38:6? !.
Hagar: Wandering ? LXX K6-!=Agar; Josephus (Ant I.x.4) K6-!;#=Agar(es). An Egyptian,
the (slave) maid of SARAH the wife of ABRAHAM (Gen. 16:1). When Sarah saw that she was
barren, she told Abraham to take Hagar as his concubine — an act which seems to have been
guided by the customs of the Hurrians of Nuzi.4 Hagar bore ISHMAEL to Abraham when he was
eighty-six years old. Sarah became so jealous that she drove the girl and her young son out into
1.!Also in Gen. 46:20- LXX (an expanded form of 1 Ch. 7:14). In addition, LXX rearranges chapter 26 of
Numbers so that Gilead is mentioned in 26:33-34 rather than 26:29-30.
3.!Lucian “Gomer.”
4.!In the Hurrian account of the marriage of Shennima to Giliminu, Giliminu (if she proves childless) is allowed —
indeed, required — to bring in a concubine to bear children for her husband. These children will be regarded as
hers.

the wilderness. But God came to Hagar’s aid, and she returned to her mistress. (This part of the
story of Hagar is told twice, in Gen. 16:5–14 (J) and in Gen. 21:8–21 (E).) Gen. 16:1–16, 21:9–
21, 25:12; Gal. 4:24–25; in the Apocrypha in Baruch 3:23 !.
Haggith: Festive. LXX _*66*&+=Pheggeith;1 Josephus (Ant VII.i.4) K6&+;#=Agith(es). A wife of
king DAVID. She was the mother of ADONIJAH, the oldest of David’s sons to survive him. 2!Sam.
3:4; 1!Kings 1:5, 11, 2:13; 1!Ch. 3:2 !.
Ham: A form of the West Semitic name “Hammu”? LXX ^-?=Cham; Josephus (Ant I.iv.1)
^-?-#=Cham(as). The youngest son of NOAH,2 Ham was the ancestor of the tribes of Africa and
the middle east. After the flood, Ham saw his father drunk and naked (Gen. 9:20–22). As a result,
his son CANAAN was cursed (Gen. 9:24–27; some think that this is a collation of stories, and that
Canaan, not Ham, was originally Noah’s third son. A text from Qumran explains this by saying
that God cursed Canaan since Ham had already been blessed, and the blessing could not be
revoked!). An American folktale says that Ham invented the banjo, or its ancestor the banjar,
while on the Ark.3 “Ham” is also is also used as a name for the descendants of Ham (1!Ch. 4:40;
Psalms 78:51, 105:23, 27, 106:22; perhaps Gen. 14:5). Gen. 5:32, 6:10, 7:13, 9:18–22, 10:1, 6,
20; 1!Ch. 1:4, 8 !.
Hamathites: LXX K?-+&=Amathi. The eleventh “son” of CANAAN the grandson of NOAH.
The great city of Hamath (half way between Damascus and the Euphrates, and mentioned some
thirty-five times in the Old Testament) was the border of David’s conquests, and for centuries one
of the greatest Canaanite centers. Gen. 10:18; 1 Ch. 1:164 !.
Hamul: Pitied; Spared. LXX C*?8E;%=Iemuel; Josephus (Ant II.vii.4) (‘)K?8E!8#=(H)amor(os).
The younger child of PEREZ, the child of JUDAH 1 by TAMAR 1. His descendants formed one of
the families of Judah (Num. 26:21). His older brother HEZRON was the ancestor of DAVID and
the princes of Judah. Gen. 46:12; Num. 26:21; 1!Ch. 2:5 !.
Hamutal: Father-in-law is Protection ? LXX K?&0-%=Amital (or Hamital as in some English
versions); Josephus (Ant X.v.2) K?&0-%;#=Amital(es). The daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah. She
was one of the wives of Josiah king of Judah, and bore him his younger sons JEHOAHAZ 2 and
Mattaniah (ZEDEKIAH). Josiah’s oldest son, JEHOIAKIM, was the daughter of another wife,
ZEBIDAH. 2!Kings 23:31, 24:18; Jer. 52:1 !.
Haran. LXX K!!-5=Arran; Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) K!-5;#=Aran(es). (Not to be confused
with the city of the same name, which ABRAHAM visited and in which many of his relatives
1.!Lucian K66&+=Aggith
2.!So explicitly Gen. 9:24 (although this story seems to make Canaan, not Ham, the third son); Gen. 5:32, 6:10, 7:13,
9:18 implicitly make Ham the second son.
3.!With apologies for the language.... Irwin Russell apparently wrote a piece called “De Fust Banjo” in 1878. Vance
Randolph (Ozark Folksongs, volume II, pp. 324-325) collected a version with the verse
Now Ham was the only n****r that was aboard the packet,
Got lonesome in the barber shop an’ couldn’t stand the racket,
An’ so for to amuse himself he got some wood an’ bent it,
An’ soon he had a banjo made, the first that was invented.

settled. This town, later called Carrhae, was the last capitol of Assyria and the site of a famous
Roman defeat.) The third son of TERAH the father of Abraham. He died before his father in the
land of Ur. His son was LOT. He had in addition two daughters: ISCAH, about whom nothing is
definitively known (although Josephus equated her with SARAH), and MILCAH, who married her
uncle NAHOR and became the mother of BETHUEL, the father of LABAN and REBEKAH. Gen.
11:26–31.
Heli: NT (‘)T%&/T%*&=(H)eli, the Greek equivalent of Eli. According to Luke, the father of
JOSEPH (#2) and the grandfather of JESUS. (Note that according to Matthew, Joseph’s father was
named JACOB (#2).) Luke 3:23 !.
Hephzibah: My delight is in her. LXX VS&)-=Opsiba.1 The wife of HEZEKIAH and the
mother of MANASSEH 2 king of Judah. 2!Kings 21:1 !.
Heth. LXX ^*00-&8#=Chattaios. The second son of CANAAN the son of HAM. Considered to
be the ancestor of the Hittites, his name is often used to describe that people. Gen. 10:15; 1!Ch.
1:13.2 Also in Gen. 23:3–20, 27:46, 49:32 in the phrase “children of Heth” (rendered “Hittites”
by NRSV) !.
Hezekiah: Yah[weh] is Strength. LXX/Josephus/NT Q'*,&-#=Ezekias. Other than JOSIAH,
the most religiously pure king of Judah. (In the apocryphal book of Ben Sirach, only Josiah,
Hezekiah, and DAVID are approved among all the kings of Judah. Sirach 48:22, 49:4. Rabbinic
tradition goes so far as to make him a sort of substitute Messiah — a tradition in the Talmud
reports that God wanted to appoint Hezekiah the Messiah, but was talked out of it by an angel
who pointed out that Hezekiah had not composed the requisite hymns!) He succeeded his father
AHAZ, and immediately set about reviving Judaism. Some of his exploits, such as the great
passover described in Chronicles (2!Ch. 30), are probably fictitional. But he was responsible for
centralizing worship at the Jerusalem temple (2!Kings 18:4). He rebuilt the defenses of Jerusalem.
The Bible claims that Samaria and the nation of Israel were destroyed during his reign (722
B.C.E. — 2!Kings 18:9–12, but see the date of Ahaz’s death. This confusion cannot be resolved).
He was king during Sennacherib’s great invasion of Judah (701 B.C.E.), which failed as a result of
a miracle (2!Kings 18:13–19:37. See also Herodotus Hist II.141 and the discussion under
Sennacherib, p. 290. He seems to have been quite close to the prophet Isaiah. For instance, at
about this time Hezekiah fell sick. Isaiah came and told him that he would die. Hezekiah
repented, and God added fifteen years for his life (2!Kings 20:1–11; a rabbinic tradition
supported in part by Josephus in Ant X.ii.1 says he was condemned and/or saved due to his lack
of children).
Hezekiah was very well liked by the author of Chronicles because of his piety, but even that
writer could not conceal the fact that Hezekiah’s son was MANASSEH 2, the most evil king in the
history of Judah. The basic story of Hezekiah is told in 2!Kings 18–20. This story is repeated
almost verbatim in Isa. 36–39. Hezekiah is also the only figure who can be conclusively linked to
1.!LXXA Lucian Ophsiba; Lucian Epsiba.


the preparation of the Old Testament, for the aphorisms in Prov. 25–29 were assembled under
his auspices. 2!Kings 18–20; 2!Ch. 29–32; Isa. 36–39; see also 2!Kings 16:20, 21:3; 1!Ch. 3:13,
4:41; 2!Ch. 28:27, 33:3; Prov. 25:1; Isa. 1:1; Jer. 15:4, 26:18–19; Hos. 1:1; Mic. 1:1; Zeph. 1:1 (?);
Matt. 1:9–10; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 48:17, 22, 49:4, 2 Macc. 15:22.
Hezron. LXX K4!D5/K4!D?=Asron/ Asrom; Josephus (Ant II.vii.4) Q4!D5=Esron. KJV
“Esrom” in the New Testament. The older child of PEREZ, the child of JUDAH 1 by TAMAR 1. His
descendants formed one of the families of Judah (Num. 26:21). It was from him that DAVID and
the kings of Judah were descended. His younger brother was HAMUL. For the complicated and
confused traditions about his offspring, see the excursus below. Gen. 46:12; Num. 26:21; Ruth
4:18–19; 1!Ch. 2:5, 9, 18, 21, 24–25, 4:1; Matt. 1:3; Luke 3:33 !.
Excursus: The Gospel Genealogies of Jesus

Both Matthew and Luke give genealogies which trace the ancestry of Jesus back to Abraham
(and beyond, in Luke’s case).
Matthew’s genealogy, which has three parts (Abraham to David, David to Jehoiachin,
Jehoiachin to Joseph 2 and Jesus) is relatively clear. From Abraham to David is pretty much
directly out of Chronicles and requires no comment. From David to Jehoachin, who went into
captivity in Babylon, is a little less straightforward. The genealogy as given in the books of Kings
is
David/Solomon/Rehoboam/Abijam/Asa/Jehoshaphat/Jehoram/Ahaziah/Joash/Amaziah/Azariah
[Uzziah]/Jotham/Ahaz/Hezekiah/Manasseh/Amon/Josiah/Jehoakim/Jehoiachin
Matthew gives us
David/Solomon/Rehoboam/Abijam/Asa/Jehoshaphat/Jehoram………Azariah/Jotham/Ahaz/
Hezekiah/Manasseh/Amos/Josiah/Jehoakim/Jehoiachin
Thus Matthew’s list omits Ahaziah, Joash, and Amaziah. Nor can this be attributed to scribal
error, since Matthew says there were just fourteen names in this period. So, while Matthew’s
original could have had different names, it could not have had more names.
The list of names from Jehoiachin to Jesus has a different sort of problem. For one thing,
there are only thirteen names! It is quite likely that a name was lost very, very early on — so early
that it has vanished from all our copies. But even if we assume a missing name, giving us fourteen
generations, consider this: Jehoiachin went into exile in 598 B.C.E. He was no younger than eight
years old at the time. His grandson Zerubbabel 1 was active in 520 B.C.E. Jesus was born in the
reign of Herod the Great (died 4 B.C.E.), with the likeliest date of his birth being around 6 B.C.E.
That’s 514 years after Zerubbabel was active. And that’s spread over just twelve generations —
meaning that each generation averaged on the order of 43 years. Maybe a little more. It’s simply
not reasonable.
Luke’s genealogy is different. Instead of having Jesus descended from Solomon, it has Jesus
descended from Nathan, another son of David. (Or, more correctly, from “Natham” — the
reading “Natham” is that of ന4 ‫ * א‬B ff2; A E K L M Y [ 33 579 892 Byz read “Nathan.”) This
s

genealogy cannot be tested; we have no information at all about any of the names in the list
between Nathan and Joseph the father of Jesus.
But there is another curiosity about Luke’s genealogy, and that is the names from Judah son
of Jacob to David. The list below shows the genealogy found in the Hebrew Bible (so, e.g. Ruth
4:18, which at the key point states that Hezron was the father of Ram, who fathered
Amminadab.
Judah/Perez/Hezron/Ram/Amminadab/Nahshon/Salmon/Boaz/Obed/Jesse/David
LXX of Ruth 4:18 agrees, except that “Ram” becomes “Arran” in LXXB LXXA and “Aram”
in the remaining text, while Hezron is “Esrom/Esron.” 1 Ch. 2:9-10 MT agrees with Ruth, but
LXX diverges, If we look at the LXX text of 1 Chronicles 2, we get a fairly similar list, the top
line being a transliteration of the Greek of 1 Chronicles 2, the bottom being “equivalent”
Hebrew names
Iouda/Phares/Asrom[Eseron]/Aram/Aminadab/Naason/Salmon/Booz/Obed/Iessai/Dauid
Judah/Perez/!!!!!!Hezron /Aram/Aminadab/Nahshon/Salmon/Boaz/Obed/Jesse/David
Interestingly, LXX credits Hezron with four sons Jerahmeel, Ram, Chaleb (Caleb/Chelubai),
and Aram, rather than three (Jerahmeel, Ram, and Chelubai) as in the Hebrew. One is Ram, one
is Aram. Aram is the one listed as father of Aminadab. Whereas MT states that Hezron had
three sons (Jerahmeel, Ram, and Chelubai)
Matt. 1:3-4 follows the MT genealogy quite precisely, except for calling Ram “Aram”:
Judah/Perez/Hezron/Aram/Amminadab/Nahshon/Salmon/Boaz/Obed/Jesse/David
But Luke’s genealogy, as found e.g. in NRSV, is noticeably different:
Judah/Perez/Hezron/Arni/Admin/Amminadab/Nahshon/Sala/Boaz/Obed/Jesse/David
The KJV has:
Juda/Phares/Esrom/Aram/Aminadab/Naasson/Salmon/Booz/Obed/Jesse/David
Thus we see that the KJV version is the same as Matthew’s, and similar to 1 Chronicles. But
note that in the NRSV text “Ram/Aram” has been removed, replaced by “Arni” and “Admin.”
To be sure, the number of variants in Luke’s genealogy is quite high:
• D omits the whole Lucan genealogy and replaces it with Matthew’s written backward.
• W 579 omit the whole Lucan genealogy and don’t replace it with anything
• A omits “Phares/Perez.”
• “Sala” is the reading of ന4 ‫ * א‬B sin sa; A E L N X M Y [ (ƒ1 ƒ13) 33 892 Byz read
s
“Salmon”
• For “Obed” (with various spellings) ‫ * א‬B D* read variants on “Obel.”
s
But the real confusion revolves around the section Hezron/Aram/Aminadab. There are about a
dozen readings in the manuscripts, including the following
• Hezron, Arni, Admin, Aminadab: ‫א‬c L X ( ƒ13) 157, MOFFATT GOODSPEED RSV NAB JB NJB
NRSV NLT
• Hezron, Arni, Aram, Aminadab: N*
• Hezron, Arni, Admin, Adam (!) ‫ * א‬1241

• Hezron, Arni, Admin B WH

• Hezron, Arni, Aminadab RV PHILLIPS NEB REB
• Hezron, Joram, Aram, Aminadab K M [ 700 pm b (e)
• Hezron, Joram, Aminadab, Aram 892
• Hezron, Joram, Aram, Aminadam (sic.) M* 28 hark
• Hezron, Arni, Admi, Aminadab Y arm
• Hezron, Arni, Almei, Aram, Aminadam 1
• Hezron, Aram, Aminadab A E Nc / 33 565 pm a c f ff2 vg pesh, KJV
• Hezron, Ram, Aminadab NKJV NIVtxt TNIVtxt
• Hezron, Ram, Admin, Amminadab NASB
Note how many English versions interpret the Greek to mean something it does not say! No
fewer than eight versions have readings not found in any known Greek manuscript....
Hilkiah: Yah[weh] is my Portion. LXX ^*%,&-#=Chelkias. The Hilkiah shown here was the
high priest in the time of King JOSIAH.1 It was in his time that Josiah ordered the refurnishing of
the temple (630 B.C.E.? — 2!Kings 22:3). And he was the priest who found “the book of the Law”
in the temple. (2!Kings 22:8. The book was probably Deuteronomy.) His father was named
SHALLUM (#1 — 1!Ch. 6:13), so it is possible that Huldah the prophetess was his mother (2!Kings
22:14). He was succeeded by his son AZARIAH 5; another son may have been named Gemariah
(Jer. 29:3).
Some believe that Hilkiah was the father of JEREMIAH (Jer. 1:1). In support of this, they point
out Jeremiah’s familiarity with Temple priests and ritual. This theory adds to the already great
tragedy of the story of the prophet, for it means that his chief opponents were his own family.
And it must be admitted that this theory is chronologically tenable. But several counter-
arguments must be offered:
1. Jeremiah never spoke of any temple official in a way that implied even a social, let alone a
familial, relationship (see Jer. 29:3). The only relatives he mentions are his uncle Shallum and his
cousin Hanamel, who are also men of Anathoth (Jer. 32:6–12). And if the theory were true, then
Hilkiah’s father and brother were both named “Shallum” — an extremely unlikely event in
Jewish families.
2. Jeremiah was rather badly treated by King Zedekiah (Jer. 32:2, 37:15, 38:6, etc.). Zedekiah
seems to have been a sincere Jew; he would hardly treat the son of the high priest in such a
manner.
1.!There are perhaps three significant Hilkiahs in the Hebrew Bible: the father of Jeremiah, the high priest in the
time of Josiah, and the “grandfather” of Ezra. It seems likely that the latter two should be equated. But this is
difficult chronologically and leads to inconsistencies. Ezra 7:1 makes Ezra the son of Seraiah song of Hilkiah. But
according to 1 Ch. 6:13-14, Seraiah was the grandson of Hilkiah, and he was killed in 587 B.C.E. (2 Kings
25:18-22). Ezra can hardly have been born before 500, and probably much later. To make matters worse, Ezra’s
genealogy includes only one Zadok, while the account in Chronicles lists two. The chart attempts to reconcile
these lists; for background, see the entry on Ezra.
The father of Jeremiah is almost certainly a different person; see the notes above..

3. Jeremiah was a citizen of the priestly city of Anathoth (Jer. 1:1). Thus he would be familiar
with priestly ritual. But the priests of Anathoth were descendants of ABIATHAR (1!Kings 2:26),
whose descendants had been excluded from the Temple priesthood and cursed. The priests of
the temple were descendants of ZADOK 1, Abiathar’s rival.
4. The name “Hilkiah” was fairly common in late monarchial times; apart from the High
Priest and Jeremiah’s father, at least four Hilkiahs are known in the Old Testament and
Apocrypha.
The evidence is admittedly sketchy — resting on one verse in each case. And it’s a minor
point — particularly compared to the fate of Hilkiah’s grandson Serahiah, who would be taken
into captivity by the Babylonians and killed (2!Kings 25:18–21). 2!Kings 22:4–14, 23:4, 24; 1!Ch.
6:13; 2!Ch. 34:8–22, 35:8;1 Ezra 7:1; Jer. 29:3? (perhaps Jer. 1:1); in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras
1:8, 8:1, Baruch 1:7, 2 Esdras 1:1 !.
Hivites: In Hebrew the word is always singular, and means “villager.” LXX QE-&8#=Euaios.
A people of Canaan, listed as the sixth “child” of CANAAN, son of HAM, son of NOAH. They
seem to have been a peaceful people. We cannot fix exactly where they lived, but the Shechemites
of the time of Jacob were Hivites (see the story of DINAH — Gen. 34:1–31), as were the
Gibeonites of the time of Joshua 1 (Josh. 9:7). Gen. 10:17, 34:2, 36:2; Ex. 3:8, 17, 13:5, 23:23,
28, 33:2, 34:11; Deut. 7:1, 20:17; Josh. 3:10, 9:1, 9:7, 11:3, 19, 12:8, 24:11; Judg. 3:3, 5; 2!Sam.
24:7; 1!Kings 9:20; 1!Ch. 1:15;2 2!Ch. 8:7; Isa. 17:9v.
Hobab: Beloved ? LXX CD)-)/#)-)/V)-)=Iobab/Obab. According to the J writer of the
Pentateuch, the name of MOSES’S Midianite father-in-law. (It is also possible that REUEL is
Moses’s father-in-law, and Hobab his son.) A third name for him, and the most common, is
JETHRO. See the entries on Jethro and Reuel. Num. 10:29; Judg. 1:16, 4:11 !.
Hophni: Strong (or perhaps from Egyptian: Tadpole). LXX VP5&=Ophni; Josephus (Ant V.x.1)
(‘)VP5&;#=(H)ophni(es). The older son of ELI the High Priest of Shiloh — at least, he is generally
listed first among Eli’s sons. Josephus, however, makes his brother PHINEHAS 2 Eli’s heir in Ant
V.xi.2, and Phinehas had at least two children whereas Hophni is not recorded as having any,
hinting that he might not yet have married. So it is not entirely clear which brother was older.
What is clear is that he and Phinehas thoroughly abused their priestly authority (they were called
“sons of Belial” — 1!Sam. 2:12 — which the NRSV translates as “scoundrels”), and were
punished for it. The two of them were slain by the Philistines at the battle of Aphek while caring
for the Ark of the Covenant, which was captured. (This event would result in their father’s death.)
1!Sam. 1:3, (2:12–17, 22–25), 34, 4:4, 11, 17 !.
Hoshea: May Yah[weh] Save.
HOSHEA 1. The original name of JOSHUA 1 (e.g. Num. 13:8, 16).
HOSHEA 2. LXX #4;*=Osee; Josephus (Ant IX.xiii.1) #4*8#=Ose(os) or (Ant IX.xiv.1)
#4;;#=Osee(s) (?). The son of ELAH 2, Hoshea was the nineteenth and last king of Israel. He
1.!Also 2 Ch. 35:19- LXX.


murdered his predecessor, PEKAH the son of REMALIAH. But he needed Assyrian approval to
become king.1 Despite this obligation, Hoshea stopped paying tribute to Assyria after six years,
and Shalmaneser V invaded Israel. After a three year siege, Samaria fell, and the peoples of
Israel were scattered and exiled (722 B.C.E. — 2!Kings 17:6). Hoshea’s fate is not explicitly stated
in the Bible (despite the fact that Josephus says in Ant IX.xiv.1 that he was sent into exile as a
prisoner, presumably because he was less wicked — cf. 2 Kings 17:22 — than his predecessor
kings), but it should not be hard to guess. (Note: some scholars think that Hoshea was captured by
the Assyrian Emperor Shalmaneser V, but that Samaria did not fall until two years later, during
the reign of Sargon II.) 2!Kings 15:30, 17:1–6, 18:1, 9, 10; in the Apocrypha in 2 Esdras 13:40
!.
Hur: Child ? A pet name, perhaps from Akkadian h#ru. LXX (‘)#!=(H)or; Josephus (Ant III.ii.1)
VE!8#=Our(os). There are several incidents in the Bible in which a “Hur” is mentioned; the
relationships between these figures are unclear. One, shown in the genealogy, is listed in 1 Ch.
2:19 as the son of CALEB by his second wife Ephrath. Bezalel, one of the craftsmen who built the
Ark of the Covenant, was the son of Uri son of Hur (Ex. 31:2). Hur was also the name of the
man who, along with AARON, held up MOSES’S hands during JOSHUA’S battle with Amalek and
who governed Israel during Moses’s absence (Ex. 17:10–12, 24:14, both from the E source of the
Pentateuch). Josephus (Ant III.ii.4) identifies this Hur as Miriam’s husband, which would probably
mean he was a Levite; rabbinic tradition makes him Miriam’s son (a fragmentary text from
Qumran also supports this belief). 1!Ch. 2:19–20; perhaps Ex. 17:10–12, 24:14, 31:2, 35:30,
38:22, 2 Ch. 1:5 !.
Ichabod: “Where (is) the honour?” LXX VE-& )-!N-)D+=Ouai (a cry of woe) barchaboth;3
Josephus (Ant V.xi.3) CDN-);#=Iochab(es). The youngest son of PHINEHAS 2 the son of ELI. He
was born prematurely just after the battle of Aphek, at which his father died and the Ark of the
Covenant was captured by the Philistines. When Phinehas’s wife heard of the Ark’s capture and
the death of her husband and father-in-law, she delivered the child. And “she named [him]
Ichabod, saying, ‘The glory has departed from Israel,’ because the Ark of God had been
captured…” (1!Sam. 4:22). The fate of the child is unknown, although his mother died. 1!Sam.
4:19–22, 14:3 !.
Irad: Related to “Jared,” “Rose” ? LXX J-&9-9=Gaidad. The son of ENOCH (#1) the son of
CAIN. Gen. 4:18 !.
1.!This may be the event which underlies the mention of Assyria in Hos. 14:3, although the accession of MENAHEM
is perhaps a more likely occasion, or the verse may be just a generic reference. Alternately, some scholars think
this verse may be an insertion from a Judahite writer, probably a supporter of Isaiah against king AHAZ’S treaty
with Assyria.
2.!2 Kings 17:2 notably does not accuse Hoshea of following the sin of JEROBOAM I; in this Hoshea was unique
among Israelite kings. It is reasonable to assume that Hoshea, faced with national disaster, attempted some sort of
cultic reform. Whatever its nature, the reform ultimately failed when Israel was destroyed. As a result, the
Lucianic test of LXX made Hoshea the most evil, rather than perhaps the most pious, Israelite monarch.
3.!LXXA Ouia chaboth; in 1 Sam. 14:3 the LXX texts have variants on Iochabed (e.g. Iochabel, Chaboth)

Isaac: Laughter. LXX C4--,; Josephus (Ant I.x.5) C4-,8#=Isak(os). The child of ABRAHAM
and SARAH. The only child of Sarah, born in his parents’s old age (Sarah was ninety and
Abraham one hundred when he was born). The child of God’s promise, through whom God’s
covenant with Abraham was to be fulfilled. He seems to have been the first person to have
received circumcision at birth. It was through him that Abraham’s descendants were to be
reckoned, but Abraham was almost forced to sacrifice him (Gen. 22. Josephus — Ant I.xiii.2 —
tells us this occurred when Isaac was twenty-five years old).
Isaac was married to his cousin REBEKAH, as a result of Abraham’s determination to not
mingle his blood with Canaanites. (Rebekah herself was selected by a sign from God — Gen.
24:10–67). Like Abraham, Isaac once passed his wife off as his sister (Gen. 26:1–11). The
children of Isaac were the fraternal twins ESAU and JACOB 1.
Very little is known of Isaac’s later life; his chronology is very confused. For instance, Gen.
25:26 and 26:34 combine to imply that Isaac was 100 old at the time of his deathbed blessing of
Jacob (ch. 27), but he died at 180 (35:28 in both MT and LXX; Josephus — Ant I.xxi.1 gives his
age as 185). If this dating were true, he would have lived to migrate to Egypt with Jacob. (And,
indeed, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi IX.1-5 tells of Levi and Judah being brought to
Isaac to be blessed, which would have to be several decades after alleged deathbed blessing).
Needless to say, all we can do to resolve these conflicts is note that they come from different
sources.
Other notices of Isaac’s life include the fact that he went blind in his later years, and was
eventually buried in a cave at Machpelah (Gen. 49:30) along with a number of his relatives (Gen.
49:31) by his sons Jacob and Esau (Gen. 35:29). Although a rather shadowy figure throughout his
life, Isaac is frequently spoken of in both the Old and New Testament as a symbol of God’s
faithfulness, for he was born of a promise. Gen. 17, 21–28, 35, 48; Ex. 2:24, 3:6, 15–16, 4:5, 6:3,
6:8, 33:1; Num. 32:11; Deut. 1:8; Josh. 24:3–4; 1!Ch. 1:28, 34, 16:16, 29:18; 2 Ch. 30:6; Jer.
33:26; Amos 7:9, 16;1 Matt. 1:2, 8:11, 22:32; Mark 12:26; Luke 3:34, 13:28, 20:37; Acts 3:13,
7:8, 32; Rom. 9:7, 10; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 11:9, 17, 18, 20; James 2:21, and many others; in the
Apocrypha in Sirach 44:22, Judith 8:26; Tobit 4:12; Baruch 2:34, Dan. “3:35”; 2 Macc. 1:2; and
assorted uses in 4 Macc.
Iscah: Yah[weh] is Looking. LXX C*4N-=Iescha. The daughter of HARAN, sister of LOT and
MILCAH. Nothing else is known about her, but Josephus claims (Ant I.vi.5) — on what grounds we
cannot tell — that she is identical to SARAH. Gen. 11:29 !.
Ishbaal: name used, e.g., in NRSV for ESHBAAL, for which see p. 112.
Ish-Bosheth: Man of Shame. A “corrected” form of ESHBAAL, for which see p. 112.
Ishmael: May God hear or God hears. LXX C4?-*%=Ismael; Josephus (Ant I.x.4)
C4?-;%8#=Ismael(os). Not to be confused with the Davidide who assassinated Gedaliah governor
of Judah. The oldest child of ABRAHAM, born of his concubine HAGAR, who was the Egyptian
maid of Abraham’s wife SARAH. Ishmael was born when his father was 86 years old, and
1.!In LXX also in Gen. 21:9, 22:13, 24:3, 7 (LXXA only), 44, 27:34, 38 (MT generally reads “he” in these passages)

circumcised at the age of thirteen. Before this, however, both he and his mother had been cast
out briefly by Sarah, but had been saved by God and returned to their family. God promised that
Ishmael would become a great nation and father of twelve princes (Gen. 17:20), but it was
through ISAAC, not Ishmael, that God’s promise to Abraham would be fulfilled. His descendants
are called Ishmaelites; they are frequently referred to. Gen. 16:1–16, 17:18–27, 25:9, 12–13, 16–
17, 28:9, 36:3; 1!Ch. 1:28–311 !.
Ishvi: LXX C*44&8E/C*44&8E%/C48E*&=Iessio/Iessiol/Isoi; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.6)
C;48E#=Iesous (Jesus, Joshua). Not to be confused with the third son of ASHER. The name used in
1 Sam. 14:49 for Saul’s second son Abinadab 1, p. 75.
Israel: Popularly “God Wrestles”; perhaps more correctly “God is Happy.” The name given to Jacob
1, p. 126, after he had wrestled with God at Penuel.
Issachar: Popularly “Hired Man;” perhaps also “Reward.” LXX C44-N-!=Issachar; Josephus (Ant
I.xix.7) C44-N-!;#=Issachar(es). The fifth child of JACOB 1 by his wife LEAH. Nothing is recorded
of him as an individual after his birth, but he was the ancestor of one of the tribes of Israel. The
inheritance of Issachar was a small region on the west bank of the Jordan, just south of the sea
of Galilee. It was bordered on the south by Manasseh, on the west by Zebulun, and on the north
by Naphtali. The tribe did not produce any notable figures (although BAASHA the second king of
Israel was a man of Issachar), and seems to have been completely wiped out after the destruction
of Israel. Issachar the person is mentioned in Gen. 30:18, 35:23, 46:13, 49:14; Ex. 1:3; 1!Ch. 2:1,
7:1. The tribe’s inheritance is given in Josh. 19:17–23. All other references are to the tribe.
Ithamar: Island of Palms ?? LXX C+-?-!; Josephus (Ant III.viii.1) C+-?-!8#=Ithamar(os).
The fourth and youngest son of AARON the brother of MOSES. As his two oldest brothers, NADAB
1 and ABIHU, were slain by God for offering “unholy fire” (Lev. 10:1ƒ., Num. 3:4, 26:61), Ithamar
and his surviving brother ELEAZAR 1 became Aaron’s priestly assistants. When Aaron died,
however, it was Eleazar, the older son, who succeeded him as high priest.
Little is known of Ithamar as an individual. It was his duty to supervise the Gershonites and
Merarites when they carried the tent of meeting (Num. 4:28, 33). He also seems to have been
somehow involved in furnishing the tent of meeting (Ex. 38:21). His descendants are not named,
although it is claimed that the family of ELI is descended from him. He does not seem to have
had many children, for his descendents were few in the day of the assigning of temple duties, so
that only eight courses were given to his descendents, while sixteen were assigned to the
descendents of Eleazar (1!Ch. 24:4). Ex. 6:23, 28:1, 38:21; Lev. 10:6, 12, 16; Num. 3:2, 4; 4:28,
33, 7:8, 26:60; 1!Ch. 6:3, 24:1–6; Ezra 8:2; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:292 !.
Ithra: Excellence ? LXX C8+8!=Iothor.3 According to 2!Sam. 17:25, an Ishmaelite,4 husband
of Abigail 2 and father of Amasa. He is also called Jether (so 1!Kings 2:5, 32, 1 Ch. 2:17) !.
1.!Sundry LXX manuscripts add references in Gen. 21:22, 1 Ch. 9:44, Jer. 41:4
2.!LXXB reads here C*0-?-!8#=Ietamaros
3.!C8+8!=Iothor=Jether: so LXXA LXXB; Josephus C*+!-8#=Iethra(os)=Ithra; LXXremainder C*+*!=Iether=Jether
4.!Ishmaelite: so LXXA following 1 Ch. 2:17; MT LXXB of 2 Sam. 17:25 make him an “Israelite.”

Izhar: May [God] Shine? LXX C44--!=Issaar. A son of KOHATH, and the grandson of LEVI
1. His descendants formed one of the Levite families. His oldest son was KORAH, who rebelled
against Moses but whose children were among the greatest musicians in the temple. Ex. 6:18, 21;
Num. 3:19, 16:1; 1!Ch. 6:2, 18, 38, 23:12, 18 !.
Jabal: Moving ? LXX CD)*%=Iobel. The son of LAMECH 1 by his wife ADAH, and “the
ancestor of those who live in tents and have livestock.” His brother was JUBAL. Gen. 4:20 !.
Jabesh: Dry place. LXX C-)&#=Iabis. Not to be confused with the city of Jabesh-Gilead,
occasionally called simply “Jabesh.” The father of SHALLUM. Shallum murdered ZECHARIAH 1
the fourteenth king of Israel and reigned in his stead for one month before being slain by
MENAHEM. Some theorize that “Jabesh” is actually a place name, so that “Shallum son of
Jabesh” should be read as “Shallum of Jabesh-Gilead.” 2!Kings 15:10, 13, 14 !.
Jacob: Supplanter. LXX C-,D)=Iakob; Josephus (Ant I.xviii.1) C-,D)8#=Iakob(os).
JACOB 1. The son of ISAAC and the ancestor of the people of Israel. He was the fraternal twin
of his brother ESAU. Esau was the first-born, but Jacob, helped by his mother REBEKAH, robbed
him of his inheritance (see the entry on Esau, p. 112). It was by this means that Jacob earned his
name, which had been given because he had his hand on Esau’s heel when they were born.
Jacob so regularly took advantage of his brother that Esau eventually drove from home. He
went to the home of his cousin LABAN in Paddan-Aram (Haran — Gen. 27:43, 28:2). It was here
that he met LEAH and RACHEL, the daughters of Laban. He fell in love with Rachel, and agreed
to serve Laban for seven years to win her hand (Gen. 29:18). But when the seven years were up,
Laban slipped Leah upon Jacob (Gen. 29:21–26). So Jacob served another seven years for Rachel
(Gen. 29:27–30). And Leah bore seven children for Jacob (REUBEN, SIMEON 1, LEVI 1,1 JUDAH 1,
ISSACHAR, ZEBULUN, and DINAH) while her sister was barren for many years. Rachel therefore
gave BILHAH her maid to Jacob as a concubine (Gen. 30:3)2 — so Leah, not to be outdone,
offered him her maid ZILPAH (Gen. 30:9). And Jacob, whose notion of morality was would put a
magpie to shame, jumped at the opportunity. Each of the concubines bore Jacob two sons. And
finally Rachel gave Jacob a child named JOSEPH 1.
After twenty years in the service of Laban, Jacob decided to return to Canaan. This forced
him to trick Laban, in order to receive the flocks he had worked for (Gen. 31:20). But he made
good his escape. On the way back, he met and wrestled with God at Peniel, where he was given
the name ISRAEL, to be his name and his people’s (Gen. 32:22–32; see also 35:10). Soon after this,
he was reconciled to Esau (Gen. 33). On a sadder note, as Jacob’s caravan approached
Bethlehem, Rachel bore BENJAMIN and died (Gen. 35:16–20). And it was also at this time that
Dinah had her encounter with the Hivites (see the entry on Dinah, p. 107). But Jacob settled in
the land, and prospered, for God was with him there and everywhere he went (Gen. 26:3, 28:15,
etc.)
1.!Said by a Qumran text to have been born when his father was sixty-five
2.!For this typically Hurrian custom see the account of Hagar, p. 116.

When Joseph grew up, he began to lord over his brothers. They retaliated by selling him into
slavery in Egypt (Gen. 37:25–36). And Jacob mourned greatly for his favorite son. But it
happened that Joseph prospered in Egypt. He became a high official — perhaps even the vizier.
So he was reconciled to his brothers when they came to buy food in a time of famine (Gen. 42–
45). Then Jacob and his family moved to Egypt, and he died there at the age of 147 (Gen. 47:28).
He was buried in the family cave at Machpelah (Gen. 50:13).
JACOB 2. According to Matthew, the father of JOSEPH 2 the father of JESUS. (Note that
according to Luke, the father of Joseph was named HELI. Luke 3:23.) Matt. 1:15–16 !.
James: NT C-,D)8#=Iakobos, the Greek form of “Jacob.” (Not to be confused with James
the son of Zebedee and the brother of John, or with any other James.) The oldest, except for
Jesus himself, of the children of JOSEPH 2 and MARY. (Others consider James to be the son of
Joseph by a previous marriage, or Joseph’s nephew or other relative. But there is no biblical
reason to believe this; for the whole business, see the excursus below, “Who Was James the
Brother of the Lord?.”) Although he did not believe in Jesus during his life (Matt. 12:50, etc.), he
became a disciple and head of the Jerusalem church after the Resurrection (1 Cor. 15:7). At the
counsel of Jerusalem (c. 48 C.E. — Acts 15:1–29), he wanted to retain the more Jewish aspects of
Christianity, but allowed himself to be overruled. Possible author of the letter of James. Eusebius
gives us the following additional information: James was called “the Just” or “the Righteous.” He
“drank no wine... and ate no animal food,” forgave all men, and never broke a vow. His knees
were said to be as hard as a camel’s because of the time he spent on his knees praying. He was
slain in 62 C.E. by being thrown off a wall and beaten (or stoned), by order of the Jewish
authorities (Ant XX.ix.1, the only reference to Christianity in Josephus that is considered
original.) For further information on his role in the early church, see the entry on James brother
of Jesus on p. 475. Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17, 15:13–21, 21:18; 1 Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19,
2:9, 12; perhaps also James 1:1, Jude 1 !.

Excursus: Who Was James the Brother of the Lord?

The Greek name C-,D)8#, Iacobos, or C-,D), Iacob, the Greek equivalent of “Jacob,”
translated “James” in English, occurs about sixty-seven times in the New Testament: Matt. 1:2
(x2), 15, 16, 4:21, 8:11, 10:2, 3, 13:55, 17:1, 22:32, 27:56, Mark 1:19, 29, (2:14 in D Y ƒ13 565
a b c e ff2; ന4 ‫ * א‬A B C E G L W M L ƒ1 579 700 892 Byz f read, with minor variations, “Levi”;
this is followed by all English versions), 3:17, 18, 5:37, 6:3, 9:2, 10:35, 41, 12:26, 13:3, 14:33,
15:40, 16:1, Luke 1:33, 3:34, 5:10, 6:14, 15, 16, 8:51, 9:28, 54, 13:28, 20:37, 24:10, John 4:5,
6, 12, Acts 1:13 (x3), 3:13, 7:8, 12, 14, 15, 32, 46, 12:2, 17, 15:13, 21:18, Rom. 9:13, 11:26,
1!Co. 15:7, Gal. 1:19, 2:9, 12, Hebr. 11:9, 20, 21, James 1:1, Jude 1.
Although there is no real distinction between the names Iacobos (which has a Greek ending
and is capable of taking various grammatical forms) and Iacob (indeclinable), in practice Iacob
seems to be used for Jacob the Patriarch and others who lived before the time of Jesus, while
Iacobos is used for Jesus’s contemporaries. The standard in English translations has been to render
Iacob as “Jacob,” while Iacobos becomes “James.”
The uses of Iacob are shown in bold above; the uses of Iacobos, James, in italic. There are
thirty-nine uses of the latter. But the name refers to several individuals. If we start down the list,
we may classify as follows (some of these identifications are slightly loose, but for the most part we
can be confident — e.g. we assume that when the Bible refers to James and John together, it
means James son of Zebedee):
• James son of Zebedee: Matt. 4:21, 10:2, 17:1, Mark 1:19, 29, 3:17, 5:37, 9:2, 10:35, 41,
13:3, 14:33, Luke 5:10, 6:14, 8:51, 9:28, 54, Acts 1:13, 12:2
• James son of Alphaeus: Matt. 10:3, Mark 3:18, 6:15, Acts 1:13
• James son of Mary and brother of Joseph/Joses: Matt. 27:56, Mark 15:40, 16:1, Luke
24:10 (?)
• James the father of Judas the disciple: Luke 6:16, Acts 1:13
• Unidentifiable: James 1:1, Jude 1
• James brother of Jesus/the Lord/James the son of Mary: Matt. 13:55, Mark 6:3, Gal. 1:19
• James, a leader of the Jerusalem church: Acts 12:17, 15:13, 21:18, 1 Co. 15:7 (?), Gal. 2:9,
12
Our concern is with the last two of these. That this person is called the brother of Jesus is
beyond question. Matt. 13:55 and Mark 6:3 are explicit that a man named James is Jesus’s
brother and there are no textual variants in the verses. Similarly, Gal. 1:19 explicitly refers to
James the Lord’s brother, and it has no variations either.
It is Gal. 1:19 which supplies the link between them: Paul calls the leader of the Jerusalem
church “James the Lord’s brother.” That this person existed need not be questioned, for he is
referred to outside the New Testament. Josephus — who here is speaking of events of his own
time — says in Ant XX.ix.1 that the High Priest Ananus “convened the judges of the Sanhedrin,

and brought before them a man named the brother of Jesus who was called Christ, James by
name, and certain others. He... delivered them up to be stoned.” This is around 61 — which fits
with the New Testament, since James was still alive in Jerusalem when Paul made his last visit
there around 60, according to Acts 21:18.
Eusebius, Ecc. Hist. I.4 quotes Clement of Alexandria’s account of how James was thrown
from a parapet and beaten to death. Ecc. Hist. II.23 has a much more detailed account, calling
James the Bishop of Jerusalem — and explicitly describing him as “the Lord’s brother.” It then
again quotes Clement, and then a more detailed account from Hegesippus.
Origen and Eusebius also quote what appears to be an interpolation in Josephus about James
being the brother of Jesus the Christ.
Thus there is a firm early tradition that the leader of the Jerusalem Church in the early
Apostolic period was James, and that he was executed, and that he was known as the brother of
Jesus.
But what was his actual relationship to Jesus? The Greek word brother (-9*%P8#) normally
means just what the English word “brother” means to us: A male sibling. It could occasionally
mean a more distant relative, but this is rare. In Christian usage, it came to mean something like
“comrade,” but while we see Christians frequently addressed as brothers, it is not normal to see
them described as Jesus’s brothers. Thus the clear implication of the Greek is that James was
Jesus’s actual kin.
In a church which committed itself to the idea that Mary was a perpetual virgin, however,
this caused a lot of trouble. (For the origin of this story, see the excursus on The Birth of Mary, p.
167.) So a number of other hypotheses were developed about James’s ancestry.
One widespread version seems to have originated with Jerome, the translator of the Vulgate,
in the fourth century. This version — widely cited in Catholic lives of saints — became the basis
for the Golden Legend, e.g., which assures us that James the Righteous, the Brother of the Lord, is
in fact James the Lesser, or James son of Alphaeus. “He is called the brother of the Lord because
he is said to have borne a very strong resemblance to Jesus, so that very often they were mistaken
for the other. Hence when the Jews set out to capture Christ, they had to avoid taking James
[instead]... so they engaged Judas, who could distinguish the Lord from James....” Note that much
the same story is used to explain why Thomas was called Didymus, “the Twin”: He was said to
be a Jesus look-alike.
The Golden Legend also asserts that this James was the son of Mary daughter of Cleophas, and
Cleophas was the brother of Joseph.
As recently as 1970, a note to Mark 6:6 in NAB (an official Catholic Bible) delicately steps
around the point, admitting that “the question of meaning [of the “Lord’s brother”] would not
have arisen but for the faith of the early church in Mary’s perpetual virginity.” It does not
explicitly state that the obvious sense of the text is that James, etc., were children of Mary and
Joseph.

Much more common in non-Catholic circles — and distinctly older than Jerome’s fantasies
— is the story that James (and his several brothers, also mentioned in Matt. 13:55, Mark 6:3) are
the children of Joseph by his previous marriage. The idea that Joseph was an old man (perhaps as
old as eighty by the time he married Mary), and previously married, occurs in the Protevangelium
Jacobi, or Infancy Gospel of James (again, see the excursus on The Birth of Mary, p. 167), and came
to be widespread — we find it in English, e.g., in the folk song “The Cherry Tree Carol,” which
declares that “When Joseph was an old man, an old man was he, When he courted virgin
Mary....” The only Biblical basis for this is that Mary appears at the foot of the cross but Joseph
does not, implying that he was dead by the time of Jesus’s public ministry. The fact that Joseph
would have had to be in his fifties at least at the time of Jesus’s death (since Jesus was at least
thirty-four and probably thirty-six) dramatically weakens this argument — Joseph would have
had a fair chance of dying in that time whatever his age.
The idea that Joseph was eighty at the time of his betrothal is pretty hopeless — he was fit
enough to travel to and from Bethlehem, he worked as a carpenter, and he was still around when
Jesus was twelve. But, of course, Joseph need not have been that old for the hypothesis that he
was twice-married to be true. On the other hand, even if we assume Joseph was merely middle-
aged, the chronological difficulties are significant. Recall that Jesus was born no later than 4
B.C.E., with 6 B.C.E. a much more likely date. Joseph and Mary were already betrothed at that
time. And James was the eldest of four brothers. This means that James really had to be born at
least eight years before Jesus — i.e. in 14 B.C.E. or earlier. Earlier is better. And he died in 61/62
C.E., while still seemingly a vigorous leader. At the age, then, of seventy-five or older. Probably
older. Probably past eighty. Not impossible, of course — but if we assume he was Jesus’s younger
brother, then he would have been born in 4 B.C.E. or later, making him sixty-six or younger at the
time of his martyrdom. This is surely a more likely supposition.
None of this constitutes proof of any sort. But based solely on the Biblical evidence, the simplest
explanation appears to be that James was the second son of Joseph and Mary, and the full
brother of Jesus. Or at least (ignoring questions of Jesus’s DNA) the full brother in the legal sense.
Jannai: NT C-55-&=Iannai.1 According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and 140. Luke 3:24
!.
Japheth: Popularly “The Extender.” LXX C-P*+=Iapheth. The second son of 178, and the
ancestor of the tribes north and west of Canaan (and hence Europeans?). His name may be the
same as the Greek mythological figure IAPETUS, who was the father of mankind. With his brother
SHEM, Japtheth covered his father with a sheet after their younger brother HAM had seen him
drunk and naked. Hence Japheth was blessed when Ham was cursed. Other than this, he does
not appear as an individual. Gen. 5:32, 6:10, 7:13, 9:18–27, 10:1–5, 21; 1!Ch. 1:4–5 !.
1.!C-55-&=Iannai (Jannai) is the reading of ന4vid ‫ א‬B L M Y ƒ13 33 1241; N R (ƒ1) have “Johanna”; X [* a (e) read
“Anna”; A E G K M U 892 Byz read C-55-=Ianna (hence KJV Janna)

Jared: Descending? LXX C-!*9=Iared; Josephus C-!*98#=Iared(os). A descendent of SETH,

and father of ENOCH 2. He was, after METHUSELAH, the longest-lived man in the Bible. Both MT
and LXX state that his son Enoch was born when he was 162 (the Samaritan Version gives his
age as 62), but MT and LXX say that he died at the age of 962 while many manuscripts of
Josephus give his age as 969 (Ant I.iii.4). Gen. 5:15–16, 18–20; 1!Ch. 1:2; Luke 3:37 !.
Javan: perhaps related to the Greek tribal name name “Ion,” as in “Ionian.” LXX CDE-5=Ioyan. The
fourth son of JAPHETH the second son of NOAH. Perhaps the ancestor of the Greeks (Isa. 66:19?
Ezek. 27:13? 19?). Gen. 10:2, 4; 1!Ch. 1:5, 7 !.
Jebusites. LXX C*)8E4-&8#=Iebousaios. The third “son” of CANAAN the son of HAM (Gen.
10:16, 1!Ch. 1:14).1 For the most part, the Jebusites are simply listed as a people of Canaan
whom the Israelites would/did drive out before them (Ex. 3:8, 17; Josh. 3:10, 24:11; Neh. 9:1,
etc.). They were also the original inhabitants of Jerusalem (Judges 1:21), which they held until the
time of DAVID (2!Sam. 5:6–8; 1!Ch. 11:4–6). They seem to have then blended smoothly into the
kingdom of Israel, for they retained some of their lands (2!Sam. 24:16–18; 1!Ch. 21:15–18,
2!Ch. 3:1). But the people were oppressed by SOLOMON (1!Kings 9:20–21; Zech. 9:7). Some think
that ZADOK 1 may have originally been a Jebusite priest, whom David allowed to continue to
serve.
Jechoniah: LXX C*N85&-#=Iechonias (Jechonias). Alternate name for JEHOIACHIN king of
Judah. Also used in 1 Esdras 1:34 for JEHOAHAZ.
Jecoliah: Yah[weh] is able. LXX ^-%&-=Chalia.2 In some versions Jecholiah. A woman of
Jerusalem, mother of AZARIAH 4 and wife of AMAZIAH, kings of Judah. 2!Kings 15:2; 2!Ch. 26:3
!.
Jeconiah. Alternate (Greek) name for JEHOIACHIN king of Judah.
Jedidah: Beloved of Yah[weh]. LXX (C)*9(&)9-=(I)edida and variants. The wife of AMON and
the mother of JOSIAH, kings of Judah. Her father was Adaiah of Bozkath. 2!Kings 22:1 !.
Jehiel: May God Enliven. LXX C&;%=Iiel. One of the younger sons of JEHOSHAPHAT 1 king of
Judah. He was slain by his older brother JEHORAM 2 when Jehoram became king of Judah (849
B.C.E.?). 2!Ch. 21:2, (4) !.
Jehizkiah: This is the name which the author of Chronicles uses frequently (e.g. 2 Ch.
28:27, 29:1) to describe HEZEKIAH king of Judah, but the difference in Hebrew is sufficiently
minor that it is not noted in English translation. The name is also used for an Ephraimite chief
(2!Ch. 28:12).
Jehoaddin: Yah[weh] is delight. LXX CD-9&5=Ioadin. A woman of Jerusalem, mother of
AMAZIAH and wife of JOASH, kings of Judah. 2!Kings 14:2; 2!Ch. 25:1 (where NRSV reads
“Jehoaddan”) !.
Jehoahaz: Yah[weh] holds. LXX CD-N-#=Ioachas (Lucian CDN-#=Iochas)

2.!Lucian C*N*%&-=Iechelia

JEHOAHAZ 1. Josephus (Ant IX.viii.1) CD-48#=Ioaz(os). The eleventh king of Israel, son
of JEHU and father of JEHOASH. In his time Israel suffered severely at the hands of the Syrians of
Damascus, but was saved from destruction when Jehoahaz turned to God. Even after this,
however, his worship remained impure. 2!Kings 10:35, 13:1–10, 22, 25, 14:1 (where NRSV spells
“Joahaz”), 8, 17; 2!Ch. 25:17, 25 !.
JEHOAHAZ 2. Josephus (Ant X.v.2) CD-N-'8#/CD-'8#=Ioachaz(os)/ Ioaz(os). A younger
son of JOSIAH king of Judah. He seems to have been named Shallum at birth (Jer. 22:11 uses the
name “Shallum” of a king who can hardly be anyone else; perhaps see also 1!Ch. 3:15). After
Pharoah Neco II killed Josiah at Megiddo (609 B.C.E. — 2!Kings 23:29), the people of Judah
chose Jehoahaz to be their king in preference to his older brother Eliakim (2!Kings 23:30–33).
Neco found the young king unacceptable, however, and replaced him with Eliakim, whom he
renamed JEHOIAKIM (2!Kings 23:34–35). Jehoahaz reigned for only three months, and spent the
rest of his life in chains in Egypt. 2!Kings 23:30–34; 2!Ch. 36:1–41 !.
JEHOAHAZ 3. Another name for AHAZIAH king of Judah. Used in 2!Ch. 21:17 !.
JEHOAHAZ 4. Based on Assyrian records, the birth-name of AHAZ king of Judah.
Jehoash: Yah[weh] bestows. LXX CD-#=Ioas; Josephus (Ant IX.viii.6) CD-48#=Iwas(os).
JEHOASH 1. Also called Joash. The twelfth king of Israel, the son of JEHOAHAZ 1 and the
father of JEROBOAM II. He regained for Israel the lands lost by his father Jehoahaz, and prepared
the way for the great conquests of Jeroboam. He was king of Israel at the time when Elisha died
(2!Kings 13:14–21). He also fought a successful war with AMAZIAH king of Judah (2!Kings 14:8–
14). Although the Bible calls him an evildoer, Josephus (Ant IX.viii.6) calls him “a good man.”
2!Kings 13:9–19, 25, 14:1, 8–17, 23, 27; 2 Ch. 25:17–25; Hos. 1:1; Amos 1:12 !.
JEHOASH 2. An alternate name for JOASH king of Judah.
Jehoiachin: Yah[weh] establishes. LXX CD-,&5=Ioakim;3 Josephus CD-,&?8#=Ioachim(os). The
son of JEHOIAKIM king of Judah, also called Jeconiah or Jechoniah, and probably Coniah as well.
He succeeded his father as a youth; he was eighteen according to 2!Kings 24:8; eight according to
2!Ch. 36:94 — probably a confusion following from 2!Kings 24:12. Babylonian records describe
him as being married, so eighteen is probably the correct age, but was quickly forced to abdicate
his throne by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon (so the Bible; Josephus in Ant X.vi.3 says that
Nebuchadnezzar elevated him after killing his father, then deposed him on reflecting that the son
might resent his father’s murder and rebel. The basis for this is 1 Esdras 1:43–46). His reign of
one hundred days (598/597 B.C.E.) was the second shortest in the history of Judah. Jehoiachin
(who seems to have been named Coniah at his birth — Jer. 22:24, 37:1) went into exile along with
most of his family and servants, as well as the larger part of the staff and furnishings of the
1.!Also mentioned in 1 Esdras 1:34, although the spelling of the name varies: LXXB calls him “Jochonian,” LXXA
has “Joahaz,: LXXremainder has ”Jehoahaz.”
2.!Also in LXX of 2 Kings 13:16, 2 Ch. 24:6, 21
3.!2 Ch. 36:9 LXX C*N85&-#=Iechonias (Jechonias)
4.!“eight” is the reading of 2 Chronicles in MT LXXB; in LXXA LXXN+V Lucian 1 Esdras 1:43 we read “eighteen,”
as in 2 Kings.

temple. He was succeeded by his half-uncle Mattaniah, who was renamed ZEDEKIAH. Although
Jehoiachin would never be allowed to leave Babylon, in the thirty-seventh year of his exile (560
B.C.E.?) he was again granted his freedom. Even while he was in prison, he seems to have been
treated fairly well, for Babylonian records describe funds set aside for his household, and list him
as having five sons born within a few years of his exile. It seems that many Judeans regarded him
as king-in-exile for this entire time (all of Ezekiel’s oracles, for instance, are dated by the years of
Jehoiachin’s reign); Zedekiah was merely a regent. References: 1. As Jehoiachin: 2!Kings 24:6, 8–
17, 25:27–30; 2!Ch. 36:8–11; Jer. 52:31, 33; Eze. 1:2. 2. As Coniah: Jer. 22:24, 28, 37:1. 3. As
Jeconiah: 1!Ch. 3:16–17, Esth. 2:6, Jer. 24:1, 27:20, 28:4, 29:2. In the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras
1:43–46, Baruch 1:3, 9, Esther A:3. He and his father are combined as “Jechoniah” in Matt.
1:11–121 !.
Jehoiada: Yah[weh] knows. LXX CD9-*=Iodae;2 Josephus (Ant IX.vii.1) CD9-#/CD9-8#/
CD-9-5;#=Ioda(s)/Ioda(os)/Iodan(es). Not to be confused with the father of David’s chief
bodyguard Benaiah. The high priest who made JOASH 2 king of Judah. Joash was a son
(supposedly the youngest son) of AHAZIAH 2 king of Judah. When Ahaziah was killed in the
course of JEHU’S rebellion in Israel, his mother ATHALIAH usurped the throne of Judah and killed
all of Ahaziah’s children except for Joash, who was hidden (along with his nurse) by his aunt
JEHOSHEBA (2!Kings 11:2. Some think that Athaliah let Joash live so she could rule as regent). Six
years later, when Joash was seven, Jehoiada (who was Jehosheba’s husband — 2!Ch. 22:11) began
a rebellion on behalf of the young king. Athaliah was deposed and killed, and Joash assumed his
throne (only to be murdered by his servants forty years later — 2!Kings 12:20). Jehoiada was then
able to organize a religious reformation and rebuild the temple. Jehoiada seems to have served as
regent during Joash’s minority, and as a chief advisor for many years after that; the king
remained pious as long as the priest lived. He died at the age of one hundred and thirty (2!Ch.
24:15). His son ZECHARIAH 3 was a prophet (2!Ch. 24:20. He should not be confused with the
author of the book of Zechariah, however), but was killed by Joash. 2!Kings 11:4–21, 12:2, 7, 9;
2!Ch. 22:11–23:20, 24:2–17, 20, 22, 25; Jer. 29:26 (?) !.
Jehoiakim: Yah[weh] raises up. LXX CD-,&?=Ioakim; Josephus (Ant X.v.2)
CD-,&?8#=Ioakim(os). The oldest known son of JOSIAH king of Judah (but see 1!Ch. 3:15), whose
name at birth was Eliakim. When Pharaoh Neco II slew Josiah at Megiddo (609 B.C.E. — 2!Kings
23:29), the people of Israel set Jehoiakim’s younger brother JEHOAHAZ 2 on the throne. (Is it
possible that Eliakim, who had a different mother than Jehoahaz, was illegitimate?) But Neco
deposed Jehoahaz. He took Eliakim and put him on the throne after giving him the name
Jehoiakim. (The name change was probably just a symbol to show that Neco was boss; Eliakim
means “God sets up.“) Three or four years later, however, Neco was defeated at Carchemish3 by
the forces of Babylon, and Judah became a Babylonian province. Three years later, Jehoiakim
1.!The two are distinguished in D (in Luke) M U Y L ƒ1 33 and other late manuscripts.
2.!LXXA variously CD&-9-*/CD-9-*=Iosadae/Ioadae
3.!For the Carchemish campaign, see the excursus on Nebuchadnezzar and Carchemish, p. 297.

rebelled against Babylon (2!Kings 24:1–2; Dan. 1:1–2. This may have been the result of
Babylon’s indecisive attack against Egypt in 601/600). He died a few months before Jerusalem
fell in 597. (So 2 Kings 24:6. It may be that he was assassinated, for he was unpopular and
oppressive and used taxes meant as tribute for his own ends. He even used forced labour to build
an unnecessary palace for himself. On the other hand, Josephus — Ant X.vi.3 — seems to imply
that Nebuchadnezzar killed him; compare 1 Esdras 1:39–41. 2 Ch. 36:2 says that
Nebuchadnezzar simply imprisoned and exiled him.) The consequences of this revolt were borne
by his young son JEHOIACHIN. 2!Kings 23:34–24:6, 19; 1!Ch. 3:15–16; 2!Ch. 36:4–8; Jer. 1:3,
22:18, 24, 24:1, 25:1, 26:1, 21–23, 27:20, 28:4, 35:1, 36:1, 9, 20–32, 37:1, 45:1, 46:2, 52:2; Dan.
1:1–2; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 1:38–42;1 Baruch 1:3. He and his son are combined as
“Jechoniah” in Matt. 1:11–122 !.
Jehoram: Yah[weh] is high. LXX (almost consistently) CD!-?=Ioram; Josephus
C#!-?8#=Ioram(os)
JEHORAM 1. Frequently called Joram. The second son of AHAB, and the ninth king of
Israel. He succeeded to the throne when his brother AHAZIAH 1 1 fell out of a window and died.
He was perhaps the closest thing to a true Yahwist in his family, but it doesn’t seem to have
helped him much. During the course of a war with Syria he was wounded, and went to Jezreel to
recover (2!Kings 8:28–29). He was joined there by his nephew AHAZIAH 2 king of Judah. At
about this time, one of the servants of Elisha anointed JEHU son of NIMSHI, one of Jehoram’s
officers, king of Israel (2!Kings 9:1–13). Jehu proceeded to Jezreel and killed Jehoram and
Ahaziah. 2!Kings 1:17, 3:1–13, 8:16, 25, 28–29, 9:14–29; 2!Ch. 22:5–73 !.
JEHORAM 2. Like his brother-in-law Jehoram 1, frequently called Joram. The son of
JEHOSHAPHAT 1 the fifth king of Judah. He killed five of his brothers upon succeeding to the
throne (2!Ch. 21:4). His wife was ATHALIAH the daughter of AHAB king of Israel, and she seems
to have somewhat dominated him, for he is reported as an evil king (2!Kings 8:16–19). A rather
unsuccessful monarch, Edom and Libnah both gained independence from Judah in his time
(2!Kings 8:22; 2 Ch. 21:10). The author of Chronicles considered him to be so evil that he
claimed that he died of dysentery and “departed with no one’s regret” (2!Ch. 21:18–20). 1!Kings
22:50; 2!Kings 1:17, 8:16–25, 11:2, 12:18; 1!Ch. 3:11; 2!Ch. 21:1–22:1, 6, 11; Matt. 1:8 !.
Jehoshabeath: Name used in 2 Ch. 22:11 NRSV for JEHOSHEBA.
Jehoshaphat: Yah[weh] is Judge. LXX CD4-P-0=Iosaphat; Josephus (Ant VIII.xii.6)
CD4-P-0;#=Iosaphat(es).
JEHOSHAPHAT 1. The fourth king of Judah. The writer of Chronicles considers him to be
one of the best kings of Judah, but he seems to have been a rather ambiguous figure. He purified
Judaism in Judah, but formed a strong alliance with the apostate AHAB of Israel. This alliance,
which seems to have extended to a personal friendship between the two kings, resulted in
1.!Note that 1 Esdras 1:38 also mentions his brother Zarius, who fled (?) to Egypt and was brought back captive.
2.!The two are distinguished in D (in Luke) M U Y L ƒ1 33 and other late manuscripts.
3.!In LXX also in 4 Kingdoms=2 Kings 1:18-, 2 Ch. 22:5.

Jehoshaphat’s son JEHORAM 2 being married to Ahab’s daughter (or sister) ATHALIAH. The
alliance continued until well after Ahab’s death at the battle of Ramoth-Gilead; the two fought
many battles together. While this evil alliance brought Jehoshaphat a rebuke from God (2!Ch.
19:1–3), he was not seriously punished (2!Ch. 20:35–37). This may be because Jehoshaphat
always trusted in God (as an illustration see 1!Kings 22:5–28). Hence to true Yahwists,
Jehoshaphat was the acceptable member of the partnership (2!Kings 3:14). So he was rich and
successful and conquered his enemies. But his pro-Israel policies were to recoil on Jehoram his
son, and Jehoram’s brothers and children. 1!Kings 15:24, 22:2–51;1 2!Kings 1:17, 3:1–14, 8:16,
12:18; 1!Ch. 3:10; 2!Ch. 17:1–12, 18:1–21:2, 21:12, 22:9; Matt.!1:8!!.
JEHOSHAPHAT 2. According to 2 Kings 9:2, 14, the son of NIMSHI and father of JEHU king
of Israel. Other passages simply call Jehu “son of Nimshi.”
Jehosheba: Yah[weh] is abundance. LXX CD4-)*+/CD4-)**e=Iosabeth/Iosabee; Josephus (Ant
IX.vii.17) #4-)*+;=Osabethe. The daughter of JEHORAM 2 king of Judah (presumably; at least,
she is called the aunt of Jehoram’s grandson JOASH 2) and the wife of JEHOIADA the priest. She
saved the future king Joash from being killed by his grandmother ATHALIAH. (For this story, see
the entry on Jehoiada, p. 133.) Also called Jehoshabeath (so 2 Ch. 22:11 NRSV). 2!Kings 11:2;
2!Ch. 22:11 !.
Jehu: Yah[weh] is The One, i.e. Yah[weh] is He/she. LXX (Q)&8E/C;8E=(E)iou/Ieou; Josephus (Ant
VIII.xiii.7) C;8E#=Ieou(s). Sometimes called the son of NIMSHI and at other times the son of
JEHOSHAPHAT 2 son of Nimshi; the tenth king of Israel. He was originally an army commander
under JEHORAM 1 son of AHAB. Elijah was commanded to anoint him king of Israel (1!Kings
19:16); the command was eventually carried out by Elijah’s successor Elisha (2!Kings 9:1–10).
The army, based at Ramoth-Gilead, then offered Jehu its allegiance (2!Kings 9:11–13). He
proceeded from there to Jezreel, where king Jehoram was recovering from a wound received in a
battle with the Syrians. Jehu killed him (2!Kings 9:21–26), his nephew AHAZIAH 2 who was king
of Judah (2!Kings 9:27–28), and the queen-mother JEZEBEL (2!Kings 9:31–37). Jehu then
destroyed all seventy of Ahab’s other (presumably illegitimate) children (2!Kings 10:1–11) and
certain of his other relatives (2!Kings 10:12–17). Finally, Jehu assembled all the prophets of Baal
that were in Israel and slaughtered them (2!Kings 10:18–28). For these and other good deeds, he
was promised four generations of his descendants would sit on the throne of Israel (2!Kings
10:30) — an unprecedented event in Israelite history. But Jehu was not a perfect Yahwist, for he
continued to worship the golden calves that JEROBOAM I had set up at Dan and Bethel. His
punishment for this — not mentioned in the Bible, interestingly enough — must have been the
fact that he was forced to pay homage to the king of Assyria in 841; perhaps Assyria had a hand
in his elevation (after all, Jehoram’s father Ahab had fought against Assyria at Karkar in 853;
Ahab’s family must have been considered undesirable). It is also reported that the Syrians began
1.!So MT; LXX moves the substance of 22:41-51 after 1 Kings 16:28. LXXB also omits 22:47-50, although the
verses are found in LXXA.

to capture Israelite land (2!Kings 10:32–33). 1!Kings 19:16–17; 2!Kings 9:1–10:36, 12:1, 13:1,
14:8, 15:12; 2!Ch. 22:7–9, 25:17; Hos. 1:4 !.
Jephunneh: May [God] turn ? LXX C*P855;=Iephonne. Listed as the father of CALEB the spy.
If he belonged to any tribe of Israel, it must have been Judah, but it seems more likely that he
was a non-Israelite — specifically a Kenizzite (Num. 32:12, etc), a people of southern Judah and
Edom. In the Chronicler’s genealogy of Israel, he is not listed as Caleb’s father (see chart).
Jephunneh never appears as an individual — he is never anything but Caleb’s father— so the
question of Caleb’s ancestry will likely never be settled. Num. 13:6, 14:6, 30, 38, 26:65, 32:12,
34:19; Deut. 1:36; Josh. 14:6, 13–14, 15:13, 21:21; 1!Ch. 4:15, 6:56 !.
Jerahmeel: May God have Mercy. LXX C!-?*;%=Irameel.1 The oldest son of HEZRON, son of
PEREZ, son of JUDAH. He had two wives, one of whom was named Atarah; her son was Onam.
Jerahmeel’s other sons were Ram (Jerahmeel also had a brother Ram; some think the two have
been confused),2 Bunah, Oren, Ozam, and Ahijah. He presumably was the head of a family of
Judah, but very little else is known of his descendants. The kings of Judah were not descended
from him. 1!Ch. 2:9, 25–33, 42? !.
Jeremiah: May Yah[weh] Loosen ? May Yah[weh] raise ? LXX C*!*?&-#=Ieremias. The second of
the great or “major” prophets (Isaiah being the first and Ezekiel the third). He was the son of an
unknown Hilkiah (Jer. 1:1. For the controversy about Jeremiah’s ancestry, see the entry on
Hilkiah, p. 121), and a man of Anathoth (Jer. 1:1, 32:7). Called to be a prophet during the reign
of JOSIAH, he continued until after the fall of Jerusalem — a period of forty or more years. For
most of this time he was extremely unpopular, for his message was always of disaster — so much
so that he was labelled “the prophet of doom” by later commentators. His secretary was Baruch
the son of Neriah, who seems to have been with Jeremiah for several decades.
Jeremiah spent much of his life in prison (Jer. 32:2, 37:15, etc.), though he was freed by the
Babylonians after the fall of Jerusalem, and was eventually taken against his will to Egypt (Jer.
43:5–7), where he presumably died. Jeremiah’s life was hard. He was a man of property (Jer.
32:6–25). Yet even his family may have turned against him (12:6) after his call in 626 (1:2), nor
was he allowed to take a wife or have children (16:1–2). Little else is known of the prophet’s life,
for the book of Jeremiah is a rather disorderly (and perhaps scrambled; see the excursus below)
collection which is not very useful to biographers. Note, for instance, that chapters 7 and 26
appear to tell the story of the same event, but are separated by half of the book.3
1.!Lucian Ieramael
2.!For the confusions in this part of the Israelite genealogies, see the excursus on Gospel Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119.
3.!So the Hebrew text; the Greek text makes this less certain. See the [[Note on the Temple Sermon on p. 153]].

Excursus: Jeremiah in the MT and LXX

The book of Jeremiah is very different in Hebrew and LXX. The LXX edition is about one-
eighth shorter, and the chapters appear in a different order. The Qumran texts of Jeremiah are
only the tiniest of scraps, but they seem to show that a text like that of LXX existed in Hebrew,
and critical analysis makes it appear that the shorter LXX text is often more original, although
the Hebrew chapter order is probably correct (insofar as an anthology of separate oracles can be
said to have a correct order). The list below summarizes the difference between MT and LXX
(with differences noted in italics and LXX omissions in bold):
MT .. LXX 27:12b-14a ... omit 43:1-13 ... 50:1-13
1:1-19 ... 1:1-19 27:14b-29 ... 34:12-18 44:1-30 ... 51:1-30
2:1-2a ... omit 27:20-22 ... omit or 34:19 45:1-5 ... 51:31-35
2:2b-6:30 ... 2:1-6:30 28:1-17 ... 25:1-17 46:1 ... omit
7:1-2a ... omit 29:1-15 ... 36:1-15 46:2-25 ... 26:1-24
7:2b-8:10a ... 7:2b-8:10a 29:16-19 ... omit 46:26 ... omit
8:10b-12 ... omit 29:20-32 ... 36:19-29 46:27-28 ... 26:25-26
8:13-10:5a ... 8:13-10:5a 30:1-9 ... 37:1-9 47:1-7 ... 29:1-7
10:5b ... 10:7 30:10-12 ... omit 48:1-44 ... 31:1-44
10:6-8 ... omit 30:12-24 ... 37:10-22 48:45-47 ... omit
10:9 ... 10:6 31:1-40 ... 38:1-40 49:1-5 ... 30:17-21
10:11-25 ... 10:8-22 32:1-44 ... 39:1-44 49:6 ... omit or 30:22
11:1-1-6 ... 11:1-6 33:1-13 ... 40:1-13 49:7-22 ... 30:1-16
11:7-8 ... omit 33:14-26 ... omit 49:23-27 ... 30:29-33
11:9-16:21 ... 11:9-16:21 34:1-22 ... 41:1-22 49:28-33 ... 49:23-28
17:1-4 ... omit 35:1-19 ... 42:1-19 49:34-39 ... 25:14-20
17:5-23:6 ... 17:5-23:6 36:1-32 ... 43:1-32 50:1-46 ... 27:1-46
23:7-8 ... 23:39-40 37:1-21 ... 44:1-21 51:1-44a ... 28:1-44
23:9-40 ... 23:7-38 38:1-28 ... 45:1-28 51:44b-49a ... omit
24:1-25:13a ... 24:1-25:13a 39:1-3 ... 46:1-3 (part) 51:49b-64 ... 28:45-60
23:13b-14 ... omit 39:4-13 ... omit 52:1 ... 52:1
25:14-38 ... 32:1-24 39:14-18 ... 46:4-8 52:2-3 ... omit
26:1-23 ... 33:1-24 40:1-16 ... 47:1-16 52:16-27a ... 52:13-24
27:1 ... omit 41:1-18 ... 48:1-18 52:27b-30 ... omit
27:2-12a ... 34:1-11a 42:1-22 ... 49:1-22 52:31-34 ... 52:25-28
And even this table is far from complete, as LXX often omits words or phrases less than one
verse long, By my quick count, there are at least 152 instances where LXX Jeremiah is shorter
than MT by five words or more. Shorter omissions (such as of the phrase “says the Lord” or “of
hosts” after “the Lord”) are at least three times as numerous. One scholar found the LXX text to
be shorter than the MT by a total of 2700 words — roughly equivalent to 120 verses or four
chapters.
Later tradition made good use of Jeremiah. An apocryphal book was attributed to his
secretary Baruch (though it is clearly composite and later than Baruch’s time); a “letter of
Jeremiah” was eventually appended to this. 2 Maccabees tells a story of his preserving and hiding

the Ark of the Covenant during the Exile (2 Macc. 2:1–8 — a section which, however, is not from
the history proper but from one of the prefixed letters, the sources of which are unknown.
Indeed, Jeremiah spoke of a time when the Ark would no longer be part of Israel’s cult; Jer. 3:16).
Later in 2 Maccabees (15:14-16), he is seen in a vision giving Judas Maccabeus a golden sword
with which to fight the Seleucids —!an ironic idea, given that Jeremiah mostly preached about
the sword coming against Judah. But, of course, this is only a description (from an unreliable
historian, at that) of a vision being used to rally the troops, not something that actually happened.
A fragment from Qumran seems to imply that he went to Babylon to preach to the exiles, but no
details survive of what he said.
For more on Jeremiah, see the section on Jeremiah the prophet on p. 247. References to
Jeremiah outside of his book are in 2!Ch. 35:25, 36:12, 21, 22; Ezra 1:1; Dan. 9:2; Matt. 2:17,
16:14, 27:9; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 1:28, 32, 47, 57, 2:1; Sirach 49:6; Ep.Jer. 1; 2 Macc.
2:1, 5, 7, 15:14–15.
Jerimoth: Swollen; Obese ? LXX C*!&?8E+/Q!?8E+=Ierimouth/Ermouth. According to
Chronicles, a son of DAVID, and the father of MAHALATH the wife of REHOBOAM the first king of
Judah. His wife was ABIHAIL the daughter of ELIAB, the oldest brother of David. Since Jerimoth
is not mentioned as one of David’s children in either 2 Sam. 3:4 or 1!Ch. 3:1–9, it must be
assumed that (unless a known son had two names) he is the child of one of David’s numerous
concubines. 2!Ch. 11:18 !.
Jeroboam: May the People Grow Numerous. LXX C*!8)8-?=Ieroboam; Josephus (Ant
VIII.vii.5) C*!8)8-?8#=Ieroboam(os).
JEROBOAM I. The son of NEBAT, and the first king of an independent Israel. He was an
Ephraimite, from a town called Zeredah. His mother’s name was Zeruah; his father died young,
leaving him an orphan (1 Kings 11:26; Ant VIII.vii.7). In the time of Solomon, the prophet
Ahijah the Shilonite met Jeroboam and promised to give him rule over ten of the tribes of Israel
(1!Kings 11:26–39). So Jeroboam rose in rebellion, but was forced to flee to Egypt (1!Kings
11:40). But when Solomon died, Jeroboam returned to Israel, and led the revolt of Israel against
Solomon’s son REHOBOAM (1!Kings 12:1–20). Jeroboam was chosen king of Israel. He
strengthened the nation and built several cities (1!Kings 12:25). But Jeroboam also committed a
great sin: in order to keep the people from sacrificing at the temple in Jerusalem — which might
cause them to again accept the descendants of David as king — he chose to reform the worship
of Israel. He built shrines on the hilltops. He appointed priests who did not come from the tribe
of Levi. But worst of all were the two sanctuaries he built at Dan and Bethel, the northern and
southern ends of Israel. For it was here that he installed golden calves — graven images of God
(1!Kings 12:26–31.1 For the story of the destruction of the altar at Bethel, as well as a warning to
1.!There are curious parallels between this story and the story of Aaron’s apostasy in chapter 32 of Exodus. Both
made golden calves (well, properly speaking, Aaron made one, Jeroboam two), and both declared “Here are your
gods, O Israel, who brought you out of the land of Egypt.” Oddly enough, both also had oldest sons named
Nadab, and Aaron’s oldest son was Abihu while Jeroboam also had a son of Abijah — and the two sons of Aaron

Jeroboam and a prophesy of the reign of King Josiah of Judah, see 1!Kings 13:1–10; 2!Kings
23:15). Josephus (Ant VIII.viii.5) reports (based probably on 1 Kings 12:32) that he even served as
his own High Priest. As a result of this, Jeroboam’s kingdom was torn from his descendants.
Jeroboam was warned of this by Ahijah the Shilonite when Jeroboam’s son (another Ahijah) fell
sick. But Jeroboam did not heed the warning (1!Kings 14:1–20). So his son NADAB 2, along with
all of Jeroboam’s other descendants, was killed by Baasha son of (yet another) Ahijah (#2) shortly
after Jeroboam’s death (1!Kings 15:25–30). 1!Kings 11:26–40, 12:1–14:20, 30, 15:1, 6, 25, 29, 30,
34, 16:2, 7, 19, 26, 31, 21:22, 22:52; 2 Kings 3:3, 9:9, 10:29, 31, 13:2, 15:9, 18, 24, 28, 17:21, 22,
23:15–17, 2 Ch. 9:29, 10:2, 3, 12, 15, 11:4, 14, 12:15, 13:1–6, 13–20, etc.; in the Apocrypha in
Sirach 47:23, Tobit 1:5.
Excursus: Two Tales of Jeroboam I

The story of Jeroboam I is found in very different forms in MT and LXX. The citations in
the entry on Jeroboam I are from MT. In LXXB, the story is given as follows: 3 Kingdoms=
1!Kings 11:1a, 3a, 1b, 2, 4, 3b, 7, 5, 8, 6, 9-14a, 14- (abbreviated from MT 11:23-25), 15-22,
22- (=11:25 paraphrased), 11:26-12:1, 12:3b-19 (which do not involve Jeroboam; 12:2-3a, which
do, are omitted), 21-24, 24- (=14:21-22 paraphrased, but with Rehoboam’s age given as sixteen
and his length of reign as twelve years), 12:24) (=11:26, but Jeroboam’s mother is called Sarira, a
prostitute; his father is unnamed. The section also tells of Jeroboam’s service to Solomon,
expanding on 11:27), 12:246 (=11:40), 12:249 (=11:21-22, but with Jeroboam replacing Hadad,
based perhaps on 12:2-3), 12-24* (=11:19-21, sort of. The section tells how Pharaoh gave
Jeroboam one Ano, who was sister of Pharaoh’s wife Thekemz, to be his wife. Their son was
Abiah/Abijah), 12:24' (Jeroboam’s return to Israel, where he built a fortress), 12:24;-+
(=14:1-17 paraphrased), 12:24& (=11:29-31, except the prophet is not Ahijah the Shilonite but
“Samaias son of Eniami”=Shemaiah, mentioned in MT in 12:22), 12:24,-% (=12:3b-24,
paraphrased), 12:25-13:34, 14:21-end.
In addition to all these changes, LXXB also credits Jeroboam I with a 24+ year reign (see
1!Kings 15:9, where Asa is said to have come to the throne in Jeroboam’s 24th year rather than in
the 20th as in MT LXXA. Observe that LXXB omits 14:20, which tells the length of Jeroboam’s
reign.) Josephus’s account (Ant VIII.vii.8ƒ.) generally agrees with MT, but takes some details from
LXX (implying perhaps that he used a text similar to LXXA). For the LXX account of events
prior to the time of Jeroboam, see the note on Solomon, p. 197.
JEROBOAM II. The thirteenth king of Israel, the son of JOASH the grandson of JEHU. He
was the most powerful of all the kings of Israel. He lived during a period when the Assyrian
Empire was weak, and hence he was able to control an area almost as large as the empire of
and the two sons of Jeroboam both died young, although the circumstances were different in the two cases. Still,
the list of coincidences is very high. Some have gone so far as to declare that the story of Aaron’s calf is a
backward reflection of Jeroboam’s sin.

DAVID. But the times were not stable. Jeroboam’s son ZECHARIAH 1 was assassinated within six
months of Jeroboam’s death, and his dynasty destroyed. And the nation of Israel was destroyed
less than a quarter of a century later. Note that Jeroboam II was not a descendent of JEROBOAM I
son of Nebat. 2!Kings 13:13, 14:16, 23–29, 15:1, 8; 1!Ch. 5:17; Hos. 1:1;1 Amos 1:1, 7:9–11 !.
Jerusha: Possession. LXX (C)*!8E4(-)=(I)erous(a). The daughter of an otherwise unknown
Zadok. She was the wife of king AZARIAH 4 (UZZIAH) of Judah, and the mother of JOTHAM.
2!Kings 15:33; 2!Ch. 27:1 (where NRSV reads “Jerushah”) !.
Jesse: Yah[weh] exists ? LXX C*44-&=Iessai; Josephus (Ant V.ix.4) C*44-&8#=Iessai(os). The
father of DAVID and his seven (?) older brothers. He was a native of Bethlehem who cared deeply
for his children. His father was OBED, son of RUTH and BOAZ and great-grandson of NAHSHON
prince of Judah. Other than this, little is known about him. Ruth 4:17, 22; 1!Sam. 16:1–13, 18–
22, 17:12–20, 58,2 20:27, 30, 31, 22:7–9, 13, 25:10; 2!Sam. 20:1, 23:1; 1!Kings 12:6;3 1!Ch. 2:12,
13, 10:14, 12:18, 29:26; 2 Ch. 10:16, 11:18; Psalm 72:20, Isa. 11:1, 10; Matt. 1:5–6; Luke 3:32;
Acts 13:22; Rom. 15:12; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 45:254 !.
Jesus: NT C;48E#=Iesous, Greek form of Joshua, “Yah[weh] is Salvation.” Due to the amount of
information available and the number of contradictions it contains, as well as to the amount of
theological freight attached, no attempt will be made to detail the life of Jesus. We can only hope
to connect him with contemporary history. Here, unfortunately, Josephus is no help; his only
important reference to Jesus (Ant XVIII.iii.3) is almost certainly spurious. A legitimate reference
occurs in Ant XX.ix.1, but simply says that JAMES was his brother.
Jesus is normally considered to have been born in the year 1 B.C.E. This cannot be correct,
however, and our traditions are problematic. Jesus was born in the time of Herod king of Israel
(Matt. 2:1; Luke 1:5). Herod died in 4 B.C.E.; if we accept the hypothesis that the star of
Bethlehem (Matt. 2:2ƒ.) was a conjunction of planets, we conclude that the year was 7 or 6 B.C.E.
(putting Jesus in his mid-thirties at the time of his death — see Luke 3:23). This would also
account for Herod’s order to kill all children under two (Matt. 2:16): Jesus was born in 6, and
Herod died in 4, so Herod gave the order at the very end of his reign, when Jesus was
approaching two years old.
The census of Luke 2:1 can also be interpreted to support the date 6 B.C.E. (The independent
account of Tertullian — Marcion IV.19 — states that Jesus was born at the time of a census taken
by Sentius Saturninus, who governed Syria 9–6 B.C.E. This appears to be more accurate than Luke’s
account, for Quirinius was not sent to Syria until 6 C.E. after the deposition of Archelaus — Ant
XVII.xiii.5–XVIII.i.1. We should note, however, that one of Quirinius’s first acts was to take a
1.!Also apparently LXXB LXXQ* of Hos. 10:14; LXXA LXXQc “Jerobaal”; MT, probably correctly, “Beth-Arbel.” For
a discussion of this extremely difficult verse, see the note on Shalmaneser V, p. 291.
2.!LXXB omits these versus; see the excursus on David and Goliath, p. 96.
3.!In LXX also in 3 Kingdoms=1 Kings 12:24+
4.!So LXXA LXX‫א‬c; LXXB LXX‫ *א‬omit

census, in order to determine the extent of Archelaus’s properties.)1 Others, looking at John 2:20
(arguing that the Temple referred to, which is said to have been forty-six years in the building, is
Jesus’s body), place Jesus’s birth in the year 17 B.C.E.
Jesus is said to have been born in Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4), but most scholars think it
more likely that he was born in Nazareth in Galilee (a view implicitly supported by Mark 6:1,
John 7:41-43) — he definitely grew up in Nazareth.
Jesus’s ancestry is unclear. His mother was MARY, who seems to have been a Levite (she was a
kinswoman of ELISABETH, a known Levite). Matthew states and Luke implies that Jesus’s birth
was the result of divine intervention (Matt. 1:16–18; Luke 1:35).2 But both Matthew and Luke
give the ancestry of JOSEPH 2, Mary’s husband, and make him a descendent of DAVID.
Unfortunately, the genealogies do not agree at all, and both are flawed. Luke (Luke 3:23–38) uses
the Greek genealogy of David (which differs from the Hebrew in two places: after ARPACHSHAD
and HEZRON),3 and all of the names mentioned after NATHAN the son of DAVID are totally
unknown (except for Shealtiel/Salathiel and Zerubbabel, and even their presence is difficult to
account for). Matthew (Matt. 1:1–17) gives the ancestry of David according to the Hebrew, but
removes three generations between David and JECHONIAH (AHAZIAH, JOASH, and AMAZIAH), and
has far too few generations between Jechoniah (probably JEHOIACHIN) and Jesus to account for a
six hundred year gap.4 Many explanations are offered for this. Some say — without any evidence
at all — that Luke’s genealogy is that of Mary; another story, given by Africanus, makes JACOB 2
and HELI — the alleged fathers of Joseph — half brothers, with one the natural and the other
the adoptive father of Joseph. Unfortunately, this scheme is illegal under Jewish law. The most
likely explanation is that at least one of the genealogies (probably Luke’s), and very likely both
schemes, were created out of whole cloth.
There are few details of Jesus’s early life. We are told that Herod, on hearing of his birth,
sought to kill him (Matt. 2:1ƒ.). But this seems unlikely; for all that the act fits Herod’s character,
it also fits Matthew’s picture of Jesus as a second Moses (because Jewish legend — as found in Ant
II.ix.2 — tells of how the Egyptian Pharaoh tried to have Moses killed in response to a prophecy
that a Hebrew child would humble Egypt). The census of Luke 2:1ƒ. may be a legitimate
historical memory — but it is quite certain that Joseph and Mary did not travel from Nazareth to
1.!For details on Saturninus and Quirinius, see the excursus on Quirinius de Bergerac? on p. 45.
2.!Except that the Sinaitic Syriac version (sin) gives the text of 1:16 as “Jacob fathered Joseph, Joseph, to whom Mary
the virgin was betrothed, fathered Jesus who is called Christ.” This reading, however, is not supported by any
other manuscript — not even the closely related Curetonian Syriac.
Modern editors nonetheless seized on it — it was printed in von Soden’s Greek text and is therefore found in
MOFFATT’S translation. It appears to be a corruption of the reading of Y ƒ13 a (b) g1 (k) q (cur), (arm), which read
that “Jacob fathered Joseph, to whom was betrothed Mary the virgin, who bore Jesus who is called Christ.” The
true reading of 1:16 is supported by ന1 ‫ א‬B C E K L P W 33 565 892 Byz vg.
3.!For additional details, and some information on textual variants, see the excursus on the Gospel Genealogies of
Jesus, p. 119.
4.!For information on this, see again the excursus on the Gospel Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119.

Bethlehem for the census; such an act could have proved suicidal for the Roman administration
that feared a Jewish revolt or Parthian invasion at any moment.1
1.!For the census, see the footnote on Quirinius, p. 43, and the excurus “Quirinius de Bergerac?”

Excursus: Was Jesus Married?

In the biblical account Jesus appears to be unmarried — at least, there were no known female
disciples among the Twelve who were always with him. And yet speculation that he was married
has persisted since ancient times. It has been pointed out that the wedding at Cana (John 2:1ƒ.)
appears to have involved Jesus or one of his siblings (since Jesus’s mother was in charge of the
proceedings — a task usually undertaken by the couple’s parents. Jesus even provided the wine,
which was often the task of the bridegroom). On the other hand, another tradition says that it
was John son of Zebedee who was married at Cana, and Jesus and his mother were involved
because they were — according to other legends — John’s aunt and cousin.
In 2012, a new piece of evidence emerged, in the form of a fourth century Coptic document.
This papyrus fragment is very damaged, but the end of one line begins with Jesus speaking. His
speech begins with the words “My wife....” Although this sounds like a “smoking gun,” it must be
recalled that this is a fourth century text, in Coptic, so it is far removed from the actual events in
time, space, and language. And Coptic was the primary language of the Gnostic texts. There is a
very good chance that this is a Gnostic writing, and even if not, it may be a tradition not based
on actual knowledge, and even if the quote is an accurate saying of Jesus, he might be speaking
in a metaphorical way, in the same way as we refer to the Church as the Bride of Christ.
But if Jesus did take a wife, and if Jesus was still married at the time of his ministry, it is
suggested that his wife was Mary Magdalene. Not only did Mary follow Jesus to the cross, hang
around his tomb after his death, and speak to him first after the Resurrection, but several gnostic
texts (e.g. the Gospel of Philip) describe them as often kissing and as being very intimate.
Either way, the evidence is very thin.
Only one event in Jesus’s life is given a precise date: Luke 3:1 states that he began his public
ministry in the fifteenth year of the Roman Emperor Tiberius (probably 29 C.E., since Augustus
died in 14 C.E., though some have used a calendar trick to argue for 28 C.E. and others have
reached the date 26 C.E. by counting from 11 C.E. when Tiberius was declared Augustus’s heir).
The Synoptic Gospels support a date for the crucifixion in the following year; John describes at
least a three year ministry. We can safely date the crucifixion between 26 C.E. (when Pilate
became procurator) and 36 (when Pilate was recalled and the High Priest Caiaphas deposed).
(Tacitus — Annals XV.44 — confirms that Jesus was executed by Pontius Pilate while Tiberius was
Emperor.) A date before 34 is likely, since Philip “the Tetrarch” (mentioned in Luke 3:1) died in
that year. The most likely date for the crucifixion seems to be April 7, 30 C.E. (For detailed
discussion of the date, see the excursus “When Did Jesus Die?”) On this basis, obviously, the
Resurrection took place on April 9, 30, and the Ascension — Luke 24:51; Acts 1:9–11 — on

May 18 or 19).1 Other possible dates for the crucifixion are April 11, 27; March 18, 29; or April
3, 33.2
Excursus: The Eight Words of Jesus on the Cross

Church tradition describes the “seven words of Jesus on the cross”:
1. “Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing” (Luke 23:34. It is sad to
note that these beautiful words do not seem to have been part of Luke’s original gospel;
although found in ‫ *א‬A C L M [ ƒ1 ƒ13 33 892 Byz b c e f ff2 vg cur arm geo, they are
omitted by ന75 B D* W Y 579 1241 a sin. GNT, followed by NRSV places them in [[double
brackets]], which in practice means “these words aren’t original and aren’t canonical but
we don’t dare leave them out.”)
2. “Amen, I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise” (Luke 23:43)
3. “Woman, behold your son... Behold your mother” (John 19:26-27)
4. “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?“ (Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34, although one
cites it in Hebrew and another in Aramaic, resulting in some textual confusion)
5. “I am thirsty” (John 19:28)
6. “It is finished” (John 19:30. The same Greek word could just as well be translated
“perfected,” “completed,” “made right”; the theological significance is great.)
7. “Father, into your hands I commend my spirit” (Luke 23:46, based on Psalm 31:5)
But tradition knew many more words. In the ballad “The Seven Virgins” (“The Leaves of
Life”), Jesus speaks to his mother and the virgins with her, saying, “The holy ghost be with your
soul, sweet mother now I die.” Many similar sayings are recorded in other sources.
There are no contemporary references to Jesus. Tacitus’s Annals (c. 110 C.E.) devotes two
paragraphs to the accusations Nero made against the Christians, including the sentence cited
above concerning Jesus’s execution (Annals XV.44). Suetonius’s gossipy The Twelve Caesars (c. 120
C.E.) contains a reference to “Chrestus” and one to Christians (in Claudius 25 and Nero 16,
respectively). Josephus’s Antiquities (c. 95 C.E., and obviously written by a Jewish author) refers to
Jesus several times; most of these mentions, as noted, seem to be later insertions. The only one
considered authentic is the one mentioned above, a reference to “James the brother of the one
called the Christ” (Ant XX.ix.1).
1.!It is curious to observe, however, that both these references to the Ascension (an event, be it noted, mentioned only
by Luke) are omitted in certain manuscripts. In Luke 24:51, the words are omitted by ‫ *א‬D a b e ff2 l sin geoms (a
“Western non-interpolation,” accepted by NEB REB; NRSV includes the words following ന75 ‫א‬c A B C E K L W Y
[ ƒ3 ƒ13 33 565 892 Byz; q vg. In Acts 1:9, the words “while they were watching, a cloud lifted him up” are
omitted by D and the Sahidic Coptic; in 1:11, the words “up toward the heavens” are omitted from the phrase
“while they were looking up toward the heavens” by D 326* 2495 gig
2.!Possible dates are calculated by looking during the years 26-36 C.E. (when Pontius Pilate was Procurator of Judea)
for days on which 14 or 15 Nisan fell on a Friday.

In the New Testament, the oldest references to Jesus are probably those in Paul’s letters. The
oldest gospel is that of Mark, on which Matthew and Luke were based; the last of the gospels is
probably that of John.1
Excursus: When Did Jesus Die?

There are two traditions about the date Jesus was crucified. The Synoptic view is that he died
on Passover Day; the alternate view is that he was crucified on Passover Eve. We cannot fix the
date with absolute certainty, but we can be aware of the problem and state the evidence. The
merits of each view are discussed below.
A. In favour of the date Passover Day (15 Nisan) we have:

• The explicit statement of Mark in 14:12, 16–17, followed by Matt. 26:17, 19; Luke 22:7,
13, and similarly throughout the Passion narrative.
• In the Synoptic Gospels the Last Supper shows signs of having been a Passover meal
(although none of these signs require it to have been a Passover meal — note the lack of a
paschal lamb! — and observe that John moves most of the subjects discussed at the
Synoptic Last Supper to the middle of Jesus’s ministry in Chapter 6)
• In 1 Cor. 5:7 Paul calls Jesus “our Passover,” i.e. presumably “Passover [lamb/
sacrifice]” (on the other hand, the lamb was slaughtered on Passover Eve)
• Many texts (e.g. John 1:29, Rev. 5:6) refer to Jesus as “the Lamb” or “the Lamb of God,”
possibly implying a link with the Passover sacrifice
• The phrase “blood of the Covenant” (Matt. 26:28, Mark 14:24; the phrase is from Ex.
24:8, cf. Luke 22:20, 1 Cor. 11:25, which refer to the “New Covenant”) has meaning in
connection with Passover (note the use of the lamb’s blood in Ex. 12:7)
• •The tradition of the Western church clearly supports the date 15 Nisan
B. In favour of the date Passover Eve (14 Nisan) we have:

• The explicit statement by John in John 13:1, 18:28, 19:14, 31, 42, etc. (and C.H. Dodd has
demonstrated that — at least as far as Jesus’s trial is concerned — only John has preserved
an account that could actually have taken place)
• The statement by Luke 22:16 (a passage without parallels in the other gospels, and so
presumably from a source not dependent on Mark). The KJV reads the verse I will not eat
any more [of this passover], implying the Passover is past. This reading, which is supported by
(C) (D) W M [ ƒ13 892 Byz b e ff2 q vg sin cur, is clearly inferior to the NRSV reading I will
1.!In addition to the many hundred references to Jesus in the New Testament, the word “Christ”=”Anointed” occurs
some forty times in LXX. Five of them, in Leviticus, refer to the “anointed priest.” Some thirty ore, mostly in
Samuel and Psalms, refer directly or indirectly to the (anointed) king (compare also Isa 45:1, where Cyrus is
called the Christ). In Amos 4:3, however, we find a reference to God proclaiming the Christ (MT is not parallel).

not eat [the Passover] with you…, implying a date before Passover; this text is supported by ന75
(apparently) ‫ א‬B L Y ƒ1 579 1241 a sa bo.
• The Jewish tradition found in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 42b) reports that “they hanged Jesus
of Nazareth on the eve of the Passover [John’s date] because he practiced sorcery and was
leading Israel astray.”
• The earliest known Good Friday custom is that of the “Quartodeciman” sect, which had
observed Good Friday on 14 Nisan for many years when a controversy about the matter
first arose around 190 (cf. Ecc. Hist.V.23–25).
• Paul’s only detailed mention of Jesus’s death (1 Cor. 11:23–26) makes no mention of the
Passover; the point was apparently not important in his tradition, which is easier to explain
if Jesus died before Passover.
• Mark 14:2=Matt. 26:5 describe Jewish plans to arrest Jesus before the Festival; they did not
wish to wait until it began.
• Mark 15:21=Matt. 23:26 say that Simon of Cyrene was coming from the field(s) when he
was compelled to carry Jesus’s cross, implying that it was a working day.
• The stores were still open at the time of Jesus’s death (since Joseph of Arimathea was able
to buy Jesus’s shroud — Mark 15:46), again implying that it was a working day.
• The Jews hurried to take Jesus’s body from the cross (Mark 15:42), which makes sense only
if Jesus was crucified on a non-holiday.
• Could the Sanhedrin have had two meetings on the night of the Passover? (Mark 14:53ƒ.,
15:1ƒ. = Matt. 26:57ƒ., 27:1ƒ.).
• The apocryphal Gospel of Peter (§2:3) dates Jesus’s crucifixion to Passover eve. In the Petrine
book, what is more, this reference occurs in the context of events found only in Matthew
(the handwashing, §1:1) and Luke (Jesus before Herod, §1:2-2:3), implying a source
independent of Mark. The Gospel of Peter, although heterodox, is believed to date from
about 175 C.E.
Personally I incline to believe that John is correct and the crucifixion took place on Passover
Eve. But I admit that the matter cannot be definitively settled. One of the great advantages of
dating the crucifixion to April 7, 30 C.E. (apart from the fact that it accords with Luke’s date in
3:1) is that, depending on the observations of Jewish astronomers, it could have been either 14 or
15 Nisan — a fact which might account for the observed confusion in our sources: They knew it
was a Friday in Nisan of 30 C.E., but did not know which day was the Passover.
Jether: Abundance. LXX C*+*!=Iether (see note on Ithra, page 125). The more common name
of the father of AMASA. He is also called Ithra (2!Sam. 17:25), and was an Ishmaelite.1 Amasa
was ABSALOM’S general, and then (briefly) DAVID’S. 1!Kings 2:5, 32; 1!Ch. 2:17 !.
1.!“Ishmaelite”: So 2 Sam 17:25 RSV NEB JB NJB AB NAB NRSV REB TNIV NLT, following LXXA and agreeing with 1 Ch.
2:17; MT LXXB Lucian KJV NASB NIV NETS of the passage in 2 Samuel make him an “Israelite” (NIV however calls
him “Jether” rather than “Ithra”); LXXM MOFFATT make him a “Jezreelite.”

Jethro: Abundance. LXX C8+8!=Iothor; Josephus (Ant II.xii.1), C*+*6%-&8#=Ietheglai(os),

C8+8!8#=Iothor(os), and variations on these forms. The most common name for the father of
ZIPPORAH, MOSES’S wife. He is also called REUEL, and perhaps also HOBAB, althgh the latter may
be his son. (Josephus says that Jethro was “Raguel”=Reuel’s surname, and Hobab presumably his
son.) He was a priest of Midian, but seems to have respected Yahweh also — indeed, it has been
suggested (without direct evidence) that Yahweh was originally a Kenite god, and that Moses
learned of him from Jethro. Moses served him for the forty years of his exile from Egypt, and
later received some good advice from him on how to organize the tribes of Israel. The name
“Jethro” is most characteristic of the E source of the Pentateuch. Ex. 3:1, 4:18, 18:1–12 !.
Jeush: May [God] Aid ? LXX C-8E+/C*8E#=Iaouth/Ieous. The oldest son of REHOBOAM the
first king of Judah and his first wife MAHALATH. Despite being Rehoboam’s oldest son, Jeush did
not become the king of Judah, because Rehoboam preferred the children of ABSALOM’S daughter
MAACAH 2. Maacah’s child ABIJAM was Rehoboam’s heir. 2!Ch. 11:191 !.
Jezebel: Presumably a distortion of a Phoenician name: “Je– is exalted”? “Je– is Baal”? (The crucial
syllables may have been lost.) LXX C*'-)*%=Iezabel; Josephus (Ant VIII.xiii.1) C*'-)*%*#=Iezabel(es).
The daughter of ETHBAAL king of Sidon, and a priestess of Melkart, a Phoenician ashtoreth
(female Baal). She was married to AHAB, king of Israel, and was able to impose her religious
opinions on him. While she seems to have cared for Ahab deeply, her morals were extremely
weak, and she hated true worshipers of Yahweh. Her wicked deeds included killing God’s
prophets (1!Kings 18:4) and condemning innocent men (1!Kings 21:1–16). Her punishment for
this was predicted by Elijah: “The dogs shall eat Jezebel within the bounds of Jezreel” (1!Kings
21:23 NRSV).
Jezebel’s daughter ATHALIAH (or perhaps Jezebel’s sister-in-law — see the entry on Athaliah,
p. 87, for discussion) became the wife of JEHORAM 2 king of Judah (thus spreading her
corruption to Judah); Jezebel’s sons AHAZIAH 1 and JEHORAM 1 became kings of Israel. But
Jehoram was overthrown by JEHU son of NIMSHI, who then proceeded to Jezreel to kill Jezebel.
The Queen Mother put up a good show, painting her face and taunting her enemy, but Jehu had
her thrown from her window and killed. And the dogs ate her body and bones, so that there was
nothing left of her but her skull, feet, and hands; she was not buried, and Elijah’s word was
fulfilled (2!Kings 9:36–37). 1!Kings 16:31, 18:4,2 13, 19, 19:1–2, 21:5–25; 2!Kings 9:7, 10, 22,
30–37; cf. Rev. 2:20? !.
Joab: Yah[weh] is Father. LXX CD-)=Ioab; Josephus (Ant VII.i.3) CD-)8#=Ioab(os). The son of
ZERUIAH, DAVID’S sister (Josephus — Ant VII.i.3 — gives the name of Joab’s father as “Suri,” but
no name is mentioned in scripture). His brothers were ABISHAI and ASAHEL (1!Ch. 2:16). For
most of David’s reign he was commander of David’s armies, although he was succeeded briefly
by AMASA. Joab was a skilled warrior, and an able leader of armies. But he was an extremely
cruel and agressive man. We know of three men that he murdered — ABNER, the general of
1.!This is the account of MT LXXB; LXXA LXXN+V omit the name

2.!Also 2 Kings 22:53 LXX

Israel, ABSALOM, David’s son, and Amasa, David’s general — all of them under David’s
protection.
Joab’s career — or its highlights — runs roughly as follows. When the kingdoms of Judah and
Israel were at war after the death of SAUL, it was Joab who led David’s armies to success at the
battle of Gibeon (2!Sam. 2:12–17). But Abner, the general of Israel, killed Asahel, Joab’s brother
(2!Sam. 2:18–23). Shortly after this, when Abner came to discuss peace with David, Joab and
Abishai killed him (2!Sam. 3:20–30. The Bible says they did this to avenge Asahel, but Josephus
— Ant VII.i.5 — says that Joab’s real motive was to ensure that Abner would not replace him as
David’s general). But the brothers seems to have been so politically popular that David could not
dismiss them. (Or perhaps they were simply too strongly entrenched to overthrow; Matthews/
Moyer, p. 110, describes Joab as often usurping David’s power as king, as if he were co-regent.)
When David attacked Jerusalem after becoming king of Israel, Joab was the first man to enter the
city during David’s successful assault (1!Ch. 11:4–6). It was Joab who lead the siege of Rabbah in
which Uriah the Hittite was killed (2!Sam. 11:1–21). When David was deposed by Absalom, Joab
followed his king and led one of the wings of David’s armies at the final battle of the rebellion
(2!Sam. 18:2). It was Joab who found and killed Absalom (2!Sam. 18:9–15). David retaliated by
depriving Joab of his command and giving it to Amasa, Absalom’s general (2!Sam. 19:13). But
Joab regained his post by murdering Amasa (2!Sam. 20:4–13).
Joab survived the reign of David, but was slain by SOLOMON for supporting ADONIJAH
(1!Kings 2:5–6, 28–34). His place as commander of the army was taken by Benaiah son of
Jehoiada, the former commander of David’s foreign bodyguard who was Joab’s executioner
(1!Kings 2:35. The reader is permitted to question Benaiah’s motives. For that matter, there is no
sign that Benaiah knew how to lead an army; he was a tough man in combat, but there is no
record of him as a general). On the other hand, the LXX addition 3 Kingdoms=1 Kings 2:46+
makes it appear that Joab had a son Abi (Abiah?) who eventually became army commander.
Joab had many virtues. He was intensely loyal, and he did not let scruples keep him from
doing what was necessary. He was a brilliant warrior and a good counselor. He cared deeply for
his brothers and his uncle. He was devoted to God, and died in the tent of Yahweh. But he was a
man of blood and war, who lived — and died — by the sword. 2!Sam. 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 14, 18,
19, 20, 23, 24; 1!Kings 1, 2, 11; 1!Ch. 11, 19, 20, 21, 27.
Joahaz: see JEHOAHAZ (#1)
Joanan: NT CD-5-5=Ioanan.1 According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS.
Luke 3:27 !.
Joash: Yah[weh] Gives. LXX CD-#=Ioas; Josephus (Ant IX.vii.1) CD-48#=Ioas(os). Not to be
confused with the father of Gideon, nor with the (presumably illegitimate) son of AHAB of
1!Kings 22:26 (cf. 2!Ch. 18:25).
JOASH 1. Another name for JEHOASH king of Israel.
1.!For CD-5-5=Ianan (found in ന4 ‫א‬c A B E G Y M R [ 33 1241; L S X V J " ƒ1 ƒ13 read “Ioannan”), KJV,
following K / al, reads CD-55-=Ioanna (Joanna); ‫ *א‬U 157 700 have “Ionan”

JOASH 2. Also called JEHOASH. The seventh king of Judah. His father AHAZIAH 2 was slain
during the rebellion of JEHU against JEHORAM 1 king of Israel (2!Kings 9). When this happened,
ATHALIAH the mother of Ahaziah and the daughter of AHAB and (presuably) JEZEBEL set out to
make herself ruler of Judah. She killed all of Ahaziah’s sons except Joash, the youngest, who was
saved by his aunt JEHOSHEBA (2!Kings 11:2. It has been hypothesizes that Athaliah allowed Joash
to live so that she could rule as regent in his name). After six years, JEHOIADA the priest and the
husband of Jehosheba led a rebellion. Athaliah was killed and Joash became king of Judah.
Guided by Jehoiada, Joash was initially a very religious king. He rebuilt the temple and reformed
Judah’s badly corrupted worship. But after Jehoiada’s death, Joash became ever less faithful.
According to the author of Chronicles, he even had Jehoiada’s son ZECHARIAH 3, a prophet,
killed (2!Ch. 24:22). He also repelled an invasion from Syria by buying off the Syrian king with
the revenues of the temple (2!Kings 12:17–18). The ultimate result of this was that he was
assassinated by his servants (2!Kings 12:19–21). He is not mentioned in Matthew 1, but should
have been listed as an ancestor of Jesus.1 2!Kings 11:2–12:21, 13:1, 10, 14:1, 3, 13, 17, 23; 1!Ch.
3:11; 2!Ch. 22:10–24:7, 25:23, 25 !.
Jochebed: Apparently “Yah[weh] is glory”; however, the name “Yahweh” had not been revealed at the time
of her birth. LXX CDN-)*9=Iochabed; Josephus CDN-)*%;=Iochabele (Ant II.ix.4) or
CDN-)-9;#=Iochabad(es) (so the best mss. of Ant III.v.3). The wife (and aunt) of AMRAM, son of
KOHATH son of LEVI 1. She was herself a daughter of Levi, probably one of her father’s last
children, born in Egypt (Num. 26:59). She was the mother of AARON, MOSES, and MIRIAM.
According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.8, she was born when her father was 64,
or 24 years after Levi’s youngest son Merari. Indeed, the Testament (Levi XII.4) reports that she
was born on the same day as her nephew and future husband Kohath. Ex. 6:20; Num. 26:59 !.
Joda: NT CD9-=Ioda,2 from Hebrew Judah, praise. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2
and of JESUS. Luke 3:26 !.
Johanan: Yah[weh] is gracious. LXX CD-5-#=Ioanas. Not to be confused with many others of
the same name. A Levite of the high priestly line, the great-grandson of ZADOK (#1), and
possibly an ancestor of EZRA. 1!Ch. 6:9–10 !.
John: NT CD-55;#,3 a form of Johanan. Not to be confused with the son of Mattathias who
was the brother of Judas Maccabeus, nor with the son of Zebedee, nor various other Johns.
Known as “the Baptist” (so Matthew and Luke) or “the Baptizer” (so frequently in Mark).4
1.!Except that the name is added in D (in Luke), in the Curetonian Syriac, and in the Ethiopic version
2.!CD9-=Ioda/Joda is the reading of ന4 ‫ א‬B L J ƒ13 33 1241; A E G K M Y / [ ƒ1 892 Byz read C8E9-=Iouda/Iuda
(KJV Juda)
3.!New Testament manuscripts vary between the spellings CD-55;#=Ioannes and CD-5;#=Ioanes.
4.!The literal text “John the Baptizing,” i.e. “John the Baptizer,” occurs in Mark 1:4 (there is a variant over whether
or not to include the word “the” here; ‫ א‬B L M 33 have it, and so read “John the Baptizing appeared”; A D E W
Y L ƒ1 ƒ13 700 Byz vg omit, reading “John appeared baptizing.” GNT places the word the in [brackets] to
indicate extreme doubt), 6:14 (so ‫ א‬A B C E L M ƒ1 892 Byz; D W Y " ƒ13 28 33 579 700 read “the Baptist”),
6:24 (so ‫ א‬B L M Y 28 565; A C D Q W ƒ1 ƒ13 33 579 892 Byz read “the Baptist). The phrase ”John the Baptist”

According to Luke (but not Matthew or Mark or John), he was the son of the priest ZACHARIAS
and his wife ELISABETH. His birth was miraculous, for his mother was past the age of child-
bearing. He was conceived six months before JESUS, and hence was probably born late in 7 or
early in 6 B.C.E. (Luke 1:5–25, 57–80). In the late 20s C.E., John began preaching a gospel of
repentance, and baptizing people for the forgiveness of sins. He had many disciples, although the
only one named in the gospels is Andrew, Peter’s brother. (Apollos, a famous Christian teacher,
may have been another disciple of John’s — Acts 18:25.) John is frequently considered to be
Elijah returned (Matt. 11:14, 17:10–13; Mark 9:11–13; cf. Mal. 4:5–6), although the gospel of
John explicitly denies this (John 1:21). John baptized multitudes of poor Jews, including Jesus,
whom he recognized as the coming Messiah.
One of John’s last acts was to condemn Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee, for marrying
Herodias, who was his half-niece and who had been married to Antipas’s half-brother Philip.
Antipas imprisoned John for this,1 but hesitated to impose further punishment. But in that same
year, on Antipas’s birthday, a girl2 danced before Antipas. She pleased him so much that he
vowed to give her anything. And what she asked for was John the Baptist’s head. So John was
beheaded at Machaerus in 29 C.E. (Matt. 14, Mark 6; cf. Ant XVIII.v.2). Matt. 3:1–17, 4:12, 9:14,
11:2–15, 18, 14:1–12, 16:14, 17:10–13, 21:25–26, 32; Mark 1:4–9, 14, 2:18, 6:14–29, 11:30–32;
Luke 1:5–25, 57–80, 3:2–21, 5:33, 7:18–29, 33, 9:7–9, 19, 11:1, 16:16, 20:4–6; John 1:6–8, 19–
42, 3:23–30, 4:1, 5:33–36, 10:40–41; Acts 1:5, 22, 10:37, 11:16, 13:24–25, 18:25, 19:3–4 !.
Joktan: Younger Son. LXX C*,0-5=Iektan; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) C8E,0-#=Iokta(s). The younger
son of EBER the grandson of ARPACHSHAD son of SHEM, his older brother being PELEG. His sons
were Almodad, Sheleph, Hazar-maveth, and Jerah. He seems to have been the “ancestor” of the
Arabian Semites; the Israelites were not descended from him. Gen. 10:25–26, 29; 1!Ch. 1:19–20,
233 !.
Jonadab: Yah[weh] is Liberal. LXX CD5-9-)=Ionadab (Lucian CD5-+-5=Ionathan); Josephus
(Ant VII.viii.1) CD5-+;#=Ionath(es). Not to be confused with the son of Rechab of 2 Kings 10:15,
Jer. 35:6, etc. A son of SHIMEAH (Shammah?) the third brother of DAVID. He may be identical to
his brother JONATHAN 3. His one claim to fame is that he gave his friend and cousin AMNON the
idea of raping Amnon’s half-sister TAMAR 2 (Amnon and Tamar being children of David by
different mothers). Jonadab thus played a very great part in inciting the eventual civil war
is found in Mark 6:25 (except L 700 892 read “the Baptizer”), 8:28 (except 28 565 read “the Baptizer”).
1.!This is the New Testament account (Mark 6:17, followed by Matthew and Luke; John does not report this);
Josephus (Ant XVIII.v.2) give no hint of this. Although in Josephus’s account the marriage of Antipas and
Herodias is negotiated just before John’s death (Ant XVIII.v.1), Antipas is reported to have arrested John for being
rebellious, or at least a rabble-rouser.
2.!possible Salome, the daughter of Herodias and Philip; possibly Herod’s own daughter Herodias; see Mark 6:22
and the note on Salome (2) on p. 454.
3.!LXXB omits the verses in 1 Chronicles.

between David and Abraham. There is no sign he was ever brought to account for this. 2!Sam.
13:3–5, 32–33, 351 !.
Jonam: NT CD5-?=Ionam.2 According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke
3:30 !.
Jonathan: Yah[weh] is given. LXX usually CD5-+-5=Ionathan; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.1)
CD5-+8#=Ionath(os).
JONATHAN 1. A son of OBED, and DAVID’S uncle, called a wise counsellor. He seems to
have been the tutor of David’s sons. 1!Ch. 27:32 !.
JONATHAN 2. The oldest son of SAUL the first king of Israel. He was a skilled and
successful warrior — he, with his armor-bearer, once routed an entire Philistine army (1!Sam.
14:1–15). But Saul had caused his army to take an oath to fast on the day of that battle, and
Jonathan (who did not know of the oath) had eaten some miraculous honey which he had found
upon the ground. This oath-breaking brought wrath upon the army, and Saul intended to slay
Jonathan to end it. But the people demanded that he be allowed to live (1!Sam. 14:16–46).
Jonathan became a close friend of DAVID’s, and strove always to turn Saul’s wrath away from
David — a fact which did not endear him to his father (1!Sam. 20:30–34). Jonathan even aided
David in his flight from Saul. He seems to have been the only one of Saul’s sons to have had
children. His son MEPHIBOSHETH 2 was born five years before his father died, and was lamed
during the flight which followed his father’s death at Gilboa (2!Sam. 4:4). Since he was crippled
(and hence not likely to be chosen King) and the son of Jonathan, David cared for Mephibosheth
for the rest of his life, even while he was killing Saul’s other descendants. Jonathan was slain,
along with two of his three brothers, at the battle of Mt. Gilboa (1000 B.C.E.? — 1!Sam. 31:2) —
the battle which ended with Saul’s suicide. 1!Sam. 13:2–3, 16, 22, 14:1–46, 49, 18:1–5,3 19:1–7,
20:1–42, 23:16–18, 31:2; 2!Sam. 1:4–27, 4:4, 9:1–7, 21:7, 12–14; 1!Ch. 8:33–34, 9:39, 40, 10:2;
in the Apocrypha in 1 Macc. 4:30 !.
JONATHAN 3. The son of SHIMEI (Shammah?), David’s third brother. Possibly identical to
his brother JONADAB.4 He slew a giant from Gath, a man with six fingers on each hand and six
toes on each foot. 2 Sam. 21:20–21; 1!Ch. 20:6–7 !.
JONATHAN 4. A son of ABIATHAR, one of David’s high priests. He, along with ZADOK’S
son AHIMAAZ, brought messages to David from Jerusalem during ABSALOM’S rebellion. He also
brought the news to ADONIJAH that David had selected SOLOMON as his successor. 2!Sam. 15:27,
36, 17:17, 20; 1!Kings 1:42–48 !.
1.!In LXX the name is also used in the preface to Psalm 70 (MT 71, which has no preface in the Hebrew), although
the reference is probably to the son of Rechab, not the grandson of David.
2.!For Ionam/Jonam, the reading of ‫ א‬B J ƒ1 ƒ13 700 e sin arm, A E M R / have Ioanan/Joanan; G M 33 892 1241 Byz
read CD5-5=Ionan (KJV Jonan)
3.!LXXB omits these verses; see the excursus on David and Goliath, p. 96.
4.!So, e.g., the Lucianic text of 2 Sam. 13

JONATHAN 5. According to Judges 18:30, the son of GERSHOM son of MOSES.1 He was
originally a resident of Bethlehem in Judah (Judges 17:8–9), but as a young man he set out to seek
his fortune. He was first hired as a priest by Micah the Ephraimite, but gave up that post when
the tribe of Dan offered him a job as their priest. He thus presided over the conquest of the city
of Laish/Dan (Judges 18:27–30).
Interestingly enough, Jonathan is not listed as a descendant of Gershom in the book of
Chronicles (1 Ch. 23:15 lists only “Shubael the chief ” of the sons of Gershom). This may
indicate that the records are confused, or that Jonathan was a later descendent of Gershom. But
it is conceivable that he was edited out by the author of Chronicles because, as a son of Moses
rather than AARON, he was unqualified for the priestly post he took. Judges 17:7–18:31 !.
Joram: Yah[weh] is high. LXX CD!-?=Ioram; Josephus CD!-?8#=Ioram(os). A common
contraction of the name JEHORAM. There are two Jehorams in this concordance; see their entries.
Jorim: NT CD!&?=Iorim, from Heb. Joram, “Yah[weh] is High.” According to Luke, an ancestor
Jose: NT CD4;=Iose. Name used in the King James Bible for JOSHUA 2
Josech: NT CD4;N=Iosech.2 According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke
3:26 !.
Joseph: Popularly “Increase”; perhaps more correctly “May [God] Add [Posterity].” LXX
CD4;P=Ioseph; Josephus (Ant I.xix.7) CD4;"8#=Iosep(os).
JOSEPH 1. The eleventh son of JACOB 1, and the elder of his two sons by RACHEL. The
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XII.7 implies (since he died when Levi was 118, and he lived
to be 110) that Joseph was born eight years after Levi (who in turn, according to a text from
Qumran, was born when Jacob was 65). Joseph was clearly his father’s favorite son — a fact
which did not endear him to his brothers. Nor did the fact that he told tales about them (Gen.
37:2 MT. In some texts of LXX, by contrast, they told tales about him.) Eventually (at age
seventeen), he began to dream dreams — dreams which seemed to imply that he would rule over
his brothers. The brothers’s resentment became so great that they were willing to kill Joseph. But
REUBEN or JUDAH 1 managed to prevent the brothers from actually committing murder, and
Joseph wound up a slave in Egypt.3 Although he found himself in trouble there as well, he
eventually came to Pharoah’s attention as an interpreter of dreams. And because Joseph
interpreted a dream of Pharoah’s which predicted a famine, which could only be survived by
careful preparation, Joseph was appointed prime minister of Egypt. He was a good servant to
Pharoah — he brought Egypt through the famine and also managed to acquire quite a bit of
1.!“Moses” (‫ )משה‬is the reading of Lucian Vulgate MTmss; MT LXXB LXXA read “Manasseh” (‫)מנשה‬, with the ‫נ‬
“suspended” in MT (i.e. it is written ‫)מנשה‬, indicating a probable scribal emendation.
2.!Josech is the reading of ന4 ‫ א‬B L J Y ƒ1 ƒ13 33 700; A E G K / [ 892 Byz read CD4;P=Ioseph (KJV Joseph); 1241
has CD4;%=Iosel/Josel!
3.!The Bible, despite having two versions of this story (one with Reuben as the good guy, the other making Judah the
hero), manages to tell it fairly briefly. Not so the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs; for a summary of its retelling, see
the entry on Simeon 1, p. 196.

land for the king — but he still loved his brothers, especially his full brother BENJAMIN (good
evolutionary biology, that). When they came to Egypt to acquire grain, Joseph was reconciled to
them (very much on his own terms). Thus he saved his family from bondage and starvation. His
father Jacob was so grateful that he made Joseph his heir, rather than Reuben the oldest son.
Joseph’s two sons were EPHRAIM and MANASSEH 1; their mother was Asenath the daughter of
Potiphera, an Egyptian priest1. Since Joseph was Jacob’s heir, Jacob granted Ephraim and
Manasseh places among the tribes of Israel, as if they were his sons instead of his grandsons. For
many years Ephraim was the dominant tribe of Israel.
Joseph died in Egypt at the age of 110 — according to tradition, the first of his brothers to
die — but he was buried in the family tomb at Machpelah. Joseph’s birth is described in Gen.
30:22–24; the story of his career is in Gen. 37–50. The tribes of his two sons, Ephraim and
Manasseh, are sometimes called the “Joseph Tribes”; they stood at the heart of the nation of
Israel. Other references to Joseph in the Old Testament are common; New Testament references
are in John 4:5; Acts 7:9–16, 18; Heb. 11:21–22; Rev. 7:8; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 49:15.
JOSEPH 2. The husband of MARY the mother of JESUS. His relationship to Jesus is unclear,
as is his ancestry (see the entry on Jesus, p. 140). Joseph is called “a just [or righteous] man” (Matt.
1:19); little else is known of his personality. He was a carpenter, probably a resident of Nazareth,
apparently descended from David. He was alive when Jesus was twelve (Luke 2:42–43), but may
have died shortly after that, for there is no hint that he was alive during Jesus’s mission. (Hence
the tradition — found in ballads such as the thirteenth century Carnal and the Crane and the later
Cherry Tree Carol — that Joseph was an old man at the time of Jesus’s birth. The legend also
derives, in part, from the theory that James and Jesus’s other siblings were children of Joseph by a
previous marriage. None of this, of course, is even hinted at in scripture; for more about it, see
the entry on Mary, p. 166) Matt. 1:16–24, 2:13, 19; Luke 1:27, 2:4, 16, 33, 43, 3:23, 4:22; John
1:45, 6:42 !.
JOSEPH 3. Another name for JOSES. Matt. 13:55 !.
JOSEPH 4. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:24 !.
JOSEPH 5. A later member of the line of #4. Luke 3:30 !.
JOSEPH 6. Name used in the King James Bible for JOSECH.
1.!A Hebrew legend, however, makes Asenath the daughter of Jacob’s daughter DINAH by her slain husband
Shechem. She had been magically transported to Egypt to save Jacob’s family from the charge of adultery, and
was adopted by Potiphera. An alternate hypothesis, proposed by moderns, is that Potiphera, Joseph’s father-in-
law, and Potiphar, his first Egyptian master, were one and the same (after all, they probably had the same
Egyptian name). Thus Joseph may have met his future wife in his master’s house. The tale of Joseph and
Potiphar’s Wife has many folklore parallels, such as the Egyptian “Tale of Two Brothers,” which as a surprising
parallel in a very similar Blackfoot Indian “Tale of Two Brothers.” The Greek tale of Bellerophon also features a
virtuous man pursued by another man’s adulterous wife, but the main plot is different.

Joses: NT CD4;#=Ioses, a form of Joseph.1 The brother of JESUS. Called Joseph 3 by

Matthew. There is no other Biblical information about him. A folktale found in Missouri,
however, says that Joses, although younger, was larger as a boy than Jesus — and that he regularly
tattled on Jesus, bringing willow switches to their mother with which to swat Jesus. He supposedly
cursed as well, saying “God rot it.” And so the willow rots faster than any other tree and is said to
bring bad luck. Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; some interpreters would also list Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40,
47 !.2
Joshua: Yah[weh] saves. The original form is Jehoshua; LXX/Josephus C;48E#=Iesous (Jesus).
JOSHUA 1. The son of NUN, a man of Ephraim. Not to be confused with Jeshua, the first
post-exilic High Priest, or with the various other Joshuas, Jeshuas, and Jesuses of the Bible. When
he was born, he was given the name Hoshea (“Yah[weh] is help” — Num. 13:16). But MOSES
changed his name to Joshua.3 Joshua became Moses’s military assistant, and led the Israelites in at
least one battle before Moses’s death (Ex. 17:8–13). He was one of the twelve spies that Moses
sent into Canaan (Num. 13:8). He and CALEB were the only ones to present a favourable report
(Num. 14:6–9). So he was granted the right to enter into Canaan. When Moses died, Joshua
became the leader of the Israelites (Deut. 34:9; Josh. 1:1), and led them over the Jordan (Josh.
3:14–17). Once across, he conquered the cities of Jericho (Josh. 6:1–26) and Ai (Josh. 7:2–8:29),4
concluded a treaty of peace with the city of Gibeon (Josh. 9:3–27), fought two major battles — at
Gibeon, where the sun stood still (Josh. 10:1–14) and at the waters of Merom (Josh. 11:1–15),
captured several kings, conquered more cities, destroyed the inhabitants of the land and their
possessions, and made a general nuisance of himself. (Although it seems that his success was not
as great as the book of Joshua would have us believe — see the book of Judges.) When his
conquests were complete, he brought all Israel together at Shechem, and they made a covenant
with God (Josh. 24:1–24). Then Joshua died, and was buried at Timnath-serah (Josh. 24:29–30.
Josephus in Ant V.i.25, supported by a Samaritan tradition, says that he outlived Moses by twenty-
five years; a Rabbinic tradition gives the period as twenty-eight years). He is listed as one of the
1.!In Mark 6:3, the reading “Joses” has the support of B D L M Y ƒ13 33 565 579 700 a, while “Joseph” is found in
(‫ )א‬A C W ƒ1 892 Byz b e; ff2 has no name. In Matt. 13:55 we find “Joseph” supported by ‫א‬c B C N Y L ƒ1 33
700c 892 a b ff2; L W M ƒ13 565 700*? k pm KJV have “Joses”; ‫ *א‬D M U 579 pm read “John”
2.!This story may be derived from another folktale of Jesus and the willow, the folk song “The Bitter Withy.” The
young Jesus, in the song, is taunted by a group of rich boys. So he “built him a bridge of the beams of the sun”
and crosses it. When the boys follow, he dissolves the bridge and they die. When Mary hears of this, she beats
Jesus with the willow (“withy”). Jesus declares, “Oh bitty withy... you’ve causéd me to smart, And the willow it
shall be the very first tree To perish at the heart.”
3.!In one of the strangest pieces of folklore I have ever heard, this was supposedly at the request of the letter yodh (‫)י‬.
The yodh had been used in the name “Sarai” before her name was changed to Sarah. The letter complained that
it had been removed from the name of the name of the ancestress of all Israel. So God compensated it by seeing
to it that the letter was placed in the name of the conqueror of Canaan!
4.!We should probably note, however, that the site archaeologists identify as Ai was in ruins during this entire period
(the very name “Ai” means “Ruin”. If any city was sacked, it was most likely nearby Bethel. Alternately, the
Bethelites may have used Ai as an outpost, and the garrison was slaughtered by the Israelites.

“great men of Israel” in Sirach 46:1–8. Medieval tradition makes him the first Jew among the
“Nine Worthies” (Hector, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Joshua, David, Judas Maccabeus,
King Arthur, Charlemagne, and Godfrey of Bouillon the leader of the first Crusade). References
to Joshua outside of his book are in Ex. 17:9–13, 24:13, 32:17, 33:11; Num. 11:28, 13:8, 16,
14:4–10, 30, 38, 26:65, 27:18–23, 32:12, 28, 34:17; Deut. 1:38, 3:21, 28, 31:3, 7, 14, 23, 32:44,
34:9; Judg. 1:1, 2:6–9, 21, 23; 1!Kings 16:34; 1!Ch. 7:27.
JOSHUA 2. According to the English versions of Luke (e.g. NRSV, RSV, REB), an ancestor of
Joseph (#2) and Jesus. Luke 3:291 !.
Josiah: Let Yah[weh] Give. LXX/Josephus/ NT CD4&-#=Iosias. The son of AMON king of
Judah. Josiah was the grandson of MANASSEH 2, the most wicked king in the history of Judah.
Amon followed in his father’s ways, but was assassinated after a reign of only two years. Still,
Judah had been a center of idol-worship for fifty-odd years, and the nation’s religion was badly in
need of reform. This Josiah provided. He was crowned (2 Kings 21:24) by “the people of the
land” (‘Am Ha’arez, the landed peasantry that formed the bulwark of the Judean monarchy; they
also anointed JOASH 2 and JEHOAHAZ 2) at the age of eight, and by the time he was eighteen, he
had ordered a thorough religious reform. It was in the process of this that the “book of the law”
was found in the Temple (2!Kings 22:8). Josiah organized a great revival around this book,
culminating in a national passover (2!Kings 23:21–23).
Josiah lived in turbulent times. The Assyrian Empire was falling (Ashurbanipal, the last strong
emperor, died around 627 B.C.E.), and Judah was able to greatly expand its boundaries as a result.
Josiah became the greatest king Judah had ever known. He occupied most of what had once been
the nation of Israel, destroying the altar of JEROBOAM I at Bethel (as had reportedly been
predicted almost three centuries before — 1!Kings 13:1–10; 2!Kings 23:15). But the Babylonian
Empire was gaining power, and Egypt was trying to gain a foothold in Palestine. Both were
looking at Judah. And God had said that Judah would fall to Babylon, because of the evils
committed by Manasseh (2!Kings 23:26, 24:3). Josiah, because he individually had been
righteous, was told that he would not see it. In 609 B.C.E., Pharoah Neco II of Egypt marched
against the Babylonian Empire. And Josiah took arms against him. Neco killed Josiah at
Megiddo,2 and took control of Judah by taking the kingdom from Josiah’s son Jehoahaz 2 and
awarding it to another son, JEHOIAKIM. But Neco was defeated at the battle of Carchemish,3 and
Babylon took control of Judah. Josiah died violently at the age of thirty-nine, but he was the last
king of Judah to govern a free nation. He was regarded as the last of only three truly “good”
kings of Judah, Hezekiah and David being the others (Sirach 49:1–4). 1!Kings 13:2; 2!Kings
1.!ന4 ‫ א‬B L Y (ƒ1) ƒ13 33 1241 b c e read C;48E (C;48E#)=Iesous, Jesus (hence “Joshua”); A E G K M / Byz read
CD4; (CD4;#)=Ioses (KVJ “Joses”); X 892 have “Josech”; 157 omits
2.!Herodotus seems to refer to this battle in Hist II.159, although Josiah is not mentioned and Megiddo is called
“Magdolus.” Curiously, Herodotus does not mention the much more important battle of Charchemish.
3.!For such details as we have on Carchemish, see the entry on Nebuchadnezzar and Carchemish, p. 297.

21:24, 26, 21:26–23:30, 23:34; 1!Ch. 3:14–15; 2!Ch. 33:25–36:1;1 Jer. 1:2, 3, 3:6, 22:11, 18, 25:1,
3, 26:1, 27:1, 35:1, 36:1–2, 9, 37:1, 45:1, 46:2; Zeph. 1:1; Matt. 1:10–11; in the Apocrypha in
1!Esdras 1:1, 7, 18–19, 21–25, 28–34; Sirach 49:1, 4; Baruch 1:8 !.
Jotham: May Yah[weh] Complete. LXX CD-+-?=Ioatham; Josephus (Ant IX.xi.2)
CD+-?8#=Iotham(os). Not to be confused with the youngest son of Gideon (Judges 9). The son of
AZARIAH 4/UZZIAH king of Judah. When his father Uzziah contracted leprosy, Jotham became
regent (at least for internal affairs; in the opinion of some scholars, Uzziah may have retained
control of foreign policy). It is possible that Jotham never became king in his own right; some
scholars have placed his entire reign during the life of his father. Indeed, some have suspected
that at the end he was displaced by his own son AHAZ in a pro-Assyrian palace coup.2 He was a
fairly good king, following his father’s practices and worshiping God, although he did not insist
that all worship be carried on in the temple. According to the author of Chronicles (2 Ch. 27:5),
he was militarily successful, but given the political climate of his time, this seems highly unlikely.
It was in his time that Israel and Syria formed the league that would cause so much trouble for
his son Ahaz. 2!Kings 15:5, 7, 30, 32–38, 16:1; 1!Ch. 3:12, 5:17; 2!Ch. 26:21, 23, 27:1–9; Isa.
1:1, 7:1; Hos. 1:1; Mic. 1:1; Matt. 1:9 !.
Jubal: Playing ? LXX C8E)-%=Ioubal. The second son of LAMECH (#1) by his wife ADAH, and
“the father of all those who play the lyre and pipe.” Gen. 4:21 !.
Judah: Praise? It seems to be a place name. LXX/Josephus C8E9-#=Iouda(s).
JUDAH 1. The fourth son of JACOB 1 by his wife LEAH. The founder of one of the twelve
tribes of Israel. In the affair of the selling of JOSEPH 1, it was he (or REUBEN)3 who tried to save
the boy (Gen. 37:26–27); he also promised his life to Jacob to protect the life of BENJAMIN (Gen.
43:8–9, 44:18–34).
Judah’s first wife was the daughter of Shua the Canaanite (“BATH-SHUA”); she bore him
ER, ONAN, and SHELAH 2 (Gen. 38:2–5). Er’s wife was TAMAR 1, but Er died for his wickedness
before he had children (Gen. 38:6–7). So Tamar was married to Onan, whom God also slew
(Gen. 38:8–10). Hence Tamar should have been wed to Shelah, but Judah was afraid for the life
of his last son; they were not married. So Tamar dressed herself as a harlot, and seduced Judah
(Gen. 38:12–19). Judah, when he discovered that his daughter-in-law was pregnant, resolved to
have her burned — until she proved that he was the father. She bore him twins, PEREZ and
ZERAH, from whom most of the tribe of Judah was descended (Gen. 38:24–30). The story,
despite its unpleasant overtones, is evidence of Judah’s sense of justice. There are scholars who
use it as evidence for the theory that Judah was not one of the twelve tribes of Israel — that
Judah never went to Egypt, but dwelt in Canaan through the entire sojourn, and had no dealings
1.!Also in LXX of 2 Ch. 35:19- (a recital of Josiah’s destruction of wizards, idols, etc., taken over from 2 Kings
23:24), 36:4
2.!The best evidence for this comes from the dates for HOSHEA 2 king of Israel. In 2 Kings 15:30 he is said to have
ascended in the “twentieth year of Jotham,” but in 17:1 he gained the throne in the “twelfth year of Ahaz.”
3.!In the J account of this incident, Judah is the hero; Reuben is the good guy according to E. The Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs has a complex explanation which reconciles the two versions; see the entry on Simeon 1, p. 196.

with Israel until after the period of the Judges. (Regarding this it is interesting to note that, when
Palestine was distributed to the tribes of Israel after the conquest, Judah did not receive its
inheritance by lot, but was simply assigned a region — Josh. 15:1–12. Although this is not unique
— Ephraim and Manasseh were treated the same way — it supports the interpretation that
Judah was already present on its land in Canaan.)
Judah was the most successful of the tribes of Israel. DAVID, the greatest king of Israel,
was a Judahite. When Israel fell to Assyria, the tribe of Judah survived, since it was independent.
The oldest stories of the Bible — those from the J source of the Pentateuch — are thought to
come from Judah. Almost all modern Jews are derived from that tribe or the tribe of Benjamin.
The territory of Judah was quite large — so large that it had to be shared with the tribe of
Simeon. But Judah quickly assimilated Simeon. Judah was the southernmost of the tribes of
Israel, granted the region between the Dead Sea and the Philistine coast (Josh. 15:1–62).
References to Judah the tribe and Judah the man are extremely common. Most of the
highlights of his life, as known from the Bible, have been given above. The Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs gives several additional notes; it describes Judas as being able to outrace deer and horses
(Judah II.2-3), and apparently out-wrestle a bear (II.4). He is described as a great warrior, able to
take on armies single-handed (examples are in Judah III.1-VII.11). New Testament references to
Judah the man are Matt. 1:2–3; Luke 3:33; to Judah the tribe are Matt. 2:6; Luke 1:39; Heb.
7:14, 8:8; Rev. 5:5, 7:5.
JUDAH 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:30 !.
Judas: NT C8+9-#=Ioudas, Greek form of Judah. Not to be confused with Judas Iscariot, or
with the other apostle Judas, or with Judas Maccabeus, or with Judah the patriarch. The brother
of JESUS, about whom nothing else is known. Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3. Possibly also the author of
the letter of Jude, in which case he names himself in Jude 1 !.
Kainam or Kainan: see CAINAN.
Kenan: LXX/NT A-&5-5=Kainan. Popularly “One Acquired,” by analogy to Cain. Josephus
A-&5-#=Kain(as). Compare CAINAN. The grandson of SETH the son of ADAM. In Luke 3:37, as
in LXX, he is called Cainan (Kainan). According to MT and the Samaritan Version, he was
seventy when his son MAHALEL was born; LXX and Josephus (Ant I.iii.4) give his age as 170. By
all accounts he was 910 when he died. Gen. 5:9–14; 1!Ch. 1:2 !.
Kenaz: Side ? LXX A*5*'=Kenez; Josephus (Ant I.iii.3) A*5-&'8#=Keniaz(os). The father of
OTHNIEL, who was CALEB’S son-in-law and the first of the judges. (So, at least, Judges 3, but
whereas the Bible makes Othniel the first Judge, Josephus and Philo credit this to Kenaz!) The
fact that Othniel was his son would seem to mean that Kenaz was the brother of Caleb son of
JEPHUNNEH. But he might also be the ancestor of the Kenizzites. See the discussion on Caleb,
page 93. Josh. 15:17; Judg. 1:13, 3:9, 11; 1!Ch. 4:13 !.
Keturah: Fragrance, Incense. LXX ^*008E!-=Chettoura; Josephus (Ant I.xv.1)
A-08E!-#=Katura(s). The wife of ABRAHAM after SARAH’S death. Their children were Zimram,
Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah — all seemingly names of eastern tribes, although

only Midian is important in the Bible (and in any case the biblical Midian is probably an
Ishmaelite tribe — e.g. Judges 8:24). Sarah’s son ISAAC was Abraham’s heir; we are told that
Abraham gave gifts to these other children (a typical oriental custom) and sent them away to live
in the east. Gen. 25:1–6; 1!Ch. 1:32–33 !.
Kish: Power? LXX/Josephus A*&#=Kis;1 NT A&#=Kis. The father of SAUL, the first king of
Israel. According to 1!Ch. 8:33, 9:39, he was the son of NER and the brother of ABNER. But the
earlier, and presumably more accurate, source is 1!Sam. 9:1, 14:51, which makes Kish the son of
ABIEL and the brother of Ner the father of Abner. Kish was a landowner in Benjamin; he lived to
see his son made king. Little else is known of his life; we are told that he was buried in Zela of
Benjamin, where Saul and JONATHAN 2 also were laid to rest. 1!Sam. 9:1–3, 10:11, 21, 14:51;
2!Sam. 21:14; 1!Ch. 8:33 (cf. also 8:30), 9:39, 12:1, 26:28, Acts 13:21 !.
Kohath: Assembly. LXX A--+=Kaath (also occasionally Kath); Josephus (Ant II.vii.4)
A--+8#=Kaath(os). The second son of LEVI 1. His sons were AMRAM (the father of AARON,
MOSES, and MIRIAM), IZHAR, HEBRON, and UZZIEL. According to the Qumran text 4Q559, his
father was thirty-five when Kohath was born (so also the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi
XI.4), and Kohath was twenty(?)-nine when Amram was born. This dovetails with the Testaments
Levi XII.4, which says that Amram and his aunt/wife JOCHEBED were born on the same day, and
Testaments Levi XI.8, which says that Jochebed was born when Levi was sixty-four. His family, the
Kohathites, were in charge of the transportation of the objects of worship in the tent of meeting,
such as the Ark of the Covenant, the altars, and the sacred vessels (Num. 3:27–32). Gen. 46:11;
Ex. 6:16, 18; Num. 3:17, 19, 27–32, 4:2–4, 15, (18–30, 34, 37), 7:9, (10:21), 16:1, 26:57–58; Josh.
21:4–5, 20, 26; 1!Ch. 6:1–2, 16, 18, 22, (33), 38, (54), 61, 66, 70, (9:32), 15:5, 23:6–12; (2 Ch.
20:19, 34:12) !.
Korah: Baldness. LXX A8!*=Kore; Josephus (Ant IV.ii.2) A8!;#=Kore(s). The son of IZHAR
the son of KOHATH the son of LEVI 1. Josephus reports that he was respected, well-spoken, and
rich (a tradition has it that he had rediscovered certain of Joseph’s treasures). He lived during the
time of the wandering in the wilderness. After several years of desert camping, Korah and the
Reubenites Dathan and Abiram staged a rebellion (Num. 16:1ƒ.; a later tradition said that the
two did it because they were the ones who saw Moses murder the Egyptian in Ex. 2:11-14).
(Note: most modern scholars think that there were actually two revolts: a religious revolt led by
Korah — described by the P source of the Pentateuch — and a secular uprising by the
Reubenites — from the J or E source. A later priestly writer combined the two. Josephus puts all
the initiative in the hands of Korah — Ant IV.ii.2 — who had carefully reminded “Datham” and
Abiram of their status.) As Reubenites, Dathan and Abiram were contesting Moses’s right to lead
the Israelites; Korah, as a Levite, contested Aaron’s right to be high priest (or, according to
tradition, the right of his younger cousin Elizaphan — the son of Uzziel the younger brother of
Korah’s father Izhar — as leader of the Kohathite clan of the Levites). But Moses led the people
of Israel away from the tents of the Reubenites, and the ground opened up and swallowed them,
1.!Ant VI.iv.5 has A*&4-&8#=Keisai(os)

“and they went alive down into Sheol”!(the early Hebrew Hell — Num. 16:28–35). The
Korahites competed against Aaron to see who would be the new High Priest; God chose Aaron
and destroyed the renegade Levites. Korah clearly was either swallowed or burned, but it is not
clear which one. But although the followers of Korah had been almost totally destroyed, God
spared Korah’s sons, who became temple musicians. Several of the Psalms are attributed to
them. The prophet Samuel may have been a descendent of Korah (1!Ch. 6:33–38, but see
1!Sam. 1:1, where he is an Ephraimite). Ex. 6:21, 24;1 Num. 16:1–35, 40, 49, 26:9–11, (58), 27:3;
1!Ch. 6:22, 9:19, (31); Psalms 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 84, 85, 87, 88 (titles); Jude 11; in the
Apocrypha in Sirach 45:18 !.
Laban: White. LXX R-)-5; Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) R-)-58#=Laban(os). The son of
BETHUEL, son of NAHOR the brother of ABRAHAM. He was the brother of REBEKAH the wife of
ISAAC. His daughters were LEAH and RACHEL (Gen. 29:16). He lived in Paddan-Aram (or
Haran), and was the owner of large herds of sheep. He also had many servants, for he was able
to spare ZILPAH to be a maid to Leah and BILHAH to be a maid to Rachel (Gen. 29:24, 29). One
day JACOB 1 arrived, fleeing from his brother ESAU. Jacob fell in love with Rachel, and agreed to
serve Laban for seven years to win her hand. But Laban slipped Leah in on Jacob. So Jacob had
to serve Laban another seven years to win Rachel. After this, he served Laban for six years to
obtain a part of Laban’s flock. Laban and Jacob spent these years trying to gain advantage of
each other. They had agreed that all spotted sheep were Jacob’s, while all unspotted sheep were
Laban’s. So each tried to breed sheep of his own type, and to hide sheep that were the other’s.
Although Jacob was more successful at this game, he could not force Laban to give up the herds.
So Jacob eventually gathered his flocks, wives, children, and possession, and left Paddan-Aram for
Canaan. As they left, Rachel stole the statues of her father’s household gods (Gen. 31:19). Laban
followed, and caught Jacob’s slow-moving cavalcade. But he had to concede that Jacob had taken
only things that were his own — except for the household gods, which Rachel had hidden in her
skirt (Gen. 31:35. One wonders what Laban would have done to his daughter had he found
them. The whole story reminds me very much of the dominance games played by chimpanzees; I
almost find myself wondering if Jacob and Laban lived before they had evolved into full-fledged
human....). So Laban went back to Paddan-Aram. His fate after that time is not mentioned. Gen.
24:29, 32, 50, 25:20, 27:43, 28:2–5, 29:5–30, 30:25–31:55, 32:4, 46:18, 25;2 in the Apocrypha in
Judith 8:26 !.
1.!Also in LXX of Ex. 38:22, describing how the altar was made from the censors of Korah’s rebels (chapters 37-39
of Exodus in LXX are a free rearrangement, with paraphrases and additions, of the same chapter — plus parts
of chapters 36 and 40 — in MT). LXXA also gives the name in the superscription of Psalm 42 (Psalm 43 MT),
which has no title in MT and is called simply “A Psalm of David” in LXXB LXX‫א‬.
2.!In LXX also in Gen. 29:1, 9, 23 (so LXXE LXXM; LXXA omits), 30:31, 31:35, where MT generally reads “he”

Ladan: fleshy Throat ? LXX R--9-5=Laadan.1 An Ephraimite, the great-grandfather of NUN

the father of JOSHUA.2 1!Ch. 7:26 !.
Lamech: Overthrower ? LXX R-?*N; Josephus R-?*N8#=Lamechos.
LAMECH 1. A descendent of CAIN. He had two wives, ADAH and ZILLAH, and four
children, JABAL the first cowherd, JUBAL the first musician, TUBAL-CAIN the first smith, and their
sister NAAMAH 1. His complaint, “the song of Lamech” (Gen. 4:23–24), is thought to be one of
the oldest sections in the Bible.3 He is the last link in the Cainite genealogy of the J source, which
parallels the descent of SETH from the P source. The purpose of this tracery is not clear —
presumably its last members would have died in the flood — unless it is to establish the history of
human occupations. Gen. 4:18–24 !.
LAMECH 2. The son of METHUSELAH and the father of NOAH. According to MT, his son
Noah was born when he was 182, and he lived to be 777, meaning that he died five years before
the flood. LXX, however, says he was 188 when Noah was born, and lived to be 753, dying 35
years before the flood. Josephus gives Lamech’s age as 188 when Noah was born, but says he died
at 707 (Ant I.iii.4). The Samaritan Version says Noah was born when Lamech was 53, and he
died at 653. In any case, he lived one generation LAMECH 1. Gen. 5:25–31; 1!Ch. 1:3; Luke 3:36
!.
Excursus: Lamech’s Lament

Gen. 4:23–24, the Song of Lamech (also called the “Song of the Sword,” although no sword
is mentioned) tells how Lamech “killed a man for wounding me, A young man for bruising me.”
This sounds to me very much like a fragment of an epic (of revenge)? But the rest of the tale has
been lost. There is a legend, from the Tanhuma Bereshit II, that the person Lamech killed was none
other than Cain himself. Supposedly Lamech was blind (a tradition found in several legendary
sources), but still made his living as a hunter. Guided by his son Tubal-Cain, he shot Cain without
knowing who it was. Once he realized what had happened (supposedly by feeling the mark on
Cain’s forehead), Lamech supposedly also killed Tubal-Cain as he flailed around in grief.
This, however, makes no sense in the context of the song, since Hebrew poetry requires
parallelism. Lamech did not kill two men; he killed one young man — a description which
obviously cannot refer to Cain!
My guess is that the song describes a different sort of conflict, between tribes. Lamech’s tribe
was at war with another tribe (perhaps Seth’s tribe?), and the other tribe sent an assassin against
Lamech. Lamech, however, succeeded in killing the assassin — and boasted about it because he
has merely taken a wound while the other has been slain.
1.!“Laadan” is the reading of the Complutensian text, followed by Rahlfs; LXXB “Laddan”; LXXA “Galaada”;
Lucian “Ladan” (compare 1 Ch. 26:21); the Vulgate (followed by KJV) reads “Laadan.” NETS also reads
“Laadan.” AB NRSV have “Ladan.”
2.!So MT LXXB Lucian; LXXA LXXN+V reverse the order of Ladan and his father TAHAN.
3.!See the excursus below on the meaning of the song.

It has been suggested that the song was included in Genesis to give contrast to the later rule
of “an eye for an eye” — Lamech extracts almost unlimited vengeance, even greater than the
seven-fold vengeance promised to Cain. This is possible but hard to prove because we have so
little to compare against — we have almost no poetry of a date as early as the “Song.” Indeed, it
has been called the only antidiluvian poetry left to us.
There is other vague folklore about Lamech, e.g. that he was the first person to take more
than one wife (perhaps the person who tried to kill him was a jilted suitor?) and the first to engage
in revenge killing. There is, of course, no proof of any of this.
Leah: Wild Cow/Gazelle. LXX/Josephus R*&-. The older daughter of LABAN and the first
wife of JACOB 1). The one description we have of her is from Gen. 19:17. LXX of the verse says
that she had “weak eyes” (i.e. dull, without sparkle) MT is unclear but may mean she had
attractive eyes; apparently was not considered beautiful. Jacob wanted to wed Leah’s pretty sister
RACHEL. But Laban, wishing to see Leah wed, tricked Jacob into marrying both girls. And God
was kind to Leah. Since Jacob did not love her, God caused her to have many children —
REUBEN, SIMEON 1, LEVI 1, and JUDAH 1; “then she ceased bearing” (Gen. 29:31–35. It is
interesting to note that four children are about all that a woman could hope to have in the seven
years it took Jacob to buy the right to marry Rachel). But when Leah’s son Reuben went
gathering mandrakes (“love-apples,” a reputed aphrodisiac and fertility drug1), Rachel offered
Leah the right to sleep with Jacob if Reuben gave her some of the mandrakes. So Leah bore
ISSACHAR, and later ZEBULUN and DINAH, Jacob’s only daughter (Gen. 30:14–24).2 Leah lived
until some time after Jacob returned to Canaan, although she bore no children after that, and
died before he went to Egypt. She was buried in the family plot at Machpelah (Gen. 49:29–31).
Gen. 29:16–30:24, 31:4, 14, 33, 33:1–2, 7, 34:1, 35:23, 26, 46:15, 18, 49:31;3 Ruth 4:11 !.
Levi: Popularly “Joining”; perhaps more correctly a form of Leah, “Wild Cow.” LXX R*E*&/
R*E&=Leu(v)i; Josephus (Ant I.xix.7) R*E&#=Leu(v)i(s).
LEVI 1. The third son of JACOB 1 by LEAH (Gen. 29:34). It was he, along with his older
brother SIMEON 1, who took revenge on the Hivites for the rape of their sister DINAH (Gen. 34:1–
31). The Bible has little else to say about him personally, but legends supply many details.
According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi II.2, he was “about twenty” at the time of
the massacre of the Hivites (Levi XII.5 gives his age as 18), and he himself slew Shechem while
Simeon slew Hamor (Levi VII.4). He reportedly married at twenty-eight, to a woman named
1.!The mandrake root often grows in such a way as to resemble the male sexual organs; its reputation — which is
false — seems to derive from its appearance. It is in fact poisonous, related to nightshade; lesser doses function as
a laxative and sleep aid. Legends about it are many; Harry Potter fans will know the one that says it made a
deadly cry when pulled from the ground (a motif mentioned in Romeo and Juliet)— causing people to use dogs to
pull it up. The plant was sometimes used as a pain-killer, but controlling the dosage was difficult at best.
2.!For the record, the binomial theorem tells us that the odds of a man having only one daughter among thirteen
children are given by 13/213, or 13/8192, or about 0.16%. This hints that Jacob had what is called a “segregation
distorter” gene — a gene which tampers with the sex ratios. Which in turn kinda hints that Leah was fooling
around on the side when she had Dinah....
3.!In LXX also in Gen. 29:33, 30:15 (for MT “she”), 34:14 (Lucian omits)

Melcha (Levi XI.1) and his oldest son GERSHON was born not long after (Levi XI.2). Both the
Testaments (Levi XI.4) and the Qumran text 4Q559 report that he was thirty-five when KOHATH
(the ancestor of AARON and MOSES) was born (Levi XI.4). The third son, MERARI, was born
when his father was forty (Levi XI.7). His daughter JOCHEBED was born when he was sixty-four
(Levi XI.8) — supposedly on the very same day that her future husband AMRAM son of Kohath
was born (Levi XII.4). Interestingly, the Testaments does not say that Jochebed was born of a
different wife. That means that Levi’s wife had her first and last children some 35 years apart —
quite an age gap!
The Bible says that Levi lived to the age of 137. Tradition has it that he was the last of
Jacob’s sons to die, and the Qumran text 4Q559 says he was born when his father was sixty-five.
Like the other sons, he founded a tribe.
Levi was originally regarded simply as another of the tribes of Israel. But Moses and Aaron
were Levites. And so it came about that the Levites became a tribe of priests — an honour they
gained by being loyal to Moses and willing to slay even their own kinfolk (Ex. 32:25–29). They
thus took the place of the first-born sons of Israel (Num. 3:12). Hence they became a separated
people (Num. 1:47–53; Deut. 10:8–9). They received no inheritance in Canaan (Josh. 14:4), but
were instead given control of scattered cities (forty-eight of them all told, including the six Cities
of Refuge for murderers — Josh. 21).
The sons of Levi were Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, who had a sister Jochebed (one of
the few instances of a patriarch actually having a female child; see the entry on Leah, p. 161).
The chief priests were the descendants of Aaron, who was the grandson of Kohath. But each of
the sons founded a clan within the tribe. The duties of each are described in Num. 4 (or see the
individual entries on the sons); their cities are listed in Josh. 21.
References to Levi the man are in Gen. 29:34, 34:25–31, 35:23, 46:11, 49:5–6; Ex. 1:2,
6:16; Num. 3:17, 16:1, 26:59; 1!Ch. 2:1, 6:1, 16, 38, 43, 47; Ezra 8:18.1 All other Old Testament
references are to the tribe of Levi. New Testament references to Levi and Levites are Luke 10:23;
John 1:19; Acts 4:36; Heb. 7:5, 9, 11; Rev. 7:7; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:47, Tobit 1:7, 4
Macc. 2:19 plus a reference to the tribe in Sirach 45:7.
LEVI 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:29 !.
LEVI 3. Another, later ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Luke 3:24 !.
Lot: Darkened? LXX RD0; Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) RD0;#=Lot(es). The son of HARAN the
brother of ABRAHAM. After the death of his father (Gen. 11:28), Lot began to travel with
Abraham (Gen. 12:4–5). Josephus, in fact, reports that Abraham adopted Lot (Ant I.vii.1) —
which makes sense when you consider that Abraham was childless at the time; the curiosity is that
Lot was not considered Abraham’s heir in Gen. 15:2. According to LXX of Gen. 12:20, Lot
went to Egypt along with Abraham,2 although this is not stated explicitly in the Hebrew. When
1.!also in LXX in Gen. 34:14, Num. 4:4 (in LXXA; LXXB omits), Deut. 33:8, Jer. 31:14, Ezek. 43:19, and in the
LXX heading of Bel and the Dragon (Theodotian omits).
2.!So also the Qumran Genesis Apocryphon, which states that Lot took an Egyptian wife.

the two entered Canaan, Abraham offered Lot his choice of land. Lot selected the region around
the Jordan, and settled in Sodom on the Dead Sea (Gen. 13:8–13). Some time after this, Sodom
and the other cities of the plain were attacked by a confederation of Mesopotamian tribes. The
forces of the cities were routed, and Lot was captured. But Lot was rescued by Abraham. And
when God decided to destroy the cities of the plain, Abraham convinced God to spare anyone
there who might be righteous (Gen. 18:20–33). So God sent two angels to warm Lot to flee. Lot
received the angels gracefully — a fact which nearly caused him to come to harm. For a crowd of
the men of Sodom wanted to engage in sexual relations with the visitors. (Lot refused to allow
this, and even offered to give his virgin daughters to the crowd — by the standards of the time,
the right thing to do. Hospitality was more important than family ties to daughters.) Fortunately,
this wasn’t necessary. The angels blinded the crowd (Gen. 19:1–11.) Lot then fled the city with his
family. And God destroyed Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboiim, sparing only Zoar, the
smallest of the cities of the plain (Gen. 19:24–25). Lot escaped, but his wife looked back and was
turned into a pillar of salt (Gen. 19:26).1 And his daughters thought that the world was destroyed,
or at least that their father would never return to inhabited lands. Having no husbands available
(their fianceés having stayed behind in Sodom), they made their father drunk and slept with him.
The children of these unions were MOAB and BEN-AMMI (see their entries for more details —
Gen. 19:30–38). We do not hear of Lot thereafter, although presumably someone from his family
must have returned to civilization to tell his story (and get wives for Moan and Ben-Ammi). Gen.
11:27, 31, 12:4–5, 13:1–14, 14:12, 16, 19:1–36;2 Deut. 2:9, 19; Psalm 83:8; Luke 17:28–32; 2 Pet.
2:7; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 16:8 !.
Lud. LXX R8E9; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) R8E98#=Lud(os). A son of SHEM. Presumably the
ancestor of the nation of Lydia in western Asia Minor (Josephus says this explicitly). Gen. 10:22;
1!Ch. 1:17;3 the people are mentioned in Isa. 66:19; Eze. 27:10, 30:5; in the Apocrypha in Judith
2:23 !.
Maacah: Dull/Stupid. LXX I--N-=Maacha; Josephus (Ant VII.i.4) I-N-?;#=Macham(es).
MAACAH 1. The daughter of Talmai the king of Geshur, one of David’s earliest allies. She
became one of David’s wives, and was the mother of ABSALOM and of TAMAR 2. The rabbis (to
explain the fact that Tamar thought she could marry AMNON in 2 Sam. 13:13) concluded that
Maacah had not yet accepted Judaism at the time Tamar was born (making Tamar legally
1.!This story has been compared to the classical tale of Orpheus and Euridice, and there is a formal similarity in that
Orpheus escapes destruction and his wife does not. There are, however, two distinct differences. First, in the
Orpheus tale, it is Orpheus who looks back and dooms his wife, whereas in the Bible it is Lot’s wife’s own fault;
second, in the classical tale, it is Orpheus who wins his wife’s release, whereas in the Bible, it is Abraham who
does the arguing.
A much closer analogy, to my mind, is to the tale of Godgifu (“Lady Godiva”), Leofric of Mercia, and Peeping
Tom. Although Tom is probably a creature of folktale, Godgifu and Leofric were real and lived in the early-to-
mid twelfth century. Tom’s violation of tabu is Thompson theme C943; Lot’s wife is C961.1.
2.!In LXX also in Gen. 12:20, 14:14 (LXX reads “Lot his brother’s kinsman” for MT “his nephew”), 19:25 (in
LXXA), although LXX omits the explicity mention in 19:26

unrelated to Amnon and so free to marry her half brother). If this is true, it would imply that
Tamar was her older child and Absalom the younger. It is interesting that Maacah is the only
wife, other than Bathsheba, who is said to have born David two children. 2!Sam. 3:3; 1!Ch. 3:2
!.
MAACAH 2. The wife of REHOBOAM and the mother of ABIJAM, kings of Judah. She was
the daughter of “Abishalom,” usually identified with ABSALOM (1!Kings 15:2; 2 Ch. 11:20;
Josephus — Ant VIII.x.1 — makes her the daughter of Absalom’s daughter TAMAR 3, while
2!Ch. 13:2 calls her “Micaiah” and makes her the daughter of an otherwise-unknown Uriah of
Gibeah). Although she was not the mother of Rehoboam’s oldest son, that king gave the throne
to her child because of his love for her.1 She is also called the mother of Abijam’s “son” Asa (1
Kings 15:10; 2 Ch. 15:16); either Asa was Abijam’s brother rather than his son, or the text is
disturbed. It is reported in this place that she was an idolator (1 Kings 15:13); it may be that her
family had preserved a tradition of worshipping the Geshurite deities. 1!Kings. 15:2, 10, 13;2
2!Ch. 11:20–22, 15:16 (?) !.
Maaseiah: Work of Yah[weh]. LXX I--4-&-#=Maasaias;3 Josephus (Ant IX.xii.1)
K?-4&-#=Amasia(s). A son of AHAZ king of Judah. He was slain by Zichri the Ephraimite during
Ahaz’s war with Israel and Syria. 2!Ch. 28:7 !.
Maath: NT I--+.4 According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:26
!.
Machir: Bought (as an orphan). LXX I-N&!. One of the sons of MANASSEH 1. His clan settled
in Gilead, and seems to have included most of the more important Manassites living in Gilead.
Gen. 50:23;5 Num. 26:29, 27:1, 32:39–40, 36:1; Deut. 3:15; Josh. 13:31, 17:1, 3; Judges 5:14;
1!Ch. 2:21, 23, 7:14–17 !.
Madai: Middle? (the name is probably not Hebrew). LXX I-9-&. The third son of JAPHETH, and
the ancestor of the Medes. The Medes lived in the region south of the Caspian Sea (roughly
modern Azerbaijan). The Medes as a people are referred to fairly regularly, e.g. 2 Kings 17:6,
18:11, Ezra 6:2, Esther 1:3, 14, 18, 19, Isa. 13:17, 21:2; Jer. 25:25, 51:11, 28; Dan. 5:28, 31, 6:8,
15, 8:20, 9:1, 11:1; Acts 2:9; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 3:1, 14, 6:23; Tobit 1:16–18, 3:7, 4:1,
21, 5:2–11, 6:6, 10, 9:3, 5, 11:19, 14:6, 14–16; 1 Macc. 6:55, 8:8, 14:1, 2. They, along with the
Babylonians, were responsible for they destruction of the Assyrian Empire. The Medes then
1.!So 2 Ch. 11:21-22; LXX of 2 Sam. 14:27- (discussing the children of Absalom) tells this of Absalom’s daughter
Tamar 3, not Maacah (this confusion may also have something to do with Josephus’s apparently conflate
reading). For additional details, see the entry on Absalom on page 77.
2.!“Maacah” is the reading of MT; in 15:10, 13 LXXA and Origen’s text have “Maacha,” but LXX\ Lucian read
“Ana” (Hannah?).
3.!I--4-&-#=Maasaias is the reading of LXXB (followed by NETS); LXXA has I-4&-#=Masias; the Complutensian
text reads K?-4&-#=Amasias
4.!for I--+=Maath, found in ‫ א‬B L etc., ന4 Y ƒ13 892 1241 read I--0=Maat
5.!Also twice in Gen. 46:20- LXX (an expanded form of 1 Ch. 7:14)

formed an empire of their own, but it was quickly destroyed by Cyrus “the Great” of Persia.
Gen. 10:2; 1!Ch. 1:5 !.
Magog. LXX I-6D6. The second son of JAPHETH. He was the ancestor of a European
tribe, thought by some to be the Scythians (who raided the Palestinian coast c. 630–625). But
Magog has never been certainly identified. The name seems to have functioned as a title for any
people that needed to be prophesied against (Ezek. 38:2, 39:6; Rev. 20:8). Often mentioned in
connection with “Gog,” a person or people of similar evil habits (Ezek. 38:2–3, 14–18, 39:1, 11;
Rev. 20:8; see the entry on Gyges on p. 319). Gen. 10:2; 1!Ch. 1:5 !.
M a h a l a l e l : G o d S h i n e s Fo r t h . L X X / N T I-%*%*;% 1 = M a l e l e e l ; Jo s e p h u s
I-%-%;8#=Malael(os). The son of KENAN the grandson of SETH. According to MT and the
Samaritan Version, he was sixty-five when his son JARED was born; LXX and Josephus give his
age as 165. He died at the age of 895. Gen. 5:12–17; 1!Ch. 1:2, Luke 3:37 (where NRSV reads
“Mahalaleel,” which is closer to the Greek anyway) !.
Mahalath: A musical term (cf. Psalms 53, 88 titles). LXX I8%%-+=Mollath (or variants
thereupon). The first wife of REHOBOAM the first king of Judah. (He had seventeen others.) She
was the daughter of JERIMOTH, an illegitimate son of DAVID, and of ABIHAIL, the daughter of
ELIAB, David’s brother. She bore three sons, but none of them had any impact on the history of
Judah, for Rehoboam awarded the throne to ABIJAM, the oldest son of his beloved wife Maacah 2
daughter of ABSALOM. 2!Ch. 11:18 !.
Mahlon: Wasting. LXX I--%D5=Maalon; Josephus (Ant V.ix.1) I-%-D58#=Malaon(os).
The older son of ELIMELECH and NAOMI. His brother was CHILION. He was the first husband of
RUTH, and died childless in the land of Moab. (According to the Targum of Ruth, this was to
punish him for the crime of marrying a foreign woman.) The name, like many details of the
story of Ruth, is probably invented. Ruth 1:2, 5, 4:9, 10 !.
Malchiah: Yah[weh] is King. LXX I*%N&8#=Melchios. A son of ZEDEKIAH the last king of
Judah (or perhaps of JOSIAH or even JEHOIAKIM? — he is called simply the “king’s son”). Our
only mention of him comes from Jeremiah, but if he was indeed of the royal family, he
presumably was slain, along with his brothers, by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon after the fall
of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:7). Jer. 38:62 !.
Malchishua: Yah[weh] is the Wealthy King ? LXX I*%N&4-=Melchisa; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.6)
I*%N&48#=Melchis(os). The third son of SAUL, slain with his father and two older brothers at the
battle of Mt. Gilboa (1000 B.C.E.?). 1!Sam. 14:49, 31:2; 1!Ch. 8:33, 9:39, 10:2 !.
M a n a s s e h : C a u s i n g Fo r g e t f u l n e s s. L X X I-5-44;; Jo s e p h u s ( A n t I I . v i . 1 )
I-5-44;#=Manass(es).
MANASSEH 1. The older son of JOSEPH 1, born in Egypt. He was the son of Asenath the
daughter of Potiphera the priest of On (Gen. 41:50–52). The boy was given his name because his
birth helped Joseph to forget his ties to his family in Canaan (Gen. 41:51). Although he was the
1.!In Luke, ‫ *א‬A N ƒ13 read I*%*%*;%=Melaleel, for I-%*%*;%=Malaleel,

2.!Note that this verse is Jer. 45:6 LXX

grandson rather than the son of JACOB 1, Jacob granted Manasseh the right to be a tribe of Israel
as part of the blessing of Joseph (Gen. 48:5). Yet Jacob predicted that Joseph’s younger son,
EPHRAIM, would always be greater than Manasseh, and gave Ephraim the greater blessing (Gen.
48:17–20).
The tribe of Manasseh was granted lands on both sides of the Jordan. The region east of
the Jordan was in Bashan, north of the land of Gad. The other half of the tribe settled just
across the river from this region, north of Ephraim (Josh. 17:1–13). Thus the heart of the later
nation of Israel was in Manasseh, but the tribe also included land on the frontier. The part of the
tribe which lived east of the Jordan was probably destroyed very early, but refugees from the
western portion seem to have survived in Judah after the destruction of Israel (2!Ch. 15:9).
The greatest of the men of Manasseh was probably Gideon (Judges 6:15); Jephthah may
also have been a Manassite (Judges 11:1). But the kings of Israel did not come from Manasseh.
References to Manasseh the man are in Gen. 41:50–52, 46:20, 48:1–20, 50:23; Num.
26:28–29, 27:1, 32:39–41, 36:1; Deut. 3:14; Josh. 13:31, 17:1–3; 1!Kings 4:13; 1!Ch. 7:14, 17 !.
MANASSEH 2. The thirteenth king of Judah, the son of HEZEKIAH. He came to the throne
at the age of twelve, and reigned for longer than any other king of Judah — fifty-five years1 (this
is corrected to about forty-five years by many historians; others postulate a co-regency of about
ten years with his father — possibly beginning shortly after Hezekiah’s near-fatal illness).2 But it
was an exceedingly evil reign. Manasseh desecrated the temple (2!Kings 21:4), persecuted the
prophets, worshipped Baals, and even burned his son as a sacrifice (2!Kings 21:6). Indeed, he was
so evil that the writer of Kings attributes the fall of Jerusalem to his activities (2!Kings 23:26,
24:3). According to Chronicles, he was taken captive by the Assyrian Emperor and forced to
repent (2!Ch. 33:10–13). The beautiful apocryphal Psalm “The Prayer of Manasseh” is based on
this story. But it almost certainly did not happen. Manasseh may well have paid state visits to
Assyria — the Emperor often required his subjects’s presence as a sign of loyalty (indeed,
Assyrian records mention that Manasseh was summoned by Ashurbanipal to swear fealty to his
heir) — but Manasseh was so completely an Assyrian puppet that his throne can hardly have
been in danger. 2!Kings 20:21–21:18, 20, 23:12, 26, 24:3; 1!Ch. 3:13; 2!Ch. 32:33–33:20, 33:22,
23; Jer. 15:4; Matt. 1:10 !.
MANASSEH 3. The husband of Judith in the apocryphal book of the same name (not to be
confused with any of the above, since Judith is a highly inaccurate piece of fiction). Judith 8:2,
16:22 !.
Mary: NT I-!&-?=Mariam or I-!&-#=Maria(s). Greek form of “Miriam.” The mother of
JESUS and the wife of JOSEPH 2. Her other children were JAMES, JOSES, SIMON, JUDAS, and at
least two daughters (Matt. 13:55, Mark 6:33). She seems to have been a Levite (not a descendent
of David!), since she was a relative of ELISABETH, a known Levite (Luke 1:6, 36). There are many
1.!“fifty-five” is the reading of 2 Kings 21:1 MT LXXB Lucian; LXXA LXXN+V read “fifty”
2.!Although there is no direct evidence for this in the Bible, a co-regency would explain why Manasseh was only
twelve when he became king. The Rabbis struggled with this problem, resorting to a complicated fairy tale about
Hezekiah’s childlessness.

legends told about Mary, asserting for instance that she was herself the daughter of a virgin (see
the Excursus below) and that she was carried up to heaven alive. But all we know from the Bible
are the following facts: Mary was not an overprotective mother (Luke 2:41–50); she understood
something of her son’s power (Luke 2:51; John 2:1–11), but did not believe in Jesus’s mission
(Matt. 12:46–50; Mark 3:31–35; Luke 8:4–8); she was alive at the time of Jesus’s crucifixion, and
was present at Golgotha (John 19:25–27). She probably (but not quite certainly) became a
believer after her son’s death (Acts 1:14). Matt. 1:16, 18–25, 2:11, 13:55; Mark 6:3; Luke 1:27–
56, 2:5–51; (John 2:1ƒ, 19:25ƒ., etc.), Acts 1:14 !.
Excursus: The Birth of Mary

Although the New Testament treats Mary with great respect, information about her is quite
limited. Even the Virgin Birth isn’t really stressed; Mark and John don’t mention it at all, Luke
says that Mary was a virgin at the time she was betrothed to Joseph but does not (quite) say that
she remained one; only Matthew offers an explicit miracle. And Matthew, Mark, and John have
no information about her prior to her betrothal, and not even Luke has information about her
ancestry.
So where did the claim that Mary was born of the Holy Spirit come from?
From a non-canonical gospel, that's where. To be specific, the Protevangelium Jacobi, or Infancy
Gospel of James.
There is significant dispute about this book. It seems to have been known as early as the time
of Origen (who mentions, not entirely approvingly, the idea that some wished to promote the
notion of Mary’s perpetual virginity). It has at least three different chapter-and-verse systems. It
was probably written in Greek, but some have argued for Hebrew or other languages. It claims to
be by James — but seems ignorant of Palestinian geography. A few scholars have dated it to the
first century, although most prefer the late second century; some have preferred later dates (the
earliest manuscript is from around 300 C.E.)
The book begins with the story of the birth of Mary. Mary’s mother is Anna (an interesting
name, since Anna is the Greek form of Hannah, and in 1 Samuel 1, Hannah is barren until she
visits the temple and prays for a child; in due time, she bears Samuel). Anna is married to
Joachim. We are told that both are righteous and chaste, and are ashamed at the fact that they
have no children. Finally, Joachim goes out into the desert to pray, while Anna prays at home.
While they are separated, an angel appears to each. It promises Anna that she will have a
daughter. But it is the annunciation to Joachim which is really interesting. Some manuscripts give
the declaration to Joachim as “Joachim, Joachim, the Lord God has heard your prayer. Go down;
behold, your wife Anna has conceived.” Others say Anna “shall conceive.” Thus there is strong
dispute over whether she already is, or simply will become, pregnant. Most recent editions prefer
the reading “has conceived.”
It should be noted that none of this bears any real connection to Hebrew law. Virginity is
valued, of course, but not celibacy. Once Mary and Joseph were betrothed, there was no reason

for them not to sleep together. Indeed, having children approached the status of duty. But there
were a number of early Christian sects (all of them, of course, extinct) which believed all sex to
be evil. Evidently our author was of that school. The obsession with virginity continues
throughout the Protevangelium:
At the age of three, Mary is consigned to the Temple, where she stays until she reaches
menarche at age twelve. Since menstruation is ritually impure, she then has to leave. By lot,
Joseph is assigned to be her husband — even though, in this account, he is already old and has
children and is afraid of being a laughing-stock. But he is convinced to accept Mary as his wife.
Then Mary gets pregnant.
To repeat, there is no reason under Jewish law why she shouldn’t be pregnant; she is
betrothed. But that’s too simple for our author, since he and we know that she is pregnant by the
Holy Spirit. So he contrives to have Mary’s virginity tested, claiming that she and Joseph had
been separated for months. And, yes, she’s still a virgin. And, after Jesus is born, a woman named
Salome checks — and, yes, Mary is still a virgin.
There are other interesting details in this book, e.g. it claims that Elisabeth and John the
Baptist were divinely hidden from Herod’s wrath at the time of the Massacre of the Innocents,
but that Zacharias was executed at that time.
Of course, the mere fact that an extra-canonical book with a radical view of sexuality said
that Mary, like Jesus, was born of a virgin didn’t make it church doctrine. Other than the
Protevangelium, I don’t know of any other early Church Father who even discusses the matter.
Still, veneration of “Saint Anne,” the mother of Jesus, began at least as early as the reign of
Justinian.
This even though the tale has real historical problems. If we accept that Jesus was probably
born in 6 B.C.E., and that Mary was perhaps fifteen at the time, then Mary was born in about 21
B.C.E. This would be in the High Priesthood of Simon son of Boethus, or just possibly Ananelus.
But the apocryphal tales say it was in the High Priesthood of “Issachar.”
There are sidelights on this. The “N Town” mystery play of “The Woman Taken in
Adultery,” e.g. has a scribe declare the Jesus was “of a shepherd’s daughter born.”
This sort of speculation was not confined to Mary’s birth. The Golden Legend of the Middle
Ages argues, e.g. that Mary was not bound by the ritual law of purification for mothers, “because
it was not by receiving seed that she conceived.” But it adds that she was purified, according to
the law, for four reasons. It also mentions a hypothesis that she gave away all the gold she was
given by the Magi.
The subject of Mary’s origin began to be an issue around the turn of the second millennium
C.E., but was then still a matter of debate. The Catholic Church finally made its decision in 1854.
In that year, Pope Pius IX formally issued the Definition of the Immaculate Conception of the
Virgin Mary.
Mattatha: NT I-00-+-, a Greek form of Hebrew Mattan, “Gift.” According to Luke, an
ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. He was the son of David’s son Nathan. He is the only

grandson of David that we know of other than REHOBOAM (we do know of some daughters of
Solomon and some — somewhat hypothetical — [[children of Absalom]]). Luke 3:31 !.
Mattathias: NT I-00-+&-#, Greek form of Hebrew Mattathiah, “Gift of Yah[weh].” Not to be
confused with the father of Judas Maccabeus and his brothers.
MATTATHIAS 1. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke
3:26 !.
MATTATHIAS 2. A descendent of #1, also an ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Luke
3:25 !.
Matthan: NT I-0+-5, a Greek form of Hebrew Mattan, “Gift.” According to Matthew, an
ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Matt. 1:15 !.
Matthat: I-0+-5/I-++-5, a Greek form of Hebrew Mattan, “Gift.”
MATTHAT 1. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:291 !.
MATTHAT 2. According to Luke, a descendent of #1, and the grandfather of JOSEPH (#2).
Luke 3:242 !.
Mehujael: God is Combating? LXX I-&;%=Maiel. The son of IRAD, and hence the great-
grandson of CAIN. Gen. 4:18 !.
Melchi: NT I*%N(*)&, from Hebrew Melech, “King.”
MELCHI 1. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:28 !.
MELCHI 2. A descendent of #1, and another ancestor of JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS. Luke
3:24 !.
Melea: NT I*%*-. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:31 !.
M e n a h e m : C o m f o r t e r . L X X I-5-;?= M a n a e m ; Jo s e p h u s ( A n t I X . x i . 1 )
I-5-;?8#=Manaem(os). The sixteenth King of Israel. He was the son of GADI. Menahem’s
predecessor SHALLUM 2 had come to the throne by killing ZECHARIAH 1 son of JEROBOAM II;
Menahem followed suit by murdering Shallum a month later. Menahem’s reign was violent — he
suppressed a rebellion by killing all the pregnant women in the city (2!Kings 15:16)3 — but his
kingdom was secure, for he became an Assyrian tributary (2!Kings 15:19; his accession may be
the event that underlies Hos. 14:3).4 Indeed, he may have been placed on the throne as an
Assyrian puppet. He may not have controlled the Trans-Jordan; that region was probably under
the control of PEKAH. Menahem’s sins were visited on his son PEKAHIAH, who was murdered
shortly after coming to the throne. 2!Kings 15:14–23 !.
1.!For “Matthat” A K P 33 565 read “Matthath”; N G ƒ1 q read “Matthan.”

2.!“Matthat” is the reading of A B E J 892 pm; K L M* N U X M Y ƒ1 ƒ13 700 1241 pm have “Matthan,” as in Matt.
1:15; ന4 (‫ )א‬read “Matthath:; 33 al have ”Mattha”; many other readings are known.
3.!The details of this event are obscure; MT places it at Tipshah (NIV NRSV TNIV), but there was no such place
(known) in Israel (the name was used for Thapsacus on the Euphrates). LXXB reads, more logically,
Y*!4-=Thersa (Tirzah, formerly the Israelite capitol “Thersa” is also the reading of Vg); LXXA has
“Thaira” (otherwise unknown, and probably an error); Lucian (followed by RSV NEB AB NJB NAB REB NLT) reads
“Tappuah”; JB (by error?) reads “Tappush”
4.!But cf. the entry on Hoshea 2, p. 122.

Menna: NT I*55-. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:311
!.
Mephibosheth: Utterance of Shame; the original form was probably Mephibaal, “utterance of Baal,” or
p e r h a p s ( s o 1 C h . 8 : 3 4 ) M e r i b a a l . L X X I*?P&&)84+;= M e m p h i b o s t h e ( L u c i a n
I*?P&)--%=Memphibaal); Josephus (Ant VII.v.5) I*?P&)84+8#=Memphibosth(os)
MEPHIBOSHETH 1. A son of SAUL by his concubine RIZPAH. DAVID conveniently allowed
the Gibeonites to kill him, along with his brother ARMONI and the five sons of MERAB the
daughter of Saul. This was in retaliation for Saul’s mistreatment of the Gibeonites (2!Sam. 21:1–
14. Of course, one must always suspect that David’s real reason was to eliminate potential rivals
for the throne). 2!Sam. 21:8 !.
MEPHIBOSHETH 2. The son of JONATHAN 2, and the only grandchild of SAUL whose name
we know. (He was probably the only legitimate grandchild by a male line.) He was five years old
when his father and grandfather were slain at the battle of Mt. Gilboa. His nurse dropped him
while carrying him away to hide him, and he was lame in both legs for the rest of his life (2!Sam.
4:1–4). After a few years he was presented to DAVID by Ziba, a former servant of Saul. And
David cared for Mephibosheth, perhaps partly to keep a watch on him (he was the grandson of a
former king, after all), but mostly because he was Jonathan’s son. And Mephibosheth ate at
David’s table, while Ziba cared for the family lands (2!Sam. 9:1–13).
Mephibosheth did not repay David’s trust very well. At the time of Absalom’s rebellion,
he probably hoped to be made king. But nothing came of that — Mephibosheth was crippled,
and a crippled king could not lead an army. And so David forgave him (although he formally
gave Mephibosheth’s lands to Ziba — 2!Sam. 16:1–4), for Mephibosheth had covered his bets
very well (2!Sam. 19:24–30): David spared Mephibosheth, his son Micah, and grandsons by
Micah (2!Sam. 9:12; 1!Ch. 8:35, 9:41) when he gave the descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites
(2!Sam. 21:1–7). 2!Sam. 4:1–4, 9:1–13, 16:1–4, 19:24–30, 21:7 !.
Merab: Increase. LXX I*!8)=Merob; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.6) I*!8);=Merob(e). The older of
SAUL’S two daughters (MICHAL being the younger). She was originally promised to DAVID, but
Saul gave her to Adriel the Meholathite. They had five sons, but all of them were slain by David
to appease the Gibeonites (2!Sam. 21:1–9 NRSV).2 1!Sam. 14:49, 18:17–19;3 (2!Sam. 21:8) !.
Meraioth: Rebellious. LXX I-!&;%=Mariel4. A descendent of AARON and PHINEHAS 1, and
an ancestor of ZADOK 1 and EZRA. 1 Ch. 6:6–7. Perhaps also 1 Ch. 9:11, Neh. 11:11, in which
case his non-Zadokite descendents became stewards and priests in the Temple. Against this must
1.!Menna is the reading of ന4 ‫ א‬B L X ƒ13 33 157 892 1241; J ƒ1 have “Menan”; E G K M / Byz (followed by KJV)
read I-&5-5=Mainan/Menan; A omits the name entirely
2.!MT says that these were the children of Michal; see the note on Michal on p. 171.
3.!LXXB omits these verses.
4.!LXXA apparently “Amariah”

be set the weakness of the evidence for Meraioth’s very existence, and the fact that Zadok may
not have been a true Aaronite. 1 Ch. 6:6–7, 52; Ezra 7:31 !.
Merari: Bitterness (or perhaps from Egyptian: Beloved). LXX I*!-!&; Josephus (Ant II.vii.4)
I-!-&!8#=Marair(os). Not to be confused with the father of Judith in the Apocrypha (Judith 8:1,
16:6). The third and youngest son of LEVI 1. His sons were Mahli and Mushi. According to the
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.7, he was born when his father was forty, and was given
his name because his mother had hard labour. His family, the Merarites, were in charge of the
transportation of the various poles and supports of the tent of meeting (Num. 3:33–37, 4:29–33).
Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16, 19; Num. 3:17, 20, 33–37, 4:29–33, 42–45, 7:8, 10:17, 26:57; Josh. 21:7,
34, 40; 1!Ch. 6:1, 16, 19, 29, 44, 47, 63, 77, 9:14, 15:6, 17, 23:6, 21, 24:26–27, 26:10, 19; 2!Ch.
29:12, 34:12; Ezra 8:19 !.
Meshech. LXX I848N=Mosoch. The sixth son of JAPHETH. It is not clear what people he
represents. In 1!Ch. 1:17, he is (perhaps) listed as a son of Shem. Gen. 10:2; 1!Ch. 1:5; the nation
is mentioned in Psalm 120:5, Ezek. 27:13, 32:26, 38:2, 3, 39:1 !.
Meshullemeth: Restitution, Replacement of [the] Lost [child]. LXX I*48%%-?=Mesollam.2 The
daughter of Haruz of Jotbah. She was the wife of MANASSEH 2 and the mother of AMON, kings
of Judah. 2!Kings 21:19 !.
Methuselah: Man of the Javelin, or perhaps Worshipper of Selah. LXX/NT I-+8E4-%-
=Mathousala; Josephus I-+8E4-%-#=Mathousala(s). The son of ENOCH and grandfather of
NOAH. He lived to be 969, older than any other figure in the Bible, outliving his son LAMECH 2
who by all accounts but the Samaritan was born when his father was 187) by five years. He died,
according to MT, in the year of the flood. (LXX records the even stranger fact that Methuselah
lived until fourteen years after the flood. The Samaritan text, by contrast, has Methuselah, his
grandfather JARED, and his son Lamech — born, in this account, when his father was 67 — all
die in the year of the flood.) Gen. 5:21–27; 1 Ch. 1:3, Luke 3:37 !.
Methushael: Perhaps a distorted Akkadian form of “Man of God.” LXX
I-+8E4-%-=Mathousala (yes, Methushael and Methuselah have the same name in LXX) The
grandson of IRAD the grandson of CAIN. He was the father of LAMECH 1. Gen. 4:18 !.
Michael: “Who is like God?” LXX I&N-;%. One of the younger sons of JEHOSHAPHAT 1 king
of Judah. He was slain by his older brother JEHORAM 2 when Jehoram became king of Judah
(849 B.C.E.?). 2!Ch. 21:2, 4 !.
Michal: Perhaps a contracted form of “Who is like God.” LXX I*%N8%=Melchol; Josephus (Ant
VI.vi.6) I&N--%=Michaal, (Ant VII.i.4) I*%N-%;#=Melchal(es). The younger daughter of SAUL
king of Israel (MERAB being the elder). She was married to DAVID. When David fled from Saul,
1.!LXXA adds the name in 1 Esdras 8:2 in the Apocrypha (paralleling Ezra 7:3), but LXXB omits him along with his
father Zerahiah
2.!LXXA “Massalameith”

she covered for him, because she loved him (1!Sam. 18:10, 19:11–171). Saul then, in effect,
annulled her marriage to David and married her to Palti son of Laish2 (1 Sam. 25:44). When
David became king of Israel, he took Michal away from Palti (2!Sam. 3:13–16) and tried to
renew his relationship with her. But she saw him dancing in a frenzy before God, and despised
him (2!Sam. 6:16). So “Michal the daughter of Saul had no child to the day of her
death” (2!Sam. 6:23. Josephus, on the other hand, explains the confused Hebrew of 2 Sam. 21:8
— which uses the name Michal but may mean Merab3 — by saying that Michal had no sons by
David but five sons by Adriel; Rabbinic tradition says Merab’s children were raised by Michal).
1!Sam. 14:49, 18:20, 27–28, 19:11–17, (21:8?), 25:44; 2!Sam. 3:13–14, 6:16–23; 1!Ch. 15:29 !.
Milcah: Queen (from a title of the Akkad. goddess Ishtar) ? LXX I*%N-=Melcha; Josephus (Ant
I.vi.5) I*%N-#=Melcha(s). One of the two daughters of HARAN the brother of ABRAHAM. She
was the sister of LOT, and became the wife of her uncle NAHOR. Their children were Uz, Buz,
Kemuel, Chesed, Hazo, Pildash, Jidlaph, and BETHUEL (Gen. 22:20–22). Bethuel was the father
of LABAN and REBEKAH. Gen. 11:29, 22:20–23, 24:15, 24, 47 !.
Miriam: Perhaps from Egyptian: “Beloved of Am[on]”; possible Hebrew meanings include “Plump” and
“Desired Child.” LXX I-!&-?; in the NT — where all translations render “Mary” — often
I-!&-#=Maria(s); Josephus (Ant II.ix.4) I-!&-?;=Mariam(m)e. The older sister of MOSES. She
was apparently the child who watched over her brother as he floated down the Nile, and offered
to find a Hebrew wet-nurse for him (Ex. 2:4). She is called a prophetess (Ex. 15:20). She sang a
song of triumph after the crossing of the Red Sea (Ex. 15:21). Later, she and her younger brother
AARON rebelled against Moses, allegedly because he had married a foreigner (Num. 12:1).
Miriam was punished by being stricken with leprosy. And although Moses prayed for her, she was
forced to spend a week outside the camp of the Israelites before she became clean (Num. 12:9–
16). She died while the Israelites were encamped at Kadesh (Num. 20:1). According to Josephus
(Ant III.ii.4), her husband was the Hur mentioned in Ex. 17:10ƒ.; rabbinic tradition makes Hur
her son. A Qumran text says that she had sons Ab… and Sitri (?); the fragmentary Testament of
Amram from the same source says that she was married (at the age of thirty) to her paternal uncle
Uzziel. Ex. (2.4ƒ.), 15:20–21;4 Num. 12:1–16, 20:1, 26:59; Deut. 24:9; 1!Ch. 6:3; Micah 6:4 !.
Mizraim. The original Hebrew which the English versions (e.g. RSV, NRSV) consistently
render as EGYPT (from the Greek name K&6E"08#=Aigyptos).
1.!Some scholars, however, question whether the marriage took place before David’s flight. They argue that the
marriage to Michal is a doublet of David’s marriage to Merab, or vice versa; for this point, see the entry on
David.
2.!“Laish”: So MT LXXA (Josephus); Lucian “Joash” (?); LXXB “Amis”
3.!The reading “Michal” is that of MT LXXA (Vulgate “Michol”) Josephus Origen (LXXB has I&N8%=Michol
instead of Melchol) KJV; MTMSS LXXM LXXN+V Lucian Peshitta Targum read “Merab,” followed by RSV NEB JB
NJB NIV TNIV REB NRSV NLT (NAB “Merob”). If the statement of 2!Sam. 6:23 — that Michal had no children — is
correct, some such emendation is obviously needed, but if the rabbis were right and she had no further children,
then the reading “Michal” is possible. However, it’s hard to believe she had time to have five children in the time
between David’s flight and David’s assumption of power.
4.!Also in LXX of Ex. 6:20.

Moab: Popularly “(Son of) my Father.” LXX ID-); Josephus (Ant I.xi.5) ID-)8#=Moab(os).
When LOT and his daughters fled from Sodom, it appeared to the daughters that most of
humanity had been destroyed, and that they could not get husbands. So the daughters made their
father drunk, and lay with him. The older daughter lay with her father on the first night, and
conceived and bore Moab. (The child of the younger daughter, conceived the next night, was
BEN-AMMI, the ancestor of the Ammonites.) The Moabites, a people who lived across the Dead
Sea from Judah (and just south of the tribe of Reuben) were considered to be descended from
Moab. The low opinion the Israelites had of the Moabites can be seen by the baseness of this
ancestry — although it should be noted that a man who is so drunk that he cannot recognize his
own daughters is also too drunk to perform sexually. Make of that what you will. Moab the man
is mentioned only in Gen. 19:37; references to the nation descended from him are numerous in
the Old Testament.
Moses: Hebrew “Moshe,” traditionally “Drawer out,” but probably a contraction of Egyptian •••mose:
Son of [some god]; compare the Egyptian names Thutmose, Rameses, etc.). Josephus (Ant II.ix.6) derives the
name from the Egyptian words for “Saved from the water.” LXX/Josephus IDE4;4=Mouses. Another
character whose story cannot possibly be told in complete detail, for it is described in Ex. 1–19,
24, 32, Num. 10–36, and Deut. 34, while his speeches occupy the rest of Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy. He is traditionally considered to be the author of these four books,
as well as the book of Genesis (so, e.g. the Book of Jubilees — from about the second century B.C.E.
— and Josephus). He also receives credit for some calendar reform (Ant I.iii.3). It should be noted,
however, that no serious modern Biblical scholar believes that the Pentateuch is the sole work of a
single author. Nor did the son of Sirach unequivocally describe him as author of the Pentateuch
in the biography in Sirach 45:1–5. A brief sketch of his life is as follows:
Moses’s early history was the stuff of legends. He was born while the Israelites were in Egypt.
It was a time of oppression, and Pharoah had ordered all Hebrew boys to be killed at birth.
Josephus — Ant II.ix.2 — credits this to a diviner’s prophecy that one of the Hebrews would
humble Egypt. Pharaoh undertook to prevent this by slaughtering the children. Moses’s parents
saved him by setting him afloat in the Nile (Ex. 2:1–4).1 Pharoah’s daughter drew the boat from
the river, and raised the child as her own (Ex. 2:5–10). He is reported to have been a very mature
and handsome child (Ant II.ix.6). Indeed, Jewish legend has it that Moses was almost adopted as
Pharaoh’s heir (Ant II.ix.7, but the idea is almost impossible under Egyptian law). He is also
credited with successfully leading Pharaoh’s armies against Ethiopia (Ant II.x.1ƒ.). This is how he
acquired his “Cushite (Ethiopian) wife” (cf. Num. 12:1).
When Moses was forty years old, he saw an Egyptian beating an Israelite. He killed the
Egyptian. But the next day he found out that the Israelite had talked of the affair. And Moses fled
Egypt in fear (Ex. 2:11–15). He came to a tribe of Midianites in Sinai, where he took a wife,
1.!The statement that Moses was set adrift is also supported by the “Western” text of Stephen’s speech in Acts 7:21
(so D E w hark** mae); the common text of ‫ א‬A B C 81 1175 1739 Byz NRSV simply says that Moses was
“abandoned.”

ZIPPORAH, and had two sons, GERSHOM and ELIEZER (Ex. 2:21–22, 18:4). But after forty years of
life as a simple herdsman, God appeared to him. Moses learned that he was to rescue his people
(Ex. 3).
Moses didn’t want the job. He offered every excuse he could think of (Ex. 4:1–17). But God
answered them all, and told Moses to go meet his brother AARON. So Moses left his family and
returned to Egypt (Ex. 4:18–23). And Moses and Aaron went before Pharoah, demanding that
the Israelites be freed. Pharoah refused, and God brought many plagues down on Pharoah —
plagues of blood in Egypt’s waters, of frogs, of gnats, of flies; a plague that killed cattle, a plague
of boils, and a storm of hail; plagues of locusts and darkness, and the smiting of all the firstborn
children of Egypt (Ex. 7:14–12:32). And Pharoah let the Israelites go, but then chose to pursue
them. To save his people, Moses parted the Sea of Reeds, only to close it again upon Pharoah’s
army (Ex. 14:10–30). So Israel came safely into the wilderness. (I suppose it should be noted that
an anti-Jewish legend has it that Moses led the Exodus not because God told him to, but because
he was a leper who brought other lepers from Egypt. For this story cf. Ant III.xi.4; also Against
Apion I.28ƒ., especially I.31.1)
But Israel turned rebellious. Although God had given them his help, and now offered to make
a covenant with them, the people “murmured” against God. So only Moses was allowed to speak
to God. And even he was told that he would not be allowed to enter the promised land, but
would die first (Num. 20:12). Moses led the people for forty years in the wilderness, and set them
firmly on their way into Canaan. Then he was taken to the top of Mt. Nebo, where he saw all
the land of Canaan, and died (so Deut. 34; there are legends — e.g. in Ant IV.viii.47 — that he
was taken up to heaven alive. Josephus explains the discrepancy with the Biblical account by
saying that Moses himself wrote the end of Deuteronomy, expecting to die rather than be
translated).2 He promised that another prophet like him would arise, but it would be a long time
indeed before one did (Deut. 18:15–16, 34:10–12).
Moses was the son of AMRAM the grandson of LEVI 1 and of JOCHEBED the daughter of Levi.
His brother was Aaron the high priest; his sister was MIRIAM the prophetess. His sons GERSHOM
and ELIEZER were nonetheless considered to be ordinary Levites. Moses was “the meekest of all
1.!Earlier, in Apion I.26, Josephys gives what (he claims) is Manetho’s account of the Exodus, in which Moses’s use-
name is given as “Osarsiph” (Joseph?). This account has substantial similarities to that in the Bible; it dates the
Exodus to the time of Amenophis (=Amenhotep III, 1401-1364 ?), but Josephus corrects this to place the Exodus
in the time of Thutmosis!(I, 1526-1518? — a date before that proposed even by the most conservative historians).
Other sources, including Tacitus (Histories V.3) and the sources cited in Apion I.34, II.2, agree with the story of the
leprous Jews but date the Exodus to the time of Pharaoh Bochorus (c. 720 B.C.E.)!
2.!Legends about the death of Moses are numerous. The story about whether he or Aaron would be carried to
heaven first is told in the entry on Aaron. The Talmud has an interesting tale of Moses’s own end. When it came
time for Moses to die, Samael, or Satan, appealed to God to be allowed to take Moses away. God, in effect, told
Satan to go ahead and try. Satan had various ways of extracting souls — through the ears, eyes, feet, hands, etc.
But Moses’s ears had heard God, and his eyes had seen the burning bush, and his hands had held the Torah, and
so forth; there was so much of God about Moses that he was easily able to drive off Satan. Satan went back to
God, asking for help, and was scorned. In anger, Satan went out to look for Moses again — but God soon after
took Moses’s soul to glory, and Satan was unable to find him; bound in hell, he is looking to this day.

men” (Num. 12:3), yet because of his contact with God his very face came to shine (Ex. 34:29–
35). “Moses was a hundred and twenty years old when he died; his eye was not dim, nor his
natural force abated” (Deut. 34:7).
Other interesting events in Moses’s life include the burning bush (Ex. 3:1–14); the first
Passover (Ex. 12:1–27); the giving of quail and manna (Ex. 16); water from the rock at Massah
(Ex. 17:1–7) and at Meribah (Num. 20:2–13); the Ten Commandments (Ex. 20:1–17; Deut. 5);
the golden calf (Ex. 32); the two censuses of Israel (Num. 1:17–46, 26:5–51); the rebellion of
Aaron and Miriam (Num. 12); the spies sent to Canaan (Num. 13–14); the rebellion of KORAH,
Dathan, and Abiram (Num. 16); the conquest of Sihon and Og (Num. 21); the selection of
Joshua as Moses’s successor (Num. 27:12–23); and Moses’s last speeches (Deut. 1–33).
The question of whether or not Moses is a historical figure, and to what extent, has often
been debated — for he lived half a millenium before the first stories were written about him, and
large parts of the Bible (including parts of the Pentateuch, for instance Ex. 15:21 and the ancient
creeds which G. von Rad found in Deut. 26:5–10, Josh. 21:43–45, 24:16–18) ignore him and
mention only Yahweh. But most scholars agree that such a major figure could hardly be fictitious.
Moses’s actual exploits will probably always remain uncertain; it is obvious that he did not write
the Pentateuch, and most of the laws it contains date from times later than his. Yet he somehow
took a disorganized bunch of Egyptian slaves and turned them into God’s chosen people.
Whoever he was, wherever he came from, he was (with God’s help) clearly a very great man.
Excursus: Moses and Other Abandoned Children

The tale of the Birth and Abandonment of Moses is typical of folklore — although the twist
of having his own mother as nurse is unusual. Apart from that, similar stories of miraculous
rescues of infants are common. In this book we have the story of Cyrus “the Great” on p. 313
and that of Romulus on p. 372. The well-known Greek myth of Œdipus also has connections
with the story of Moses, and Beowulf opens with the tale of Scyld Scefing:
although a foundling at first
for that came a cure as his craft grew (lines 7-8).
Indeed, the idea of a “Future hero found in a boat (basket, bushes)” is sufficiently widespread
that Stith Thompson made it motif L111.2.1 in his classification of folktale elements.
But the story which is closest to that in the Bible comes from the Middle East. It is told of
Sargon of Akkad, who built an empire in Mesopotamia around 2400 B.C.E. According to this
account, the baby Sargon was found in the river, entered the service of the king of Kish, rose to
be his vizier, overthrew him, and took over the world. He reigned for some fifty-six years. The city
and empire that Sargon founded, known as Akkad or Agade, came to be so powerful that its very
language (Akkadian) was called after it. Akkadian remained the official language of diplomacy
for centuries after the end of Sargon’s dynasty — indeed, after the death of Akkadian as a spoken

language. Even as late as the fourteenth century B.C.E. the chieftains of Palestine were writing to
their Egyptian overlord in (abominably bad) Akkadian (the “Amarna Letters”).
Naamah: Pleasant, Sweet.
NAAMAH 1. LXX X8*?-=Noema. The daughter of LAMECH (#1) by his wife ZILLAH.
While her brothers JABAL, JUBAL, and TUBAL-CAIN all represented occupations, she seems to have
had none. Gen. 4:22 !.
NAAMAH 2. LXX X--?-;1 Josephus (Ant VIII.viii.1) X88?-#=Nooma(s). An Ammonite
woman, one of Solomon’s many wives, the mother of REHOBOAM the first king of Judah. 1!Kings
14:21, 31; 2!Ch. 12:13 !.
Nachor: see NAHOR.
Nadab: [Yahweh is] Willing.
N ADAB 1. LXX X-9-); Josephus (Ant III.vii.1, with LXX manuscripts)
X-9-)8#=Nadab(os). The first-born son of AARON. He was slain, along with his brother ABIHU,
for offering “unholy fire” before God (Lev. 10:1–3; Num. 3:4, 26:61). He died before his father,
and left no descendants. He was one of the group of seventy that went up with Moses and Aaron
to eat and talk with God (Ex. 24:1–2, 9–11). Ex. 6:23, 24:1, 9, 28:1; Lev. 10:1; Num. 3:2–4,
26:60–61; 1!Ch. 6:3, 24:1–2 !.
NADAB 2. LXX X-9-);2 Josephus (Ant VIII.xi.4) X-9-)8#=Nabad(os). The son of
JEROBOAM I the son of NEBAT, who was the first king of an independent Israel. Nadab succeeded
his father, but was assassinated within two years by BAASHA son of AHIJAH 2. This is attributed to
the fact that Nadab followed all the evil practices of his father. Baasha then made himself king of
Israel, and killed all of Nadab’s relatives that he could find. 1!Kings 14:20,3 15:25–31 !.
Naggai: NT X-66-&. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:25
!.
Nahor: Slayer ? Perhaps from the Assyrian place-name “Til-Nahiri,” “Mound of Nahuru.” Nahur is near
Haran, and is known to have existed by the 18th century B.C.E. LXX X-ND!=Nachor; Josephus (Ant
I.vi.5) X-ND!;#=Nachor(es).
NAHOR 1. The father of TERAH the father of ABRAHAM. According to MT, he was 29
when Terah was born; LXX and the Samaritan Version give his age as 79 and Josephus as 120.
Gen. 11:22–25; 1!Ch. 1:26, Luke 3:34 (KJV “Nachor”) !.
NAHOR 2. The grandson of NAHOR 1. He was the brother of ABRAHAM and of HARAN.
His wife was MILCAH the daughter of his brother HARAN. Their children were Uz, Buz, Kemuel,
Chesed, Hazo, Pildash, Jidlaph, and BETHUEL the father of LABAN and REBEKAH (Gen. 22:20–
23). He also had a concubine, Reumah, who bore him Tebah, Gaham, Tahash, and Maacah. He
lived in Mesopotamia all his life (Gen. 24:10). Gen. 11:26–29, 22:20–23, (24:10), 24:15, 24, 47,
29:5, 31:53; Josh. 24:2 !.
1.!in 2 Chronicles, Nooma; LXXB has I--N-?=Maacham (Maacha) in Kings
2.!LXXB* X-)-0=Nabat, LXXBc X-)-+=Nabath, LXXA X-)-9=Nabad
3.!So MT LXXA; LXXB omits this verse. See the excursus on Two Tales of Jeroboam I, p. 139.

Nahshon: Little Serpent ? LXX/NT X--4D5=Naasson. The son of AMMINADAB and the
brother of ELISHEBA, AARON’S wife. He was the leader of the tribe of Judah during its time in the
wilderness, and presented his tribe’s gifts at the dedication of the tent of meeting (Num. 7:12–
17). His grandson was BOAZ, who was the great-grandfather of DAVID. Num. 1:7, 2:3, 7:12, 17,
10:14; Ruth 4:20; 1!Ch. 2:10–11; Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:32 !.
Nahum: NT X-8E?=Naoum, from Hebrew “Comforter.” Not to be confused with the
prophet of the same name. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:25
!.
Naomi: Pleasant. LXX XD*?&5=Noemin; Josephus (Ant V.ix.1) X--?&5=Naamin. A woman of
Judah, the wife of ELIMELECH. Her children were MAHLON and CHILION; their wives were RUTH
and ORPAH. Her husband and both of her sons died in the land of Moab; she returned to Judah
with her daughter-in-law Ruth. Naomi was saved from adversity through the gentleness of Ruth
and Elimelech’s kinsman BOAZ. The Book of Ruth portrays her as a rather calculating women,
using Ruth as a lure to secure her own happiness, but it is not clear what else she could have
done. Ruth 1:2–4:17 !.
Naphtali: Popularly “Wrestling”; originally probably a place name. LXX X*P+-%*&=Nephthali;
Josephus (Ant I.xix.7) X*P+-%*&#=Nephthali(s) The younger son of JACOB 1 by his concubine
BILHAH, the maid of RACHEL. He was given his name by Rachel because his birth was a sign of
success for Rachel in her battle with LEAH to bear children for Jacob (Gen. 30:7–8). Naphtali was
the ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, but the Bible says nothing else about his
personality or history. His territory was in the northeast part of Canaan, near the Sea of Galilee,
in the area that would later be called Galilee (Josh. 19:32–39). Nazareth, the home of Jesus, was
in the land of Naphtali, near its border with Zebulun (see Isa. 9:1; Matt. 4:15). The most
important Naphtalite was probably Barak (or Deborah — Judges 4). According to the Testaments
of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.1, he lived to the age of 130. References to Naphtali the man are
in Gen. 30:8, 35:25, 46:24, 49:21; Ex. 1:4; 1!Ch. 2:2, 7:13 !.
Nathan: Gift. LXX/Josephus X-+-5; NT X-+-?=Natham.1 A son of DAVID, born in
Jerusalem shortly before the birth of SOLOMON. He was probably named after the prophet
Nathan, with whom he should not be confused. Nothing is recorded of him after his birth. Luke
considers him to be the son of David from whom JOSEPH (#2) and JESUS descended. 2!Sam. 5:14;
1!Ch. 3:5, 14:4; Zech. 12:12? Luke 3:312 !.
Nebat: Cultivation ? LXX X-)-0 =Nabat; Josephus (Ant VIII.vii.8) X-)-0-&8#=Nabatai(os).
The father of JEROBOAM I, the first king of an Israel independent from Judah. Nothing else is
known of Nebat personally; all references to him are formulaic: “Jeroboam the son of Nebat.”
1.!Natham is the reading of ന4 ‫ *א‬B c e plus the best manuscript of ƒ1; ‫א‬c A L Y [ ƒ13 33 892 Byz a vg have Nathan
(so also KJV), as in LXX; b has Natan; q reads Mattan
2.!LXXB lists another son of David named Nathan in 2 Kingdoms=2 Samuel 5:16, and since Luke uses the LXX
rather than MT, either one might be meant.

1!Kings 11:26, 12:2, 15, 15:1, 16:3, 26, 31, 21:22, 22:52; 2!Kings 3:3, 9:9, 10:29, 13:2, 11, 14:24,
15:9, 17:21, 23:15;1 2!Ch. 9:29, 10:2, 15, 13:6, 18; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 47:23 !.
Nehushta: Support ? Serpent ? Related to “Nehushtan,” the name given to the bronze serpent of Moses
which Hezekiah destroyed (2!Kings 18:4), perhaps worshipped as a snake-diety. LXX X*4+-=Nestha (!). The
wife of JEHOIAKIM king of Judah, and the mother of JEHOIACHIN. She was the daughter of
Elnathan of Jerusalem. She went into exile along with her son in 597 (2!Kings 24:12, 15); it is not
known if this was voluntary on her part. 2!Kings 24:8 !.
Ner: Light. LXX X;!; Josephus (Ant VI.vi.6) X;!8#=Ner(os). The father of ABNER and the
uncle of SAUL the King of Israel (1!Sam. 9:1, 14:51. Alternately, according to 1!Ch. 8:33, 9:39,
the father of Abner and of KISH the father of Saul). He is never mentioned except as the father
of Abner (except for the late and probably distorted references in Chronicles). 1!Sam. 14:50, 51,
26:5, 14; 2!Sam. 2:8, 12, 3:23, 25, 28, 3:37; 1!Kings 2:5, 32; 1!Ch. 8:33, 9:36, 9:39, 26:28.2 !.
Neri: NT X;!(*)&, from Hebrew Ner, “light”. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and
of JESUS. Luke 3:27 !.
Nethanel: God Gives. LXX X-+-5-;%=Nathanael; Josephus (Ant VI.viii.1)
X-+-5-;%8#=Nathanael(os). The fourth of DAVID’S seven (?) brothers.3 1!Ch. 2:14 !.
Nimrod: Similar to the Hebrew verb “to rebel,” but perhaps Mesopotamian, possibly a form of “Ninurta,”
a war god. LXX X*)!D9=Nebrod. One of the sons of CUSH son of HAM. Nimrod was “a mighty
hunter before YAHWEH” (Gen. 10:9). He was the first great king in history (Gen. 10:8). His
kingdom was originally Babel, Erech, and Akkad; he expanded it to include most of Assyria
(Gen. 10:10–12). He was a great builder of cities. It would be interesting to know how he gained
such power, but the Bible gives no clue. Many scholars equate Nimrod with the Assyrian god
Ninurta, but it has also been suggested that he is an echo of the Assyrian Emperor Tukulti-
Ninurta I (1234–1200) who first captured Babylon for Assyria. The rabbinic traditions followed
by Josephus blame him for conceiving of the Tower of Babel (Ant I.iv.2ƒ.) Gen. 10:8–11; 1!Ch.
1:10; Mic. 5:6 !.
Nimshi: Yah[weh] reveals ? LXX X-?*44*&/X-?*4+*& = Namessi/Namesthi; Josephus (Ant
VIII.xiii.7) X*?*4-&8#=Nemesai(os). The father of JEHU, or perhaps the father of Jehoshaphat the
father of Jehu. Jehu destroyed the house of OMRI, including all the children of AHAB, and made
himself the tenth king of Israel, but nothing is known of his ancestor. 1!Kings 19:16; 2!Kings 9:2,
14, 20; 2!Ch. 22:7 !.
NOAH: Popularly “To Cheer”; perhaps more correctly “To Bring Rest.” LXX XD*=Noe, which
Josephus (Ant I.vi.1) hellenizes as XDN8#=Noch(os). The son of LAMECH 2, and the father of
SHEM, JAPHETH, and HAM. He was more righteous than any other man of his time.4
1.!For the differences between MT and LXX accounts of Jeroboam, see the excursus Two Tales of Jeroboam I on p.
139.
2.!Also in 1 Ch. 8:30 LXXA (see NRSV footnote; LXXB appears garbled)
3.!For other Nethanels, see the entry on Nathanael on p. 494.
4.!The theme of “the one righteous man” is not confined to the Hebrew Bible. In classical legend, there is the tale of
Baucus and Philemon, who were found to be the only generous people in Phrygia when Zeus and Hermes visited

There was major debate in Jewish circles about whether Noah was truly righteous or merely
the most righteous man then alive. One legend says that his wife (Na’amah, daughter of Enoch)
was more righteous than he, and that it was Noah who had trouble believing God’s instructions.
On the other hand, one Rabbinic tradition makes him so perfect as to claim he was born
circumcised (the only others said to have had this peculiarity were ADAM, SETH, and
Melchizedek). Similarly, the Qumran Genesis Apocryphon says Lamech suspected his wife “Bath-
Enosh” of having consorted with an angel/demon to produce such a child. There is a story that
that his body actually emitted light at birth. Josephus — Ant I.iii.1 — tells us that he tried to
convince his contemporaries to repent. When he failed, he felt the need to flee from his home.
Whatever Noah was actually like, when God destroyed the world, he gave Noah grace and
warned him of the impending flood, as well as instructing him in how to survive it. But the other
details of Noah’s life are unclear. The flood accounts come from two different sources — the J
and P sources of the Pentateuch — which have been rather arbitrarily mixed together. After the
flood, God made the first of the great covenants with Noah, granting him — apparently for the
first time — the right to eat meat (Gen. 9:3). We are also told that, after the flood, Noah was the
first man to make wine and plant grapes (Gen. 9:20). One day he became drunk, and fell asleep
naked. His son Ham saw this. And so Ham’s son CANAAN was cursed forever (Gen. 9:24–27).
Gen. 5:29, 30, 32, 6:8–9:29, 10:1, 31; 1!Ch. 1:4; Isa. 54:9; Eze. 14:14, 20; Matt. 24:37–38; Luke
3:36, 17:26–27; Heb. 11:7; 1 Pet. 3:20; 2 Pet. 2:5; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 44:17, Tobit 4:12,
4 Macc. 15:31, 2 Esdras 3:11 !.
Excursus: Noah’s Flood and Everyone Else’s Flood

The tale of Noah’s flood (or, rather the two tales of Noah’s flood, for J and P both have
versions of the tale) is one of the most common folktale types — one found not just in Judeo-
Christian myth but throughout the world. So widespread are flood legends that Stith Thompson
assigned them the motif numer A1010, the very first of the calamity motifs. Stories of the Noah
type are found even among American Indians — Aztecs, Mandan, Choctaw, Cree, Creek,
Algonquin, and others. In Wiyot mythology, Old-Man-Above destroys the world because his
creatures are unsatisfactory. So does Neshanu, the Arapaho creator. Pitoi floods the world in Pima
legend, and in Pawnee myth, Tirawahat uses a flood to destroy the giants. In Inca myth, llamas
warn their shepherds to hide in the high mountains. In a version from India, it is a fish who gives
the warning and guides the survivors (headed by one Manu) to land.
Better known to Western audiences will be the Greek tale of Deucalion and Pyrrha
(M*E,-%`D5 and /a!!-). When Zeus decided that humanity was too wicked to live,
that nation. The tale has other interesting Biblical parallels: It features a wine jar which will not empty,
comparable to the Widow’s Oil (the Widow of Zarephath, 1 Kings 17:8-16) and indeed to the Feeding of the
Five Thousand (Mark 9:30-44, etc.) The tale also involves a great flood which killed Baucus and Philemon’s
neighbours. It ends with a folkloric touch, in which the lovers become oak and linden trees twined together. (The
whole tale is in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, book VIII, starting around §600.) This closely resembles the rose-and-briar
endings found in many folk songs such as “Barbara Allen.”

Prometheus told Deucalion (said to be his son) to get into a chest with his wife. The flood covered
the world for nine days, and they landed in the mountains of Thessaly. However, not all people
are descended from them, because Zeus gave them bones that they used to create new people.
This story occupies a large part of Book I of Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
The Sumerians had a flood story starring one Ziusudra or Xisuthrus, but no complete copy
survives; it is from the lost history of Berossus and is also found in broken form in tablets. Like
Noah, Ziusudra apparently had three sons, one of whom was even named “Japetosthes.”
In Hindu legend, Brahma set out to destroy the world, but Vishnu put Satyavrata in an ark.
In Celtic legend, it was Dwyvan and Dwyvach who built the ark, which was called Nefyc
Nevion. A monster called Addanc caused the flood.
But the flood narrative closest to that in the Bible is probably the tale of Utnapishtim, from
the Gilgamesh epic. In this tale, the god Enlil declared that humans make too much noise; they
must be silenced. The god Ea warned Utnapishtim, who managed to build a seven-decked boat
in seven days. He gathered his family and riches, plus all the animals, into the boat and rode out
the flood. The waters rose for seven days. After the boat grounds, Utnapishtim sent out first a
dove, then a swallow, then a raven to seek for land. The raven did not return. Utnapishtim then
offered sacrifice, which caused Enlil to give up his fury.
Although the differences from the Biblical account are obvious, the parallels, such as the
mention of dove and raven, make it clear that there is a common ancestor.
Some scientists think there is an actual basis for all these tales. About 8000 years ago, the sea
level in the Mediterranean Sea rose enough that it overflowed, pouring water into the Black Sea
(which until then had been a freshwater lake). This seems to have been after the emergence of
farming, so it destroyed the young farming communities. It was perhaps the first great calamity
of human history; little wonder if it was remembered!
It has also been suggested that there was a great cataclysm on the banks of the Persian Gulf
at around this time, with the water level rising significantly. This too might produce legends.
There is an interesting scientific footnote about Noah’s flood and genetics. In several of the
flood accounts, there are only two survivors of the flood, who restart the human race. This is
significant because there are two “clocks” that can be used to date common ancestry: the
“mitochondrial DNA” clock, which dates female ancestry, and the “Y chromosome” clock which
dates male ancestry. It has been found that both males and females go back to one single
common ancestor — “Y chromosome Adam” and “Mitochondrial Eve.” So far, this fits with all
the flood accounts.
But here is the interesting twist: “Y chromosome Adam” is much more recent than “Mitochondrial
Eve.” (How much more recent is suddenly in dispute; as of the start of 2013, there was evidence
pushing Y Chromosome Adam back several hundred thousand years. But he still appears to have
lived after Eve.) In other words, there was a constriction point in early human history. Females
were relatively unaffected; the surviving human race is descended from multiple females of this
generation. But all males are descended in male line from a single male of that generation!

Now think about this: In the Biblical account, all living humans are descended from the three
sons of Noah — but from three different women, the wives of Noah’s sons. Noah’s sons will all
have had Noah’s Y chromosome, but there were three sets of mitochondria in that generation,
from each of the boys’ three wives. Thus, in the Genesis account, we would expect Mitochondrial Eve
to be earlier than Y Chromosome Adam.
This doesn’t prove anything, but it’s certainly interesting. Unfortunately, even Y Chromosome
Adam lived long before the flooding of the Black Sea. Mitochondrial Eve may well have lived
before human beings became human beings — she was possibly Homo heidelbergensis, not Homo
sapiens.
But even that has an interesting secondary implication. The human race is not descended
from a single man and woman —!if it were, genetic drift would have reduced us all to effective
clones, as all cheetahs are effective clones. But there is a time, not too many thousand years ago,
when everyone who has any living descendants at all is the ancestor of every person now living. There
are probably millions of such hominid ancestors (and far more non-hominids). So they can’t all
be Adam, or Noah, or anyone else. But there were many Adams, and many Eves, all common
ancestors of all of us.
Nun: fish. LXX X-+;=Naue; Josephus (Ant III.ii.3) X-E;,8# =Nauek(os) or (Ant III.xiv.4)
X-+;N8#=Nauech(os). The father of JOSHUA 1, Moses’s successor as leader of the Israelites. He
was a man of Ephraim. He had originally named his son Hoshea (see the note on Joshua, p. 154).
Nothing else in known of him. Ex. 33:11; Num. 11:28, 13:8, 16; 14:6, 30, 38, 26:65, 27:18,
32:12, 28, 34:17; Deut. 1:38, 31:23, 32:44, 34:9; Josh. 1:1, 2:1, 23, 6:6, 14:1, 17:4, 19:49, 51,
21:1, 24:29; Judg. 2:8; 1!Kings 16:34; 1 Ch. 7:27; Neh. 8:17; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 46:1 !.
Obed: Worshipper/Servant. LXX #);9; Josephus (Ant V.ix.4) #)*98#=Obed(os); NT
CD)*9=Iobed.1 The son of BOAZ and RUTH, and the father of JESSE the father of DAVID. Nothing
is known of him personally. Ruth 4:17, 21, 22; 1!Ch. 2:12; Matt. 1:5; Luke 3:32 !.
O m r i : Ya h [ w e h ] a p p o r t i o n s. L X X K?)!&= A m b r i ; Jo s e p h u s ( A n t V I I I . x i i . 5 )
K?-!&58#=Amarin(os). A man of Israel. Nothing is known of his ancestry (it may be that he was
a foreigner, for his father’s name is not given and many Israelites opposed him), but he was
commander of the army of BAASHA king of Israel. When ELAH son of Baasha came to the
throne, ZIMRI, the commander of half of Israel’s chariots (the elite troops), slew Elah and
assumed the throne. Omri then forced Zimri to suicide and fought a successful civil war against
TIBNI son of Ginath. (This may have taken four or five years, which might account for the
significant chronological discrepancies concerning Omri’s reign.) Omri eventually was able to
crown himself king of Israel. In many ways he was a bad king, for he permitted Baal worship
(whether he was himself was a Baalist is unclear) and married his son AHAB to the Phoenician
1.!In Matt. 1:5 Iobed (or Jobed) is the reading of ‫ א‬B C* M cop arm (33 has Iobel), but Cc E L M / Byz have Obed as in
LXX. In Luke 3:32 we find Iobed/Jobed in ‫א‬c A L M X J M [ ƒ13 892 1241; ‫ *א‬B sin have Iobel/Jobel; D* has Obel;
ന4 reads Iobet; Dc Y / ƒ1 Byz have Obed; q reads Obeth

princess JEZEBEL. But in foreign policy he was very successful. He extended Israel’s boundaries
and made his throne secure enough that Ahab could succeed peacefully to the throne. (Never
before had an Israelite king been able to found a dynasty.) Israel would be known in Assyrian
records as “the land of Omri” even after JEHU destroyed the house of Omri. (This last
information comes from the Assyrian archives.) Perhaps Omri’s most important accomplishment
was his transferring of Israel’s capitol from Tirzah to his new city of Samaria — an excellent,
defensible site with none of the bloody history of Tirzah. 1!Kings 16:16–28, 29, 30; 2!Kings
8:26; 2!Ch. 22:2; Mic. 6:16 !.
Onan: Power. LXX KE5-5=Aunan. The second son of JUDAH 1 by the daughter of Shua the
Canaanite. When his older brother ER was killed by God for his wickedness, it became Onan’s
duty to marry Er’s wife TAMAR 1. Onan knew that Tamar’s first child would not be considered
his, but rather Er’s. So Onan refused to impregnate her. (Gen. 38:9, which reports laconically that
“he spilled his semen on the ground whenever he went into [Tamar].”) The Testaments of the
Twelve Patriarchs, as so often, is fuller, reporting that Onan did not touch Tamar for a year (Judah
X.4) before his father pushed him into a sexual relationship. From there events went as in Genesis
(Judah X.5). And so God slew Onan as well as Er. Gen. 38:4–10, 46:12; Num. 26:19; 1!Ch. 2:3
!.
Orpah: Youthful freshness. LXX V!P-=Orpha; Josephus (Ant V.ix.1) V!P-#=Orpha(s). A
woman of Moab, the wife of CHILION the younger son of ELIMELECH and NAOMI. After the
death of her husband, father-in-law, and brother-in-law, she elected to remain in Moab when
Naomi and RUTH returned to Judah. A legend has it that Goliath was her son, and that she had
such a wicked offspring because she was herself evil — but it should be noted that Ruth 1:14
never condemns her, and indeed Naomi seems to have considered Orpah’s act entirely
reasonable and proper. Indeed, two Moabite daughters-in-law might have been more burden than
help to Naomi. The conditions that brought Ruth success could not have occurred twice. In any
case, the chronology of this is difficult, since this would make Goliath a contemporary of David’s
grandfather, and David was a younger son. Orpah’s son would surely have been too old to be a
Philistine champion by the time David was of age to fight. Ruth 1:4, 14 !.
Othniel: God is — . LXX J8+85&;%=Gothoniel (!). A son of KENAZ, the younger brother of
Caleb. For more information on his ancestry (which is a conjecture on my part1), see the entry on
Caleb, p. 93. He may be the ancestor of the people of Debir, for he captured that Judahite city in
the time of the Judges. As a result, Caleb married his daughter ACHSAH to Othniel, and gave
them lands and springs of water in the Negeb.
1.!We are told that Othniel was Caleb’s nephew and the son of Kenaz. Hence if Caleb is the son of Hezron, as some
accounts say, Othniel ought to be the grandson of Hezron (presumably by Kenaz, given how little the Hebrews
thought of descent through women). But we have good reason to doubt Caleb’s descent from Hezron, as pointed
out in the entry on Caleb. The genealogy shown here at leat correctly shows the relationship between uncle and
nephew. We do not have any explicit evidence that Kenaz was the son of Hezron, and only 1 Ch. 2:18 links
Caleb to Hezron; in all other references they are Kenizzites — a non-Israelite people. For that matter, we might
note that many of the Bible’s stories about Othniel are transferred to his father Kenaz by Josephus and Philo.

Othniel was the first of the judges of Israel, holding the title for forty years. He earned the
position by defeating Cushan-rishathaim king of Mesopotamia, who had oppressed Israel for
eight years (so Judges 3; Philo and Josephus — Ant V.iii.3 — confuse father and son and credit
this exploit to Kenaz! — see the note on Othniel on p. 24). Josh. 15:17; Judges 1:12–15, 3:9–11;
1!Ch. 4:13; perhaps also 1!Ch. 27:15 !.
Ozem: Strength ? LXX K4-?=Asam; Josephus (Ant VI.viii.1) K4-?8#=Asam(os). The sixth of
DAVID’S seven (?) brothers, and the youngest one whose name is known. 1!Ch. 2:15 !.
Pedaiah: Yah[weh] has Ransomed. LXX _-9-&-#=Phadaias. According to 1!Ch. 3:18, the
third son of Jeconiah (Jehoiachin). According to 3:19, he was the father of ZERUBBABEL 1, the
man of the house of David who was the secular leader of the people of Judah during the
rebuilding of the temple. Most other sources list Shealtiel, Pedaiah’s older brother, as
Zerubbabel’s father.1 1!Ch. 3:18–19 !.
Pekah: [Yahweh]? Has Opened (the Eyes). LXX _-,**=Phakee; Josephus (Ant IX.xi.1)
_-,*8#=Phake(os). The son of REMALIAH, described as a “captain” (perhaps literally “leader of
one-third [of an army]”) in the army of PEKAHIAH the seventeenth king of Israel. Pekah killed
Pekahiah and became king in his stead. But his reign was very unsuccessful. He formed an
alliance with Rezin king of Damascus to keep Palestine free from the Assyrian Empire. Pekah
and Rezin tried to make Judah join this alliance, but king AHAZ called upon the Assyrian
Emperor Tiglath-Pileser III. Assyria attacked Damascus and destroyed it, and subjugated Israel.
Shortly after this, Pekah was assasinated by HOSHEA 2 son of Elah.
The dates of Pekah’s reign are very unclear. He cannot have ruled over all of Israel for more
than six years, yet he is credited with a twenty-year reign. Some theorize that he ruled over
Gilead for a dozen or so years after the death of JEROBOAM II. Only then did he conquer
Samaria. This might also explain why Isaiah always calls Pekah simply “the son of Remaliah” —
it was a term of contempt for a backward frontiersman. 2!Kings 15:25–31, 32, 37, 16:1, 5; 2 Ch.
28:6; Isa. 7:1; as “son of Remaliah” in Isa. 7:4, 5, 9, 8:6 !.
Pekahiah: Yah[weh] has Opened (the Eyes). LXX _-,*4&-#/P-,*&-#=Phakesias/Phakeas;
Josephus (Ant IX.xi.1) _-,*-#=Phakea(s). The son of MENAHEM the sixteenth king of Israel. He
had ruled for only a little more than a year when he was assassinated by PEKAH, one of his
captains. (For a different view of this, accepted by many modern historians, see the entry on
Pekah above.) 2!Kings 15:22–23, 26 !.
Peleg: Division. LXX _-%*,=Phalek; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) _-%*68#=Phaleg(os). A son of
EBER, the great-grandson of SHEM. His brother was JOKTAN. He was given his name because “in
his days the earth was divided” (Gen. 10:25; 1!Ch. 1:19). Scholars have hypothesized that this
refers to the Tower of Babel, or the separation of the Semitic tribes into Mesopotamian and
Babylonian branches, but no one knows. According to MT he was thirty when his son REU was
1.!The issue of the father of Zerubbabel is obviously confused; many suspect Levirate marriage is involved (i.e.
perhaps Zerubbabel was Pedaiah’s biological son, but is credited as the offspring of his childless older brother
Shealtiel.

born; LXX, the Samaritan Version, and Josephus give his age as one hundred and thirty. Gen.
10:25, 11:16–19; 1!Ch. 1:19, 25;1 Luke 3:35 !.
Perez: Breach, Breaking-forth. LXX _-!*#=Phares; Josephus (Ant II.vii.4) _-!*48#=Phares(os).
One of the sons of JUDAH 1. Judah had had three sons by his first wife, the daughter of SHUA the
Canaanite (“Bath-Shua”). The first was ER, who was married to TAMAR 1. But he died childless.
So Tamar had been married to ONAN, Judah’s second son. But Onan had not wanted to have
children by Tamar, and so God slew him also. Tamar thus belonged to SHELAH 2, Judah’s third
son. Judah, not wishing to see Shelah killed also, tried to avoid marrying him to Tamar. So
Tamar dressed herself as a prostitute, and lured Judah into her bed. After nearly being burned
for harlotry, Tamar bore Judah twins — Perez and ZERAH. When they were born, Zerah’s hand
came first from Tamar’s womb. But the hand was drawn back, and Perez was the first-born child
(Gen. 38. This is usually interpreted to mean that the clan of Zerah was originally the more
powerful, but that Perez eventually came to the fore). Perez and Zerah were both ancestors of
clans within the tribe of Judah, but it was from Perez that the princes of Judah, including DAVID,
were descended. Gen. 38:29, 46:12; Num. 26:20–21;2 Ruth 4:12, 18; 1!Ch. 2:4–5, 4:1, 9:4, 27:3;
Neh. 11:4, 6; Matt. 1:3; Luke 3:33;3 in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 5:5 (where NRSV reads
“Phares”) !.
Phinehas: Perhaps from Egyptian: the Negro. LXX _*&5**#=Phinees; Josephus (Ant IV.vi.12)
_&5**#=Phinees, (Ant V.i.26) _&5**4;#=Phinees(es).
PHINEHAS 1. The son of ELEAZAR 1 the son of AARON. He was his father’s successor as
High Priest, and a very zealous cleric. He showed this zeal most clearly just before the entry into
Canaan. At this time, a man of Simeon named Zimri son of Salu had fallen in love with a
woman of Midian named Cozbi daughter of Zur. (Josephus — Ant IV.vi.10 — goes so far as to
make Zimri the chief of Simeon, but Num. 25:14 makes him only a clan chief.) Phinehas slew
them both, and thus arrested the spread of a great plague (Num. 25:6–15). Phinehas was often
the priest whom JOSHUA 1 sent with his war parties, while Eleazar remained in camp (Num. 31:6,
Josh. 22:10–34); he remained High Priest until well into the time of the Judges (Judges 20:27). He
was esteemed so highly that the son of Sirach called him the third of the great men of Israel,
after MOSES and AARON (Sirach 45:23–26). The author of 1 Maccabees makes him the model
prototype of Mattathias (1), the priest who started the Maccabean revolt. His son was ABISHUA,
from whom was descended ZADOK. According to LXX addition to Josh. 24:33, he fulfilled many
of the functions of a Judge, and kept the people in line until he died. Ex. 6:25; Num. 25:6–15,
31:6; Josh. 22:13, 30, 31, 32, 24:33;4 Judg. 20:28; 1!Ch. 6:4, 50, 9:20; Ezra 7:5, 8:2; Psalm 106:30;
in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 5:5, 8:2, 29 (?); Sirach 45:23; 1 Macc. 2:26, 54; 4 Macc. 8:12; 2
Esdras 1:2 !.

2.!Also in Num. 26:15 LXXA LXXF (LXXB omits), filling out the list of Judah’s sons
3.!A omits the name in Luke; it is found in ന4? ‫ א‬B E K L M X M Y / ƒ1 ƒ13 33 892 1241 Byz
4.!Also in LXX of Josh. 24:33-; see comment above

PHINEHAS 2. The younger (?) son of ELI, the High Priest at Shiloh and the thirteenth
judge. (The fact that he is always listed after his brother HOPHNI would seem to indicate that he
was Eli’s second son, but he also seems to have been Eli’s heir. So the order of the sons must be
considered uncertain.) He and Hophni thoroughly abused their priestly authority and perverted
sacrificial rites (see the entry on Hophni, p. 122). The two of them were slain by the Philistines at
the battle of Aphek while carrying the Ark of the Covenant, which was captured. (This event
would result in their father’s death and probably also in the destruction of Shiloh.) Rabbinic
tradition, supported by Josephus (Ant V.xi.2) reports that he was serving as High Priest by the time
of Aphek; this is logical, since Eli’s blindness would have disqualified him for the post. Phinehas
had at least two sons: AHITUB and the posthumous ICHABOD. The son of Ahitub was AHIMELECH
the High Priest at Nob, who was slain by SAUL; Ahimelech’s son was ABIATHAR, DAVID’S high
priest. But it had been foretold that the descendants of Eli would never again be in favour, and
this seems to have been true. Abiathar and all of his descendants (apparently including the
prophet JEREMIAH) were exiled to Anathoth, and were never again to return to Jerusalem. 1!Sam.
1:3, (2:12–17, 22–25) 2:34, 4:4, 11, 17, 19–22, 14:3 !.
Put: Bow ? LXX _8E9=Phud; Josephus (Ant I.vi.2) _8E0;#=Phut(es). The third son of HAM,
perhaps thought to be the ancestor of a people who lived west of the Egyptians — the modern
Libyans. See Nahum 3:9; they are also mentioned in Ezek. 27:101 and in the Apocrypha in Judith
2:23). Gen. 10:6; 1!Ch. 1:8 !.
Rachel: Ewe. LXX 2-N;%; Josephus (Ant I.xix.6) 2-N;%-#=Rachel(as). The younger
daughter of LABAN the brother of REBEKAH. Unlike her sister LEAH, Rachel was very beautiful.
When Jacob 1 arrived in Paddan-Aram, he met her watering her father’s sheep (Gen. 29:6).
Jacob fell in love with her, and agreed to serve Laban seven years to win her hand (Gen. 29:18).
But at the end of the seven years, Laban slipped Leah in on Jacob instead of Rachel. So Jacob
served Laban for another seven years, and was married to Rachel (Gen. 29:21–29). Rachel was
barren, while Leah was fertile (this was God’s way of compensating Leah for being unloved). In
desperation, Rachel offered her maid BILHAH to Jacob (Gen. 30:1–8. This, like SARAH’S offer of
HAGAR to ABRAHAM, seems to indicate a Hurrian background for the Patriarchs — see the entry
on Hagar on p. 116). And eventually Rachel conceived and bore JOSEPH 1. Later, as Jacob
returned to Canaan, she conceived again. But she died in childbirth, and was buried near
Bethlehem (Gen. 35:19), or perhaps at Zelzah (1!Sam. 10:2). BENJAMIN was the child.
The rabbis thought that this was the punishment for Rachel’s stealing of her father’s
teraphim (household gods) in Gen. 31:19. It seems likely, however, that she did it to strengthen
Jacob’s claim to Laban’s inheritance — it appears that the custom of the time was that the
possessor of the teraphim possessed the land also.
The tribes descended from Rachel — Benjamin and Joseph’s sons EPHRAIM and MANASSEH 1
— formed a tight group in central Israel. It is this group — the “Rachel Tribes” — which put up
1.!LXXA also uses the name in Ezek. 23:23 (for MT Pekod). In Isa. 66:19 it is used by LXXB LXXA LXXQmg (followed
by NRSV; LXX‫ א‬LXXQ* read Phouth) for MT Pul

most of the resistance to the Philistines in the time of Samuel; they became the core of Saul’s
kingdom. Gen. 29:6–30:25, 31:4–21, 32–34, 33:1–2, 7, 35:16–21, 24, 25, 46:19, 22, 25, 48:7;
Ruth 4:11; 1!Sam. 10:2; Jer. 31:15; Matt. 2:18 !.
Raddai: Yah[weh] subdues ? LXX W-99-&/W-)9-&/2-99-& = Zaddai/Zabdai/Raddai;
Josephus (Ant VI.viii.1) 2-;%8#=Rael(os). The fifth of DAVID’S seven (?) brothers. The variety of
LXX readings (the first from LXXB*, the second from LXXBc, the third from LXXA etc. and
adopted by NETS) shows how obscure he is. 1!Ch. 2:14 !.
Ragau: see REU
Rahab: Wide, Broad, LXX 2--)=Raab; Josephus (Ant V.i.2) $%%&'(=Raab(es); NT
2-N-)=Rachab. According to Matthew, the wife of SALMON and the mother of BOAZ, the great-
grandfather of DAVID. It is seems likely that she was the prostitute of Jericho who sheltered the
spies of JOSHUA 1, and was allowed to survive the sack of Jericho as a result (At least, Josh. 2:1
calls her a prostitute — perhaps to be understood “cult priestess” — but Josephus, Ant V.i.2, and
the Targums call her an innkeeper. This Rahab is mentioned in Josh. 2:1–6, 6:17, 22–25; Heb.
11:31; James 2:25). Matt. 1:5 !.
Ram: High ? LXX K!!-5/K!-?=Arran/Aram.1 According to the MT, the son of HEZRON
the grandson of Judah 1, and the father of AMMINADAB the prince of Judah. DAVID was one of
his descendants. It should be noted, however, that in Luke 3:33, we find, instead of Ram, that
“Amminadab [was] the son of Admin, the son of Arni, the son of Hezron” (to the best of my
knowledge no other ancient source records this variant; see the excursus on the Gospel
Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119). Ruth 4:19; 1!Ch. 2:9–10; Matt. 1:3–4 (where he is called K!-?,
Aram.) !.
Rebekah: Cow. LXX/Josephus 2*)*,,-(#). The daughter of BETHUEL the nephew of
ABRAHAM. She became the wife of Abraham’s son ISAAC as follows: Abraham charged a servant
to find Isaac a wife from among the Patriarchal families (Gen. 24:1–9); the servant asked God to
give him a sign which would show him the woman who was to be Isaac’s wife (Gen. 24:10–14);
God gave the sign, pointing to Rebekah (Gen. 24:15–27). So Rebekah was married to Isaac, but
at first she was barren. Isaac prayed to God, and Rebekah conceived twins (Gen. 25:21). And the
children — JACOB 1 and ESAU — struggled in Rebekah’s womb. When they were born, Esau
came out first, but was born with Jacob’s hand upon his heel. And Rebekah loved Jacob more
than Esau. She thus maneuvered it so that Jacob rather than Esau received Isaac’s final blessing
(Gen. 27:1–40). She then saw to it that Jacob was sent back to Paddan-Aram to find a wife (Gen.
27:41–28:5).
Little else is known of Rebekah. According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali
I.9, her nurse Deborah (Gen. 35:8) was the aunt of BILHAH and ZILPAH. Isaac once passed her
1.!Arran is the reading of Ruth 4:19 in LXXB LXXA; most if not all other LXX texts read Aram (see Matt. 1:3-4). In
1!Ch. 2:9 all LXX texts appear to read Aram, but the LXX genealogy disagrees with MT at other points. In 2:10
we find LXXA and most other LXX texts reading Arran but LXXB (seemingly alone) reading Aram. See also the
excursus on the Gospel Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119.

off as his sister (Gen. 26:6–11), as Abraham had done with SARAH. She was buried with Isaac in
the family plot in Machpelah (Gen. 49:31). Gen. 22:23, 24:15–67, 25:20–21, 28, 26:7–8, 35,
27:5–11, 15, 42, 46, 28:5, 29:12, 35:8, 49:31,1 Rom. 9:10–12 (where NRSV reads “Rebecca”) !.
Rehoboam: May the People Expand. LXX/NT 28)8-?=Roboam; Josephus (Ant VII.v.3)
28)8-?8#=Roboam(os). He was the son and successor of SOLOMON — strangely enough, the
only known son of Solomon. When Rehoboam became king, the people of Israel wanted him to
lighten their tax burden (since Solomon’s building projects had been expensive indeed).
Rehoboam instead increased the tax, saying “My father disciplined you with whips, but I will
discipline you with scorpions/stinging whips”2 (1!Kings 12:11). So Israel revolted against
Rehoboam, led by the future Israeli monarch JEROBOAM I the son of Nebat, and only the tribes
of Judah and Benjamin remained faithful to the king.3 Rehoboam planned to mount an
expedition against Israel, but a prophet warned against it (1!Kings 12:21–24).4 Even so,
Rehoboam’s troubles were not over. The Pharaoh of Egypt (who had sheltered Jeroboam after
Solomon drove him into exile, and probably remained the Israelite’s ally) attacked Judah, and
took away all the treasure he could lay his hands on (1!Kings 14:25–28). Rehoboam had a total
of eighteen wives and sixty concubines, twenty-eight sons and sixty daughters; he was succeeded
by ABIJAM, the oldest son of his beloved wife MAACAH 2 the daughter of ABSALOM (1 Kings 15:2;
also 2!Ch. 11:20–23, but the story of Rehobaam’s wives is confused. LXX of 2 Sam. 14:27-
states explicitly that TAMAR 2 daughter of Absalom was Rehoboam’s wife; see the entry on
MAACAH 2 on p. 164 and the notes in the entry on Absalom regarding his children). 1!Kings
11:43, 12:1–24, 27, 14:21–31, 15:6; 1!Ch. 3:10; 2!Ch. 9:31, 10:1–12:16, 13:7; Matt. 1:7; in the
Apocrypha in Sirach 47:23 !.
Remaliah: Yah[weh] increases ? LXX 28?*%&-#=Romelias. The father of PEKAH the eighteenth
king of Israel. In Isa. 7:4, 5, 9, 8:6, “the son of Remaliah” is the name used for Pekah. But it is
not known whether this is so because Remaliah was famous, or not; it may be a term of scorn
(see the entry on Pekah). 2!Kings 15:25, 27, 30, 32, 37, 16:1, 5; 2!Ch. 28:6; Isa. 7:1, 4, 5, 9, 8:6
!.
Rephah: Rich ? LXX 2-P;=Raphe. A grandson of EPHRAIM and an ancestor of JOSHUA 1.
1!Ch. 7:25 !.
1.!In LXX also in Gen. 25:21, 26, 26:7, 29:1

2.!The reference is thought to be to a thorned vine, which — in addition to inflicting a harsher lash than an ordinary
whip — would have an acidic chemical on the thorn tips
3.!It is possible that the resentment against Rehoboam was partly due to the fact that he was half Ammonite. 1 Kings
14:21 reports that his mother was Naamah the Ammonite; LXX of 12:24- amplifies by saying his mother was
“Naanan” son of Anan (Hanun) son of Naas (Nahash) King of the Ammonites. It is curious that no other sons of
Solomon are mentioned in this connection; one would have expected several Solomonic pretenders to show up. A
man with hundreds of wives would surely have had more children than Rehoboam plus the two daughters
mentioned in 1 Kings 4:11, 15. One wonders if Rehoboam’s crimes might not also have included fratricide.
4.!The LXX account of Rehoboam differs considerably from MT on the store of his accession; see the excursus Two
Tales of Jeroboam I on p. 139.

Resheph: flame, firebolt. Also the name of a Canaanite deity. LXX 2-4*P=Raseph1. The son of
REPHAH. Like his father, an ancestor of JOSHUA 1. 1!Ch. 7:25 !.
Reu: Friendship. LXX/NT 2-6-E=Ragau; Josephus (Ant I.v.5) 2*8E#=Re(us) or
28?8E#=Rom(os). The son of PELEG, and the great-grandfather of TERAH the father of
ABRAHAM. Gen. 11:18–21; 1!Ch. 1:25; Luke 3:352 !.
Reuben: Popularly “Behold, a son”; perhaps more correctly “Substitute (for another child).” LXX
28E);5; Josephus (Ant I.xix.7) 28E);%8#=Roubel(os) !3 The oldest son of JACOB 1, born to LEAH
(Gen. 29:31–32). All that is known of his early life is that he once went hunting mandrakes, which
he gave to his mother. (For the significance of mandrakes, see the note to the entry on Leah, p.
161.) Leah used these to bribe RACHEL into allowing Jacob to sleep with her (Gen. 30:14–17). But
Reuben later ruined his reputation by going to bed with BILHAH his father’s concubine (Gen.
35:22). According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Reuben I.7, this cost him seven months
of pain in the genitals. TTP Reuben I.8 says that he was thirty years old at the time. Reuben was
not really an immoral man — according to the E source of Genesis, he went to great lengths to
try to save the life of Joseph (Gen. 37:22, 29–30). But his adultery cost him his birthright and
place as leader of Israel (Gen. 49:3–4). And the one attempt of the tribe to regain that power —
the rebellion of Dathan and Abiram against MOSES — was doomed from the start (Num. 16; see
the entry on KORAH, p. 158). According to TTP Reuben I.1-2, he died at the age of 125, two
years after Joseph. The tribe of Reuben was given land east of the Jordan, south of Gad on the
shores of the Dead Sea (Josh. 13:15–23). The tribe was probably wiped out early in the history of
Israel (no later than the time of JEHU — 2!Kings 10:32–33), and is never mentioned in history
after the time of Deborah (Judges 5:15–16. Even then, the tribe was condemned as weak and
unhelpful). The only New Testament reference to the tribe is in Rev. 7:5. References to Reuben
the man are in Gen. 29:32, 30:14, 35:22–23, 37:21–22, 29, 42:22, 37, 46:8–9, 48:5, 49:3–4; Ex.
1:2, 6:14; Num. 1:20, 16:1, 26:5; Deut. 11:6; Josh. 15:6, 18:17; 1!Ch. 2:1, 5:1, 3 !.
Reuel: Friend of God. LXX 2-68E;%=Raguel; Josephus (Ant II.x.2) 2-68E;%8#=Raguel(os).
Not to be confused with the son of ESAU of Gen. 36, 1 Ch. 1. One of the names of MOSES’S
father-in-law. (The most common name is JETHRO; it is possible that HOBAB is another.) Reuel is
the name used when Moses first met him (Ex. 2:18) and when the father-in-law refuses to go with
the Israelites (Num. 10:29). Reuel was a Midianite priest who had several daughters including
ZIPPORAH, Moses’s wife. Hobab may have been his son. The name is typical of the collated
version of the JE source of the Pentateuch. For other details of his life, see the entries under
Jethro and Hobab. Ex. 2:18; Num. 10:29 !.
Rhesa: NT 2;4-. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:27 !.
1.!LXXB Saraph
2.!In Luke 3:35, Reu is the reading of RV MOFFATT PHILLIPS RSV NEB NAB JB NJB NIV NASB NKJV REB NRSV LNT TNIV, but
KJV GOODSPEED CCCD1941 follow the Greek (or Vulgate) and read Ragau A few manuscripts, including L V, read
Ragab.
3.!Reubel (“Baal looks down”) may in fact be the earliest form of the name, since it would have been unacceptable to
later Israelites and would have invited correction.

Rizpah: Glowing Coal. LXX/Josephus 2*4P-=Respha. The daughter of AIAH, she was the
concubine of SAUL. Their two sons were ARMONI and MEPHIBOSHETH 1. After Saul’s death
ABNER took her for his own (2!Sam. 3:7) — a fact which caused Saul’s son ESHBAAL to become
very angry with Abner. But both men were killed soon after. Many years later, DAVID ordered
Armoni and Mephibosheth killed to appease the anger of the Gibeonites, who hanged them and
five of their nephews (2!Sam. 21:8–9). Rizpah came and guarded their bodies — which caused
David to move the bodies of Saul and JONATHAN 2 to their family tomb (2!Sam. 21:10–14). But
he is not recorded as having allowed the burial of Rizpah’s sons. It is a sad tale, and there is no
reason to think Rizpah was anything but an innocent victim. 2!Sam. 3:7, 21:8–11 !.
Ruth: Popularly “friend”; perhaps more correctly “Satisfaction.” LXX 28E+; Josephus (Ant V.ix.1)
28E+;#=Ruth(es). A woman of Moab,1 the wife of MAHLON the older son of ELIMELECH and
NAOMI. After the death of her husband, father-in-law, and brother-in-law, she elected to return to
Judah with Naomi despite the unpleasant reception that awaited her there. She cared for her
mother-in-law by gleaning the fields for her. While she was doing so, she came to the attention of
BOAZ the owner of the land. He spoke kindly to her, and Ruth told Naomi of the matter. Naomi
managed to maneuver matters in such a manner as to cause Boaz to marry Ruth. So everyone
lived happily ever after. And Ruth’s one recorded son was OBED, the grandfather of DAVID.
Although the date is not given, Josephus places these stories in the time of ELI (this is probably
roughly correct, although a slightly earlier date might be preferable). A targum (Jewish Aramaic
translation) says that Ruth was the daughter of King Eglon of Moab (for whom cf. Judges
3:12-28, though the claim is hardly credible even if you ignore the fact that Eglon probably lived
too early). Book of Ruth; Matt. 1:5 !.
Salathiel: Greek L-%-+&;%. Greek form of Shealtiel (which see).
Sala: Name used in Luke 3:32 NRSV for Salmon.
Salma: Name used in 1 Ch. 2:11 NRSV for Salmon (NAB “Salmah”).
Salmon: LXX L-%?-5=Salman.2 The son of Nahshon the prince of Judah. His son was
BOAZ. According to Matthew, his wife was RAHAB (perhaps the prostitute of Jericho of that
name). Ruth 4:20–21; 1 Ch. 2:11 (where he is called “Salma”); Matt. 1:4–5; Luke 3:32 (NRSV
“Sala”) !.
Sanabassar: LXX L-5-)-44-!. The name used in 1 Esdras 2:12, 15, 6:18, 20 for
Sheshbazzar. It closely approximates the Babylonian name Sin-ab-usur, “Sin [the moon goddess]
protect the father.”
1.!Keep in mind that the Moabites, in the Old Testament period, were regarded as just about the most vile of Israel’s
neighbors, barred from the congregation, the children of incest, who had tried to lure Israel into debauchery
after the Exodus. They were the Un-Chosen people, as the Samaritans would be in the New Testament era.
Hamilton, indeed, compares the Book of Ruth to a New Testament story: If Jesus told the parable of the Good
Samaritan, the Book of Ruth is the Parable of the Good Moabite.
2.!L-%?-5/Salman is the reading of Ruth 4:20-21 LXXB, 1 Ch. 2:11 LXXA; the alternate form L-%?D5/Salmon is
found in Ruth 4:20-21 LXXA, 1 Ch. 2:11 LXXB, Matt. 1:4-5. In Luke 3:32 the best manuscripts (ന4 ‫ *א‬B sin eth)
read L-%-/Sala (so NRSV); ന4 ‫א‬c A D L X Y / [ 33 892 Byz a b e ff2 vg have Salmon; ƒ1 ƒ13 read Salman

Sarah: Princess, Mistress. LXX/NT L-!!-=Sarra; Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) L-!-#=Sara(s). Not to
be confused with the (eventual) wife of Tobias in the book of Tobit. The wife of ABRAHAM and
the mother of ISAAC. Her name was originally Sarai (LXX L-!-=Sara), but was changed to
Sarah when Abram’s name was changed to Abraham (Gen. 17:15).1 According to the E source of
the Pentateuch, Sarah was Abraham’s half-sister, being the daughter of TERAH by a different
mother (Gen. 20:12.2 On the other hand, Josephus —Ant I.vi.5 — makes her the daughter of
HARAN; she was thus Abraham’s niece — Ant I.xii.1 — and apparently equivalent to ISCAH). She
was nine or ten years younger than Abraham (Gen. 17:17). She was a beautiful woman, and
hence Abraham twice tried to hide the fact that she was his wife (Gen. 12:10–20, 20:1–18). But
she was barren. Seeing this, she told Abraham to have children by her Egyptian maid HAGAR,
(Gen. 16:1–2. This seems to have been in accordance with Hurrian customs; see the entry on
Hagar, p. 116. Hagar conceived, and bore ISHMAEL (Gen. 16:15–16) — a fact which Sarah
bitterly resented (Gen. 16:5). But in time, when Sarah was ninety (Gen. 17:17) and well past the
age of child-bearing (Gen. 18:11), God came and promised her a son. The child was Isaac, the
fulfillment and bearer of the promise to Abraham. Sarah died at the age of 127, and was buried
in what was to become the family plot at Machpelah (Gen. 23:1, 17-20). References: 1. To
“Sarai”: Gen. 11:29–31, 12:5, 11, 17, 16:1–8, 17:15; 2. To “Sarah”: Gen. 17:15–21, 18:6–15,
20:2, 20:14–21:12, 23:1–2, 19, 24:36, 67, 25:10, 12, 49:31; Isa. 51:2; Rom. 4:19, 9:9; Heb. 11:11;
1 Pet. 3:6 !.
Sarai: Archaic form of “Sarah”: “Princess” or “mistress.” LXX L-!-=Sara. The original name of
SARAH.
Saul: Asked, Requested, Dedicated. LXX/NT L-8E%; Josephus (Ant VI.iv.1) L-E%8#=Saul(os);
the Hebrew is probably pronounced “Shaul.” The son of KISH, a man of Benjamin. Beyond this,
his ancestry is disputed.3 Some scholars think that legends about his birth were collated into the
1.!For the strange tale of how this caused the letter yodh to convince God to change Joshua’s name, see the note on
Joshua, p. 154.
2.!Note, however, that there is no indication that the E source knew the name of Abraham’s father; Gen. 11:24, 25,
26, 27, 31, 32 are from P, while Gen. 11:28 is probably from J.
3.!Both genealogies of Saul agree that he was the son of Kish, and a Benjaminite, but neither can trace his family
tree back to Benjamin. The older source, found in 1 Sam. 9:1, 14:51, is shown in the main genealogy and in the
left drawing below. The genealogy at right is from 1 Ch. 8:33, 9:39. See also the entries on Kish and Ner.

story of Samuel in 1 Sam. 1. He became the first king of Israel.1 The length of his reign is
unknown (the claim of 1!Sam. 13:1 MT that he came to the throne at the age of one and reigned
for two years can be dismissed as a corruption; Acts 13:21 claims a reign of forty years, but
roughly twenty years seems more likely).2 His story occupies most of 1 Samuel; it cannot be told
here in complete detail. In addition, 1!Samuel is a collation of several conflicting sources. But
here are a few highlights:
!"#$%&'(%)%"&*+, -./*)01&%2'(%)%"&*+,
!"#$% &$'
(#)* &$' (#)* !".$'
+,-% !".$' +,-%

The problem of the genealogy is so severe that AB regards it as necessary to emend the text of 1 Sam. 14.51.
NRSV of this verse reads “Kish was the father of Saul, and Ner the father of Abner was the son of Ner.” AB
offers instead “Kish, the father of Saul, and Ner, the father of Abiner, were sons of Abiel.”
1.!Just how this came about it somewhat disputed. 1 Samuel has three different relevant sections. 1 Sam. 9:1-10:16
(possibly from a Saul source) tells of Samuel meeting and anointing Saul as the latter searched for his father’s
donkeys. 1 Sam. 10:17-25 (possibly from the prophetic source) describes Samuel responding to Israel’s request for
a king by digging up Saul. 1 Sam. 11 tells of Saul as a war leader or n!g"d coming to the rescue of Jabesh-Gilead.
Martin Noth, The History of Israel, pp. 168-171, has suggested that this order is confused: That Saul first showed
his charismatic leadership by rescuing Jabesh-Gilead, and then was anointed by Samuel. This makes excellent
historical sense, but it suffers from the drawback that neither 1 Sam. 9 or 1 Sam. 10 makes much sense if we
assume that the events of 1 Sam. 11 had already made Saul famous. So I will tell the tale as the Bible tells it.
2.!Josephus — Ant VI.xiii.5 — says that Samuel died in the eighteenth year of Saul’s reign, and the Greek text of Ant
VI.xiv.9 says that the king reigned for twenty-two years thereafter, giving him a total reign of forty years. But the
Latin text of Josephus grants Saul eighteen plus two years for a total of twenty years, and in Ant X.viii.1 Josephus
grants Saul a total of twenty years. The Lucianic text of 1 Kingdoms=1 Sam. 13:1 gives Saul’s reign (or perhaps
his age) as thirty years; the verse is omitted entirely in LXXB LXXA and marked with ※※ by Origen (LXX
probably omitted the words due to the damage in the Hebrew; the LXX translator knew it could not be correct
as written. Alternately, perhaps a scribe put in the traditional formula for length of reign and age of accession at
this point, but left a blank for the actual numbers, and no one was able to fill them in. So the original, translated
loosely, may have been, in effect, “Saul was ___ years old when he came to the throne, and reigned ___ years.”

Kish was a landowner in Benjamin (1!Sam. 9:1). One day some of Kish’s donkeys wandered
off. Kish sent his son Saul and a servant to seek for them. After three days of fruitless searching,
the servant advised Saul to inquire of the prophet Samuel (1!Sam. 9:6). Samuel saw that Saul was
a tall and handsome man (1!Sam. 9:2, 10:23). And so Samuel privately anointed Saul as king of
Israel (1!Sam. 9:15–10:8). Later, when Israel demanded a king, Samuel arranged it so that Saul
was elected (1!Sam. 10:17–27). Soon after this, Saul proved his prowess by saving Jabesh-Gilead
from the Ammonites (1!Sam. 11:1–11).1 In this early stage of his reign, Saul was a very patient
and obedient man (1!Sam. 11:12–15). He warred against the Philistines, and was initially quite
successful (1!Sam. 14:1–23). But he had broken faith with God, and God rejected him as king
(1!Sam. 13:8–15). It was at about this time that David joined the court of Saul, either as the
slayer of Goliath (1!Sam. 17) or, more probably, as a musician to soothe Saul’s bad dreams
(1!Sam. 16:14–23. LXX of 16:14 reports that evil spirits “leapt upon” Saul, which Josephus —
Ant VI.viii.2 — understands to mean “Suffocated.” For the confusion over how Saul and David
came to meet, see the excursus on David and Goliath, p. 96). As David grew more successful,
Saul grew jealous of him, and eventually forced him to flee the court (1!Sam. 18:29, 19:11–24).
After this, Saul’s kingdom began to fall apart under the assaults of the Philistines. And Saul
became less and less able to deal with the threat, for he was preoccupied with his dreams, and
with David, and with the God’s rejection of him. He sought to kill David, but David eluded him
and even spared his life (there are two accounts of this: 1!Sam. 24 and 1!Sam. 26). And the
Philistines assembled against Saul one last time. Unable to find any counsel from God (1!Sam.
28:6), Saul eventually turned to a medium (1!Sam. 28:7–25).2 With his strength spent but his
resolution untouched, Saul went forth to battle at Mt. Gilboa. In his last battle, Saul was defeated
(1!Sam. 31:1). Seeing the ruin of Israel and of his family (1!Sam. 31:2–3), Saul committed suicide
(1!Sam. 31:4. Josephus — Ant VI.xiv.7 — reports that he fought heroically and that his entire
guard died with him). His body was captured by the Philistines, but rescued by the men of
Jabesh-Gilead (1!Sam. 31:8–13). David eventually transferred it to Saul’s family burial ground
(2!Sam. 21:10–14).
Saul probably came to the throne about the year 1020 B.C.E.; the battle of Mt. Gilboa was
fought in about the year 1000 B.C.E. Saul had four sons by his wife AHINOAM: JONATHAN 2,
ABINADAB 1/Ishvi, MALCHISHUA, and ESHBAAL. The first three were slain at Gilboa (1!Sam.
1.!There is an interesting footnote here. In Judges, chapter 21, the city of Jabesh-Gilead is destroyed for not being
part of the grand coalition against Jabesh-Gilead, and its surviving women became the ancestors of the later
Benjaminites. Thus Saul was, very likely, rescuing the city of his ancestors. But there is another interesting
sidelight given the Deuteronomic historian’s rejection of Saul: The fact that Saul was probably descended from a
woman of Jabesh-Gilead might, perhaps, mean that he was considered to be of what we would call “bad seed.”
Chronicles may give another version of this. 1 Samuel makes it clear that Saul was a man of Gibeah (1 Sam.
10:10, etc.), and we also find “Gibeah of Saul” mentioned in Isa. 10:29 also mentions “Gibeah of Saul.” Yet
Chronicles makes him a resident of Gibeon, the Canaanite city, not Gibeah (1 Ch. 8:29, etc.). If not an accidental
error, it would appear to be another attempt to brand Saul as not a proper Israelite.
2.!A midrash on this account claims, improbably enough, that the so-called Witch of Endor, the medium Saul
consulted, was actually Zephaniah the mother of Abner son of Ner!

31:2); Eshbaal was murdered two years later (2!Sam. 4:3–12). Ahinoam also gave Saul two
daughters, MERAB and MICHAL. But the men of Gibeon killed the sons of Merab (2!Sam. 21:8–
9), while Michal the wife of David had no children (2!Sam. 6:23). Saul had two sons by his
concubine RIZPAH, but they were also slain by the men of Gibeon. So Saul’s line was carried on
only by Jonathan’s son MEPHIBOSHETH 2.
Saul is mentioned mentioned almost four hundred times in the OT, but only once in the New
Testament, in Acts 13:21.1
Semein: NT L*?*&52, from Hebrew Shimei, “Yah[weh] is Fame.” According to Luke, an ancestor
Seraiah: Yah[weh] is Prince. LXX L-!-&-#=Saraias; Josephus (Ant X.viii.5) L-!-&8#/
L*)*8#/L*)-&8#=Sarai(os)/Sebe(os)/Sebai(os). The father of EZRA. Some identify him with the
High Priest at the time of the fall of Jerusalem (2!Kings 25:18; Jer. 52:24; 1 Esdras 5:5; perhaps
1!Ch. 6:14), in which case he is the father of Jehozadak the father of Jeshua. This Seraiah was
slain by the Babylonians in 587 (2!Kings 25:18–21). His ancestry is given in Ezra 7:1–2, but is
confused (see the entry on Ezra, p. 114), since Seraiah the High Priest was killed a century or
more before Ezra was born.. Ezra 7:1; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:1,3 2 Esdras 1:1 !.
Serug: Related to the Akkadian city name “Sarugi.” LXX L*!8EN=Seruch; Josephus (Ant I.vi.5)
L*!8E68#=Serug(os). The grandfather of TERAH the father of ABRAHAM. According to MT, he
was 30 when his son NAHOR was born; LXX, the Samaritan Version, and Josephus give his age
as 130. Gen. 11:20–23; 1!Ch. 1:26, Luke 3:35 !.
Seth: Popularly “Compensation.” LXX L*+; Josephus L*+8#=Seth(os). The third son of ADAM
and EVE, born after the murder of ABEL and the exile of CAIN. He was given his name because
his birth comforted his parents after the loss of their earlier children. He was in the image of
Adam, as Adam was in the image of God. According to MT and the Samaritan Version, he was
105 when his son ENOSH was born, but LXX and Josephus (Ant I.iii.4) give his age as 205. Gen.
4:25–26, 5:3–8; 1!Ch. 1:1;4 Luke 3:38; in the Apocrypha in Sirach 49:16 !.
Shallum: Recompenser ?
SHALLUM 1. LXX L-%8E?=Saloum.5 A Levite, the great-grandfather of EZRA and the son
of someone named ZADOK. He was the father of HILKIAH, who may have been the Hilkiah who
was high priest in the time of Josiah. Ezra 7:2; perhaps 1!Ch. 6:12–13; just barely possibly
2!Kings 22:14; 2!Ch. 34:22; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 8:1, 2 Esdras 1:1 !.
1.!Note that the LXX spelling L-8E% is used for Saul son of Kish in Acts, whereas the future Apostle Paul is
designated by the more Greek-sounding form L-E%8# — the same inflectable form that Josephus uses. This is
probably because Saul is an LXX character, whereas Paul, although named for him, was a Greek-speaking Jew
with a Greek name.
2.!Semein (or Semeein) is the reading of ‫ א‬B L b e; A E G M J have Semeei; K / vg KJV Semei
3.!LXXB reads “Azariah” in this passage
4.!LXXA reads here “Ses”
5.!So LXXB; LXXA etc. read “Selloum,” as in the following entries

SHALLUM 2. LXX L*%%8E?=Selloum; Josephus (Ant IX.xi.1) L*%%;?8#=Sellem(os). The son

of JABESH, and a man of Israel. He assassinated1 JEROBOAM II’s son ZECHARIAH 1 the fourteenth
king of Israel. But he reigned for only a single month before he was in his turn assassinated by
MENAHEM son of Gadi. 2!Kings 15:10–15 !.
SHALLUM 3. LXX L-%8E?=Saloum. The name given at birth to a younger son of king
JOSIAH. He assumed the throne under the name JEHOAHAZ 2. 1!Ch. 3:15; Jer. 22:11; and see the
entries under Jehoahaz !.
Shammah: Yah[weh] is Fame. LXX/Josephus typically L-?-/L-?--=Sama/Samma. The
third son of JESSE the father of DAVID. According to one account, he was the youngest of the
three sons to go to battle with the Philistines at Socoh (the battle at which David slew Goliath —
1!Sam. 17:12–16). He was the father of JONATHAN 3 and JONADAB. Variant forms of his name
are Shimeah and Shimei. 1!Sam. 16:9, 17:13;2 2!Sam. 13:3, 32, 21:21; 1!Ch. 20:7 !.
Shealtiel: “God is Peace” ? LXX/NT L-%-+&;%=Salathiel.
SHEALTIEL 1. The oldest son of JEHOIACHIN, the grandson of king JOSIAH who was the
next-to-last king of Israel and an exile in Babylon. According to the majority of Biblical sources,
Shealtiel was the father of ZERUBBABEL 1, the man who directed the rebuilding of the temple.
(One source, 1!Ch. 3:19, lists Shealtiel’s younger brother PEDAIAH as Zerubbabel’s father.3) He is
mentioned only as the father of Zerubbabel. 1!Ch. 3:17; Ezra 3:2, 8, 5:2; Neh. 12:1; Hag. 1:1,
1:12, 1:14, 2:2, 2:23;4 Matt. 1:12 (NRSV “Salathiel”); in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 5:5, 48, 56,
6:2; also 2 Esdras 3:1 (as a name for Ezra! — NRSV renders “Salathiel”); see also the note on Luke
3:27 in the next entry !.
SHEALTIEL 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Very likely
intended to be the same person as #1, but this is hardly possible on chronological and
genealogical grounds. Luke 3:27 !.
Shelah: Javelin.
SHELAH 1. LXX L-%-=Sala; Josephus (Ant I.vi.4) L*%;#=Sele(s). The son of ARPACHSHAD
the son of SHEM, from whom the Hebrews were descended. Note however that Luke, following
the Septuagint, makes Shelah the son of CAINAN the son of ARPACHSHAD (Luke 3:35–36; see the
note on the Gospel Genealogies of Jesus, p. 119). Gen. 10:24, 11:12–15; 1!Ch. 1:18,5 24; Luke
3:35 !.
SHELAH 2. LXX L;%D?=Selom; Josephus (Ant II.vii.4) L-%-#=Sala(s). The third and
youngest son of JUDAH 1 by the daughter of Shua the Canaanite (“BATH-SHUA”). After the deaths
1.!“assassinated”: so 2 Kings 15:10 MT (which reads “struck him down in public”); LXXB apparently takes this as a
proper name and reads “and killed him in Keblaam”; other LXX texts rearrange this to make Shallum The son of
Jabesh and Keblaam.
2.!LXXB omits this verse; see the excursus on David and Goliath, p. 96.
3.!At least, Pedaiah is the father according to MT Lucian; LXXB LXXA list “Salathiel”=Shealtiel, as in Ezra,
Haggai, etc.
4.!Also in LXX of Haggai 2:21

of his older brothers ER and ONAN, he should have married their widow TAMAR 1. But since
Tamar had already had two husbands die, Judah prevented or at least delayed the marriage (Gen.
38, or see the entries on Onan and PEREZ).1 Shelah must at some point have married, however,
for he did leave descendants (Num. 26:20). But his seems to have been the smallest of the clans of
Judah. Gen. 38:5, 11, 14, 26, 46:12; Num. 26:20; 1!Ch. 2:3, 4:21 !.
Shelomith: Peacefulness. LXX Q??D+=Emmoth.2 One of the younger children of REHOBOAM
king of Judah by his second wife MAACAH the daughter of ABSALOM. 2!Ch. 11:20 !.
Shem: Perhaps “Renown,” or else Mesopotamian “Son.” LXX L*?=Sem. The oldest of NOAH’S
three sons. He was the ancestor of the peoples of Asia and the middle east to the north and east
of Canaan. Among his descendants were the Hebrews. Despite this, he was not especially
blessed, except that was not cursed along with his nephew CANAAN. Gen. 5:32, 6:10, 7:13, 9:18,
23–27, 10:1, 21, 22, 31, 11:10–11; 1!Ch. 1:4, 17, 24; Luke 3:36; in the Apocrypha in Sirach
49:16 !.
Shemariah: Yah[weh] has Preserved ? LXX L-?-!&-#=Samarias. The second son of
REHOBOAM the first king of Judah by his first wife MAHALATH. 2!Ch. 11:19 !.
Shenazzar: LXX L-5*4-!=Sanesar.3 Found only in 1!Ch. 3:18. The fourth son of
JEHOIACHIN. Usually considered an error for Sheshbazzar (which see).
Shephatiah: Yah[weh] has Judged. LXX L-P-0&-#=Saphatias.
SHEPHATIAH 1. The fifth son of DAVID. Nothing else is known of him. 2 Sam. 3:4, 1 Ch.
3:3 !.
SHEPHATIAH 2. The youngest son of JEHOSHAPHAT 1 king of Judah. He was slain by his
older brother JEHORAM 2when Jehoram became king of Judah (849 B.C.E.?). 2!Ch. 21:2, (4) !.
Sheshbazzar: Probably a corruption of Akkadian Sin-ab-usur, “Sin [the moon goddess] Protect the
Father.” Compare LXX L-5-)-4-!=Sanabasar.4 The first governor of Judah after the Persian
conquest, he led the Jewish return of 538 B.C.E. and began but could not complete the
construction of the second Temple. That is all that we know for certain about this rather
shadowy figure. But other theories abound. Some believe that Sheshbazzar was simply an
appointed Persian governor, and that he failed to complete the temple because he didn’t really
care. Others speculate that Sheshbazzar was simply another name for ZERUBBABEL 1. But general
consensus makes Sheshbazzar a major figure in his own right. It is thought that the “Shenazzar”
of 1!Ch. 3:18 is actually Sheshbazzar. This would make him a Davidic prince, one of the
younger sons of the Jehoiachin. Zerubbabel was apparently Jehoiachin’s heir, but at the time of
the first return in 538 he was perhaps too young to lead the people. So his uncle Sheshbazzar was
1.!Genesis blames the delay on Judah; The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah X.6, however, blames it on Judah’s
wife.
2.!LXXA L-%;?D+=Salemoth; Lucian L-%D?&+=Salomith
3.!Lucian L-5-4-!=Sanasar
4.!Sanabassar is found in 1 Esdras 2:12 (except LXXB has Samannassaros); in LXX of Ezra 1:8+11 LXXmajority reads
Sasabasar, LXXB Sabanassar, LXXA Sasabassaro. Josephus, who tends to use 1!Esdras rather than Ezra, has variously
Abassar(os) (Ant. XI.i.3), Sanabasar(os) (Ant XI.iv.4), and Sanabassar(es) (Ant XI.iv.5)

made governor (in effect, the Regent or Lord Protector) of Judah in his stead, and received the
treasures of the first temple from the Persian government. Sheshbazzar led a small return to
Judah in 538, which set out to rebuild the Temple. Local opposition prevented them from making
much progress during the reign of Cyrus “the Great”. Zerubbabel, meanwhile, grew to
adulthood, and in the reign of Darius I (520 B.C.E.) led a second return. This expedition, larger
and better organized, succeeded in building the second Temple. Ezra 1:8, 11, 5:14, 16; probably
also 1!Ch. 3:18; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 2:12, 15, 6:18, 20.
Shimeah. Another name for SHAMMAH.
Shimei. Another name for SHAMMAH.
Sidon. LXX L&9D5-=Sidona; Josephus (Ant I.vi.2) L&9D5&8#=Sidoni(os). The oldest son of
CANAAN son of HAM son of NOAH. He presumably founded the city and nation bearing his name
(mentioned, e.g., in Gen. 10:19, 49:13; Josh. 11:8, 19:28; Judges 1:31, etc.). Gen. 10:15; 1!Ch.
1:131 !.
Simeon: [God has] Heard, with diminutive suffix -on; LXX/Josephus LE?*D5=Symeon. (Rendered
“Simeon” in most NT instances). Not to be confused with Simon Peter or other New Testament
Simons.
SIMEON 1. The second son of JACOB 1 by his wife LEAH. It was he who, along with Jacob’s
third son LEVI 1, slew all the inhabitants of Shechem in revenge for the rape of DINAH (Gen.
34:25–31). And when Jacob’s sons visited Egypt to buy grain, it was Simeon whom JOSEPH 1 took
hostage until the other brothers returned with BENJAMIN (Gen. 42:24, 43:23). The reason for this
may be that Simeon was regarded as the ringleader of those who sold Joseph (since Reuben, the
only older son, had opposed the act). This was the view of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,
which reports that Simeon’s right hand was paralyzed for a week thereafter (Simeon I.12).2
Simeon founded one of the tribes of Israel, but its history was rather disastrous. One of the
larger tribes at the time of the Exodus (Num. 1:23), the tribe’s population had fallen by more
than sixty percent by the time of the second census (Num. 26:14). Easily the smallest of the
tribes, Simeon was not even given a plot of land in Canaan. Instead, it was granted that part of
the land of Judah which was not occupied by the Judahites (Josh. 19:1–9). Simeon never appears
again as an independent tribe. It cooperated with Judah in Judges 1:3, and for all intents and
purposes dropped out of sight after that. Presumably it merged with Judah — actually a blessing,
since it meant that Simeon survived the Exile.

2.!The Testimony of Simeon also reconciles the conflict between the J and E sources as to whether Judah or Reuben
saved Joseph’s life from his brothers. According to this account, Reuben (and Simeon) were absent when the
brothers conspired against Joseph. Judah then proposed to sell Joseph, and only later did Reuben return to try to
rescue him (cf. the J account in Gen. 27:25-27 and the E account in 37:29-30).
Other portions of the Testaments add further details to the account of Joseph’s abduction. Zebulun III.2 says it was
“Simeon and GAD and six others of our brothers” who accepted and spent the purchase price. In Zebulun
IV.8-11 it was DAN who concocted the false story of Joseph slain by wild animals (cf. Gen. 37:31-33).

According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Simeon I.1, Simeon died at the age of 120
in the same years as Joseph. References to Simeon the man are in Gen. 29:33, 34:25, 30, 35:23,
42:24, 36, 43:23, 46:10, 48:5, 49:5;1 Ex. 1:2, 6:15; Num. 26:12; in the Apocrypha in Judith 9:2,
4!Macc. 2:19 !.
SIMEON 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke 3:30 !.
Simon: NT L&?D58#=Simonos.2 Form of Simeon. A younger son of JOSEPH (#2) and MARY
and a brother of JESUS. He seems to have had no involvement whatsoever with Christianity.
Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3 !.
Sinites. LXX K4*55-&8#=Asennaios. The eighth “son” of CANAAN the grandson of NOAH.
Thought to represent a people who lived in northern Lebanon, perhaps near Tripoli. Gen. 10:17;
1!Ch. 1:153 !.
Solomon: Peace/Rest. LXX L-%S?D5/L-%8?D5=Salomon; Josephus/NT (Ant VII.iii.3)
L8%8?85=Solomon. The tenth son of DAVID, and the second of David’s children by BATHSHEBA,
born in Jerusalem. Solomon was his throne name, given because he came to the throne of a
peaceful land (cf. Sirach 47:13); he was called “Jedidiah” (“beloved of Yah[weh]”) at birth, for the
prophet Nathan spoke of him (2!Sam. 12:24–25). He was one of the two candidates to be
David’s successor — David’s oldest living son ADONIJAH being the other (1 Kings 1:5).4 Adonijah
was supported by ABIATHAR the priest and JOAB the commander of the army. But Solomon was
supported by ZADOK 1 the priest, Benaiah the commander of the palace guard, Nathan the
prophet — and his mother Bathsheba (1 Kings 1:8, 11). There is every reason to think Zadok
and Benaiah at least were out for their own advantage, but Bathsheba supposedly was the key.
She convinced David to appoint Solomon his successor — or at least gave it out that she had. So
Solomon was crowned by Zadok at Gihon (1!Kings 1:39). This unusual coronation — really a
palace coup — allowed him to bypass the usual covenant ceremony in which the people accept
the king. This may have affected Solomon’s view of the kingship and made him more despotic.
When Solomon became king, he began to act very hastily — he had Joab and Adonijah killed,
and exiled Abiathar (1!Kings 2:23–35). One night, God came to Solomon, and offered him
anything that he wished. Solomon asked for wisdom, a choice of which God approved (1!Kings
3:5ƒ.). But Solomon was not really very wise. He built the Temple (1!Kings 5–8; 2!Ch. 3–6), but
1.!In LXX also in Gen. 34:14
2.!Simonos is the reading of Mark; Matthew has the more Hebrew form Simon
4.!An interesting hypothesis has it that Solomon based his claim to the throne on being “born in the purple,” i.e.
after his father became king in Jerusalem — a principle that has been causing trouble ever since. Arguing against
this is the Rabbinic tradition that Solomon was only twelve years old when he came to the throne (so also
3!Kingdoms=1 Kings 2:12 in LXXM, but not in LXXB LXXA Lucian). If the rabbis were right about this, he
could hardly have been the first son born after David became king, and probably wasn’t old enough to make a
claim to the throne anyway. Josephus — Ant VIII.vii.8 — gives his age at ascension as fourteen but credits him
with ruling for eighty years! While it seems likely that Solomon was at least in his mid-teens — after all, his son
Rehoboam came to the throne at the age of forty-one according to 1 Kings 14:21 — it is noteworthy that it was
Solomon’s friends, not the prince himself, who conspired to place him on the throne. For a discussion of
Solomon’s dates and how they relate to those of Hiram of Tyre, see the entry on Solomonon p. 178.

his foreign policy was weak. He married an Egyptian princess (1 Kings 3:1),1 but could not
prevent a later Pharaoh (probably Sheshonk I) from harbouring the rebel JEROBOAM I (1!Kings
11:40). Solomon took other foreign wives (1!Kings 11:1–2), and allowed them to corrupt his and
his nation’s religious practice (1!Kings 11:4–8). He also overtaxed his people, lived far too lavishly,
and did little to strengthen his military position; all the evidence is that he was living off the
capital built up by David and Joab in the previous generation. Solomon produced a great number
of cute sayings, as well as his famous judgement between two prostitutes (1!Kings 3:16–28, or see
the excursus below on Solomon and Game Theory). But he left his son REHOBOAM several
unsolved problems — how to unify the worship of God, how to keep his nation together, how to
rule with equity. It was Solomon’s indolence and laxness which resulted in the separation of
Judah and Israel. Judah was ruled by Solomon’s son Rehoboam, but God promised Israel and ten
of the twelve tribes to others (1!Kings 11:26–40; for the LXX version of this, see the excursus on
Two Tales of Jeroboam I, p. 139).
The general impression that the Bible gives of Solomon is also expressed by the son of
Sirach: that in his youth he was one of Israel’s greatest kings, but he later went astray (Sirach
47:12–23).
Despite his many wives, only three of Solomon’s children are recorded: his heir Rehoboam,
and his daughters Taphath (1 Kings 4:11) and Basemath (1 Kings 4:15), who married Solomon’s
officials. One is tempted to suspect that Rehoboam, to secure his position, may have dealt rather
harshly with certain of his siblings.
Most of the so-called “wisdom literature” of Israel is attributed to Solomon — Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, the Song of Solomon, two Psalms, and the apocryphal “Wisdom of Solomon.” But
it is unlikely that any of these were the work of Solomon. (It should be noted, for instance, that
most of his proverbs were said to be about plants and animals — 1 Kings 4:32–33; Josephus in
Ant VIII.ii.5 says that he had a proverb about every tree and plant — but there are almost no such
saying in the canonical proverbs.) 1!Kings 1–11; 2!Ch. 1–9; Neh. 13:26; Psalms 72 & 127 (titles);
Prov. 1:1, 10:1, 25:1; Song 1:1, 5, 3:7, 9, 11, 8:11–12; Jer. 52:20; Matt. 1:6–7, 6:29, 12:42; Luke
11:31, 12:27; John 10:23; Acts 3:11, 5:12; 7:47.
1.!This is the MT verse numbering; LXX gives the story of Solomon as follows: 3!Kingdoms=1!Kings 1:1-2:35--)
(Solomon’s wisdom and greatness), 2:356 (=3:1 with additions from 6:38), 2:359 (=5:15), 2:35* (a brief summary
of Solomom’s projects), 2:35' (=9:25, with additions concerning the building of the citadel), 2:35; (=9:25),
2:35+ (=9:23, but with 3600 for MT 550), 2:35& (=9:15b, 17b, 18), 2:35, (noting that Solomon built his fortresses
after rebuilding Jerusalem), 2:35%-8 (=2:8-9), 2:46- (=4:20), 2:46) (many neighbouring nations serve Solomon),
2:466-9 (Solomon’s colonization of Lebannon), 2:46*-; (=5:22-25), 2:46+ (=4:2-6, but with major changes in the
office-holders), 2:46& (=4:26), 2:46, (=4:21), 2:46% (“So Solomon reigned over Israel and Judah”), 3:2-4:19,
5:1-14 (=4:27-28, 22-24, 29-34), 5:14--) (=3:1a+9:16-17), 5:15-32 (=5:1-18, with minor alterations), 6:1, 6:1--9
(=5:17-18, 6:37-38), 6:2-10, 6:15-36, 36- (inspired by 7:12b?), 7:13-51, 7:1-12, 8:1-11, 8:14-53, 8:12-13
(expanded), 8:54-9:9, 9:9- (=9:24a), 9:10-14, 9:26-28, 10:1-22, 10:22--6 (=9:15-22), 10:23-29, 11:1-8
(scrambled), 11:9-22, 11:25-38, 11:40ƒ. For the narrative of chapters 11-14, which is concerned primarily with
the exploits of Jeroboam I and Solomon’s son Rehoboam, see the excursus on Two Tales of Jeroboam I, p. 139.

Excursus: Solomon and Game Theory

Game theory — that is, the mathematical discipline devoted to determining the best strategy
to use in certain situations — has a number of “special” games that illustrate particular
principles. The simplest types of games involve two players who each have two possible strategies.
There are four possible outcomes for any such game, which can be ranked based on their reward
for each player.
One such game is known as “Bully.” In a real-world scenario, if two nations are considering
war at each other, Bully is the case where one player wants war, period, while the other wants
peace but is afraid to back down. Bully has real-world analogies — consider, e.g., the behavior of
the Habsburg Empire and Serbia before World War I. Or Saddam Hussein before the (second)
Iraq-American war. Or Spain before the Spanish-American War. The situation between Poland
and Germany before World War II wasn't quite the same, but it was close.
Not all games of Bully result in wars; World War I had been preceded by a series of games of
Bully in which the bully backed down and peace was preserved. But the long-term result of Bully
tends to be increased tension, more bullying incidents, and, eventually, the actual war.
There is a Biblical game of Bully in the tale of Solomon and the two prostitutes (1!Kings
3:16–28). When Solomon faces the two women and one child, and threatens to cut the child in
two, the woman who agrees to cut the child in half is playing Bully strategy. What's more, in
theory she wins. If it weren't for Solomon's second judgment, changing the rules of the game, she
would have had what she wanted.
Note that Solomon’s questioning did not in fact assure that the correct mother was given the
baby. Some game theorists have suggested questions more likely to do so. But this isn’t really the
goal. What we want is for the child to have a good mother. And that Solomon achieved. Solomon
didn't have to be sure that he knew which woman was the mother of the child: by giving the baby
to the more humane prostitute, he assured that the baby wouldn't be brought up by a bully. As a game
theorist, Solomon clearly knew the rules better than at least one of the prostitutes.
Tahan: Graciousness ? LXX Y-*5=Thaen.1 According to 1 Ch. 7:25, an Ephraimite, five
generations after EPHRAIM himself and one of JOSHUA’S ancestors. Num. 26:35 makes a “Tahan”
Ephraim’s third son and founder of a clan. This may indicate that the passage in Chronicles is
disturbed. 1!Ch. 7:25; Num. 26:35? !.
Tamar: Date Palm. LXX Y-?-!/Y;?-!=Thamar/Themar; NT Y-?-!; Josephus
Y-?-!-=Thamara.
TAMAR 1. A Canaanite woman.2 She was the wife of ER the firstborn of TAMAR 1. But Er
was “wicked,” and God slew him. So Tamar became the wife Er’s brother ONAN. Onan,
however, refused to have children by Tamar, so God killed him also. Tamar should then have
1.!Thaen is the spelling of LXXB; Lucian Thaan. LXXA LXXN+V use Lucian’s spelling (?) but reverse the positions of
Tahan and his son “Ladan.”
2.!This, at least, is the implication of the Bible. According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah X.1, however,
she was an Aramaean from Mesopotamia.

become the wife of SHELAH, Judah’s last surviving son. Judah, however, had seen two of his sons
die after marrying Tamar; he did not want to risk another. The marriage did not take place. But
Tamar would not be shuffled aside. She dressed herself as a cult prostitute, and convinced Judah
to lie with her, without telling him who she was. When Judah found out that Tamar was
pregnant, he intended to have her burned. But she proved to him that he was the father of the
children, and he let her live, accepting the children as his own. And Tamar bore twins: PEREZ
and ZERAH, the ancestors of most of the people of Judah, including DAVID. Gen. 38:6–30; Ruth
4:12; 1!Ch. 2:4; Matt. 1:3 !.
TAMAR 2. DAVID’S only known daughter. She was the daughter of MAACAH 1 the
daughter of Talmai king of Geshur. She was thus the full sister of ABSALOM and the half-sister of
AMNON, David’s oldest son. Tamar was beautiful, and it came to pass that Amnon lusted after
her.1 He was convinced that he could never win her hand. But his cousin JONADAB advised him to
feign sickness and ask to have Tamar care for him. David — who never seems to have paid
attention to what his children were up to — consented to this, and sent Tamar to Amnon.
Amnon then raped her, and refused her request that he do the honourable thing and marry her.2
Indeed, Amnon proceeded to throw Tamar out of his house. She fled to the house of Absalom.
Nothing else is known of her, but Absalom would later murder Amnon to avenge his sister
(conveniently making himself heir to the throne at the same time). 2!Sam. 13:1–22, 32; 1!Ch. 3:9
!.
TAMAR 3. A daughter of ABSALOM, and hence the niece of #2. Josephus (Ant VII.viii.1)
calls her “very beautiful” without mentioning her name. Possibly he confused her with her aunt.
2!Sam. 14:273 !.
Telah: Fracture ? LXX Y-%*=Thale.4 An Ephraimite, and one of JOSHUA’S ancestors. His son
was TAHAN, Joshua’s great-great-grandfather.5 1!Ch. 7:25 !.
Terah: Related to the Akkadian place-name “Til "a turabi.” LXX/NT Y-!!-/Y-!-=Thar(r)a;
Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) Y-!!8#=Tharro(s). The “wandering Aramean” (Deut. 26:5) who was the
1.!A side effect, probably, of David’s institution of the harem. A surprising amount of research shows that close
relatives raised separately tend to be strongly attracted to each other — people like people who appear to share
their genes. Incest is prevented by an instinctive revulsion people feel toward sexual encounters with those whom
they frequently met in their first years of life (who are presumably relatives). In a harem, Amnon and Tamar
would have been raised separately —!and so Amnon would feel the lust toward a relative, and not feel the
repulsion that should have counteracted it.
2.!Although such a marriage would normally have been illegal under Jewish law, the rabbis explained that Tamar
was born before her mother converted to Judaism, making her legally unrelated to Amnon. This presumably
means that Tamar was older than Absalom. Moderns, of course, think that the marriage was possible because
the Law was not in force at the time.
3.!LXX of 2 Sam. 14:27 states that Tamar would marry Rehoboam and bear his heir; 2 Ch. 11:20-23 tells this of
Maacah daughter of Absalom. Josephus combined accounts by making Maacah the daughter of Tamar. For
additional details, see the entry on Maacah 2, p. 164.
4.!Thale: so LXXA; LXXB Thalees; Lucian Thala
5.!So MT LXXB Lucian; LXXA LXXN+V reverse the positions of Tahan and his son LADAN in the genealogy, making
Ladan a grandson of Telah.

father of NAHOR, ABRAHAM, HARAN, and (according to the E source) SARAH. He was born in the
city of Ur in Mesopotamia (Gen. 11:28), but migrated to Haran, where he died (Gen. 11:32).
Josephus (Ant I.vi.5) says that he migrated because he was depressed by the memory of his son
Haran’s death. Josh. 24:2 describes him as a worshipper of pagan gods — highly likely for a
resident of Haran, center of the cult of the moon-goddess Sin. Islamic tradition, in fact,
describes him as a maker of idols (compare teraphim, a typical Hebrew word for household gods). If
so, he was the last pagan among the patriarchs. (On the other hand, the Book of Jubilees — 12:1ƒ.
— implies that he disliked idolatry but went along with the crowd.) Gen. 11:24–32; Josh. 24:2;
1!Ch. 1:26; Luke 3:34 !.
T i b n i : I n t e l l i g e n t ? L X X Y-?5*&= T h a m n i ; J o s e p h u s ( A n t V I I I . x i i . 5 )
Y-?-5-&8#=Thamanai(os). The son of GINATH, and a man of Israel. After the murder of ELAH
1 and the suicide of ZIMRI, some of the people sought to make him king of Israel. But in the civil
war that followed, Tibni was killed and OMRI became king of Israel. It is thought that the war
lasted three or four years; if so, then Tibni died around 873.1 1!Kings 16:21–22 !.
Tiras. LXX Y&!-#=Thiras. The youngest son of JAPHETH the son of NOAH. Possibly the
ancestor of the people of Thrace northeast of Greece. Gen. 10:2; 1!Ch. 1:5 !.
Tubal. LXX Y8)*%=Thobel. The fifth son of JAPHETH. Presumably the ancestor a people of
Asia Minor, but it is not certain which one (cf. the mentions of this people in Isa. 66:19; Ezek.
27:13, 32:26, 38:2–3, 39:1). Gen. 10:2; 1!Ch. 1:5 !.
Tubal-Cain: Smith of Tubal. LXX Y8)*%=Thobel. (LXX reads Thobal who was a smith for
MT’s Tubal-cain in Gen. 4:22a.) The son of LAMECH 1 by his wife ZILLAH; “he was the forger of
all instruments of bronze and iron.” This is all the Bible has to say about him, but Jewish legend
has more, including a tale of how he was killed by his father; for details, see the excursus
Lamech’s Lament on p. 160. Gen. 4:22 !.
Uzzi: [Yahweh is] Strength. LXX V'&=Ozi; Josephus (Ant V.xi.5) V'&#=Ozi(s), (Ant VIII.i.3)
CD+-?8#=Iotham(os). The great-grandson of PHINEHAS 1 the grandson of AARON. His only claim
to fame is that he was an ancestor of ZADOK 1, one of DAVID’S high priests. Josephus reports that
he was High Priest but did not pass the office on to his sons; after his time the High Priesthood
came into the hands of his distant cousin ELI. 1!Ch. 6:5, 6, 51; Ezra 7:4 !.
Uzziah: Yah[weh] is (my) Strength. LXX V'&-# = Ozias (also K'-!&-# = Azarias); Josephus
always Ozias. Apparently the name assumed by AZARIAH 4 the son of AMAZIAH when he assumed
the throne of Judah. The prophets consistently refer to him as Uzziah; the historians who wrote
the books of Kings and Chronicles are less consistent. He may have begun to use “Azariah” again
when he returned to semi-private life as a result of his leprosy. For details of his life, see the entry
on Azariah 4, p. 88.
1.!LXX of 3 Kingdoms=1 Kings 16:22 adds that Tibni’s brother Joram died with him,and says that Omri reigned after
Tibni, implying that during the Civil War Tibni was the “recognized” king. But MT seems to say merely that
Omri “became king” after Tibni’s death.

Zacharias: NT W-N-!&-#, Greek form of Zechariah, “Yah[weh] is Renowned.” Called

ZECHARIAH 5 in the NRSV and other modern versions. According to Luke, a Levite of the division
of Abijah. His wife was ELISABETH. When both he and his wife were old, it came to be
Zacharias’s turn to serve in the Temple. While there, he was informed that he would become the
father of a child. When Zacharias expressed doubt, he was struck dumb until the birth of the
child — JOHN the Baptist. The birth occurred six months before the birth of Jesus. Nothing is
known of Zacharias’s earlier or later life. Luke 1:5–24, 40, 67–79, 3:2 !.
Zadok: Righteous.1 LXX/NT L-9D,=Sadok; Josephus (Ant VII.viii.2) L-9D,8#=Sadok(os).
ZADOK 1. A priest, eight generations after PHINEHAS 1 son of ELEAZAR son of AARON.
This, at least, is the viewpoint of the author of Chronicles. Many moderns feel that the
descendants of ELI were the true Aaronides, and that the Zadokites were upstarts.2 It has even
been theorized that Zadok was originally a priest in Jerusalem while that city was still held by the
Jebusites, and that David retained him in that post to mollify the residents of the city. Whatever
his origin, Zadok was one of David’s high priests (ABIATHAR being the other) from some time
before Absalom’s revolt until David’s death. He was consistently loyal to the king (2!Sam. 15:24).
At the time of David’s death, Zadok supported SOLOMON as his successor, while Abiathar
supported ADONIJAH (1!Kings 1). So Zadok became Solomon’s priest, and anointed him (1!Kings
1:39), whereas Abiathar was exiled. It then became a tradition to choose the High Priest from
among the descendants of Zadok. (That, at least, is the way it was understood by the post-exilic
Jews. The Deuteronomist historians, writing toward the end of the seventh century, do not seem
to be very aware of the institution of the High Priesthood. It may be a late development, with
Jeshua being the first true High Priest.) The line of Zadok, as reckoned from Jeshua (for whom
see page 214), held the High Priesthood until the second century B.C.E., when the Zadokites
Onias III (for whom see p. 218), Jason (p. 219), and Menelaus (p. 220) were deposed by the
Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV. The next High Priest, Alcimus (p. 220), may have been a
Zadokite, but after him the Zadokite line became extinct (except for the pretender Onias IV, p.
219) and the High Priesthood passed to the Maccabeans. It is noteworthy that the Qumran
scribes continued to refer to their leaders as “Sons of Zadok” long after this. 2!Sam. 8:17, 15:24–
36, 17:15, 18:19, 22, 27, 19:11, 20:25; 1!Kings 1:8, 26, 32–40, 44–45, 2:35, 4:2, 4; 1!Ch. 6:8, 53,
1.!Righteous[ness] is the official Hebrew translation of this name. In the Canaanite dialect, however, zdk seems to
have been the name for the Jebusite city of Jerusalem. Consider the names of the two known kings of Jerusalem
prior to David: Melchizedek (=king of zdk; Gen. 14:18ƒ., even though it is glossed as “King of Righteousness” in
Heb. 7:1-2) and Adoni-zedek (=lord of zdk; Josh. 10:1ƒ.) This is one of the reasons that many scholars think that
Zadok was a local Jebusite priest, named after his city, whom David kept on for political reasons; see the rest of
the entry; also the entry on Eli, p. 108.
2.!The evidence for this is indirect but fairly solid: Zadok suddenly appears, in 2 Sam. 8:17, as one of David’s priests.
Until then, Abiathar seems to have been the priest, and he was with David from the beginning. Nor did his loyalty
ever flag. And while Zadok is given a genealogy in Chronicles, he doesn’t even have a father listed in Samuel. It is
perfectly reasonable to ask, when first Zadok shows up, who this guy is.

15:11, 16:39, 18:16, 24:3, 6, 31, 27:17, 29:22; 2!Ch. 31:10; Ezra 7:2; Eze. 40:46, 43:19, 44:15,
48:11; in the Apocrypha in 2 Esdras 1:11 !.
ZADOK 2. A descendent of #1, seven generations after him. Possibly an ancestor of EZRA,
although this is not clear (See chart and the entry on Ezra, page 114). 1!Ch. 6:12, 9:11 !.
ZADOK 3. According to Matthew, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Matt. 1:14 !.
Zaham: Loathing ? LXX W-%-?=Zalam.2 The youngest son of REHOBOAM by his first wife
MAHALATH. 2!Ch. 11:19 !.
Zebidah: Endowed ? LXX C*%9-P/C*%%-=Ieldaph/Iella; 3 Josephus (Ant X.v.2)
W-)8E9-#=Zabouda(s). The daughter of PEDAIAH of Rumah. She was the first wife of JOSIAH
king of Judah and the mother of JEHOIAKIM. It is at least possible that she died bearing
Jehoiakim, for two of Josiah’s younger sons (JEHOAHAZ and ZEDEKIAH) were children of a second
wife, HAMUTAL. On the other hand, she might have been a concubine, or he might have had
multiple wives. 2!Kings 23:36 !.
Zebulun: Popularly “Honour”; perhaps more correctly Zebul (the name of a god) + diminutive ending.
LXX/Josephus W-)8E%D5=Zaboulon. The sixth son of JACOB 1 by his wife LEAH. Tradition says
that he was given his name by Leah because she thought his birth would bring her honour as the
mother of six sons by Jacob. Zebulun was the ancestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, but
the Bible says nothing else about his personality or history. In the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,
by contrast, he is said to have been largely innocent in the abduction of Joseph (Zebulun 1.6-
IV.10) and to have invented the art of sailing (Zebulun VI.1-3). His territory was in the northeast
part of Canaan, east of Asher and southwest of Naphtali, in what would later be called
southwest Galilee (Josh. 19:10–16). Nazareth, the home of Jesus, was just outside the territory of
Zebulun (see Isa. 9:1; Matt. 4:15). References to Zebulun the man are in Gen. 30:20, 35:23,
46:14, 49:13; Ex. 1:3; 1!Ch. 2:1 !.
Zechariah: Yah[weh] has remembered. LXX/Josephus W-N-!&-#=Zacharias (cf. NT
“Zacharias” above). Not to be confused with the prophet Zechariah the son of Berechiah son of
Iddo, who wrote the book bearing his name.
ZECHARIAH 1. The son of JEROBOAM II the king of Israel. When Zechariah succeeded to
the throne, he was the fifth member of the dynasty of JEHU to become king — an unprecedented
event in Israel, where dynasties were overthrown regularly. But he had reigned for only six
months when he was assassinated by SHALLUM son of Jabesh. 2!Kings 14:29, 15:8–12 !.
ZECHARIAH 2. One of the younger sons of JEHOSHAPHAT 1 king of Judah. He was slain by
his older brother JEHORAM 2 when Jehoram became the king of Judah (849 B.C.E.?) 2!Ch. 21:2, 4
!.
1.!Although the name Zadok does not occur in the LXX Apocrypha, the Hebrew of Sirach 51:12 has it.
2.!Zalam: so LXXA; Lucian W--?=Zaam; LXXB has 288%-?=Roolam (very likely the original LXX reading, but rare
in the manuscripts)
3.!Lucian Hamital — the name of the mother of Jeremiah’s other children. In MT Qere we read “Zabudah”;
compare Josephus

ZECHARIAH 3.1 The son of JEHOIADA the priest and JEHOSHEBA the rescuer of JOASH 2
king of Judah. According to the author of Chronicles, he was a prophet in the time of king Joash.
He rebuked the people for unfaithfulness to God. So Joash had him stoned (2!Ch. 24:20–22).
This is probably the Zechariah to whom Jesus made reference when he spoke of the Pharisees
killing the righteous from Abel to Zechariah (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51), even though Matthew
calls him “the son of Barachiah.” In the Hebrew Bible, the murder of Abel was the first murder
in the first book, Genesis; that of Zechariah was the last murder in the last book, Chronicles. This
is thought to be why Jesus listed the two murder victims that he did — and then Matthew
muddied the issue by getting Zechariah’s father’s name wrong! 2!Ch. 24:20–22; Luke 11:51 (?) !.
ZECHARIAH 4. The father of JOHN the Baptist. See under “Zacharias.”
Zedekiah: Yah[weh] is (my) Righteousness. LXX L*9*,&-(#)=Sedekia(s); Josephus (Ant X.vii.1)
L-NN&-#=Sachchia(s). Not to be confused with the prophet, the son of Chenaanah of the time of
AHAB. A younger son of Josiah,2 originally named Mattaniah (“Gift of Yah[weh”). In about the
year 597, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon deposed Mattaniah’s nephew JEHOIACHIN and
placed Mattaniah on the throne, renaming him Zedekiah (2!Kings 24:17). Zedekiah was still a
young man of twenty-one when he came to the throne (2 Kings 24:18), and seems to have been a
bit unstable (he had, after all, been orphaned at the age of ten). Some think that he never gained
control of Judah’s nobles, and that they pushed him into folly. It might be noted that Jeremiah
never condemned him, but only his advisors. Other scholars contend that he was regarded as a
regent only, and so could not exert his authority. (Ezekiel, for instance, always dates his oracles by
the years of Jehoiachin’s reign, rather than Zedekiah’s. To be sure, Ezekiel was himself in
Babylon, where Jehoiachin was also.) We might note that Zedekiah often sought the advice of
Jeremiah, but never followed it (Jer. 37:16–21, etc.). After nine years of rule, Zedekiah rebelled
against his overlord Nebuchadnezzar. Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for two years, and
captured it in 587/586 B.C.E. Zedekiah sought to escape (perhaps to Ammon, where the rebellion
continued for a time — Jer. 41:10), but was captured. Nebuchadnezzar killed Zedekiah’s sons
before his eyes, then put out his eyes and threw him in prison for the rest of his life (2 Kings 25:7;
cf. Ezek. 12:13. Josephus — Ant X.viii.7 — follows rabbinic tradition in saying that he was
eventually freed and received a royal funeral, even making him so just and honest — cf. Ant
X.vii.5 — that God did not go through with a planned destruction of the world. There is, of
course, no hint of this in scripture). 2!Kings 24:17–20, 25:2, 7; 1!Ch. 3:15; 2!Ch. 36:10–11;3 Jer.
1:3, 21:1–7, 24:8, 27:1, 3, 12, 28:1, 29:3, 32:1–5, 34:2–8, 21, 37:1, 3, 17–21, 38:5–24, 39:1–7,
44:30, 49:34, 51:59, 52:1–11; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 1:46ƒ.; Baruch 1:8 !.
1.!Called Azariah in LXX

2.!So MT of 2 Kings 24:17, LXX of 2 Ch. 36:10, Josephus, and the Lucianic text of 2 Kings; LXX of 2 Kings
24:17 makes Zedekiah Jehoiachin’s son (!), while MT of 2 Ch. 36:10 makes him Jehoiachin’s brother.
3.!also in 2 Ch. 36:17 LXX

Zemarites. LXX L-?-!-&8#=Samaraios.1 A people of Canaan, listed as the tenth “child”

of Canaan the grandson of Noah. They probably lived somewhere in Lebanon. Gen. 10:18;
1!Ch. 1:16 !.
Zephaniah: Yah[weh] has Treasured (or perhaps “Yah[weh] is darkness,” a name connected with his
message). LXX L8P85&-#=Sophonias. A prophet, the author of the book of Zephaniah. He lived
toward the beginning of the reign of JOSIAH. He was apparently the great-great-grandson of
king HEZEKIAH (making him seemingly — with the possible exception of Isaiah — the only
prophet to be a member of the royal family); his message concerned the coming of God’s
judgement. This may have been inspired by the great invasion of the barbarian Scythians in
635–625 B.C.E. His preaching may have helped to inspire the Deuteronomic reform of Josiah; he
may also have taught or influenced the young JEREMIAH. Zeph. 1:1;2 in the Apocrypha in
2!Esdras 1:40 !.
Zerah: Scarlet? Dawning? Shining Forth? LXX W-!-=Zara; Josephus (Ant II.vii.4)
L'*%*8#=Szele(os !). One of the sons of JUDAH 1 by TAMAR 1. He was the twin brother of PEREZ.
(For the story of how Tamar tricked Judah into having children by her since he wouldn’t marry
her to his son SHELAH, see the entry on Tamar 1, p. 199) He was Tamar’s second-born child, but
his hand came forth first and the midwife tied a scarlet cord around his hand. This may account
for the boy’s name. The story seems to indicate that Zerah was originally the dominant clan
within Judah, but that it was later eclipsed by Perez. While the clan of Zerah seems to have been
as large as that of Perez, it did not produce any important figures. Gen. 38:30, 46:12; Num.
26:13, 20;3 Josh. 7:1, 18, 24, 22:20; 1!Ch. 2:4, 6, 9:6; Neh. 11:24; Matt. 1:3 !.
Zerahiah: Yah[weh] has Shown Forth. LXX W-!-&-/W-!-&-#=Zaraia/Zaraias. A Levite, five
generations after ELEAZAR (#1) and four before ZADOK (#1). He was an ancestor of EZRA. 1!Ch.
6:6, 51; Ezra 7:44 !.
Zeror: Bundle. LXX L-!*9/K!*9/L-!-=Sared/Ared/Sara. According to 1!Sam. 9:1, a
Benjaminite and the father of Abiel, who was the father of Kish the father of Saul and of Ner
the father of Abner. 1!Sam. 9:1 !.
Zerubbabel: Shoot of Babylon, or possibly a Chaldean/Babylonian word with “Babylon” as its root..
LXX/NT W8!8)-)*%=Zorobabel; Josephus (Ant XI.i.3) W8!8)-)*%8#=Zorobabel(os).
ZERUBBABEL 1. The grandson of JEHOIACHIN, who was the grandson of king JOSIAH of
Judah and the next-to-last king of Israel. He was probably the son of Jehoiachin’s oldest son
SHEALTIEL, although 1 Ch. 3:19 calls him the son of PEDAIAH. In any case, he was clearly
1.!This reading (perhaps to be understood as Samarians=Samaritans?) is that of LXXA LXXEc Lucian; LXXE* has
L-?-!*&8#=Samareios (LXXB is defective for the verse in Genesis and omits the verse in 1 Chronicles)
2.!It is just possible that his son is mentioned in Zech. 6:10, 14, although the time gap is very great.
3.!Also in Num. 26:15 in LXXA LXXF; LXXB omits following MT
4.!LXXA adds his name in 1 Esdras 8:2 in the Apocrypha (paralleling Ezra 7:4), but LXXB omits along with his son
Maraioth

regarded as the heir of DAVID in 520 B.C.E.. It was Zerubbabel,1 along with the priest Jeshua (for
whom see p. 214), who led the first major return of Jews from exile, probably in 520 (although an
earlier date is certainly possible; if the Chronicler couldn’t tell Zerubbabel from his uncle
SHESHBAZAAR, he could certainly get his dates wrong! To make matters worse, a rabbinic legend
makes the absurd claim that Zerubbabel was the same person as Nehemiah!). Upon their return
to Jerusalem, Zerubbabel organized the exiles to rebuild the temple. The prophets Zechariah 2
and Haggai, who encouraged the building, greeted Zerubbabel as “the Branch” — a messianic
title. But he seems to have faded out of sight once the building of the Temple was well-begun.
Perhaps the Persians thought him too ambitious. Possibly people talked him up too much — after
all, he lived in the period after the death of Cambyses, when Persia seemed to be in great trouble;
no doubt Judah wasn’t the only petty nation that dreamed of regaining its independence. So he
seemingly vanished. Even so, the son of Sirach listed him as one of the great men of Israel
(Sirach 49:21).
The most famous story about Zerubbabel is not found in the Hebrew Old Testament at all,
but comes from the third and fourth chapters of the apocryphal book of 1 Esdras. It began in the
court of the Persian Emperor Darius, where three young soldiers disputed over what was the
most powerful thing in the world. One soldier held out for wine, the second favoured the king.
But the third spoke of women, and still more of the truth.2 His words (“Great is truth, and it
prevails” — 1 Esdras 4:35; cf. 4:41)3 found such favour with the emperor that he was granted the
right to rebuild the Temple. Needless to say, the story is fiction — but its point is strong. 1!Ch.
3:19; Ezra 2:2, 3:2,4 8, 4:2–3, 5:2; Neh. 7:7, 12:1, 12:47; Hag. 1:1, 12, 14, 2:2–4, 21–23; Zech.
4:6–10; Matt. 1:12–13; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 4:13, 5:5, 8, 48, 56, 68, 70, 6:2, 18, 27, 29;
Sirach 49:11 !.
ZERUBBABEL 2. According to Luke, an ancestor of JOSEPH 2 and of JESUS. Luke may have
intended that this person be the same as #1, but (even assuming that Luke’s genealogy contains
something other than fiction) this is hardly possible. Luke 3:27 !.
1.!So the books of Ezra, Haggai, and Zechariah; in 1 Esdras 5:5 it is “Joakim [son] of Zerubbabel”! (perhaps this is a
scribal slip for “Zerubbabel son [i.e. grandson] of Jehoiachin”?
2.!The third courtier is identified as Zerubbabel, although many think this is a gloss; if Zerubbabel had originally
been the hero, why is his name not mentioned until 4:13? To me it seems more likely that Zerbubbabel’s name
was added at the same time as the section about truth. The story was probably originally a Persian folk tale in
which the three courtiers spoke on behalf of wine, the king, and women. A pious Jew thought it was a good story,
but that the ending was inadequate. So this editor gave a Jewish feeling to the whole by praising truth and
crediting the whole thing to Zebubbabel.
3.!translated from the often-quoted Latin, Magnus est veritas, et prævalit. NRSV, which works from the Greek, renders the
line “Truth is great, and stronger than all things.”
4.!LXXB omits this reference, although it may just be a copying error.

Zeruiah: Perfumed with Mastic? Shoot of Yah[weh]? LXX/Josephus L-!8E&-#=Sarouias. One of

JESSE’S two known daughters, and hence the sister of DAVID. She was probably much older than
David. Her husband’s name is not given in scripture (Josephus calls him “Suri” in Ant VII.i.3).1
She was the mother of JOAB, ABISHAI, and ASAHEL, senior officers in David’s army. Nothing is
known of her personality — she never appears as a person in the Bible — but her sons were all
skilled warriors, determined and bloodthirsty. 1!Sam. 26:6; 2!Sam. 2:13, 18, 3:39, 8:16, 14:1,
16:9, 10, 17:25, 18:2, 19:21, 22, 21:17, 23:18, 37; 1!Kings 1:7, 2:5, 22;2 1!Ch. 2:16, 11:6, 11:39,
18:12, 15, 26:28, 27:24 !.
Zibiah: Gazelle ? LXX K)&-=Abia.3 A woman of Beer-sheba. The wife of AHAZIAH 2 and
the mother of JOASH 2, kings of Judah. 2!Kings 12:1; 2!Ch. 24:1 !.
Zillah: Protection ? LXX L*%%-=Sella. One of the wives of LAMECH (#1), the other being
ADAH. She was the mother of TUBAL-CAIN and NAAMAH. Gen. 4:19, 22, 23 !.
Zilpah: Short-nosed ? LXX/Josephus W*%P-=Zelpha. A servant of LABAN, whom he gave to
his daughter LEAH as a maid. As part of the contest between Leah and RACHEL for the affection
of JACOB (#1), Leah gave Zilpah to Jacob as a concubine. Her children were GAD and ASHER.
According to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, her sister was BILHAH (Naphtali I.11-12), her
father was Rotheus (a relative of Abraham taken captive by Laban; Naphtali I.9-10), her mother
was Euna (Naphtali I.11), and her aunt was Deborah, who was the nurse of REBEKAH (Gen.
35:8). In another tradition her mother’s name was said to be Hannah. Gen. 29:24, 30:9–10, 12,
35:26, 37:2, 46:18 !.
Zimri: Awe of Yah[weh] ? Perhaps from Akkadian, “Awe of Yahy,” or a contraction of Zamariah,
“Strength of Yah[weh]”? LXX W-?)!*&=Zambrei; Josephus (Ant VIII.xii.4) W-?)!&8#=Zambri(os).
Not to be confused with Zimri son of Salu, who was seduced by a Midianite (Num. 25:4, etc.).
The commander of half the chariots of BAASHA and ELAH 1, kings of Israel. After Elah had
been on the throne for a little more than a year, Zimri killed Elah while the latter was drunk.
Zimri then made himself king. He went on to kill all the members of the former royal family. But
OMRI, Elah’s army commander, opposed Zimri, and besieged him in Tirzah, Israel’s capitol.
When Zimri saw that his cause was lost, he set his palace alight and died in the flames. He had
reigned for only seven days, and his reign apparently became a byword because of its shortness
(2!Kings 9:31). 1!Kings 16:9–20; 2!Kings 9:314 !.
Zipporah: Little Bird, Swallow. LXX L*"PD!-#=Sepphora(s); Josephus (Ant II.xiii.1)
L-"PD!-#=Sapphora(s). The wife of MOSES, and the mother of GERSHOM and ELIEZER. She
was a Midianite, and the daughter of JETHRO (or REUEL, or HOBAB. See their entries for the
1.!LXX of 2 Kingdoms=2 Sam. 23:24 says that her husband’s brother was Dodo of Bethlehem, who by all accounts
was the father of Elhanan, a member of David’s Thirty famous warriors (this is probably a dittography, or
repetition of letters, since ddw=“uncle.” Indeed, many LXX texts omit either the words “son of Dodo” or “son
of his father-brother”=”uncle.”
2.!also in 3 Kingdoms=1 Kings 2:28 LXX.
3.!So 2 Kings 12:1; in 2 Ch. 24:1 LXXA LXXB have Abia, but Lucian reads L-)&-=Sabia; similarly Josephus.
4.!Also in LXX of 3 Kingdoms=1 Kings 16:24, 28- as an error for “Omri.”

controversies over the name of Moses’s father-in-law). She once saved her husband’s life by
circumcising her son (Ex. 4:25). But Moses eventually sent her away — probably because he was
harassed for having a foreign wife (Num. 12:1, where she is called a “Cushite,” which Josephus
explains away by saying that Moses had had an earlier wife), and she returned to her father (Ex.
18:2–4). Ex. 2:21, 4:25, 18:2 !.
Ziza: Apparently a childhood term of endearment. LXX W&'-. A younger son of REHOBOAM the
first king of Judah by his second wife MAACAH the daughter of ABSALOM. 2!Ch. 11:20 !.

The Ages of the Patriarchs According To the Various Authorities

Masoretic Text Samaritan Text Septuagint Josephus
Name Age LivedAge Year Year Age Lived Age Year Year Age Lived Age Year Year Age Lived Age Year Year
at afterat of of at after at of of at after at of of at after at of of
son’s son’sdeath birth death son’s son’s death birth death son’s son’s death birth death son’s son’s death birth death
birth birth birth birth birth birth birth birth
Adam 130 800 930 0 930 130 900 930 0 930 230 700 930 0 930 230 700 930 0 930
Seth 105 807 912 130 1042 105 807 912 130 1042 205 707 912 230 1142 205 707 912 230 1142
Enosh 90 815 905 235 1150 90 815 905 235 1140 190 715 905 435 1340 190 715 905 435 1340
Kenan 70 840 910 325 1235 70 840 910 325 1235 170 740 910 625 1535 170 740 910 625 1535
Mahalalel 65 830 895 395 1290 65 830 895 395 1290 165 730 895 795 1690 165 730 895 795 1690
Jared 162 800 962 460 1422 62 785 847 460 1307 162 800 962 960 1922 162 800 962 960 1922
Enoch 65 300 365 622 987 65 300 365 522 887 165 200 365 1122 1487 165 200 365 1122 1487
Methuselah 187 782 969 687 1656 67 653 720 587 1307 167 802 969 1287 2256 167 802 969 1287 2256
Lamech 182 595 777 874 1651 53 600 653 654 1307 188 565 753 1454 2207 188 519 707 1454 2161
Noah 500 450 950 1056 2006 500 450 950 707 1657 500 450 950 1642 2592 500 450 950 1642 2592
Shem§ 100 500 600 1556 2156 100 500 600 1207 1807 100 500 600 2142 2742 110 2142
[The flood]* 1656 1307 2242 2242
Arpachshad§ 35 403 438 1656 2094 135 303 438 1307 1745 135 430 565 2242 2807 135 2252
[Cainan]† 130 330 460 2377 2837
Shelah§ 30 403 433 1691 2124 130 303 433 1442 1875 130 330 460 2507 2967 130
Eber§ 34 430 464 1721 2185 134 270 404 1572 1976 134 370 504 2637 3141 134
Peleg§ 30 209 239 1755 1994 130 109 239 1706 1945 130 209 339 2771 3110 130
Reu§ 32 207 239 1785 2024 132 107 239 1836 2075 132 207 339 2901 3240 130
Serug§ 30 200 230 1817 2047 130 100 230 1968 2198 130 200 330 3033 3363 132
Nahor§ 29 119 148 1847 1995 79 69 148 2098 2246 79 129 208 3163 3371 120
Terah 70 135 205 1876 2081 70 75 145 2177 2322 70 135 205 3242 3447 70 135 205 3163 3368
Abraham 100 75 175 1946 2121 100 75 175 2247 2422 100 75 175 3312 3487 100 75 75 3233 3408
Note — figures in bold italic are the same in all four lists. Dates are all reckoned from the creation of the world; these are relative dates, not absolute.
Also:
* The date of the flood is included for reference, but is slightly confused. Gen. 11:10 implies that it occurred when Shem was 98; 7:6 implies he was 100
† “Cainan” appears only in the genealogy of the Septuagint (LXX); this scheme is followed by Luke in his genealogy of Jesus
§ Josephus does not give ages for these patriarchs
Column Headings:
1. Age at son’s birth: how old the patriarch was when the recorded son was born.
2. Lived after son’s birth: how many years the patriarch lived after the birth of the son.
3. Age at death: how old the patriarch was when he died
4. Year of Birth: years elapsed between the creation (or the expulsion from Eden?) and the birth of the patriarch
5. Year of death: years elapsed between the creation and the death of the patriarch

A History of Prophets & Prophecy
Priests & Prophets

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Figure 3: The Zadokite High Priestly Dynasty

The Zadokites according to MT, LXX, and Josephus

The Early Zadokites The Early Zadokites The Early Zadokites
according to according to according to
1 Ch. 6:8-14 MT 1 Ch. 6:8-14 LXX Josephus, Ant X.viii.6
Zadok Sadok Sadok(os)
Ahimaaz Achimaas Achimas
Azariah Azaria/Azarias Azaria(s)
Johanan LXXA Ioanan; LXXB Ioanas Joram(os)
Azaria/Azarias Io(s)/Iso/Is(os)
Ioanas Axioram(os)
Azariah* Azarias* Phidea(s)
Amariah Amariah Sudaia(s)
Iuel(os)/Ioul(os)
Ahitub Achitub Iotham(os)
Urias (=Uriah; cf. 2 Kings 16:10ƒ.)
Zadok Sadok Neria(s)
Odaia(s)
Shallum LXXB Salom, LXXA Selloum Salloum(os)
Hilkiah Chelkias Helkia(s)
Azariah Azarias Azaro(s)/Azaroakchor
Seraiah Saraias
Jehozedek Iosadak/Iosedek Iosadak(os)
Note: Names in Bold are the same in all three genealogies (apart from translational/linguistic
differences); those in Italic diverge. Plain text marks places where MT and LXX agree against
Josephus. Observe that LXX agrees entirely with MT except for the LXX addition of two
generations between Johanan and Amariah. It is hard to say which is original; if the LXX form
were earlier, it could easily have lost two names to produce the MT form, but this means that
there were six generations between Zadok (David’s priest) and the Azariah who is reported to
have served in Solomon’s Temple (1 Ch. 6:10), who is marked with a * above. It’s hard to believe
that there was such a gap. Amazingly, Josephus reports that Zadok built Solomon’s Temple (!).
Historically speaking, there is much to be said for Josephus’ list; the biblical list is much too
short. According to the Bible, the first Zadok was alive, and probably an old man, when Solomon
came to the throne around 960 B.C.E. Hilkiah was Josiah’s High Priest several years after 640
B.C.E. Even if we ignore the comment that Azariah served in Solomon’s temple in 1 Ch. 6:10
(which only makes matters worse), we still have only nine generations (in MT) or eleven
generations (in LXX) from Zadok to Hilkiah, or more than thirty-five years per generation
according to the MT. This is clearly impossible. Josephus’s fourteen generations give a much
more reasonable figure of twenty-five years per generation. Josephus also manages to include
Ahaz’s High Priest Uriah in his list. (Neither list, it should be noted, includes Joash’s High Priest
Jehoiada).

The exact history of the office of High Priest of the Jews is somewhat obscure. That Aaron
was the first is hardly open to doubt. But whether it was his descendants, or those of Moses, that
carried on the title is far from certain. Indeed, there are those that argue that the it was not an
official position until after the Exile. Even those that maintain that it always existed would not
necessarily claim that it was handed down from father to son among the descendants of Aaron.1
Such questions cannot possibly be answered at our distance. All we can do is provide a list of
known High Priests, and allow you to draw your own conclusions.
In the list that follows, the earliest names (through Jaddua) come from the Bible; those which
have an entry in the “Families of Israel” genealogy are marked *.
After Jaddua, we are largely dependent on Josephus (supplemented in part by 1 and
2!Maccabees and rabbinic tradition). The earliest of these priests were (reputedly at least)
descendants of Zadok, Solomon’s High Priest. This family became extinct in Judah no later than
159 B.C.E. From 152 B.C.E. on the priesthood rested in the hands of the Hasmonean family (until
they too were extinguished); these priests will have entries in the section on “The Maccabean and
Herodian Families” and are marked §.
After 35 B.C.E., the rulers of Judea appointed priests more or less at their pleasure. This
flagrantly violated Jewish custom, but there really wasn’t much the Jews could do about it. The
most infamous of these creatures was Caiaphas, before whom Jesus was tried. The relationships
between these clerics are extremely involved, and our sources are scanty. The one thing that is
certain is that the High Priesthood ceased to have meaning with the destruction of the Temple in
70 C.E., and as of today it has not been revived.
"""
Aaron.* Brother of Moses. The first High Priest.
Eleazar 1.* The son of Aaron, and High Priest during the conquest. He apparently died
soon after Joshua.
Phinehas 1.* The last High Priest known with certainty to be descended from Aaron. He
was the High Priest during much of the period of the Judges. According to Josephus, his
successors were Abiezer (=Abishua?), Bukki, Ozis (=Uzzi), Eli (Ant V.xi.5), Jesus/Joshua (Abiezer?
— Ant VIII.i.3), Achias, Achitub/Ahitub, Abimalech (Abimelech), and finally Zadok 1 and
Abiathar, the priests in the time of David. The length of the period from Aaron to Solomon’s
building of the Temple around the end of Zadok’s service is given as 480 years in 1 Kings 6:1
(which dates the Exodus c. 1425 B.C.E.); Josephus (Ant XX.x.2) gives 612 years (dating the Exodus
c. 1550 B.C.E.). Neither date fits well with Egyptian history.
Zadok 1.* One of David’s two High Priests (Abiathar being the other). He founded a
dynasty which supplied all of Judah’s High Priests for eight hundred years; post-exilic tradition
required that the High Priest be a Zadokite (cf. also Ezek. 40:46, 43:19, 44:15, 48:11, etc.). Yet
1.!It is clear, however, that the office of High Priest was hereditary among the descendants of Jeshua after the exile.
The only exceptions (prior to the time of Antiochus IV) were instances in which the immediate heir was too
young to serve as priest.

this rule was clearly not as firmly fixed before the exile; Jehoiada and Uriah (see below) are not
included in the Zadokite genealogies, and 2 Sam. 8:18 calls David’s sons priests. For this and
many other reasons, a number of moderns doubt Zadok’s priestly “credentials,” thinking that
Abiathar and the descendants of Eli were the true sons of Levi and Aaron. (Some go so far as to
doubt the very existence of the office of High Priest.)
Jehoiada.* The High Priest in the time of Joash 2 and his immediate predecessors. He set
that king on the throne (deposing Joash’s grandmother Athaliah) and instructed him in proper
behavior. His son Zechariah was a prophet.
Uriah. The Priest of King Ahaz of Judah. Nothing else is known of him or his family; he is
not mentioned in the priestly genealogies of Chronicles and Ezra, and so presumably was not a
Zadokite.1 Moreover, Isaiah makes only one reference to a priest Uriah, and does not call him
High Priest. He can hardly have been a cultic purist, since he went along with Ahaz’s plan to
copy a Damascene altar. Perhaps Ahaz appointed him to support the King’s semi-apostasy.
2!Kings 16:10–16; Isa. 8:2?
Hilkiah.* The High Priest in the time of Josiah. It was he who found the Book of the Law
(thought to be part of the book of Deuteronomy) in the Temple, providing a major impetus to
Josiah’s great reform.
Seraiah. The High Priest at the time of the Exile. He may also have been the father of
Ezra. (For this confusion, see 1 Ch. 6:3–15; Ezra 7:1.). Perhaps the “Jehoiakim” of Baruch 1:7.
He was the father of Jehozadak the father of Jeshua. He was killed at Riblah after the fall of
Jerusalem in 587 (2 Kings 25:18–21). According to Josephus (Ant XX.x.2), Seraiah was the
eighteenth High Priest of the first Temple. He was technically succeeded by his son Jehozadak,
but the latter was never able to serve because of the Exile. 2 Kings 25:18; 1 Ch. 6:14; Ezra 7:1;
Jer. 52:24 (and cf. the father of Ezra in Ezra 7:1, 1 Esdras 8:1, 2 Esdras 1:1)
Jeshua. The name is somewhat uncertain:
In Ezra 3:2 in KJV RSV NEB JB NJB NASB NAB NIV AB REB NRSV NLT we read “Jeshua”; MOFFATT
TNIV read “Joshua.”
In Haggai 1:1, KJV MOFFATT RSV NEB JB NJB NASB NAB NIV REB NRSV TNIV read “Joshua”; NLT
has “Jeshua;” GAS offers “Jehoshua.”
In Zech 3:1 KJV MOFFATT RSV NEB JB NJB NASB NAB NIV REB NRSV TNIV read “Joshua”; NLT has
“Jeshua”; GAS reads “Yehoshua.”
In Sirach 49:12 GOODSPEED RSV JB NJB NAB NRSV REB have “Jeshua”; NEB reads “Joshua.”
Whatever his name, he was the son of Jehozadak, and High Priest of the Exiles who returned
from Babylon. He was the spiritual leader of the people, as Zerubbabel 1 was the temporal
leader. All the later High Priests were his descendants. A vision of his anointing is found in Zech.
6:11–14, although the text almost certainly originally told of two coronations — Jeshua as High
1.!Note however that Josephus (Ant X.viii.6) does list a High Priest Uriah, who was the great-grandfather of Josiah’s
High Priest Hilkiah. This would, in fact, make him roughly contemporary with Ahaz. For a comparison of
Josephus’s and the Bible’s High Priestly lists, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of each, see the chart
above.

Priest and Zerubbabel as King (see the NRSV footnotes and the item on Zechariah 2, p. 256). But
when Zerubbabel disappeared the verse was altered, imperfectly, to describe Jeshua’s crowning.
Jeshua and his descendants then became local rulers of Judah while remaining generally loyal to
whatever empire controlled the region.
According to the son of Sirach, Jeshua was one of the great and famous men of Israel — the
first High Priest to be found in this list since Phinehas (Sirach 49:12–13). This may be because
there was no institution of High Priesthood until his time. The Deuteronomic historians of the
late seventh century tend to ignore the High Priest; the office may have been Post-exilic. It is
almost certain that the office was not hereditary. Still, tradition required that the office be given to
a descendent of Zadok, and this came to mean a descendent of Jeshua. See especially Ezra 3:1–
5:2; Hag. 1:1–2:9; Zech. 3, 6; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 5:5, 8, 56 58, 68, 6:2; Sirach 49:12.
He was succeeded by…
Joiakim. Neh. 12:10, 12, 26. He apparently died shortly before Nehemiah became governor
of Judah in 444 (Neh. 12:26).1
Eliashib. The High Priest at the beginning of Nehemiah’s term as governor (444 B.C.E.).
When Nehemiah had Jerusalem’s walls rebuilt, Eliashib and his people were responsible for the
rebuilding of the Sheep Gate (Neh. 3:1). The High Priest was an ally of Nehemiah’s enemy
Tobiah the Ammonite; he gave Tobiah a room in the Temple (Neh. 13:4–5) and allowed the
people to take foreign wives. Indeed, his grandson Manasseh married the daughter of Sanballat
the Horonite (Neh. 13:28)2 and (according to one interpretation of Ant XI.vii.2, viii.2–4)
proceeded to found the rival Samaritan Temple on Mt. Gerizim because of Nehemiah’s
intolerance. Neh. 3:1, 20–21, 12:10, 13:4, 7, 28.
Joiada. Neh. 12:10–11, 12:22, 13:28. Somewhere around here we lose about fifty years....3
Jonathan. Neh. 12:11.4 His brother Jeshua intrigued with the Persian Bagoas to obtain the
High Priesthood (Ant XI.vii.1). (Bagoas is widely believed to be the Egyptian eunuch captured by
Artaxerxes III, in which case the date would be between 358 and 338 B.C.E. It should be noted,
1.!A High Priest “Joakim” is also mentioned in Judith 4:6, 8, 14 in the Apocrypha. The chronological absurdities of
that book (for which see the entry on Phraortes, p. 319), however, makes it impossible to tell if they should be
identified.
2.!So MT; Josephus (Ant XI.vii.2) says that it was his great-grandson the brother of Darius III; LXX of this verse says
that it was Eliashib himself. In this context it is worthwhile to point out that external sources seem to indicate the
existence of three Sanballats: one in Nehemiah’s time, a second one his grandson, and a third — probably the
grandson of the second — who was active at the time of Alexander. Thus the High Priestly family could
repeatedly have married daughters of Sanballat.
3.!In context of the missing generations, it is worth noting that even Josephus knows nothing about Joiada except
that he lived and died (Ant XI.vii.1). If his records for this period are so scanty, is it not possible that several names
were entirely omitted? But clearly something is missing. Eliashib was High Priest in 444. He was succeeded by
Joiada, then by Jonathan, then by Jaddua, according to Neh. 12:22, who lived in the reign of “Darius the
Persian” — [Referenced content is missing.], who came to the throne in 336. Yes, it’s theoretically possible that
Eliashib’s great-grandson could have been alive in 332 when Alexander came to call, but the odds are poor.
4.!Some would say that he is mentioned also in Ezra 10:6, which refers to “Jehohanan son of Eliashib,” but the
names are distinct in both MT and LXX, as well as in the parallel in 1 Esdras 9:1.

however, that Josephus dates these events to the reign of Artaxerxes II,1 making Bagoas the
contemporary Persian governor of Samaria. In this case, the date is between 404 and 358,
probably closer to the former). Jonathan was so provoked that he killed Jeshua. This led to a
Persian persecution: Bagoas forced the Jews to pay for the right to sacrifice. (He also invaded the
Temple — probably the first Gentile to enter the Second Temple precincts.) And if that hadn’t
been enough, it was Jonathan’s brother Manasseh2 whom Nehemiah “chased from” him for
being the son-in-law of Sanballat the Horonite (Neh. 13:28). Manasseh may have proceeded to
found an alternate Temple in Samaria (Ant XI.vii.2, XI.viii.2).3
Jaddua. Neh. 12:11, 22.4
He was the High Priest at the time of Alexander the Great. He informed that monarch that
he had given his allegiance to the Persian Darius III, and would not break his oath (Ant XI.viii.3).
Alexander, enraged (and perhaps egged on by the Samaritans; cf. Ant XI.viii.4), came to attack
the Jewish nation. But he was troubled by dreams, and when a procession of priests led by Jaddua
came to meet him, he relented (Ant XI.viii.3–5).5
1.!“Artaxerxes II” is the explicit reading of the Latin text of Josephus; most Greek texts have a corrupt reading which
seems to presuppose this (or perhaps something like “another Artaxerxes”); some texts read “Artaxerxes” without
qualification. It is here that the likely lacuna in the list of High Priests is crucial: if Jonathan lived before the gap,
the year is c. 400 and the king is Artaxerxes II; if Jonathan is indeed the father of the Jaddua who met Alexander
the Great, the year is c. 350 and the King is Artaxerxes III.
2.!This is implicit in the Bible (where no name is given); Josephus (Ant XI.viii.2) says that it was Jaddua’s brother who
married Sanballat’s daughter. This hypothesis has distinct merits (and does not necessarily contradict scripture,
since “son” in Nehemiah could mean “grandson”), but encounters the difficulty that Nehemiah was active in the
430s B.C.E. and Jaddua in the 330s. Unless we can somehow acquire a firm account of the High Priests, the
matter cannot be settled. Some scholars have proposed to solve this problem by moving Nehemiah to the reign of
Artaxerxes II, but this seems drastic — if anyone would have known there were two Artaxerxeses, it would have
been Nehemiah!
3.!There is, however, some evidence that the Samaritan schism did not become final until the second century B.C.E.
(e.g. the author of Chronicles uses a text of Genesis similar to that of the Samaritans, as did the Qumran
sectarians, who even used a rather “Samaritan” writing style despite clearly rejecting Samaritan doctrine.) In
addition, Josephus (Ant XI.vi.2ƒ.) dates the founding of the Samaritan Temple to the time of Alexander the Great
— i.e. during the reign of the (hypothetical) second Jaddua; see the notes on the next entry and on Eliashib
above. If this is the case, the Samaritan schism was originally a political split: the people of the north, while in
theological communion with Jerusalem (even adopting the Law which Ezra promulgated), refused to
acknowledge the south’s demand for a single sanctuary at Jerusalem. After Alexander the Great converted
Samaria into a Greek colony, the Ephraemites — deprived of their central city — chose to build a sanctuary on
Mount Gerizim near the ancient cultic center of Shechem. Once two separate sanctuaries were in existence,
north and south almost inevitably developed differences (e.g. the Judeans treated the Prophets as scripture; the
Samaritans did not), which eventually led to the bitter hatreds between the peoples.
4.!“Jaddua” in these verses is the reading of MT LXXB; LXX‫ א‬LXXA Lucian give other names (e.g. Jiddai, Adoua,
Jeddou). In any case, the context of verse 22 makes it possible that the “Jaddua” mentioned was a colleague
rather than a descendent of Eliashib.
5.!Observe that, for Jaddua son of Jonathan to have been High Priest when Alexander arrived, he would need to be
close to one hundred years old, if not older. It is likely that Alexander’s Jaddua is the grandson of Nehemiah’s. A
rabbinic legend, in fact, has it that Simon the Just was the High Priest who met Alexander. If this is so, and if
Simon I is indeed “Simon the Just,” then the list of the High Priests is correct up to Simon; the defect, in that

Onias I. He seems to have been an unremarkable priest, despite having to steer his was
between the Seleucids and Ptolemys. 1 Macc. 12:7ƒ. tells us that he, or someone named Onias,
corresponded with the Spartans based on a supposed ancient kinship! (1 Macc. 12 does not
specify which Onias is meant, but it appears be Onias I because the first Onias was a
contemporary of the Spartan king Areus, who reigned 309-265 B.C.E.)1
Areus was attempting to assemble an anti-Macedonian coalition, and probably welcomed
every ally he could get. What was in it for Onias is less clear (all the more so since Areus’s actual
war did not begin until well after Onias’s death. Areus was defeated and killed in the early stages
of the Chremonidian War (267-262) which he incited.) Onias probably died around 290. 1 Macc.
12:7–8, 19, 20; Ant XI.viii.7, XII.ii.5.
Simon I. Josephus calls him “the Just” (Ant XII.ii.5), and makes him the greatest of the later
High Priests. Simon the Just is the last of the “famous men” praised in the book of the son of
Sirach/Ecclesiasticus. That book devotes more space to him than to any other historical figure.
(Sirach 50:1–24). Other indications seem to imply, however, that Simon II was in fact “Simon the
Just.” Simon I probably died around 280.
Eleazar. He was apparently the High Priest at the time when the Septuagint Greek (LXX)
translation of the Old Testament was begun (Ant XII.ii.5; cf. the Letter of Aristeas).2 This would
make him contemporary with Ptolemy II “Philadelphus” (285–246 B.C.E.) He succeeded to the
priesthood because Simon I’s son Onias (II) was too young.
case, occurs after this (perhaps Eleazar and Manasseh are Simon’s son and grandson rather than brother and
uncle). But it is probably easier to assume that the rabbis confused Alexander’s entry into Judah with that of the
Seleucid Antiochus III. Antiochus III was contemporary with Simon II, who may have been “Simon the Just.”
1.!Although we should note that the association of Onias with “Arius” of Sparta is somewhat conjectural. LXX of
1!Macc. 12:7 reads M-!(*)&8E, Dar(e)iou, i.e. “Darius,” and the best texts of the Vulgate gives “Dario,” again
implying “Darius,” although the Clementine Vulgate has “Ario,” “Arius.” In 1 Macc. 12:20 the reading is even
more amusing; most LXX mss. read K!;# or similar, which would seem to mean the war god Ares! In this
instance, the best Vulgate manuscripts refer simply to the King of Sparta, although the Clementine Vulgate again
reads Arius.
Judah, of course, was not independent at this time, and was pretty insignificant anyway, so not all scholars think
Onias I is meant; Areus would have no reason to correspond with such a pipsqueak prelate. The alternative is to
date the Spartan correspondence to the time of Onias III, as is done by Josephus;; in Ant XII.iv.10 he describes a
correspondence between K!*&8#, Areios, a Spartan king, and Onias III. But there was no Areos in the time of
Onias III. So Josephus, apparently, has the name right, and 1 Maccabees the date right, but neither one gets
them both right! It has been suggested that Onias III corresponded with a Spartan king whose name was
forgotten, and 1 Maccabees plugged in the only name anyone could remember.
Of the English translations RSV NRSV read “Arius” in 1 Macc. 12:7 and 12:20 but note “Darius” in the margin at
12:7. NJB has “Areios” in both places with “Darius” in the margin. GOODSPEED NEB NAB JB REB have “Arius” or
“Areios” or the like both places without any marginal note.
2.!For the Letter of Aristeas see the note on Ptolemy II on p. 344. The Letter claims that Eleazar encouraged the
preparation of the LXX translation of the Torah, supplying both Hebrew manuscripts and translators. Given the
literary features of LXX, however, this seems unlikely; it appears that Hebrew was the second language of the
translators. The mention of Eleazer here, however, supports Josephus’s claim that Jaddua was the High Priest in
Alexander the Great’s time, rather than Simon the Just as the rabbis believed.

Manasseh. He apparently succeeded for the same reason as Eleazar; Onias II still wasn’t
ready. (Ant XII.iv.1)
Onias II. An inept, greedy, and petty man (Ant XII.iv.1 calls him “small-minded and
passionately fond of money”) whose incapacity nearly brought disaster on the Jews. The
Egyptian central government of the time was at best marginally effective, and unable to keep the
Samaritans from raiding Judea (Ant XII.iv.1). But then Onias turned his Egyptian overlords
against him by withholding the tribute due to Ptolemy.1 It is possible that he wanted
independence, or perhaps (as many scholars suspect) he wanted to turn Judah over to the
Seleucids; what he got was trouble. He was rescued when his first cousin Joseph had himself
appointed tax collector (Ant XII.iv.4–5, although, 2 Macc. 3:4 makes Joseph’s son Simon a
Benjaminite). This was the beginning of the erosion of the power of the High Priest — an
erosion that would eventually almost destroy the dignity of the office. Sirach 50:1.2
Simon II. Jewish tradition seems to indicate that this is the Simon called “the Just,” —
although this contradicts an explicit statement of Josephus, who says that Simon I was “the
Just.” (Still another line of argument makes Simon Maccabee “the Just,” but this is surely too
late.) Note, however, that Josephus in Ant XII.iv.10 grants Simon II only a short reign —
apparently confined to the reign of the Seleucid Seleucus IV, 187–175 B.C.E. It was in his reign
(3!Macc. 2:1)3 that Ptolemy IV tried to invade the Jerusalem Temple (so 3 Macc. 1:13ƒ.; note
however the similarity of this story to those told of Pompey, Crassus, and others). Toward the end
of the second Simon’s reign (which in fact seems to have extended from 219–196 B.C.E.) the
Seleucids took control of Jerusalem (Ant XII.iv.10). Tradition says that, with Seleucid permission,
Simon fortified and expanded the Temple (cf. Sirach 50:1ƒ.).
Onias III. The last High Priest to be selected by the Jews. The Seleucid Emperor Seleucus
IV deprived him of his secular power and awarded it to his (Onias’s) cousin Simon. Seleucus’s
brother Antiochus IV deposed Onias in 175 for opposing the Seleucid invasion of Egypt
1.!The manuscripts of Josephus are divided over whether this was Ptolemy III “Euergetes” or Ptolemy V
“Epiphanes”; the Loeb text says merely “Ptolemy,” which in context would imply Ptolemy V, but a group of
manuscripts led by P of the ninth or tenth century explicitly says “Euergetes.” Since there is no obvious reason
for the mention of Euergetes to fall out of the text, one must assume that it is an explanatory gloss — probably an
incorrect one — which worked its way into the text. Also, Ant XII.iv.3 says that this Ptolemy, whoever it was,
had a wife Cleopatra. Ptolemy V had a wife Cleopatra I, the daughter of the Seleucid Antiochus III, but Ptolemy
III never had a Cleopatra as a wife. On the other hand, Ptolemy V seems to have lived after Onias II and did not
rule Judah very long. Here again, the matter depends on the dating of the High Priests (which, as noted above, is
very uncertain), and neither king fits the description in Josephus very well. For that matter, this Onias is called
the son of Simon the Just, who may have been Simon II rather than Simon I as Josephus believed. So this could
be a story not about Onias II and Ptolemy V (or III) but about Onias III and Ptolemy V. Since the matter defies
solution, let’s just get on with the story....
2.!“Onias” is the reading of LXXA LXXBc; LXXB* LXX‫ א‬read something like Ionias/Jonias. Since the text of Sirach
says simply “Simon [son] of Onias/Jonias,” we cannot use this to tell us whether this is Onias I and Simon I or
Onias II and Simon II, but it seems certain that the reference is to the father of Simon the Just.
3.!So Lucian; LXXA LXXN+V omit the verse

(2!Macc. 4:7ƒ.); Onias fled to sanctuary. When Menelaus bribed the Seleucid official Andronicus
with Temple vessels, Onias denounced the practice. Andronicus, rather than admit his guilt,
killed the former pontiff in 170 (2 Macc. 4:34; very likely also Dan. 9:26, and possibly Daniel
11:22).1 His heir Onias IV2 fled to Leontopolis in Egypt and tried to maintain the Temple cult
there; he even wrote a book to defend his position around 130.3 After 170, the Seleucid Emperor
chose the High Priest, selecting men who sympathized with Greek customs or were willing to pay
for the post. The first of these was Onias’s brother Jason.
Onias had a sort of an afterlife, at least in the opinion of the author of 2 Maccabees, who
praises him very highly (by contrast to a lot of modern scholars, who consider him a rather inept
partisan): Shortly before Judas Maccabeus’s last great victory, Onias and Jeremiah are said to
have appeared to inspire Judas and the Jewish army. Onias introduced Jeremiah, who gave Judas
a golden sword to win his battle (2 Macc. 15:12-16).
2 Macc. 3:1, 5, 31, 33, 35, 4:1, 4, 7, 33, 34, 36, 38, 15:12, 14; 4 Macc. 4:1, 13, 16. Also
implicitly mentioned in Dan. 9:26(?), 11:22.4
Jason. The brother of Onias III. Josephus (Ant XII.v.1) says that his birth-name was Jesus
(Joshua). Jason was pro-Seleucid and a Hellenist (favourer of Greek culture). He was also power-
hungry, and offered Antiochus IV a large bribe to make him High Priest (2 Macc. 4:7ƒ.). He
apparently was not unpopular (Josephus, Ant XII.v.1, says he was more popular than his successor
Menelaus, probably because Jason encouraged but did not require Hellenistic customs, so
everyone could stand him — and, of course, he didn’t pay as much tribute, so he didn’t have to
charge such heavy tolls.) But what one man could start another could improve upon. In 172, the
1.!Some scholars have suggested that Onias III was not actually murdered; they conjecture that Onias III went to
Egypt, and that this is why the records are unclear as to whether Onias IV was the son or nephew of Onias III.
But this seems far-fetched; our records are few, but they all indicate that Onias III really was killed.
2.!Although there seems no doubt that Onias IV was the proper heir of Onias III and the rightful High Priest after
the deaths of Onias III, Jason, and Menelaus, it is not clear whether the younger Onias was the son or nephew of
Onias III. Ant XIII.ix.7 explicitly calls Onias IV the son of Onias III, and Ant XII.v.1 seems to imply the same
thing. But Josephus in BJ VII.xi.2 calls him “son of Simon” (unless this is a reference to Onias III?) and explicitly
says “nephew” in Ant XX.x.3.
What is certain is that Onias IV was only a child when the struggles in Judah forced him to flee to Egypt. He
regarded himself as the legitimate High Priest, and to prove his point he built a Temple in Leontopolis during the
reign of Ptolemy VI, probably around 149 (Ant XII.ix.7, XIII.iii.1, but compare BJ I.i.1, which seems to date this
to the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, c. 170). Onias had apparently gained favour with Ptolemy VI and
Cleopatra II by supporting them in the civil war against Ptolemy VIII Physcon. When Ptolemy VI died and
Physcon and Cleopatra disputed the succession, Onias made the mistake of supporting Cleopatra, who lost the
war. Indeed, Onias’s sons Cheklias and Ananias were among her chief generals (Ant XIII.x.4). Nonetheless,
Onias’s sons continued to call themselves High Priests until 102 B.C.E., when Ananias, who by then had
succeeded his father, acknowledged the Hasmonean Alexander Janneus. The Egyptian Temple stood until 73
C.E., when it was destroyed by the Romans.
3.!It has been suggested that this book was used by Jason of Cyrene, whose work was epitomized as 2 Maccabees,
and that it may also have been known to Josephus. This could be true, but our sources are so indirect as to make
proof effectively impossible.
4.!Also mentioned implicitly in Dan. 9:26?, 11:22

Seleucid Emperor allowed power to be usurped by Jason’s cousin Menelaus. 2 Macc. 1:7, 4:7, 13,
19, 22, 23, 24, 26, 5:5, 6, 4 Macc. 4:16.
Menelaus. The brother of Simon the secular ruler of Judah and the grandson of a Tobiad
(a member of the family of Tobiah the Ammonite), perhaps by a Zadokite woman,1 Menelaus
was an extreme Hellenist who offered the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV most of the Temple
revenue in exchange for the High Priesthood. Antiochus took Menelaus’s offer in 172 (based on
Ant XII.ix.7, which says he served ten years, and he is known to have been killed in 162).
Menelaus’s predecessor Jason (his second cousin once removed) was forced to flee to the Trans-
Jordan. The Emperor then went off to campaign in Egypt. When word came that he had been
defeated and/or killed — an exaggerated rumour — Jason returned with an army and attacked
Menelaus (2!Macc. 5:5). Antiochus IV, exasperated, stepped in, slaughtered thousands, profaned
the Temple in 168, and restored his appointee. But the High Priest had gone too far. He and his
brother Lysimachus (his assistant priest — 2 Macc. 4:29) squeezed every cent they could, but
Menelaus had made too many promises. They could not pay off their debts, and had to bribe
Seleucid officials with Temple treasures. Lysimachus was killed by an angry Jewish mob (2 Macc.
4:42). Menelaus survived, but neither side trusted him; he was killed by the Seleucids in 162
(2!Macc. 13:3ƒ., Ant XII.ix.7).2 His son was not considered a suitable replacement (Ant XX.x.3),
so the Seleucids awarded the title to the non-Oniad Alcimus. 2 Macc. 4:23, 27, 29, 32, 34, 43, 45,
47, 50, 5:5, 15, 23, 11:29, 32 (?), 13:3, 7.
Alcimus. His name in Hebrew was Joachim (Greek Iakimus — Ant XII.ix.7, XX.x.3). He
was the third consecutive usurper to hold the High Priesthood. His ancestry is disputed; he was
perhaps not a Zadokite (Josephus, in Ant XII.ix.7, XX.x.3, calls him an Aaronite but not a
member of the family of Onias). His stepfather or uncle was the famous Rabbi Josi ben Jo‘eser.
Despite being a pretender, most of the Pharisees and anti-Maccabees accepted his claims.
Apparently a cruel (he had sixty of his Pharisaic supporters executed upon assuming office) but
1.!This is his ancestry as given by 2 Macc. 4:23ƒ., which however does not mention his Zadokite mother, merely the
fact that he was Simon’s brother. Even if his mother was a Zadokite, that makes his claim to the priesthood
extremely weak — Jewish offices seem always to have passed in male line. According to 2 Macc. 3:4 LXX,
followed by NRSV, Menelaus’s brother Simon was a Benjaminite (?!). This reading is also supported by some Latin
texts, including the best Vulgate texts, and the Syriac version. Most Old Latin texts and the Armenian version,
however, seem to suppose an original reading of “Bilgah” (a priestly clan — 1 Ch. 24:14, Neh. 12:5, 18) instead
of “Benjamin.” Many scholars prefer this reading, which is adopted, e.g., by NEB REB NAB JB AB NJB; it is said that
the clan of Bilgah was later held in disdain because its members were Seleucid sympathizers. Still a third
genealogy is found in Josephus (Ant. XII.v.1). In this account, Menelaus, also called Onias, was the youngest
brother of Onias III and Jason. This has chronological advantages, since it allows up to move the death date of
Joseph son of Tobias back to about 223, making him contemporary with Ptolemy III rather than Ptolemy V,
which removes several discrepancies. On the other hand, it means that Simon II had two sons named Onias; the
story might be propaganda produced by Menelaus to bolster his position.
2.!2 Macc. 13:5-6 says that he was cast into a pit of ashes to suffocate, and was not buried — a cruel death and one
that denied him burial. But this was a Persian, not a Greek, method of execution; the story is dubious.

not impious man,1 1 Macc. 7:16–17 credits Psalm 79:2–3 to him. He died in 159 as he worked to
rebuild the Temple — 1 Macc. 9:54, which is directed against him, considers his actions to be
“tearing down.”2 If the Egyptian pretender Onias IV is ignored, the High Priesthood stood
vacant for seven years. (Josephus states in Ant XII.x.5 and XII.xi.1 that Judas Maccabeus
succeeded Alcimus as High Priest, apparently dating Alcimus’s death to 162. But this contradicts
1 Maccabees and Ant XX.x.3. Judas was probably already dead when Alcimus died.) In 152 the
Seleucid Demetrius II, to gain the Jews as allies in a civil war, awarded the High Priesthood to the
Maccabean Jonathan (confirming an earlier grant by his rival Alexander Balas). 1 Macc. 7:5, 9,
12, 20, 21, 23, 25, 9:1, 54, 55, 56, 57; 2 Macc. 14:3, 13, 26.
Jonathan.§ The first of the Maccabean High Priests. He was given the title in 152 by the
Seleucid Emperor Alexander Balas; the rival Emperor Demetrius II quickly confirmed it. The
post would remain in the Maccabean family until 35. Jonathan himself held the post until his
death in 142. (For the history of Jonathan and the Maccabean High Priestly family, see the
entries on The Maccabean and Herodian Families.) His successors were
Simon.§ Jonathan’s older brother. 142–134. In addition to being High Priest, Judah was
made independent in his time, and he became its prince.
John Hyrcanus I.§ Simon’s son. 134–104. In addition to conquering several neighbouring
countries, he began the shift from Phariseeism toward Sadduceeism that became so pronounced
among his successors.
Aristobulus I.§ Hyrcanus’s son. 104–103.
Alexander Janneus.§ Aristobulus’s brother. 103–76. He brought the Hasmonean kingdom
to its height, but was such a vicious tyrant that the Pharisees turned utterly against him. Revolts
were frequent. But even so he was a religious success, because it was during his reign — in 102 —
that Ananias, the son and successor of Onias IV as High Priest of Egypt, acknowledged the
Hasmonean priesthood. The Egyptian Temple, however, was not destroyed until centuries later,
in 73 C.E.
John Hyrcanus II.§ Janneus’s son. 76–67. During this period the secular power was held by
Janneus’ widow Alexandra (1), who died in 67.
Aristobulus II.§ Hyrcanus’s brother. 67–63. Already in rebellion when his mother died, he
quickly took over all of his older brother’s powers and titles. Although Hyrcanus would have been
content to retire quietly, his follower Antipater would not have it so. With Roman help, he
arranged for Hyrcanus’s restoration. The High Priesthood was, however, stripped of its secular
powers, most of which were placed in Antipater’s capable if grasping hands.
1.!1 Macc. 7:21ƒ. says that Alcimus “did great damage,” but this is clearly tendentious, being written by a pro-
Maccabean historian. 2 Macc. 14:3 says he “defiled himself,” but otherwise has little to say of him. Note,
however, the attitudes of the pious Jews in 1 Macc. 7:12ƒ.: clearly Alcimus appeared acceptable to them.
2.!It has been suggested that the wall Alcimus was tearing down in the Temple was that separating the Court of the
Gentiles from the inner Court open only to Israelites, meaning that he was encouraging the progress of
hellenization. This is possible — it would explain why a nationalist Jew would consider it sacrilege — but is more
than the text actually says, and we do not know enough about Alcimus to be sure that this was in character.

John Hyrcanus II.§ restored 63–40. The Romans under Pompey restored Hyrcanus to his
post, but put the Idumean Antipater in effective charge of Judea (until he was assassinated in 43).
Antigonus Mattathias.§ Son of Aristobulus II. 40–37. He gained the throne with Parthian
support, and was killed when the Parthians were driven out. He had had Hyrcanus II mutilated
(Ant XIV.xiii.10), making him ineligible for the priesthood, and thus when Antigonus died during
the restoration of Roman rule the priesthood passed to
Aristobulus III. The son of Antigonus’ brother Alexander and the grandson of Hyrcanus
II. High Priest in title from 37 to 35, although Josephus tells us that Hyrcanus II and a certain
“Ananelus” were High Priests for part of this time (Ant XV.ii.4). This is only reasonable, since
Aristobulus was a minor and could not legally perform some priestly functions. Antipater’s son
Herod had Aristobulus drowned in 35 (Ant XV.iii.3), and killed Hyrcanus in 30 (Ant XV.vi.1–4).
He then named High Priests of his own choosing. He chose men of non-priestly families, and
even deposed some of his priests, though the appointment was for life. After Herod’s death, the
Romans seem to have appointed the High Priests. Those appointed in this illegal fashion were
Ananelus who had preceded Aristobulus and now was returned to the post (Ant XV.iii.3).
Josephus says that he was of the priestly family (Ant XV.iii.1) but also that he was an obscure
figure from Babylon (Ant XV.ii.4).
Jesus son of Phiabi. He presided until about 23. He was deprived of the High Priesthood
when Herod felt it necessary to ennoble the commoner Simon so that he could marry Simon’s
daughter Mariamme [II] (Ant XV.ix.3).
Simon son of Boethus. He was an Alexandrian priest of no particular pretensions, but his
daughter Mariamme II (she was Herod’s second wife with that name!) was rumoured to be the
most beautiful girl in the world (Ant XV.ix.3, XVIII.v.4).1 Herod, naturally, had to have her. So he
gave Simon the High Priesthood in order that his daughter might be noble enough to marry the
King of the Jews. When he discovered Mariamme to have been part of a conspiracy against him
(Ant XVII.iv.2), he divorced her and removed her son (Herod Philip, the first husband of
Herodias — Ant XVIII.v.1) from his will. With his usual spite, he also deposed Simon (Ant
XVII.iv.2) and replaced him briefly in 5 B.C.E. with…
Matthias son of Theophilus. Herod, in his last days of life, deposed him for his part in
another of these endless real and imagined conspiracies (Ant XVII.vi.4, which tells of how a
group of conspirators planned to remove an idol from Herod’s Temple), replaced him for one
day with his relative Joseph son of Ellem (apparently because Matthias had ritually defiled
himself — Ant XVII.vi.4), and then appointed…
1.!Daughter? Sister? Ant XV.ix.3 says that this beautiful girl, unnamed, was the daughter of Simon son of Boethius.
But Ant XVII.vi.4 says that Joazar son of Boethus was the brother of Herod’s wife (although here again she is not
named). A third son of Boethus, Eleazar, is also listed as a High Priest, although in this case there is no daughter
or sister named. BJ I.xxviii.4, I.xxix.2, I.xxx.7 say that Mariamme II was the High Priest’s daughter but doesn’t
name the priest.Was Mariamme II, the girl involved, the daughter of one and the niece of the others, or was she
the sister of all three? There is no way to be certain, but since we have four references to Mariamme as the High
Priests’s daughter, and only one to her as his sister, the former seems more likely.

Joazar son of Boethus. The brother (uncle? see the note on Simon son of Boethus) of
Herod’s wife Mariamme II (Ant XVII.vi.4) He was thus the second son of Boethus to serve as
High Priest. He was obviously not a very strict Jew, since he cooperated with Herod in
suppressing the protestors who had tried to destroy the idolatrous eagle in Herod’s Temple (BJ
II.i.2). Archelaus, upon succeeding his father Herod as ethnarch of Judea and Samaria, deposed
him (Ant XVIII.xiii.1) and replaced him with his brother…
Eleazar son of Boethus. He was the third son of Boethus to serve as High Priest, despite the
fact that their patron — Herod’s wife Mariamme II — was long out of favour. Josephus says of
him only that he did not keep the priesthood long (Ant XVII.xiii.1). Archelaus replaced him
with…
Jesus son of See (Ant XVII.xiii.1). No reason is given for the end of his term, and Josephus
provides us with no description of his activities. But toward the end of Archelaus’s reign we find
the High Priesthood once more in the hands of…
Joazar son of Boethus. He was apparently restored (by popular demand?), perhaps toward
the end of Archelaus’s troubled rule. He convinced the Jews to accept certain Roman taxes (Ant
XVIII.i.1), but was deposed by the Roman legate Cyrenius (Quirinius) at the time that Coponius
was appointed procurator (6 C.E.— Ant XVIII.ii.1), probably because his popularity had waned.
After this, the High Priestly power passed from the family of Boethus to that of…
Annas son of Seth/Sethi (Luke 3:2; John 18:13; Acts 4:6).1 In the New Testament the name
is spelled b55-#, Josephus uses b5-5-#, “Ananas” (the difference could be due to a vowelless
Hebrew/Aramaic text). The Roman Quirinius had appointed him High Priest in 6 C.E. (Ant
XVIII.ii.1), but the procurator Gratus deposed him in 15 (Ant XVIII.ii.2). Many conservative
scholars think that since he was probably still alive in 30 C.E., he was considered to be the
legitimate High Priest at the time of Jesus’s arrest. This allows them to explain the impossible fact
that Annas and Caiaphas were both called “High Priest” at the time of Jesus’s death (Luke 3:2).
Moderns tend to blame damaged texts or confused traditions. The rabbis were not very
impressed with him or his family, despite the fact that most of the later High Priests were
descendants of Annas. But the next High Priest didn’t even meet that criterion…
Ishmael son of Phiabi. Gratus quickly deposed (Ant XVIII.ii.2) him and replaced him
with…
1.!The reference to Annas in Acts 4:6 (and indeed in Luke 3:2) is highly problematic, because the verse calls Annas
the High Priest. It does not even qualify the statement by associating him with Caiaphas. And yet, we know that
Caiaphas was in fact High Priest for at least three years after Jesus’s death, and more likely for six. Annas, too,
would likely have been fairly old by this time (at least sixty, and probably much older). Even if Luke’s chronology
of Acts is badly defective, and the incident of Peter and John before the Sanhedrin dates after the priesthood of
Caiaphas (and note that the Council doesn’t seem to remember Jesus’s trial very well!), there was no other High
Priest named Annas/Ananias until 48. Although there is no variation in the text of Acts at this point, one
strongly suspects that some sort of defect (whether textual or historical) underlies the reading.
The “Western” text of Acts also contains another reference to Annas: Acts 5:17 refers to the High Priest, and it
has been conjectured that the verse should read “The High Priest Annas,” reading Annas for Greek anastas, stood
up/took action; this reading is in fact found in a Latin manuscript and the Middle Egyptian Coptic.

Eleazar son of Annas. Gratus deposed him as well (Ant XVIII.ii.2); his successor was…
Simon son of Camithus. He lasted as High Priest for about a year before Gratus grew tired
of him (Ant XVIII.ii.2). He was replaced by…
Joseph Caiaphas (Matt. 26:3, 57; Luke 3:2; John 11:49, 18:13–14, 24, 28; Acts 4:61). He
became the High Priest in 18 (Ant XVIII.ii.2), and held the post until 36, when he was deposed
by the Roman general Lucius Vitellius (the father of a future Emperor — Ant XVIII.iv.3). This
was probably part of the “housecleaning” that followed the deposition of Pontius Pilate.
Caiaphas was named Joseph at birth, and was the son-in-law of Annas. It was, of course, in his
time that Jesus was tried and executed. A building believed to have been his home was excavated
in the twentieth century, although it doesn’t seem to have revealed any deep secrets. His successor
was…
Jonathan son of Annas (Acts 4:6, where he is called John?2). Vitellius appointed him in 36
(Ant XVIII.iv.3), but deposed him in 37 as the Romans prepared for war with the Nabatean
Arabs (Ant XVIII.v.3), replacing him with his brother Theophilus. This may have been because
he disliked Roman officialdom (cf. BJ II.xii.5, where he complains against the venal and remote
procurator Cumanus.) When Antonius Felix became procurator, Jonathan began a campaign to
reform his government; Felix responded by having the priest assassinated (Ant XX.viii.5). He was
the first victim of the sicarii (assassins — BJ II.xiii.3) But that was later. For the moment, he was
replaced by his brother…
Theophilus son of Annas. Herod Agrippa I, as one of his first official acts, deposed him in
41 (Ant XIX.vi.2) and replaced him with…
Simon Cantheras, son of Boethus. Herod Agrippa I appointed him in 41 (Ant XIX.vi.2),
restoring the family of Boethus to the High Priesthood for the first time in thirty-five years.
Apparently he wasn’t too well-behaved, and was deposed c. 42 (Ant XIX.vi.4). Agrippa then
offered to restore Jonathan son of Annas to the post, but that worthy instead wished that the
honour go to his brother…
Matthias son of Annas. Agrippa deposed him (Ant XIX.viii.1), and replaced him with…
Elioneus son of “Cithearus” (=[Simon] Cantheras?). Apparently also surnamed Cantheras
(Ant XIX.viii.1, XX.i.3. The Mishnah seems to imply that he was the son of Caiaphas). After the
death of Herod Agrippa I in 44, Agrippa’s brother Herod of Chalcis was given the right to name
the next High Priest. He chose to depose Elioneus and give the honour to…
Joseph son of Camus (=Cantheras? — Ant XX.i.3). Herod of Chalcis, shortly before his
death in 49 (probably in 47 — Ant XX.v.2), deposed Joseph and replaced him with…
Ananias son of Nebedius. (Acts 23:2). The High Priest for most of the reigns of Claudius
and Nero. It was presumably he who struck Paul during his trial (Acts 23). He is the last High
1.!For this last reference and all its problems, see the note on Annas above.
2.!“John” (cDB55;#) is the reading of ന74 ! A B 81 1175 (E 33 614 1739 Byz have the inflectional variant
cDB55;5); D gig p* in fact read (in some form or another) “Jonathan” (CD5-+-#) —!a reading at least one
member of the UBS committee preferred.

Priest to be mentioned in the New Testament. Herod of Chalcis nominated him to be High
Priest in 48; around 50 he was sent to Rome for trial as a result of an incident with the
Samaritans (Ant XX.vi.2, BJ II.xii.6). He was allowed to return, but was deposed in 58. The
Talmud describes him as a careful observer of the law, but also an extreme glutton. This last, plus
his pro-Roman attitude, may have resulted in his death at the hands of a band of robbers at the
beginning of the Jewish Revolt in 66 (BJ II.xvii.9).
Ishmael son of Phiabi. He was appointed by Herod Agrippa II (Ant XX.viii.8). His dates are
uncertain. The Talmud, which mentions him as unusually pious, credits him with ten years of
service, but Josephus places his appointment just before Felix’s dismissal c. 59, implying a term of
three years or so (or, indeed, almost no time at all if, as some believe, Felix was dismissed c. 55).
Josephus and the Talmud agree, however, that he headed a faction that was perfectly willing to
take up arms against its opponents. He went to Rome during the time of Nero to petition that a
wall that prevented Romans from viewing the interior of the Temple be allowed to stand. The
petition was granted, but Ishmael himself was held hostage by the Romans (Ant XX.viii.11). As a
result he was replaced by…
Joseph Cabi son of “Simon who had been High Priest” (Ant XX.viii.11. Josephus does not
clarify which Simon is meant; it is probably the son of Camithus). After the death of the
Procurator Festus in 62, Agrippa II (Ant XX.ix.1) replaced Joseph with…
Annas son of Annas. Josephus gives us two pictures of him; that in Ant XX.ix.1 describes
him as heartless and power-hungry. Both accounts make him a bold-tempered man; he used the
interval between procurator Porcius Festus’s death and the arrival of Lucius Albinus to improve
his own position with the populace. Among other things, he had James the brother of Jesus tried
and illegally executed (Ant XX.ix.1. As things stood at that time, the Sanhedrin could try
criminals and recommend the death penalty, but only the Roman authorities could approve it.
Moreover, the High Priest probably needed Roman approval to convene the Sanhedrin). By
contrast to the account in the Antiquities, BJ IV.v.2 describes Anna as fair, democratic, a good
speaker, and wise. Whatever the truth, the procurator Albinus disapproved of Annas’s conduct,
and strongly rebuked him. Agrippa II therefore replaced him (Ant XX.ix.1) after a primacy of
only three months. At the start of the Jewish revolt, Annas was placed in charge of the defenses
of Jerusalem (BJ II.xx.3). He was a moderate who did not support the war with Rome (BJ
II.xxii.1), and so was eventually killed by the Zealots (BJ IV.v.2). He was succeeded as High Priest
by…
Jesus son of Damnaeus. In his time the sicarii (assassins) took many priestly officials,
including Eleazar the captain (?) of the Temple guard, hostage (Ant XX.ix.3). Jesus quickly found
himself in the uncomfortable position of being the go-between for the terrorists and the Romans.
But he did not have to stay at his post for too long; Agrippa II soon replaced him (Ant XX.ix.4)
with…
Jesus son of Gamaliel. Like Annas son of Annas, he quickly gathered a band of thugs about
him; indeed, the two often clashed (Ant XX.ix.4). This was despite the fact that both were

moderates who did not support the Jewish revolt to the end. Josephus calls him a less skilled
orator than Annas, but they argued the same cause and were killed at the same time (probably
68. BJ IV.v.2). At about the time the rebuilding of the Temple was completed (Ant XX.ix.7; this is
thought to have been early in 66, the year the Revolt began), Agrippa II replaced him with…
Matthias son of Theophilus. It was during his tenure that the Jewish Revolt began (Ant
XX.ix.7). In the later stages of the revolt, he was killed by Simon, a general he himself had
brought to power (BJ V.xiii.1). When he was set aside, the people chose one Phanias (=Phinehas?)
son of Samuel (Ant XX.x.1), but the title was rendered meaningless after the fall of Jerusalem and
the destruction of the Temple. Matthias was thus the last widely-accepted High Priest; the office
has never been revived.


There are three Hebrew words which might be translated as “prophet.” The most common
word, used 319 times in the Old Testament, is ‫( נביא‬nabi’=prophet). This is the word which the
prophets consistently apply to themselves; it may be from a root meaning “to be called.” But two
others are used as well. The more common is ‫( חזה‬khozeh=seer), which occurs sixteen times; the
third word, ‫ראה‬, (ro’eh=seer) occurs eleven times. Only once do the three words occur together,
in 1 Ch. 29:29: “Now the acts of King David, from first to last, are written in the Chronicles of
Samuel the seer [‫]ראה‬, and in the Chronicles of Nathan the prophet [‫]נביא‬, and in the
Chronicles of Gad the seer [‫ ”…]חזה‬From the same root as ‫ נביא‬is ‫( נביאה‬nebi’ah=prophetess);
this word occurs a mere six times. References to the “sons of the prophets” are also common;
these were the ecstatic, charismatic prophets of early Israel (see 1 Sam. 19:24, etc.); their religious
significance was small. (Consider the relationship between Elisha and the sons of the prophets in
2 Kings 2; see also Amos’s attitude in Amos 7:14.) Similarly, the respect accorded to a ‫ראה‬, ro’eh
seems to have been quite small. (See 1 Sam. 9:6-9, where the word is applied by the so-called
“Early Source” to Samuel, who is a minor visionary who can be hired for a quarter of a shekel.
The word ‫ ראה‬is applied to Samuel eight times, and is almost never used of others.) A ‫חזה‬,
khozeh, on the other hand, seems to have been a courtly official, perhaps the “King’s seer.” (See
especially 2!Sam. 24:11, etc.)
A fifth word which might be describe a foreteller is ‫קסם‬, q)s*m, translated “diviner” or
“soothsayer.” This word occurs nine times, but only once is it used of someone who was
considered to have a true gift (Balaam, Josh. 13:22); all other references (Deut. 18:14; 1 Sam. 6:2;
Isa. 3:2, 44:25; Jer. 27:9, 29:8; Micah 3:7; Zech. 10:2) are to the false omen-readers of foreign
nations. It is a term of scorn, not applied to one legitimately sent by God.
In the eight century, a new form of prophet arose with the call of Amos. For lack of a better
word, these men were called by the old term nebi’. But they were not ecstatics, and they recorded
their messages. The older prophetic types had their parallels among the Canaanites, but nothing
like the writing prophets had appeared before. These men fundamentally changed the form of
Judaism, and added an ethical content to the old law.
What inspired the writing prophets to write? No one knows. One scholar finds an explanation
in Hab. 2:3, which he amends to read “For the vision is a testimony of the appointed time…”
going on to explain why Habakuk had been instructed to record his word. Yet this reading,
derived from Ugaritic, finds little support in the versions. The simplest explanation may be best:
that God had a message for all of humanity, and used the prophets as instruments to record it.
What follows is a chronological listing of the Old Testament prophets of Israel, with the
(approximate or estimated) period of their prophecies and (where feasible) a complete list of
references to them by name. In this list, a ! indicates an entry which lists all references to that
prophet; if a superscript is used, the reference is to the prophet as a prophet. These references are
always complete; a 1 refers to a ‫ ;נביא‬a 2 refers to a ‫ ;חזה‬a 3 refers to a ‫ ;ראה‬a 4 refers to a ‫נביאה‬.

References in parentheses are verses where the prophetic title is implied rather than specifically
awarded.
Prophets were often referred to as “men of God”, but as this is a compound of two Hebrew
words, ‫’( איש‬ish=man) and ‫’( אלהמ‬elohim=God), its use is not footnoted.
In the New Testament, the Greek d!8P;0;#, prophetes, is used for prophets, but it is rarely
applied to contemporary individuals. (This usage is noted by the superscript 5.) For this reason,
New Testament prophets are not consistently listed here (but see the end of this section). It might
be noted, however, that Greek had a word for a false prophet, S*E98d!8P;0;#, pseudoprophetes,
whereas in Hebrew all prophets, true or false, are nebi’.
Note on Pronunciations: Hebrew includes many sounds which cannot be reproduced in

English. Tradition also supplies many errors, such as “J” for the Hebrew ‫( י‬yodh=y). A modern
scheme exists, but it is scarcely more English-like than the Hebrew itself. This list uses a simplified
(and often inaccurate) scheme. It should be noted that kh is used for several fricative sounds such
as the ch in German “Bach”; ‘ and ’ represent ‫ ע‬and ‫ ;א‬these are variants on “y.” ^ means a
stressed vowel. Other letters are (roughly) as in English. Beyond that, you’re on your own; I’m not
good enough to give you much additional guidance.

229
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Chronological List of Prophets

Please note that not all prophets can be dated exactly; the order here is what I consider the
best guess.
Name Phonetic LXX Date (B.C.E.) Reference
Abraham ’Abrahâm K)!--? c. 1800 Gen. 20:71

Abraam
Aaron ’Aarôn K-!D5 c. 1250 Ex. 7:11
Aaron
Miriam Miryâm I-!&-? c. 1250 Ex. 15:204
Mariam
Eldad & ’Eldâdh, Q%9-9, c. 1240 Num. 11:26-29 !
Medad Mêdhâdh ID9-9
Eldad,
Modad
(“A Prophet like Moses”) Deut. 18:15–191, (34:10)1; (John
1:215, 255); Acts!3:22–23,5 7:375 !
Balaam Bayl-‘âm \-%--? c. 1200 Num. 22:5-24:25, 31:8; Deut. 23:4–5;
Balaam Josh. 13:22, 24:9–10; Neh. 13:2; Mic.
6:5; 2 Pet. 2:15; Jude 11; Rev. 2:14 !
Deborah De-borah M*))D!- c. 1150 Judges 4:44, 5, 9, 10, 14, 5:1, 7, 12, 15
Debbora (also Judges 4:6 LXX; LXXA adds the
name twice more in 4:9, 5:12) !
(a prophet c. 1125 Judges 6:8
of Gideon’s
time)
Samuel Shem-û’el L-?8E;% c. 1050 1 Sam. 3:201, 9:91 3, 113, 193, (19:20–
,
Samouel 24)1; 1!Ch.!9:223, 26:28–293; 2 Ch.

35:181; Psalm 99:6; Jer. 15:1; Acts
3:245, 13:20 ; (Heb. 11:325); in the
5
Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 1:205; Sirach

46:135 (LXXB omits)
Saul Shâ’ûl L-8E% c. 1020 1 Sam. 10:111, 19:241
Saoul
Gad Gâdh J-9 c. 1005–970 1 Sam. 22:51; 2 Sam. 24:112–19;
Gad 1!Ch. 21:92–19, 29:292; 2 Ch. 29:252
!

Nathan Nâthân X-+-5 c. 995-960 2 Sam. 7:21–17, 12:1–15, 251;

Nathan 1!Kings!1:81, 101, 11–14, 221–27, 321,
341, 381, 441, 451 (4:5?); 1!Ch.!17:11–
15, 29:291; 2 Ch. 9:291, 29:251; Psalm
51 (title1); in the Apocrypha in Sirach
47:1 !
Heman Hêmân K&?-5 c. 990 1 Ch. 6:33, 15:17, 19, 16:41–42,
Aiman 25:1, 4, 52, 6; 2!Ch. 5:12, 29:14,
35:152; Psalm 88 (title) !
Asaph ’Â´sâph K4-P c. 980-950 1 Ch. 6:39, 9:15, 15:17, 19, 16:5, 7,
Asaph 37, 25:1–2, 6, 9, 26:1 (some of these
uses may refer to others); 2 Ch. 5:12,
20:14, 29:13, 302, 35:15; Ezra 2:41,
3:10; Neh. 7:44, 12:46; Psalms 50,
73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82,
83 (titles); in the Apocrypha in
1!Esdras 5:27, 59
Jeduthun Ye-dhûthûn C9&+8E5 c. 980-950 1 Ch. 16:41–42, 25:1–6; 2 Ch. 5:12,
Idithoun 29:14, 35:152, Psalms 39, 62, 77
(with (titles) !
variations)
Ahijah the ’A-hî-yah KN&- c. 930-895 1 Kings 11:291–39, 12:15, 14:21, 4–
Shilonite Achia 16, 181, 15:29; 2 Ch. 9:29 1 , 10:15!(for
( )
LXX references, see the note on Two

Tales of Jeroboam I, p. 139) !
Shemaiah She-ma‘i-yah L-?-&-# c. 920 1 Kings 12:22–24; 2 Ch. 11:2, 12:51,
Samaias 7, 151 (For LXX references, see the
note on Two Tales of Jeroboam I, p.
139) !
(A man of God from Judah) c. 910 1 Kings 13:1–10, 14, 16–17, 19, 21–
25, 26, 28–30; 2!Kings 23:16–181 !
(An old prophet of Bethel) c. 910 1 Kings 13:111–15, 181–19, 201–23,

261–32; 2!Kings 23:16–181 !
Iddo ‘Iddô CD;% (2 c. 900 2 Ch. 9:292, 12:152, 13:221 !

Ch. 9:29)/
K99D
Ioel/Addo

Azariah (son A-zari-yah K'-!&-# c. 900 2 Ch. 15:1–8 !

of Iddo) Azarias
Hanani Ha-nânî K5-5& c. 890 2 Ch. 16:73, 103 !
(H)anani
Jehu son of Yêhû C8E/C;8E c. 880 1 Kings 16:1, 71, 121; 2 Ch. 19:22,
Hanani Iou/Ihou 20:34 (and perhaps the preceding
entry?) !
Elijah ’Ê-lîyâh(-û) T%&8E c. 858–848 1 Kings 18:221, 361, 19:161; 2 Kings
(Lucian, 3:111; 2 Ch.!21:121; Mal. 4:51; Matt.
Josephus, 11:14, (16:145), 17:3–4, 10–12,
Apocrypha, 27:47–49; Mark 6:15, (8:285), 9:4–13,
NT usually 15:35–36; Luke 1:17, 4:25–26, 9:18,
T%&-#) (195), 30–33, 54; John 1:21, 25; Rom.
Eliou, Elias 11:2; James 5:17 (For LXX
references, cf. also the note on Ahab,
p. 79); in the Apocrypha in Sirach
48:1, 4, 12, 1 Macc. 2:58; 2 Esdras
7:109
(A son of the prophets) c. 855 1 Kings 20:351, 36–381, 39–411, 42 !
Micaiah Mî-khâ-yehû I&N-&-# 849 1 Kings 22:8 1 –9, 13–17, 19–23, 24–
( )
Ben-Imlah Michaias 28; 2 Ch. 18:7–8, 12–16, 18–22, 23–

27 !
Zedekiah Ze-dhe-kîyah L*9*,&-# 849 1 Kings 22:11, 24; 2 Ch. 18:10, 23 !
Sedekias
Elisha ’E-lî´shâ‘ Q%&4-&* c. 850–800 1 Kings 19:161–21; 2 Kings 3:111,
Elissaie 5:31, 8, 131, 6:121, 9:11; Luke 4:27; in
the Apocrypha in Sirach 48:2
Zechariah Ze-kharí-yah K'-!&-# c. 820 2 Ch. 24:20-22; Matt. 23:25 (?); Luke
son of (!) Azarias 20:51 !
Jehoiada
Jonah Yônah CD5-(#) c. 775 2 Kings 14:251; Jonah 1–4; Matt.
Iona(s) 12:395–41, 16:4; Luke 11:295–32; in
the Apocrypha in Tobit 14:4, 8 (so
LXXB LXXA; LXX‫ א‬NRSV
“Nahum”); 3 Macc. 6:8
Amos ‘Â´môs K?D# c. 765 Amos 1:1, 7:8, 7:10–11, 122, 141, 8:2;
Amos in the Apocrypha in Tobit 2:6;
2!Esdras 1:39 !

Hosea Hôshê-a‘ #4;* c. 755–725 Hosea 1:1–2; Rom. 9:25; in the

(H)osee Apocrypha in 2 Esdras 1:39 !
Isaiah Yi-sha‘yâhû T4-&-# 742–c. 690 2 Kings 19:21, 20:11, 141; 2 Ch.
Esaias 26:221, 32:201, 32:321; Isa. 37:21,
38:11, 39:3; Matt. 3:35, 4:145, 8:175,
12:175, 13:145, 15:75; (Mark 7:65),
Luke 3:145, 4:175, John 1:235, 12:385–
41, Acts 8:285–30, 28:25, Rom. 9:27–
29, 10:16, 20, 15:12; in the
Apocrypha in Sirach 48:20 (so LXXB
LXXA LXXC; LXX‫ א‬LXXN+V read
Jesus=Joshua; compare 48:23), 22;
4!Macc. 18:14; 2 Esdras 2:18
The wife of Isaiah c. 735 Isa. 8:34
Micah Mîkhah I&N-&-# c. 740–710 Jeremiah 26:18 1 , Micah 1:1; in the
( )
Michaias Apocrypha in 2 Esdras 1:40 !

Oded ‘Odhêdh #9;9 c. 733 2 Ch. 28:91–11 !
Oded
Zephaniah Se-phan-yah L8P85&-# c. 635 Zeph. 1:1 !
Sophonias
Hanan Ha-nan K5-5&8# ? Jeremiah 35:4(=42:4 LXX)
(H)ananios
Jeremiah Yer(e)m-iyah C*!*?&-# 626–585 2 Ch. 36:121; Jer. 18:181, (19:141),
Ieremias 20:1–21, 25:21, (25:131), 28:51, 61, 101,
111, 121, 151, 29:11, (271), 291, 32:21,
36:81, 261, 37:21, 31, 61, 131, 38:141,
42:21, 41, 43:61, 45:11, 46:11, 131,
47:11, 50:11, 51:591 (this is the MT
numbering; for the order of verses in
LXX, see the note on Jeremiah in the
MT and LXX, p. 137); Dan. 9:21,
Matt. 2:175, 16:145, 27:95; also Lam.
1:1 LXX; in the Apocrypha in
1!Esdras 1:285, 325, 475, 57, 2:1;
Sirach 49:6; Letter of Jeremiah 1; 2
Macc. 2:15, 5, 7, 15:145, 15; 2 Esdras
2:18
Huldah Khul´dah V%9-(#) 621 2 Kings 22:144; 2 Ch. 34:224 !
(H)olda(s)

Nahum Nahûm X-8E? c. 615 Nahum 1:1; in the Apocrypha in

Naoum Tobit 14:4 (so LXX‫ א‬NRSV; LXXB
LXXA Jonah); 2 Esdras 1:40 !
Uriah ’Urî-yah VE!&-# c. 608 Jer. 26:20–23 !
Ourias
Habakkuk Habhakkûk K?)-,8E? c. 600 Hab. 1:11, 3:11; in the Apocrypha in
(H)am- Bel & the Dragon 33–39 (also in the
bakoum LXX text of Bel 1, although
Theodotian’s text, as found in LXXB
LXXA, omits); 2 Esdras 1:40 !
Hananiah Ha-naní-yah K5-5&-# 596 Jer. 28:11, 51, 101, 11, 121, 13, 151, 171
(H)ananias !
Ezekiel Yhe-ze-qa-’êl C*'*,&;% 593–c. 560 Ezekiel 1:3, 24:24; in the Apocrypha
Iezekiel in Sirach 49:8; 4 Macc. 18:17!!
Obadiah ‘O-bhadh-yah K)9&8E c. 580?? Obadiah 1; in the Apocrypha in
Abdiou 2!Esdras 1:39 !
“Deutero-Isaiah” c. 545 (None)
Haggai Khag´gay K66-&8# 520 Ezra 5:11, 6:141; Haggai 1:11, 31, 121,
(H)aggaios 13, 2:11, 101, 13, 14, 20; also in the
LXX titles of Psalms 145–149 = 146,
147, 147 , 148, 149 Hebrew; in the
a
Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 6:1, 7:3;

2!Esdras 1:40 !
Zechariah Ze-kharí-yah W-N-!&-# 520–516 Ezra 5:11, 6:14; Zech. 1:11, 71, 7:1, 8;
the writing Zacharias also in the LXX titles of Psalms 145–
prophet 149 = 146, 147, 147a, 148, 149
Hebrew; in the Apocrypha in
1!Esdras 6:1, 7:3; 2 Esdras 1:40 !
Malachi Mal’â´khy I-%-N&-# c. 450?? Malachi 1:1 (not in LXX, which
Malachias translates the name as “[the Lord’s]
messenger”; the Greek name is
known from the book’s LXX title!) !
Noadiah Nô‘ad-eýah XD-9&-/ 444 Nehemiah 6:144 !
X8-9&-
Noadia
Joel Yô’êl CD;% Ioel c. 350?? Joel 1:1; in the Apocrypha in
2!Esdras 1:39 !

“Trito-Isaiah” c. 300?? (None)
“Deutero-Zechariah” c. 300?? (None)
“Daniel” Dânîyêl M-5&;% 165 (Ezek. 14:14, 20, 28:3), Daniel 1:6, 8–
Daniel 11, 17, 19, 21, ch. 2 passim; 4:8, 19;
5:12, 13, 17, 29, ch. 6 passim; 7:1, 2,
15, 28, 8:1, 15, 27, 9:2, 22; 10:1, 2, 7,
11, 12, 12:4, 5, 9; Matt. 24:15; (Mark
13:14 KJV following A Y ƒ1 ƒ13 Byz k;
‫ א‬B D L W [ 565 892 a b ff2 NRSV
omit); in the Apocrypha in Susanna
45, 51, 55, 59, 61, 64; Bel and the
Dragon passim; 1 Macc. 2:60;
3!Macc. 6:7; 4 Macc. 16:3, 21, 18:13;
2!Esdras 12:11 (for LXX Daniel see
the excursus Two Greek Versions of
Daniel on p. 240)

Biographies of the Prophets

In the entries which follow, the prophet’s name is shown in Bold; this is followed by a
translation in italics. This is followed by a short biography. Prophets are listed in alphabetical
order by the common English forms of their names; for dates and correct pronunciations, see the
chart.
Since the term “prophet” was originally used rather loosely, it is sometimes important to
know who called a particular prophet a prophet. For this reason, all references to the Pentateuch
are identified by source. The four sources found in the Pentateuch are 1) J, the earliest and most
anthropomorphic, who referred to God as “Yahweh” and came from Judah. 2) E, from Israel, a
firm believer in dreams, who referred to God as “El” or “Elohim.” 3) D, the Deuteronomic
school, from the time of Josiah of Judah, which wrote most of Deuteronomy and edited the books
of the “Former Prophets” (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings). 4) P, the exilic and post-exilic
Priestly school that put the Pentateuch in its final form and supplied most of the legal material.
In addition, many of the prophetic works have been tampered with over time (the classic
example of this is the book of Isaiah, more than half of which is composed of later additions);
others are creations of authors who lived centuries after the prophets the books are attributed to
(the books of Daniel and Jonah are prime examples). So I have usually included at least a few
comments on what criticism has to say about the books of the writing prophets. This analysis is
anything but complete, but it can at least indicate a direction.
Aaron, Enlightened. Aaron, the first High Priest of Israel and the older brother of Moses, is
only once referred to as a prophet. In Ex. 7:1 (P), he is referred to as Moses’s prophet because he
will be Moses’s spokesman.
Abraham, Father of a Multitude. Abraham was the ancestor of the Hebrew people, but his role
as the first prophet is not stressed. He was not a major prophet; he certainly never went into
ecstasy, his visions were few; the word “prophet” was used of him only once. In Genesis 20 (from
the E source of the Pentateuch), Abraham had passed his wife Sarah off as his sister. As a result,
the local king Abimelech had tried to take Sarah as his wife. God, in ordering Abimelech to
release her, referred to Abraham as a “prophet” whose prayers could free Abimelech and his
people from the plagues which had pursued him since he had taken Sarah (Gen. 20:7).
Ahijah the Shilonite, Brother of Yah[weh]. Ahijah came to prominence in the later part of the
reign of Solomon, when he encouraged Jeroboam I the son of Nebat to rebel against the king,
promising that Jeroboam would be granted the right to rule ten of the twelve tribes of Israel. (For
Ahijah’s graphic promise of this, see 1 Kings 11:30–31.) But Ahijah later became Jeroboam’s
enemy, after the latter became king of the new nation of Israel and corrupted its worship by the
erection of golden calves (1 Kings 12:28ƒ.). Although he had gone blind by the end of Jeroboam’s
reign, the prophet was able to recognize Jeroboam’s wife when she came to him to ask about the
health of her son. He foretold the imminent fall of her husband’s dynasty (1 Kings 14; LXX of

1!Kings 121 adds that he was sixty years old at the time, implying that he was born around 962
B.C.E.). In addition, rabbinic tradition maintains that he was the prophet who warned Solomon
that his dynasty was in danger (cf. Ant VIII.vii.5).
Amos, Burden-bearer ? Amos was almost certainly the first of the prophets to record his
message.2 According to Amos 7:14, he was originally an obscure Judean shepherd3 and sycamore
tree dresser (sycamore figs had to be pierced while still green to become truly edible), with no
connection to the prophetic movement (Amos 1:1,4 7:14), he was called to preach repentance to
the Israel of Jeroboam II (reigned 786–746 B.C.E.). Since Jeroboam’s Israel was at the height of its
powers, ruled by a wealthy upper class and a corrupt priesthood, Amos’s warnings were ignored.
The local priest at Bethel responded to his message by demanding that he return to Judah and
leave Israel alone (7:10–13). Amos did return, and prophesied no more, but his writing founded a
movement which would reshape the world.
Either because of his originality, or because of the harshness of his message, Amos’s work
seems to have suffered relatively little tampering.5 The epilogue to his work (9:8–15) is often
doubted (it, after all, is not only hopeful, but refers to a restoration of David’s house — even though
the Davidic dynasty was still ruling in Amos’s time), but most of the rest of the book is believed to
be his.
Amos’s message, unlike that of later prophets such as Hosea and Isaiah, was a demand for
justice and a warning of wrath to come, with few hints of mercy or forgiveness:
Woe to you who desire the day of the Lord!
Why would you have the day of the Lord?
It is darkness, and not light.
(Amos 5:18)
Asaph, [Yahweh] has Gathered ? A Levite; according to 1 Chronicles, he was a leading singer
when the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem. David then appointed him to be in
charge of choral worship; it seems to have been in this connection that he was labelled a seer.
1.!MT and LXX give utterly different versions of the stories of Solomon, Rehoboam, Ahijah, and Jeroboam I. For
the LXX version, see the excursus Two Tales of Jeroboam I on p. 139.
2.!On this basis it has been argued that the book of Amos is the earliest of all Biblical books to reach its approximate
current form. This is beyond proof. Certainly we can’t point to anything older; all the books which tell of earlier
events seem to have been edited after Amos’s time. But we do not know when the collection was assembled; it
does not seem to have been put together by Amos himself but rather by his followers.
3.!According to George Adam Smith, the word “shepherd” in Amos 1:1 is unusual; it is not the same as the common
word “shepherd” in Amos 1:2. It seems to refer to those who herd the desert sheep, a tougher breed than the
common sheep of Palestine. The King James version reflects this by translating the word “herdsman” in 1:1. This
makes some sense for a resident of Tekoa, itself believed to be a rather barren place located six miles/ten
kilometers south of Bethlehem. Amos’s message was like his home: Barren and unforgiving. For the follow-up, see
the entry on Hosea, p. 244.
4.!A good deal of doubt has been cast upon Amos 1:1; a number of scholars in the early twentieth century regarded
it as touched up. But even if it has been clarified, there is no reason to doubt that Amos prophesied to the Israel
of Jeroboam II.
5.!It should be noted that LXX Amos differs very substantially from MT. In this case, however, the fault appears to
be the translator’s.

Solomon granted him a major role in Temple worship. His descendants continued to be the chief
Temple musicians; Asaph himself is called the author of several psalms. Nonetheless, he is never
mentioned in the relatively sober history of Samuel/Kings; his importance seems to have been
small, except to the musically-inclined author of Chronicles.
Azariah, Yah[weh] is my Might. Called “the son of Oded” (not the prophet of that name
mentioned below), Azariah was a prophet during the early reign of Asa king of Judah (913–873).
According to 2 Ch. 15:1–8, it was Azariah who encouraged Asa to his early piety, which brought
the young king great success.
Balaam, The Clan Brings Forth ? (the name may be Akkadian or Aramaic transliterated into
Hebrew) The son of Beor,1 Balaam was a Mesopotamian servant of God whom Balak son of
Zippor king of Moab called upon to drive the invading Israelites out of Canaan. Balaam, a true
man of God (although never called that), would not go until God gave permission (Num. 22:20,
E). On this journey occurred the famous incident of Balaam’s ass (Num. 22:21–34, J. Later
folklore says that the donkey Jesus rode into Jerusalem was descended from Balaam’s ass,
although a pedigree surely could not be kept that long!). But when Balaam saw Israel, he was
ordered by God to bless them rather than curse them as Balak desired (Num. 23:7–10, 18–24,
24:3–9, 15–19, E). Despite this, Balaam gave Balak the advice to have his women seduce the
Israelite men; the Israelites in their turn eventually killed him (31:8, P). For all his apparent piety,
he acquired a bad reputation and was held up as an example of wickedness on several occasions,
including in the New Testament (2 Pet. 2:15, Jude 11, Rev. 2:14). Balaam was never explicitly
labelled a prophet, but was once called a soothsayer (diviner, omen-reader, necromancer, etc. —
Josh. 13:22).
Balaam is the only prophet who may be mentioned in non-Jewish writings; if so, he is also the
earliest Biblical character who can be positively identified in an external source. A preliminary
report (1975) mentions an inscription from pagan Succoth which may describe Balaam.
Daniel, God is Judge. A famous holy man of ancient Israel (Ezek. 14:14, 20, 28:3, where he is
called Dan’el2); a later writer (from 165 B.C.E.) converted him into a hero of the Babylonian exile
(586–539 B.C.E.). Josephus makes him a member of the royal family (Ant X.x.1) and perhaps a
eunuch (so also rabbinic tradition).
There is little doubt that the book was written after the sixth century date it pretends to. This
shows in the language (much of it is in Aramaic, and even the Hebrew portions use late words;
also, much of the Hebrew was clearly written by someone for whom it was not a native tongue).
The history is also anachronistic; no one living in the court of Babylon could have made the
mistakes it does. The strongest evidence, however, is its place in the Hebrew Bible. If Daniel had
lived and prophesied in the sixth century, the book could have and should have been included in
1.!“Beor” is the name used in MT, which LXX makes into \*D!, Beor. But in 2 Pet. 2:15 — the only New
Testament mention of Balaam’s father’s name — almost all texts make him Balaam son of Bosor (\848!); so ന72
!2 A C P [ 33vid 81 614 1505 1611 1739 1881 2138 Byz hark; B arm have \*D!; !* has \*D8!48!, which
appears to be the result of someone correcting \*D! toward \848!; the copyist evidently took parts of both
words
2.!LXX spells the name M-5&;% in both books, but Vulgate spells it “Danihel” in Ezekiel

the second division of the Hebrew Bible, the Prophets. Instead, Daniel is in the third and last
division, the Writings. And we know that the collection of the prophets was closed by about 250
B.C.E. Since Daniel isn’t in it, the clear conclusion is that it was written after the Prophets were
closed.
We also note that the book nowhere calls Daniel a prophet. But Christians have tended to
ignore the book’s palpable anachronisms, and call it the fourth of the “major prophets.”
The book of Daniel, despite being very late (the last portions almost certainly written in 165
B.C.E.), has been added to quite a bit. (The lateness of the book merely resulted in the additions
becoming part of the Apocrypha, for they were written in Greek.) The first insert, “The Song of
the Three Young Men,” is just that — the song that Daniel’s three companions sang after
Nebuchadnezzar flung them into the furnace. The second, “Bel and the Dragon,” shows Daniel
as a debunker of false gods (which ties into his role as an interpreter of the work of the one true
God, and his role as eschatologist). The third, the tale of Susanna, tells how Daniel’s sense of
justice saved a virtuous girl’s life.1
Even the original text of the book may not be the work the author planned to publish; some
commentators think that he may have died before preparing a final version. In this view, the
book originally contained only chapters 1–7, written mostly in Aramaic. Chapters 8–10, in
Hebrew, were a later addition. Chapters 11–12, since they described contemporary events of the
160s B.C.E., were simply notes which the author’s followers converted into (very bad) Hebrew
after his death. This song-and-dance was due to the author’s dislike of the Maccabees and to the
unsettled nature of the period, which meant that the book required constant adjustments. This
may also have accounted for the book’s acceptance when older pseudepigraphal works were
rejected: it agreed with the prejudices of the Pharisees who determined the canon (they, too, were
anti-Maccabean). It should be noted that this is only a hypothesis; the more common — and
simpler — explanation is that the book is a unity from 165 B.C.E.
I have already noted that the book is based on the history of the 160s B.C.E. As a result it is
largely concerned with the history of the Diadochi era (chapter 11, in particular, is a summarized
history of the Seleucid and Ptolemaic Empires); this chapter, therefore, is discussed in more detail
in the section “The Glory That Was Greece” — especially the section “The Book of Daniel and
the Successors.”
1.!This tale was extremely popular in medieval art and poetry, and seems even to have inspired imitation romances.
For instance, the romance of the Earl of Toulouse tells how Beulybon, said to be the wife of the Emperor
Diocletian, is accused of adultery by two knights who desire her themselves. The Earl shows up to defend her —
although he does it as her champion, killing one accuser and forcing the other to yield, rather than successfully
defending her in a trial.

Excursus: Two Greek Versions of Daniel

The insertions of the Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon is
not the only curiosity about LXX Daniel. The original LXX translation was quickly brushed
aside in favor of Theodotian’s text, or at least something that was said to be Theodotian’s text
(there are now some questions about its source); Origen, for instance, tells us explicitly that he
intends to work from Theodotian’s translation. LXXB LXXA LXXQ LXXN+V all transmit the Y
(Theodotianic) text; the original LXX is known only from two damaged manuscripts (967 and
88) and a few versions. LXX and Y agree in including the three additions (Song, Bel, Susanna),
but LXX often diverges from Y and MT in the remaining text — e.g. LXX substantially
reshuffles chapter 4, adding a very long section after verse 37; it omits 5:14-15, 18-22, 24-25, and
other parts of chapter 5, and expands 6:13. The introduction to NETS says, “The plot in Daniel
4-6 is the same, respectively, in the OG [=LXX] and TH/MT, but there are numerous
differences in detail. For example, chapter 4 in the OG narrates the story of Nabouchodonosor’s
(Nebuchadnezzar’s) madness, but his confession and the publication of his decree occur in a
much expanded form at the end of the chapter in vv. 34-34c rather than at the beginning.
Chapter 5 recounts the mysterious writing on the wall, but the OG includes an abbreviated form
of the story as a preface and omits significant portions of vv. 3, 10-13. Lacking is any significant
counterpart to vv. 14-15, 18-22 and 24-25. Chapter 6, in which Daniel is thrown into the lion’s
den, is much closer in length in the respective versions. Yet there are large pluses in the OG (vv. 3,
5, 12a, 14, 17-18, 22) and minuses (vv. 15, 23).”
Deborah, Bee. Identified as “the wife of Lappidoth,” Deborah was the first (and last) great
prophetess of Israel (Judges 4:4). She was the fourth of the Judges of Israel, and the first of the so-
called “major judges” (a description based mostly on the amount of information given about her;
it is very hard to truly decide how important each judge was). Her authority extended over the
tribes of Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and all or part of Manasseh, Ephraim, and Benjamin. It
was she, along with Barak the son of Abinoam, who roused these tribes to defeat the forces of
Jabin king of Hazor and his general Sisera. (On the other hand, a few scholars view this
campaign as a part of Joshua’s great conquest, making it the first phase of the events of Josh. 11.
Needless to say, this reduces the significance of Deborah and Barak — but few accept the
theory.) The victory ode known as “The Song of Deborah” (Judges 5) dates from soon after this
twelfth century event; it is thus among the oldest sections of the Bible.
Deutero-Isaiah or “Second Isaiah.” It has been suggested that Isaiah founded a
“school” that bore his name. If so, this is its leading representative. This anonymous prophet
probably dates from shortly before Cyrus “the Great” of Persia conquered the Babylonian
Empire in 539 B.C.E. — an event which freed the Jews from the Babylonian captivity. The
prophet, foreseeing this, wrote the unsurpassed poetry of Isaiah 40–55, which include the famous
descriptions of the Suffering Servant (see especially Isa. 52:13–53:12) and the great statement of
hope:
Comfort, comfort my people,
says your God.

Speak tenderly to Jerusalem,

and cry to her
that her warfare is ended,
that her iniquity is pardoned....
(Isa. 40:1–2 AOT, following G.A. Smith)
Deutero-Zechariah or “Second Zechariah.” This prophet’s date cannot be exactly
determined, but he clearly dates from the Greek period, which began when Alexander the Great
conquered the Persian Empire in the 330s. Some have maintained that chapters 9–14 of
Zechariah are from several sources, but the most likely conclusion is that a single man wrote
these rather obscure oracles.
Deutero-Zechariah is also perhaps the only one of the minor prophets to refer to another one
of them. Zech. 14:6 refers to the earthquake in the time of King Uzziah. There is no mention of
this event in the histories of Kings or Chronicles; we know of it only from Amos 1:1. So Deutero-
Zechariah may have known of it from Amos.
Eldad (God Loved ? Perhaps related to Akkadian “Dadi-ilu,” Dadi is God) and Medad (beloved).
Two young men of Israel who lived during the time of the wandering in the wilderness. They
were not among the seventy elders who were invited to visit with God. But they, like those elders,
went into prophetic ecstasies. Joshua began a controversy by demanding that Moses silence
them. But Moses welcomed their charismatic gift (Num. 11:26–29, E source).
Elijah, Yah[weh] is God. After the death of Samuel, prophecy almost went dormant. There
were prophets, but their influence was relatively slight — only Ahijah the Shilonite exercised
strong influence, and that only for a brief moment. Elijah changed that. Regarded by the Jews as
the greatest of the Old Testament prophets, Elijah was a transitional figure. Like the earlier
prophets (including Moses himself), Elijah engaged in many “parlour tricks” — miraculous
healings (1 Kings 17:17–24), fire from heaven (1 Kings 18:30–40; 2 Kings 1:9–12), and the like.
Several of these may well be designed to parallel the deeds of Moses — e.g. his contest with the
prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel is reminiscent of the signs given by Moses to demonstrate the
power of God. But, unlike earlier wonder-workers, Elijah pointed the way to a new sort of
prophecy with his demands for justice. Elijah may also have been the first prophet to record his
utterances (2 Ch. 21:12), though this is probably an invention of the author of Chronicles, who
nowhere else mentions Elijah (who was an Israelite rather than a Judean, after all).
Although Elijah’s struggles with the (allegedly) evil Jezebel and the weak King Ahab of Israel
were memorable (1 Kings 17, 18, 19, 21),1 the greatest event of his life came on its last day, when
he was carried alive into heaven (2 Kings 2:9–12), leaving his office and mantle to Elisha. He is
the only person explicitly said to have been carried to heaven, although it is usually said that
Enoch was also, and late legends added Moses to the list. Left behind was a great legend that
eventually became a promise of his return as a forerunner of the Christ (Mal. 4:5; Mark 9:11–13,
etc.). The modern Passover tradition leaves a glass of wine and an empty chair for Elijah. Ben
1.!This is the chapter numbers of MT; in LXX these are chapters 17-20; see the note on Ahab, p. 79.

Sirach listed him as one of the great men of Israel (Sirach 48:11–14), and even amplified
Malachi, saying that he would return “to calm the wrath of God” (48:10).
Elisha, God is Salvation. Elisha was the official successor of Elijah1 (1 Kings 19:16, 2 Kings
2:12–13) and the most prolific miracle-worker of the Old Testament2 (not only did he once raise
a child from the dead — 2 Kings 4:18ƒ. — but even his dead body was capable of this feat in
2!Kings 13:21!). His story takes up most of 2 Kings 2–8, 13. But in many ways he was a lesser
man than his predecessor. Elisha made no great ethical demands; he was simply a partisan of the
kings of Israel. Unlike Elijah, he sometimes needed a stimulus to prophecy (2 Kings 3:15). Most
of his great works had no real effect or purpose; once, when a group of boys called him names,
two bears were called to tear them to bits (2 Kings 2:23–25). Although Elisha was generally
valued by the kings of Israel (2 Kings 13:14–20), what he accomplished was small; there is no
mention of him outside of the miracle stories in the first few chapters of 2 Kings. Since Elisha
appointed no successor, prophecy in Israel seemingly lay dormant after his death until the
appearance of Amos half a century later.
Ezekiel, God Strengthens. The son of Buzi.3 Ezekiel was the first of the Exilic prophets; he was
born in Jerusalem before its fall, but was carried into exile in 597 B.C.E. Four years later, the
young priest was called to prophesy (Ezek. 1:2); he proceeded by means of many strange visions
and actions (eyes, wheels, the valley of dry bones, five years spent lying on his side, etc.) to foretell
the final fall of Jerusalem (in 587/6 B.C.E.) and its aftermath. (Frankly, if he showed up today, he
would almost certainly be diagnosed as being mentally ill.) Aside from the Second Isaiah and the
last few entries in Jeremiah, Ezekiel was the only prophet to prophesy during the exile, or to
prophesy outside of Judah.4 He prophesied for at least twenty-two years, but one of his later
predictions (against Tyre in chapters 26 and 27) did not come true. The final chapters of
Ezekiel’s work are a detailed description of the Temple as it is to be rebuilt (chapters 40–48) — a
description so exact that it has earned Ezekiel the title “the Founder of Post-Exilic Judaism.” Ben
Sirach considers him to be one of the great men of Israel (Sirach 49:8–9) — the only one of the
writing prophets to be so honoured in his own right.
1.!Scholars have noted a number of interesting parallels between the tales of Elijah and Elisha, implying either a
form of literary dependence or that God was making sure Elisha had the same abilities. The list on p. 139 of
Matthews & Moyer notes that both were able to cross the Jordan on dry land, both multiplied oil in a jar, and
both brought a woman’s son back to life.
2.!When Elijah was carried into heaven, Elisha asked to receive a double portion of his spirit (2 Kings 2:9). This is
surely to be understood as the heir’s portion, not as “twice as much spirit as Elijah,” but there was actually a
tradition that Elisha worked twice as many miracles as Elijah — sixteen rather than eight.
3.!Some rabbinic texts call him the “son of Jeremiah.” This, however, clearly should be understood as “disciple.”
And even this is dubious; they never mention each other, and their messages are by no means identical.
4.!At least, Ezek. 1:1 says that he prophesied by the River Chebar (i.e. the Chebar Canal) in Babylonia. And yet, he
almost never speaks directly to the exiles; most of his messages, if they have a specific destination, target Judah
and Jerusalem. It has been variously suggested that the exilic setting is a later overlay, or that he commuted
between Babylonia and Judah, or that most of the oracles came before his exile. One hypothesis has him living
among the exiles of 597, being called, going back to Judah, then being exiled again after the destruction of Judah
in 586 (or perhaps after the murder of Gedaliah). All that can be said with certainty is that he seemed surprisingly
familiar with Judean conditions for a person living in Babylon.

Yet his book was not without detractors. Many scribes felt that it conflicted with the law of
Moses on matters of justice and retribution. In the long run, however, the unity and decisiveness
of the book carried the way; it is now recognized as a classic call for justice and fairness. With the
possible exception of Jeremiah, it is the longest sustained writing in the Bible; criticism has
recognized its essential unity (though 38:1–39:20 are often held up as an intrusion, and most see
the hand of an editor at work on the book as a whole).1
Gad, Popularly “Fortune”; perhaps more correctly “To Penetrate” or the name of a god of fortune. A seer of
the time of David. He advised David during the latter’s flight from Saul (1 Sam. 22:5), but did
not appear again until the time of David’s great census (2 Sam. 24), when he arrived to deliver
God’s sentence.
Habakkuk, popularly, something like “Love’s embrace.” Very little is known of the life of this
prophet, except that in the Apocrypha he is credited with feeding Daniel while the latter was in
the lion’s den (Bel and the Dragon 33–39).2 Other than that, all we can say is that he lived after
the Chaldeans (Babylonians) rose to power (this probably dates him after 612 B.C.E.), but
apparently before the fall of Jerusalem in 587/6. The book of Habakkuk falls into three parts,
probably by three separate authors: a dialog between the prophet and God, questioning whether
justice exists (1:1–2:5; this is the section which dates from the Babylonian period); a series of woe-
sayings against an evil nation, possibly Babylon (2:6–20), and a psalm (3:1–19). They were
probably compiled separately, and there is a slight possibility that the psalm was added later;
there are no references at all to it in the Qumran Habakkuk Commentary.
Haggai, Festive. In 539 B.C.E. the Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Persians, and the
Jews were free to return from exile. In 538 a group of Jews under Sheshbazzar returned to
Jerusalem to try to rebuild the Temple (Ezra 1), but the building was halted by local opposition
(Ezra 5:16). In 520, a group of exiles was organized by the Davidic prince Zerubbabel 1 and the
priest Jeshua son of Jehozadak. Along with this group came the prophets Haggai and Zechariah
son of Berechiah (Ezra 5:1). With their encouragement the Temple was rebuilt (Ezra 6:14–15).
But Haggai probably did not live to see the Temple completed; many think that he was an old
man who remembered seeing the old Temple (see Haggai 2:3); his prophecies are quite brief,
1.!The best LXX manuscript of Ezekiel — LXXB — illustrates the degree of interpolation in this book. In chapter 1
alone it omits almost one-tenth of the MT text. In that chapter, the following are found in MT (as translated by
NRSV) but lacking in LXXB:
1:8-9 — and their wings thus: their wings touched one another
1:14 (whole verse) — The living creatures darted to and fro, like a flash of lightning
1:24 — like thunder of the Almighty, a sound of tumult like the sound of an army
1:25-26 — when they stopped, they let down their wings. 26 And above the dome over their heads there was something like a throne.
1:27 — something that enclosed them like fire all around
All told there are nearly one hundred instances in Ezekiel where the text of LXXB is shorter than that of MT; most
of these appear original. Also, the MT uses the phrase “the Lord God” some 210 times; LXXB reduces this to
simply “the Lord” over 80% of the time!
2.!The original LXX text of Bel and the Dragon 1 says that Habakkuk was the son of Jesus=Joshua, and a Levite.
Theodotian’s text of Daniel, found in LXXB LXXA LXXN+V LXXQ Lucian Origen and, in fact, every Greek
manuscript except two, however omits this statement. For more on the curious situation of LXX Daniel, see the
excursus on Two Greek Versions of Daniel, p. 240.

covering only a few months. He clearly hoped for a restoration of the Davidic monarchy (Haggai
2:21–24), but in this he was to be disappointed. Legend makes him a member of the “Great
Sanhedrin,” which established the rabbinic tradition, but we have no historical evidence for this.
His book, being short and not very lofty, is largely free of alterations.
The most common explanation for the sudden end of the book of Haggai, with the Temple
started but unfinished, is that Haggai died (which is another reason why many think he was an
old man when he prophesied, even though most prophets started young). But his book ends with
a clear promise to Zerubbabel. It is widely believed that the Persians removed Zerubbabel (he
certainly seems to have faded from sight). I find myself wondering if the Persians might they not
have removed Haggai as well — after all, he was talking up a potential rebel at a time when
Persia was very unsettled (this was the period after the death of Cambyses when Darius I was
desperately struggling to establish his dynasty.
Hanani, Short form of “Hananiah,” “Yah[weh] has been Gracious.” A prophet during the reign of
Asa king of Judah (913–873 B.C.E.). Asa was engaged in a war with Baasha king of Israel, which
the Judean won by buying the aid of the king of Syria. Hanani, in true prophetic style, warned
Asa that relying upon men rather than God was to court disaster. Asa put the prophet in the
stocks, and inflicted cruelties upon other people. But the remainder of the king’s reign was indeed
a time of trouble, according to the author of Chronicles (2 Ch. 16:1–13).
Hanan son of Igdaliah,1 Short form of “Hananiah,” “Yah[weh] has been Gracious.” A priestly
official whose sons had a chamber in the Temple (Jer. 35:4). Called a “man of God” rather than
a prophet. Nothing else is known of him, unless just possibly he is the same as:
Hananiah, Yah[weh] has been Gracious. A false prophet of the time of Jeremiah. While
Jeremiah was prophesying woe to come (and symbolizing it by wearing a yoke around his neck),
Hananiah foretold glad tidings. To prove his point, Hananiah broke the yoke off Jeremiah’s neck
(Jer. 28:10). Jeremiah responded by repeating his prediction of doom (which was correct), and
prophesied that Hananiah would die within a year. He did. (Jer. 28:16–17).
Heman, Faithful. Called “the Ezrahite,” (Psalm 88 title), he may have been the grandson of
Samuel (1 Ch. 6:33). He was a musician and wise man in the court of David. Jeduthun was his
co-worker (1 Ch. 16:41).
Hosea, probably to be read Hoshea, “May Yah[weh] Save.” The second of the writing prophets
(only Amos was earlier), Hosea was also the only Israelite. He was the son of Beeri. He inherited
from Amos an interesting question: How could Israel be redeemed? Amos had condemned, but
what good is condemnation unless it effects some change? As George Adam Smith put it, “The
prophet of Conscience had to be followed by the prophet of Repentance.”2 Unlike Amos, Hosea
spoke of love as well as justice: of Israel the wayward child whom God must punish but still cared
for. This in a real way reflected his own circumstances. Hosea’s family life was troubled: his wife
Gomer was a harlot whose fidelity he purchased (at God’s orders; cf. 1:2–3); his children, like
Isaiah’s, were given symbolic names: “Not pitied” (1:5), “Jezreel” (1:4, after the city where the
1.!Igdaliah: so MT LXXA; in LXXB of Jer. 42:4 (=35:4 MT) the name is given as “Jonan son of
(H)ananiah son of Godolias” (Gedaliah?); LXX! gives “(H)annan son of (H)ananiah.”
2.!George Adam Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets, volume I, revised edition, p. 238.

dynasty of Jehu had bloodily risen to power), “Not my people.” Hosea, like Jeremiah and others,
used his life as an example for Israel: how God loved, but how their wives (Gomer/Israel) played
the harlot; how God would even so cherish her and take her back: “When Israel was a child, I
loved her…” (Hos. 11:1). At the time Hosea wrote, Israel was at the height of her power under
Jeroboam II (786–746 B.C.E.). But trouble was soon to come; the nation would be destroyed in
722. Hosea very possibly lived to see the ruin of his nation; perhaps this inspired some of the grief
and compassion of his writings.
The text of Hosea is particularly difficult to understand, being written in an unusual dialect
(presumably the speech of eighth century Israel, as opposed to the Judahite dialect of the rest of
the Hebrew Bible) and often corrupt. But most authors believe that the message has survived
intact and without major modification.
Like so many of his contemporaries, and Isaiah in particular, the message of Hosea
concentrated on ethics rather than ritual:
For I desire steadfast love1 and not sacrifice,
the knowledge of God,
rather than burnt offerings.”
(Hos. 6:6)
Hozai, Seer. According to 2 Ch. 33:18 MT, the name of a prophet (?) who recorded the
actions of the evil Judean king Manasseh 2. In most English versions the name is given as “the
seers.”2
Huldah, Weasel ? A prophetess of the time of king Josiah (639–609 B.C.E.), she was the wife of
Shallum. In the year 621, the “Book of the Law” was found in the Temple by the High Priest
Hilkiah (2 Kings 22:8; this was probably part of the book of Deuteronomy). Huldah was called
upon to verify its authenticity (2 Kings 22:14)3; she vouched for the book, but added a prophecy
of doom for Judah coupled with a reward for the reforming king Josiah (2 Kings 22:15–20). She
1.!steadfast love: a word well worthy of explanation even in a book of history. It is Heb. ‫סד‬ ֶ ‫ה‬
ֶ , +esed: LXX *%*8#,
“mercy,” that also being the translation used in the citation of Hos. 6:6 in Matt. 9:13; vulgate “misericordia,”
“tender-heartedness, compassion, pity”; the Hebrew word is variously rendered in English as “mercy” [AB, NIV],
“loving-kindness” [KJV], “love” [MOFFATT], “steadfast love” [RSV, NRSV], “loyalty” [NEB, REB, NASB], “gentleness,”
“troth” [GAS]. The latter word, although archaic, probably captures the sense best: a covenanted love, requiring
loyalty, honesty, and obligation in both directions. It often involves agreements or treaties: Gen. 24:12 uses it of the
agreement between God and Abraham. Ex. 20:6 invokes it for the covenant between God and the Israelites. A
slave uses it when agreeing to perpetual servitude (Ex. 21:5). Those who keep the commandments show +esed
(Deut 5:10). 1 Kings 3:6 uses it of the relationship between God and the House of David. It has been suggested
that it involves three attributes: strength, steadfastness, and love. I would also mention the four aspects of trouthe (troth)
described in Chaucer’s Franklin’s Tale: trouthe as troth, a pledged word or promise; trouthe as integrity, being true to
one’s own self; trouthe as loyalty, being a proper part of society; and trouthe as universality and righteousness, in the
sense of fulfilling one’s destiny and playing one’s proper role..
2.!The MT reading “Hozai,” which is supported by the Vulgate, is read by NASV NRSVmargin; ABmargin REBmargin parse the
name as “my seers”; RSV AB REBtext NRSVtext, following LXX and one Hebrew manuscript, add a letter to read “his
seers,” i.e. “the seers”; KJV NASB read “the seers.”
3.!It has been speculated that the reason she was called upon, rather than Jeremiah, Zephaniah, or one of their
contemporaries, because she was an official court prophet. There is no data on this either way.

seems to have been the only woman to be recognized as a prophet other than Deborah, and the
only woman other than the evil Athaliah to have a part in administering Judah.
Iddo, Yah[weh] has Adorned ? A seer who apparently lived during the later part of the reign of
Solomon and through the reigns of his immediate successors. The only references to Iddo are
three citations of his writings found in 2 Chronicles; nothing is known of his life, attitudes, or
actions. (Josephus — Ant VIII.viii.5 — and rabbinic tradition say that he was the Judean prophet
who spoke against Jeroboam I at Bethel in 1 Kings 13; for this story see A man of God from
Judah and An old prophet of Bethel on p. 258.)
Isaiah, Yah[weh] is Salvation. Isaiah of Jerusalem, as he is now frequently called by scholars to
distinguish him from other writers whose works are included in the book of Isaiah, was the first of
the major prophets. Isaiah was the son of Amoz; he began to prophecy in the year king Uzziah
[=Azariah 4] died (742 B.C.E.) and continued to prophecy until at least the middle of the reign of
Hezekiah (around 700). Tradition has it that he was killed by Hezekiah’s successor Manasseh 2,
who had the prophet sawn in two (cf. Heb. 11:37). Isaiah seems to have been either a priest, for
he was often in the Temple (Isa. 6:1, etc.), or a member of the royal family, for he had easy access
to the kings of Judah (Isa. 7:3). Like his near-contemporary Hosea, Isaiah gave his children
prophetic names, and spoke both of God’s love and wrath; he wanted ethics rather than ritual:
Your new moons and your appointed festivals
my soul hates…
Come now, let us argue it out,
says the Lord:
though your sins are like scarlet
they shall be like snow.
(Isa. 1:14, 18 NRSV)
Although Isaiah of Jerusalem was one of the greatest writers of the Old Testament, only
about half of the book of Isaiah is his work. It has been suggested that he founded a school of
prophets (Isa. 8:16 refers specifically to his “disciples”), and that occasionally it produced a writer
good enough to have his works preserved. Whether this is true or not (those of a more
conservative bent incline to the view that he wrote all of the book and consigned portions of it to
the disciples for publication in future generations), the evidence of style and subject matter
strongly indicates that other authors added their writings to the work of Isaiah of Jerusalem.
Chapters 40–55 are by the so-called “Deutero-Isaiah,” the only Old Testament writer to have
more poetic skill than the first Isaiah. Chapters 36–39 are a paraphrase of material from 2 Kings.
Chapters 56–66 are by later writers collectively referred to as “Trito-Isaiah”; chapters 24–27 are
a late apocalypse (bearing more affinity to the second Isaiah than the first: God “will swallow up
death for ever, and the Lord God will wipe away tears from all faces” — 25:8); there are other
insertions. But despite all this, Isaiah is the most loved of the prophets; his writings are quoted
more often in the New Testament than any other prophetic work.
Jeduthun, Choir of Praise? Probably some sort of musical term. A Levite. He, along with Asaph and
Heman, was one of the chief musicians of David’s time.

Jehu, Yah[weh] is The One, i.e. Yah[weh] is He/She. Not to be confused with the later Israelite
king of the same name. An Israelite, the son of Hanani. He foretold wrath against the Israelite
king Baasha son of Ahijah. Baasha had destroyed the family of the apostate king Jeroboam I, but
followed his predecessor’s idolatrous practices. Jehu therefore prophesied the destruction of
Baasha’s house — a destruction carried out by the general Zimri.
According to 2 Ch. 19:2, Jehu also warned Jehoshaphat king of Judah to avoid contact with
the idolatry of Israel. 2 Ch. 20:34 records that Jehu wrote of Jehoshaphat.
Jeremiah, May Yah[weh] Loosen? May Yah[weh] Raise? The writings of Jeremiah form the
largest single composition in the Bible.1 They tell the story of fifty years of a prophet’s life, from
his call during the hopeful reign of Josiah to his exile in Egypt after the fall of Jerusalem.
Jeremiah’s life was almost purely a tragedy. God forbade him to marry (Jer. 16:2); the prophet
spent much of his later life in prison (chapters 32, 33, 37, etc.). Even more painful to Jeremiah
was his foreknowledge that Jerusalem would be destroyed — and that the fall could not be
prevented, for it was the result of Judah’s sins:!“The LORD says: ‘Because they have forsaken my
law… I am feeding this people with wormwood, and giving them poisonous water to drink. I will
scatter them among nations that neither they nor their ancestors have known, and I will send the
sword after them….” (Jer. 9:13, 15–16 NRSV).
Jeremiah was the son of Hilkiah (not to be confused with the High Priest of the same period);
he was from the priestly city of Anathoth. Even so, he had no use at all for ritual, and even said
that God had not commanded it (“For I did not command [your ancestors] about burnt
offerings… when I brought them out of Egypt, but I commanded them, ‘Obey my voice, and I
will be your God, and you shall be my people’ ” — from Jer. 7:22–23 NRSV). Possibly influenced
by Zephaniah (who was only slightly older and prophesied a few years earlier), he received his
call to prophecy in the thirteenth year of Josiah (626 B.C.E.) and moved to Jerusalem. This was
perhaps during the time of the great Scythian invasion from the north (if the account of
Herodotus in Hist I.103–106 can be believed); this threat may have influenced the tone of the
young prophet’s message (4:5–8, 6:22–26). It was during these early years in Jerusalem that he
met his secretary and longtime associate Baruch the son of Neriah. Jeremiah spent his life
predicting the fall of Jerusalem in ever more strident terms, and getting in more and more
trouble as a result. His famous Temple sermon (chapter 7)2 apparently nearly ended in his
lynching (26:7–11). A scroll of his words which had been delivered to King Jehoiakim (with
whose hedonism Jeremiah was utterly unimpressed — 22:13–16, where Jeremiah compares the
new king to his just father Josiah) forced the prophet into hiding (chapter 36). When Jerusalem
1.!Note however the substantial differences between LXX and MT Jeremiah. A list of the more substantial
differences can be found in the excursus Jeremiah in the MT and LXX on p. 137.
2.!Note however that LXX omits 7:1-2a, the setting of the sermon: “The word that came to Jeremiah from the
LORD: Stand in the gate of the LORD’S house, and proclaim there this word, and say....” The MT’s text may be
an editor’s attempt to link the speech with chapter 26 (so, tentatively, George Adam Smith, who thinks the
sermon of chapter 7 might belong to the reign of Josiah, while the sermon of chapter 26 is explicitly dated to the
time of Jehoiakim). The two sermons are probably the same, but we cannot be entirely sure.

fell, a group of refugees forced Jeremiah to come with them to Egypt, where he uttered his last
prophecies. A legend has it that he was stoned to death there after yet another gloomy forecast.
Jeremiah’s times and experiences were exceedingly bitter; most of his writings are forecasts of
disaster; he is called “the prophet of doom.” And most of his bitter words are his own; only the
oracles against foreign nations and the histories of the last few chapters of his book are thought to
be insertions. But he also was able to write beautiful words which tell of God’s future grace:
I have loved you with an everlasting love;
therefore I have continued my faithfulness to you.
Again I will build you, and you shall be built,
O virgin Israel!
(Jer. 31:3–4)1
These words are important, because up to this time, Judaism was a religion of cult, and
centered on a particular spot in Palestine. The exile could have destroyed it, as Israel had been
destroyed. But Jeremiah assured the people that God could hear them anywhere, and that they
did not need a Temple cult, or Temple priests. Other prophets had said something similar, but
Jeremiah said it most loudly and at a time when it mattered most. Judaism is still around. And it’s
largely because of Jeremiah.
For more on Jeremiah, see the entry on Jeremiah on p. 136 in the section on the Families of
Israel.
Joel, Yah[weh] is God. Very little is known about this prophet, the son of Pethuel. Even his
date is disputed. The rabbis thought that he was early; this accounts for his place near the
beginning of the Twelve Prophets.2 Most modern scholars date him later than the Rabbis did.
Many favour the Persian period, perhaps around 350 B.C.E. The main reason for this is a
reference in 3:6 to Jews being sold as slaves to Greeks, which requires a date at a time when Jews
and Greeks had contacts — i.e. after the Persian wars. Supporting evidence comes from the lack
of references to kings or the Davidic dynasty.
Joel seems well aware of the Temple and its significance; he obviously accepted the Temple
cult. But he looked beyond it as well, in apocalyptic visions. Even the locust plague which
characterized his time (Joel 1:4) is a sign of God’s wrath; there is worse to come. Yet with each
threat comes hope; a disaster does not simply bring ruin. If the people repent, the evil can be
undone:
I will restore to you the years
which the swarming locust has eaten…
And…I shall pour out my spirit on all flesh….
(2:25, 28).
1.!It has been argued — e.g. by George Adam Smith — that Jeremiah’s skill as a poet has been much
underestimated. He seems to have been well-versed in the meters and moods of folk lyric — only to have scribes
thoroughly mess up his writing with their myriad glosses and errors. For an indication of the damage suffered by
Jeremiah’s writings in their transmission, see once again the excursus Jeremiah in the MT and LXX on p. 137.
2.!In the Hebrew Bible, he is the second of the minor prophets, following only Hosea. In most codices of the LXX,
however, Joel follows Amos and Micah — almost certainly correctly — rather than preceding them as in MT.

More than this we cannot say about the man (woman?); the uncertainties about him make
criticism almost futile. But his book seems to be a unity.
Jonah, Dove ? The son of Amittai, from Gath-Hepher in Galilee. 2 Kings 14:25 says that he
lived during the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel (786–746 B.C.E.), and that he forecast that king’s
great success. Nothing else is known from historical sources about this obscure prophet; a
tradition has it that he was the prophet whom Elisha sent to anoint Jehu king of Israel — but this
is almost impossibly early, given that the historical prophet was still active in the reign of Jehu’s
great-grandson Jeroboam II. But some time around 300 B.C.E. an unknown writer converted this
minor foreteller into the world’s most reluctant (and comical) prophet by writing the brilliant
short romance we now know as the book of Jonah. The historical details of the book are
sometimes wrong, but in this case, no one cares. The message is one of universalism: God is
everywhere, and cares for everything. The psalm in chapter 2 may be a later insertion; it is
probably not the composition of the author of the rest of the book.
Excursus: Who Did Swallow Jonah?

Few Biblical figures have inspired so much folklore as Jonah. There is a whole class of “Jonah
Ballads” about people who cause shipwrecks (and, perhaps, get thrown into the sea). Jonah’s own
adventures also produced many folk songs. So who, as one song asks, did swallow Jo-Jo-Jonah?
That’s rather tricky. The creature listed in the Hebrew of 1:17, 2:1, etc. is a ‫דג‬, dag or a ‫דגה‬,
dagah, both consistently rendered “fish” elsewhere; there is no question but that the Hebrew
should be translated fish. And the Vulgate of Jonah follows the Hebrew by saying he was
swallowed by a piscem grandem, i.e. a big fish.
But the LXX uses a different word, ,;08#. This is not the usual Greek word for fish, which is
&N+E#. But it isn’t really a whale, either. It is used in Homer for a seal-like creature (Odyssey,
IV.446; the equation with a seal comes five lines later). It is the description used for the sea
monster that attempted to swallow Andromeda. It is rare in LXX; apart from four uses in Jonah,
we find it three times in Job and three times in the Apocryphal books (Sirach 43:25, 3 Macc. 6:8,
and in the Prayer of the Three Young Men in Daniel) — plus in Gen. 1:21, where God created
“great sea monsters” — effectively the same wording as in Jonah. The only New Testament use is
in Matt. 12:40, which is a reference to Jonah. NETS renders the word “sea monster.”
To be sure, Hebrew authors wouldn’t know much about whales — or big fish. So they might
speak loosely.
Bottom line: The Hebrew and the Latin call it a fish. The Greek could be a whale, a fish, or
an unknown creature. There is no known creature in the Mediterranean capable of swallowing a
human being whole. Best to translate “fish” — and otherwise not speculate too much!
As a footnote, the Middle English poem Patience, probably written by the author of Sir Gawain
and the Green Knight and Pearl, calls it a “whal” (whale) in line 247, but in 251 a “fysch” and in 258
a “warlowe” —!a rare Old English word variously rendered “monster,” “sorcerer,” “traitor,”
“scoundrel,” “devil.”

This is not the only interesting linguistic question to come out of Jonah. In Jonah 4:6-10, we
read about a plant that shadowed Jonah, then died. The nature of this plant (‫קיקיון‬, qiqayon) is
uncertain; NRSV margin suggests that the Hebrew may be a “castor bean plant,” but the KJV said
“gourd,” and the English versions have diverse readings. LXX has ,8%8,E5+; (LXXB LXX‫א‬
LXXW LXXQ) or ,8%8,E50+; (LXXA), which seems to mean “pumpkin”; Vulgate gives hedera,
ivy. Patience glosses it as “woodbine.” Woodbine is pretty but is associated in English folklore with
pregnancies that do not come to term; ivy is the female half of a plant “wedding” between holly
and ivy but is also used in divination and associated with graveyards.
Malachi, My Messenger. The Jews considered Malachi to be the last of the prophets; it was
thought that there could be no prophets after him. (Later prophetic writers were therefore forced
to write under pseudonyms or alter existing books.) But nothing is known of the man himself. We
are not told his father’s name, nor his birthplace; even the name “Malachi” is often considered a
pseudonym.1 We can only guess that he lived around 450 B.C.E., and that his complaint concerns
Jerusalem before the return of Nehemiah and Ezra. (There is actually a targum which says that
Malachi was Ezra!) He complains of a laxity in worship that would seem characteristic of that
period. But this, like speculations concerning his life, is only a guess. His work is a unity. His most
famous prophecy is of the return of Elijah (4:5), but his other messages, of God’s righteousness
and perfection, form a worthy conclusion to the prophetic canon:
“Have we not all one father? Has not one God created us? Why then are we faithless to one
another, profaning the covenant of our fathers?” (Mal. 2:10).
Medad. See Eldad & Medad.
Micah (a short form of Micaiah). Few Judean kings were regarded as more wicked than
Ahaz (735–715 B.C.E.). Yet his reign saw the three greatest prophets of ethical rather than ritual
worship: Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah. Micah was from the border town of Moresheth; his father’s
name is unknown. Unlike the upper-class Isaiah, Micah was a country prophet with no great
pretensions. Yet his message was heard in the city, for Jer. 26:16–19 tells us that he was almost
killed for predicting the destruction of Zion. (The king of Judah at that time was Ahaz’s gentler
successor Hezekiah; most other kings would probably have killed the prophet.) This is the only
1.!So, e.g., LXX; although the book is titled “Malachi” (I-%-N&-#) in LXXW? LXXB LXX! LXXA LXXQ, the first
verse is rendered by NETS as “An issue of the Lord’s word to Israel by the hand of his messenger. Do place it upon
your hearts,” which I would interpret as [The] profit (i.e. “heart, center, core, burden”) of [the] word of [the] Lord to
Israel by [the] hand of his messenger (or “angel”). Please take it to heart. Note that the MT omits the clause about taking
it to heart.
It has even been proposed the the whole book of Malachi was formerly attached to the Book of Zechariah, as
one of a set of three oracles (the word “oracle” being used at the beginning of Zechariah 9, Zechariah 12, and
Malachi 1). Malachi was then split off to bring the number of shorter prophets to the round number twelve.
There is no manuscript evidence for this.
The ambiguous Hebrew “Malachi/My Messenger” is however read as a proper name by Aquila, Symmachus,
Theodotian, and the Vulgate (“Malachi” in most Latin texts; one important manuscript has “Malacia,” another
“Malachiae”). In the Targum and Talmud the author was said to be Ezra, and despite his translation, Jerome is
said to have accepted this tradition. Other legends attribute the book to Nehemiah or Zerubbabel. All these
explanations seem far-fetched, but a number of scholars have suggested that 1:1 is an editorial prologue rather
than the actual work of the author.

reference to Micah’s life; there is little else we can guess. But the beauty of his message speaks for
itself.
The question of how much of his book is Micah’s own is widely debated. Radical scholars
credit him only with chapters 1–3; only the most conservative believe that he wrote the entirety
of chapters 4, 5, and 7. There can be no question that the immediate and doom-filled tone of the
first chapters contrasts greatly with the hopeful vision of the final portion of the writing. This
question may never be settled; perhaps we will never know who wrote these most beautiful words
of the Old Testament:
He has told you, O mortal, what is good;
and what does the Lord require of you
but to do justice, and to love kindness,1
and to walk humbly with your God?
(Micah 6:8 NRSV)
Micaiah Ben-Imlah, Who is like Yah[weh]? The son of Imlah, Micaiah was an Israelite
prophet and a contemporary of Elijah. Unlike Elijah, we know only one story about Micaiah —
but it is a crucial one. In 849 B.C.E., king Ahab of Israel wanted to recapture the city of Ramoth-
Gilead from Syria. Ahab’s prophets, including one Zedekiah son of Chenaanah, all favoured the
enterprise. But Ahab’s ally Jehoshaphat 1 of Judah (whose worship of God was purer than
Ahab’s) wanted to ask one more prophet. The only prophet Ahab could produce was his old enemy
Micaiah. Micaiah predicted success, but (apparently) in such a sarcastic way that Ahab ordered
him to tell the truth. Micaiah’s answer was grim: “I saw all Israel scattered upon the mountains,
as sheep that have no shepherd…” (1 Kings 22:17), i.e. Israel would be defeated and Ahab killed.
He also explained the other prophets’s hopeful predictions: God was using them to entice Ahab
to his death. Zedekiah (who was probably a very sincere prophet who just happened to be wrong)
struck Micaiah but the latter stood by his story. Ahab then ordered Micaiah imprisoned until his
return. But all transpired as the prophet had said: Ahab was killed and Israel defeated (1 Kings
22:34–36). Micaiah’s fate thereafter is not recorded.
According to Josephus and rabbinic tradition, Micaiah was the “son of the prophets” who
accused Ahab after his kind treatment of Ben-Hadad of Damascus (Ant VIII.xiv.5; 1 Kings
20:35-43). While there is no evidence for this, it is one of the few of these traditions that seems
reasonable; after all, Ahab did say that Micaiah had “never prophes[ied] anything favourable
about me” (1 Kings 22:8).
Miriam, Perhaps from Egyptian: Beloved of Amon; possible Hebrew meanings include “plump”
and “desired child.” Moses’s older sister, she is called a prophetess after the crossing of the Sea of
Reeds, when she sings a song of triumph over the dead Egyptians. The song she sang, “the Song
of Miriam” (Ex. 15:20, E source), is one of the oldest sections of the book of Exodus; it is only in
connection with it that Miriam is called a prophetess.
Nahum, Comforter. A prophet from Elkosh in Galilee (Nahum 1:1). He prophesied the fall of
the Assyrian capitol Ninevah with bloody and frankly unpleasant relish (Nahum 2:8, 3:7, etc.).
1.!For kindness, Hebrew ‫סד‬

ֶ ‫ח‬
ֶ , +esed, see the note on “steadfast love” under Hosea, p. 245.

This implies that he prophesied shortly before Ninevah’s fall in 612 B.C.E. His earliest possible
date is perhaps 663 B.C.E., since 3:8 seems to refer to the sack of Thebes in that year — although
this is far from sure, since the Hebrew refers to “No-Amon,” i.e. “the city of Amun.” And we
should point out that Josephus — Ant IX.xi.3 — dates his prophecy to 115 years before the fall of
Ninevah, i.e. c. 725 B.C.E. (which would place it just before the Assyrians destroyed the natin of
Israel); compare the NRSV text of Tobit 14:4.1 The specificity of his message has prevented
tampering with his book.
Nathan, Gift. A prophet of the time of David, and apparently a court official of that king.
David named one of his sons after Nathan, so the two may have even been friends. But Nathan
did not hesitate to criticize David. After David’s sin with Bathsheba, it was Nathan who told the
parable of the ewe lamb and the rich man’s injustice, with its devastating conclusion: “You are
the man!” (2 Sam. 12:7). Despite this criticism of the king, Nathan stayed high in David’s
counsels, for he was one of the men who helped place Solomon on the throne (1 Kings 1). It was
also Nathan who told David that the time had not come to build a Temple, but that his successor
would build it (2 Sam. 7:1–17). For this reason, the son of Sirach listed him as one of the great
men of Israel (Sirach 47:1). From our modern perspective, though, Nathan’s folly in supporting
Solomon (which seems to have been a personal choice rather than something divinely inspired)
almost undoes the good he did in confronting David to his face. Adonijah might not have been a
better king than Solomon, but there is little reason to think he would have been worse.
Noadiah, Yah[weh] has Met by Appointment (or “revealed him/herself”). A prophetess of the time of
Nehemiah; she was allied with Tobiah and Sanballat the Horonite against Nehemiah (Neh.
6:14), but they did not succeed in stopping the Judean’s rebuilding projects.
Obadiah, Servant of Yah[weh]. The book of Obadiah is the shortest in the Old Testament.
This makes it difficult to say much about him; we know neither his father’s name, nor his home
city, nor the time of his prophecy. The name Obadiah is common; it has no particular
significance — indeed, it has been suggested that, like the name “Malachi,” it is really a title
rather than a personal name. The largest portion of the prophet’s oracle (verses 11–14) is
directed against Edom; it seems to threaten that nation with punishment for their gloating over
the destruction of Jerusalem. Therefore the book is usually dated shortly after Jerusalem’s fall in
586 B.C.E. Despite its shortness, some scholars think the book has been added to; parts of it seem
to parallel Jeremiah (compare 1–5 with Jer. 49:14–16).
Oded, Timekeeper? Restorer? A prophet of the time of Ahaz king of Judah (735–715 B.C.E.) and
Pekah king of Israel (737–732). According to the author of 2 Chronicles, Pekah had just won a
great victory over the evil Ahaz (28:2; 2 Kings records the Israelite’s attack on Ahaz, but does not
mention Pekah’s victory). Oded then came to the Israelite generals, and ordered them to release
their prisoners, for the Israelites were as guilty as the Judeans.
1.!The NRSV version of Tobit, based primarily on LXX!, credits Nahum with foretelling Ninevah’s
destruction; in LXXB LXXA the prediction is credited to Jonah. The prediction is repeated in Tobit
14:8.

Samuel, “Name of God” or “His/Her Name is God.” Tradition makes Samuel the last of the
judges and the first of the prophets. He is one of Ben Sirach’s famous men. But his exact story is
unclear, for 1 Samuel — Samuel’s biography — is a collation of several sources.1 Moreover,
elements of the birth narrative of Saul may have been incorporated into his story. According to
one source, widely although not universally regarded as relatively late, Samuel was the son of
Elkanah the Ephraimite by his barren wife Hannah. The author of Chronicles, on the other
hand, make Samuel a Levite. By that time, it was necessary that all priests be Levites — but it
had not always been so.
According to the tale in 1 Samuel, which has clear folktale elements (compare the many other
Biblical tales of long-barren women having children: Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, the mother of
Samson, and — later — Elisabeth), Hannah, thankful for being granted a son, dedicated the boy
to God. Samuel became the servant of Eli, who was both High Priest and judge. It was at this
time that Samuel received his call as a prophet (being twelve years old at the time, according to
several sources). After the death of Eli and the capture of the Ark of the Covenant by the
Philistines at the battle of Aphek in about 1030 B.C.E., it was Samuel who led the Israelite
resistance; he was the foremost man in Israel. Josephus — Ant VI.xiii.5 — says that he held this
position for twelve years before anointing Saul (and an additional eighteen years after); rabbinic
tradition allots him the standard forty years. Another tradition says he died at age fifty-two.
The earlier source of the book of Samuel, which is primarily about Saul, makes the prophet a
much more minor figure; he is merely a local seer (not a “prophet”) who can be hired for a very
small sum; his political power is nil. Yet the two accounts agree on one thing: that it was Samuel
who anointed Saul as the first king of Israel. (The later source says this was because Samuel’s sons
Joel and Abijah were not fit to succeed him — 1 Sam. 8:2.) Samuel later broke with Saul, for the
prophet felt that Saul was stepping on his priestly prerogatives and ignoring God’s demands. The
later author records that Samuel then anointed David king, but the earlier source knows nothing
of this. In any case, Samuel died before the death of Saul and did not see David become king.
But his contribution was nonetheless great, for he had established the monarchy in Israel.
Excursus: The Sources of Samuel

Anyone who reads the book of 1 Samuel will notice an obvious inconsistency: Sometimes the
book approves strongly of Saul; sometimes it is extremely critical. Sometimes it is pro-monarchy,
sometimes anti-monarchy. Certain incidents seem to be told twice. Unless we assume that the
author was experiencing some sort of psychological crisis, this strongly implies that multiple
sources were combined to produce our book.
The most complicated analysis I have seen suggests that Samuel is a Deuteronomist edition
based on a Saul source, itself a combination of two or three sources from Ramah, Mizpah, and
Gilgal; a Shiloh/Eli source (1 Samuel 1-3), an Ark source (mostly 1 Samuel 4-7:2), with a bit
more in 2 Samuel 6), two Samuel sources (combined to form 1 Samuel 7-12), a variety of David
sources which cannot always be disentangled, the “Court History of King David” (most of
1.!For information about these sources, see the excursus “The Sources of Samuel” below.

2!Samuel 9-20), a “military source” for the Ammonite war, and a Divine Affliction source. This
strikes me as rather complex, given that some of the sources are only a chapter or two long.
The simplest source theory suggests that 1 Samuel has only two sources, “early” and “late.”
The “Late Source” is mostly a life of Samuel, and is does not extend past 1 Samuel 25. The
“Early Source,” which supplies most of 2 Samuel as well as parts of 1 Samuel, is a history of the
early Israelite kingship, interested mostly in Saul and David. This is one of the best historical
documents, if not the best, to be found prior to the work of Herodotus. These two sources differ
substantially in their view of Saul: the “Late Source” disapproves of him and of the monarchy;
the “Early Source” is pro-monarchy.
I must confess, however, that this description strikes me as too simple; the truth is probably
somewhere in between. At the very least, there also seems to be an “Ark of the Covenant” source
found only in the early chapters of 1!Samuel. This being so, I would propose to rename our
sources the “Ark Source,” the “Samuel Source” (the “Late Source”), and the “Monarchy
Source” (the “Early Source”).
A recent hypothesis, by Campbell and O’Brien, would also offer a modification to the Late
Source/Samuel Source, suggesting that there was instead a “Prophetic Source” which extends
from 1 Samuel well into 1 Kings, which set the structure for those books by linking events to
prophets and prophecy. This sounds quite likely to me, but for purposes of examining 1 Samuel,
we can refer simply to the “Samuel Source.” (And 2 Samuel we don’t really have to worry about,
since it’s largely from the “Court History of King David,” the best part of the Monarchy Source.)
Even the Monarchy Source is probably composite; it’s hard to understand how a single
source could so much approve of both Saul and David. Odds are that a Saul source and a David
Source both went into this; it’s just that they may have been combined before the Samuel Source
made its appearance — and they were welded together so carefully that they are hard to
untangle. Plus there is always the hand of the Deuteronomist Historian, who edited the book,
adding a few footnotes and jabs.
My own take involves five major sources, a Prophetic Source (which supplies most of the
Samuel material), an Ark source, a Saul source, a History of David’s Rise, and the Court History,
plus additions from other places (some pre-Prophetic Source, and integrated into it; some post-
Prophetic Source) and, of course, the Deteronomist Editors.
Without trying to entirely disentangle these sources, here is an outline:
The Birth of Samuel (1:1-25) — Prophetic Source
The Song of Hannah (2:1-10) — [separate, perhaps traditional, source]
The failings of the Sons of Eli (2:11-26) — Prophetic Source
The Prophecy agains Eli’s House (2:27-36) — Deuteronomist (rewriting Prophetic Source)
The Call of Samuel (3:1-4:1) — Prophetic Source
The Capture and Return of the Ark (4:2-7:2) — Ark Source if it exists; otherwise Monarchy
Source. Some Deuteronomistic jabs at Eli.
Samuel as Judge and Leader (7:3-17) — Prophetic Source
Despite Samuel, Israel demands a King (8:1-22) —!Prophetic Source

Samuel the Minor Seer meets and anoints the noble Saul (9:1-10:16) — Saul Source
Samuel the Judge anoints the clearly worthless Saul by lot (10:17-27) — Prophetic Source
Saul shows his ability by defeating the Ammonites (11:1-15) — Saul Source
Samuel’s Farewell (12:1-25) — A mixture of Prophetic and Deuteronomist (the latter perhaps
responsible for 12:6-15)
Mistaken insertion (13:1) — Probably the Deuteronomist, who didn’t have the information to
finish off the formula.
Saul and the Philistines (13:2-7) — Prophetic Source
Samuel’s Rejection of Saul (13:7b-15a) — Prophetic Source? Deuteronomist?
Saul, Jonathan, and the Philistines (13:15b-14:52) — Saul Source
Samuel (again) rejects Saul (15:1-35) — Prophetic Source
Samuel anoints David (16:1-13) — Prophetic Source
David joins Saul’s court (16:14-23) — David Source (this is probably where the David section
begins, although there may still be additional Saul material after this)
David and Goliath (17:1-18:5) — David Source combined with an unrelated folktale; see the
excursus on “David and Goliath,” p. 96.
Saul jealous of David (18:6-20) — David Source
Saul’s (first) attempt to kill David (19:1-10) — David Source? Prophetic Source?
David’s flight (19:11-17) — David Source
Saul’s pursuit and prophecy (19:18-24) — Probably a separate folktale
David and Jonathan: David flees, again (20:1-42) — David Source, perhaps adopting an
independent folktale
David at Nob (21:1-9) — David Source
David flees to Gath I (21:10-15) —!Late addition or possibly Prophetic Source
David in the Cave; Saul at Nob (22:1-23) — David Source with perhaps some small additions
David saves Kielah (23:1-13) — David Source
David spares Saul’s Life I (23:14-24:22) — Late addition, probably from a folktale
Death of Samuel I (25:1) — Prophetic Source
David and Nabal (25:2-44) — David Source, with perhaps a Deuteronomist insertion in
25:28-31
David spares Saul’s Life II (26:1-25) — David Source
David flees to Gath II (27:1-28:2) — David Source
Saul and the Medium of Endor; The Death of Samuel II (28:3-25) — Probably mostly David
Source, but perhaps with prophetic insertions in 28-11-12, 16-19
David’s story prior to the Battle of Mount Gilboa (29:1-30:31) — David Source
The Battle of Mount Gilboa and the Death of Saul (31:1-13) — David source or a Saul
source?
Saul, Asked, Requested, Dedicated. The first king of Israel; he was not truly a prophet — at best,
he was an ecstatic with no power of divination or prediction — but a traditional proverb ran “Is
Saul also among the prophets?” At least two stories arose to explain the saying; one appears in 1

Sam. 10, the other in 1 Sam. 19. See the excursus The Sources of Samuel above for speculation
as to how this situation arose.
Shemaiah, Yah[weh] has Heard. After the death of Solomon around 922 B.C.E., Jeroboam I
the son of Nebat caused Israel to rebel against Solomon’s son Rehoboam. Rehoboam gathered
his loyal troops from Judah and Benjamin and prepared to attack Jeroboam. But Shemaiah came
to him and ordered him not to, and Rehoboam obeyed (1 Kings 12:21–24). According to
2!Chronicles, Shemaiah also brought word to Rehoboam that Shishak king of Egypt would
attack him to punish him for his sins (12:5); the punishment was reduced when Rehoboam
repented (12:7). In the LXX addition to 1 Kings 12:24, it is Shemaiah rather than Ahijah who
informs Jeroboam I that he is to be the new king of Israel (for further details, see the excursus
Two Tales of Jeroboam I on p. 139).
Trito-Isaiah. The entries of Isaiah and Deutero-Isaiah accounted for 55 of the 66 chapters
of the book of Isaiah. But that leaves chapters 56–66 unspoken for. In theme, they are like the
work of the first Isaiah. But the language is different: more recent, and less polished. And these
chapters contain no direct chronological references, while the work of Isaiah of Jerusalem
contained many. We conclude on this basis that chapters 56–66 are the work of a third
“Isaiah” (or more likely of several later authors) who wrote at an unknown time significantly after
the restoration of 538 B.C.E. The third Isaiah emphasized cultic matters, which may date him
after Ezra; I use the somewhat arbitrary date 300 B.C.E.
Uriah, Yah[weh] is Light. The son of Shemaiah, he was a prophet from the time of king
Jehoiakim (c. 608 B.C.E.). He prophesied against King and country, and was forced to flee to
Egypt. But the King stole him back and had him killed. He is known only because his case was
discussed when the people were deciding whether to lynch Jeremiah. Jer. 26:20–23.
Zechariah, Yah[weh] has Remembered. There are two prophets named Zechariah in the Old
Testament, one of whom is mentioned in the Families of Israel list above, so we’ll maintain our
numbering. The two prophets are:
ZECHARIAH 3. The son of Jehoiada the High Priest, mentioned in the Old Testament only in
2!Ch. 24:20–22. Zechariah1 prophesied in the reign of king Joash 2 of Judah (842–800 B.C.E.); he
warned the people to return to their fathers’ ways. But Joash had the prophet stoned.
It is this Zechariah, not the author of the book of Zechariah, to whom Jesus makes reference
in Luke 11:51 (Matthew erroneously calls him “the son of Berechiah — 23:35). Since
2!Chronicles was the last book in the Hebrew Bible, to list all the murders “from Abel to
Zechariah” was to list all the murders ever committed.
ZECHARIAH 2. The son of Berechiah son of Iddo. Called simply “the son of Iddo” in Ezra 5:1,
6:14. Zechariah was a contemporary of Haggai; they worked together to encourage the
rebuilding of the Temple. But Zechariah lived longer; he may well have seen the Temple
completed. Zechariah also differed from Haggai in that he had visions — an apocalypse, full of
horsemen and horns and measuring lines; a dream of the cleansing of the High Priest Jeshua. But
most curious is his vision of the anointing of a messiah in chapter 6. It seems clear that two
1.!Called “Azariah” in LXX of 24:20; Vulgate “Zaccharias.”

messiahs were to be crowned:1 the High Priest Jeshua and the Davidic prince Zerubbabel 1 (see
Zech. 6:11, 14 NRSV footnotes). Indeed, Zerubbabel has already been proclaimed the messiah
(4:7; Haggai 2:23). But now, despite hope and prophecy, the vision has been transferred to
Jeshua. Zerubbabel has disappeared; it seems likely that the Persians had removed him.
The Zechariah described so far was the author of the Zechariah 1–8. The last six chapters of
the book, which are not connected to contemporary events, are another author, who is listed
here as “Deutero-Zechariah.”)
Zedekiah, Yah[weh] is (my) Righteousness. The son of Chenaanah, a false but very sincere
prophet. He is from the same time as Micaiah Ben-Imlah. Ahab king of Israel had asked whether
he should attack Ramoth-Gilead. The prophets of Israel, led by Zedekiah, urged him to do so.
Zedekiah made horns of iron to show how Ahab would gore the Syrian enemy. But Micaiah
predicted a disaster, and stuck to his story even after Zedekiah struck him. Micaiah’s prophesy of
defeat was correct; no doubt he was also correct in predicting that Zedekiah would hide himself
after the disaster (1 Kings 22:25. Josephus gives a distinctly different account of this in Ant
VIII.xv.4).
Zephaniah, Yah[weh] has Treasured (or perhaps “Yah[weh] is Darkness,” a name connected with his
message). The son of Cushi, who was apparently the great-grandson of King Hezekiah (Zeph. 1:1).
This makes Zephaniah the only prophet to be a member of the royal family (unless Isaiah was
one). But Zephaniah was not especially fond of his relatives. He prophesied during the reign of
the good king Josiah (640–609), but it seems likely that he wrote during the early part of the
reign, before Josiah began his reforms. An invasion is being prepared, probably by the barbarian
Scythians (if Herodotus’s account of their invasion — Hist I.103–106 — can be believed) but
perhaps by the Babylonians. The people are idolators. The day of wrath is coming.... Zephaniah,
like most of the prophets, called for a return to God. But even though Josiah would soon
champion the same cause, it was too late; Jerusalem was doomed.
The great day of the Lord is near,
near and hastening fast;
the sound of the day of the Lord is bitter,
the mighty man cries aloud there.
A day of wrath is that day…
(1:14–15 AOT, following G.A. Smith).
1.!Zech. 6:11ƒ. as it stands describes the crowning of the High Priest Jeshua. But 6:12 speaks of crowning the Branch,
i.e. the Branch of David=the Messiah. And in both 6:11 and 6:14 the Hebrew refers to crowns for two people rather
than a single crown for one (although it has been argued that these might be two circlets in a single crown). 6:13
speaks of a compact or agreement between two leaders, and 6:15 seems to break off in the middle of a sentence.
And chapter 4 had been about Zerubbabel, and 4:14 refers to two anointed ones, clearly Jeshua and Zerubbabel.
The conclusion seems inevitable: Zerubbabel was to be crowned king, with Jeshua at his right hand as advisor.
When Zerubbabel disappeared, presumably removed by the Persians, the prophecy was truncated and Jeshua’s
name substituted for Zerubbabel’s, but the patching was so clumsy that the original can still be recovered in
outline.
It is odd to note that LXXB also omits the reference to Zerubbabel in Ezra 3:2, but this may be a simple error.

The remaining prophets, whose names are not known, are listed in the order in which they
are mentioned in the Bible.
A Prophet like Moses. Moses predicted that God would send Israel another prophet
“like” him to lead the people (Deut. 18:15). But no such prophet had arisen by the time of Jesus
(Deut. 34:10–12; John 1:21). Peter claimed that Jesus was in fact this prophet (Acts 3:22).
A Prophet of Gideon’s Time. Nothing is known of him, except that in Judges 6:8-10, he
is said to have described the crimes of the Israelites. It is curious that this is the only instance in
Judges where a prophet is said to have denounced the people’s sins; otherwise, as 1 Samuel says,
prophecy was rare in this period.
A man of God from Judah and An old prophet of Bethel. Around 922, the nation of
Israel rebelled against Rehoboam king of Israel. Jeroboam I the son of Nebat, who led the
rebellion, then ordered golden bulls to be erected in temples in Dan and Bethel. One day, a
prophet arrived from Judah — Josephus (Ant VIII.viii.5) says that this was the prophet Iado(s),
probably the same as Iddo, an equation also made by the rabbis — and made the most detailed
prophecy in the history of Israel: how a Davidic king named Josiah would come and despoil the
alter (1 Kings 13:2–3; the prediction comes true in 2 Kings 23:15). Jeroboam responded by
ordering the prophet seized, but the hand he pointed at the prophet withered, and only the man
of God could restore it. Jeroboam then invited the man to dine with him, but the prophet had
been ordered not to eat or drink in Israel, and to return by a road other than that by which he
came. On his way home, however, he was met by an old, lying prophet who convinced him to
stop and eat (Josephus — Ant VIII.ix.1 — says that the old prophet was friendly to and an
inspiration to Jeroboam, and that he accosted the Judean to keep him from rising in favour with
Jeroboam! The old prophet, in this account, would later convince Jeroboam to continue his
idolatry). In the midst of the meal, the old prophet was inspired to condemn the younger man for
his treachery. And soon after that, the younger man was torn to pieces by a lion. The older
prophet grieved, and ordered that the two of them be buried together.
A son of the prophets. Israeli prophets tend to be anonymous; this one is no exception (it
should be noted, however, that Josephus — Ant VIII.xiv.5 — and Rabbinic tradition equate him
with Micaiah Ben-Imlah, who later predicted Ahab’s death). But Israeli prophets also came in
groups; this man was one of the few exceptions. Around 854, king Ahab of Israel defeated king
Ben-Hadad of Israel. But he did not destroy the Syrian monarch, preferring to form an alliance
with him against the great enemy Assyria. One of the prophets rose against him. This man
ordered a soldier to strike him; when the man did not, a lion killed him. The prophet then had
another soldier strike him, and by this means he gained admittance to Ahab, as a wounded
prison-guard. He proceeded to condemn Ahab for releasing Ben-Hadad (1 Kings 20:35–43).
The wife of Isaiah. Mentioned only once, but called a prophetess. She was the mother of
Isaiah’s second son (and presumably his first also, but this is not explicitly stated; Isa. 8:3).

No list of prophets will ever be perfect; there will always be dispute over who should be
included. This list probably omits one or two men of God. And what prophet could be more
unlikely than Pharoah Neco II of Egypt, who allegedly spoke the word of God to Josiah and then
killed him (2 Ch. 35:21; cf. 1 Esdras 1:25–27)?1 And then there is the New Testament, which lists,
among others, David (Acts 3:29–32, etc.) and Daniel (Matt. 24:15) as prophets, cites many
quotations from the prophets, and even mentions a few new ones of its own. The latter include:
Anna/Hannah: (K55-) — Luke 2:36 !

John the Baptist (CD-55;#) — Matt. 11:9, etc.
Jesus (C;48E#, from Heb. ‫יהוׁשצ‬, Yah(weh) is Savior) — Matt. 21:11, etc.
Agabus (K6-)8#) — Acts 11:28, 21:10 !
Epimenides (the Cretan who said “All Cretans are liars”; see the Excursus below).
Excursus: All Cretans Tell Half-Truths

Titus 1:12 quotes an unnamed Cretan as saying “All Cretans are liars,” and declares that the
unnamed speaker was a prophet. The Cretan was Epimenides, who is remembered for this
statement and a folktale which said that he went into a cave as a boy and slept for 57 years —
and came out extremely wise.
He was supposed to have lived in the seventh century B.C.E., and to have helped turn aside a
great plague. Few of his words or deeds, apart from these, are remembered — but this one
wisecrack is a statement well worth hearing. Epimenides’s comment was the first statement of
what is now known as “Russell’s Paradox,” which in its simplest form is given as “This statement
is false.” This paradox — which Paul obviously didn’t notice — probably gained in fame from its
use in the New Testament, but in recent years has become the basis for the new mathematical
tool of “fuzzy logic,” which permits statements which are neither “true” nor “false,” but
somewhere in between. In this system, a statement which is true has a truth value of 1; a false
statement has a value of 0. “This statement is false” has a truth value of 0.5. This sort of
probabilistic logic appears to have great value in fields such as quantum mechanics where
nothing is ever really certain....
1.!According to 1 Esdras 1:28, the message was also transmitted by Jeremiah. It has been speculated that the text of
1!Esdras was changed because no one would believe that God would speak through Neco — or, at least, that no
one could imagine Josiah believing him if he did.

The Oriental Empires
The Oriental Empires

Egypt
Egypt
Hecatæus said it first: Egypt is “The Gift of the Nile.” All life in this ancient land is
dependent on the great river. There is no rain. Beyond its stream there is no life. Outside its
valley is nothing but the sands of the desert.1
This fact has deeply affected Egyptian history. Governing a country that is dozens of times as
long as it is wide is a rather unique experience. Egypt had a strong tendency to divide into
“Upper Egypt” and “Lower Egypt.” Upper Egypt is the south part of the nation, the upper
stretches of the Nile from the first cataract roughly to modern Cairo. Lower Egypt, the northern
portion of the country, consists of the relatively wide Nile Delta.
Egyptian history as we know it began in about 3000 B.C.E. when the legendary King Menes
united Upper and Lower Egypt. Unfortunately, this history is very hard to decipher. Only two
Greeks wrote accounts of Egypt. Neither Herodotus nor Diodorus could acquire any serious
history from before the time of the Saitic Dynasty (Dynasty 26, from 663 B.C.E.). And what few
facts they did acquire were badly distorted.
The only other literary source we have from Egypt is the account of the Egyptian historian
Manetho. Unfortunately, this work (written in early Ptolemaic times) has not survived, and we
have only two epitomes from Christian historians. And the epitomes rarely agree. Even when
they do concur, inscriptions show that Manetho made many mistakes. He is invaluable, but hard
to use.
Which forces us to turn to inscriptions. Which have other problems. Egyptian is a dead
language, and nobody bothered to study it while alive. Its only descendants are the various
Coptic dialects. These date from over a thousand years after the heyday of Egypt, and even they
are now extinct as spoken languages. (One dialect, the Bohairic Coptic, still survives as the
literary language of the Coptic Christian church — itself now rather small — but is not used in
ordinary life.) And Coptic is written with Greek characters, not Egyptian lettering.
With the discovery of the Rosetta Stone, Egyptian writing began at last to be deciphered. We
now have a fairly good grasp of Egyptian grammar. But we really don’t know how the language
was pronounced. We can only guess at the values of the letters by comparing Greek and
Egyptian versions of names. This task is further complicated by the peculiar nature of Egyptian
orthography (which includes both an alphabet and syllabic/ideographic symbols), and by the fact
that the writing system had no vowels.
As if that didn’t pose enough problems, all Egyptian kings had at least two names, and
various inscriptions used different names. Modern scholars often vary in their reconstructions of
Egyptian nomenclature. So all the titles given below must be considered tentative.
As a final complication, it should be noted that we do not know anything about most kings,
including how long they ruled. We have no synchronisms with other countries prior to 1300.
Astronomical evidence makes it appear that Menes united Egypt some time between 3100 and
1.!The Biblical writers show their awareness of this in Deut. 11:10, in which Egypt (where agriculture is dependent
on irrigation) is contrasted with Canaan “watered by rain from the sky.”

Egypt
2800 B.C.E. But the astronomical results would be just as well satisfied by a date of c. 4400 B.C.E.
So none of the facts below can be regarded as certain — bur we’ll do the best we can. In the list
below, the dynasties which ruled upper Egypt only are shown on the left half of the page; those
that ruled the Delta on the right-hand side.
Egyptian history is traditionally divided into thirty-one (originally thirty) dynasties based on
Manetho. They are as follows:
Dynasty 1: (3050–2890; 8 kings)

c. 3050: Menes (Josephus’s “Minaias,” Ant VIII.vi.2) unites upper and lower Egypt. He is also the
founder of Memphis (modern Cairo) near the border between the two lands. Either he or his
predecessor was known as Narmer. His heir was Athothis.
Dynasty 2: (2890–2686; 6 kings)
The Old Kingdom: Dynasties 3–6

Dynasty 3: (2686–2613; 5 kings)
first pyramid built for pharaoh Djoser
(Zoser, the founding Pharaoh of the dynasty) by Imhotep
Dynasty 4: (2613–2494; 6 kings)

2613–2590: Snefru, who built the “Bent Pyramid.”
He may have been the son-in-law of Khuny, the last king of Dynasty 3.
2590–2568: Khufu (called “Cheops” by Herodotus — Hist II.124),
who built the “Great Pyramid”
2568–2560?: Dedefre
2560?–2530?: Khafre (Herodotus’s Chephren), son of Cheops, who carved the Sphinx
2530?–2498: Menkaure (Herodotus’s Mycerinus)
2498–2494: Shepseskaf
Dynasty 5: (2494–2345; 9 kings)

Userkaf • Sahure • Neferirkare • Shepseskare • Raneferef •
Niuserra • Menkauhor • Djedkare • Unis

Egypt
Dynasty 6: (2345–2181; 7 kings)

2345–2325: Othoes
2325–2275: Phiops I
2280–2275: Methusuphis
2275–2185: Phiops II (possible dates as late as 2240–2150)
2185–2182: 3? kings
2184–2181: Queen Nitocris succeeds her murdered brother, bringing Dynasty 6 to an end
First Intermediate Period: Dynasties 7–10

Dynasty 7: (2181–2173; 9 kings)
Dynasty 8: (2173–2160; 6 kings)
Dynasties 9 & 10: (2160–2040; 8 kings)
2120–2070: Wakhare-Kheti III
of Dynasty 10 brings stable rule
Dynasty 11: (2133-2040; 5 Kings)
Inyotef/Antef I •!II • III • IV 2070: Merikare,
c. 2060: Mentuhotep I of Thebes begins to last strong king of Dynasty 10, reigns
reconquer Egypt. His successors found the
Middle Kingdom: Dynasties 11–12

Dynasty 11: (continued: 2040–1991; 3 kings)
Mentuhotep I (c. 2060–2010) • Mentuhotep II (c. 2010–1998) •
Mentuhotep III (c. 1998–1991)
Dynasty 12: (1991–1780; 8 kings)

1991: Mentuhotep III dies; his vizier founds dynasty 12:
1991–1962: Amenemhat I; assasinated 1962
1971–1928: Sesostris I
(properly Senosret I; it was Herodotus who — in Hist II.102 —
combined the three Senosrets into one Sesostris and credited him with great conquests.
Josephus in Ant VIII.x.3 then credited these conquests to Shishak of dynasty 22!)
1929–1895: Amenemhat II
1897–1878: Sesostris II
1878–1843: Sesostris III (conquered Nubia)
1842–1797: Amenemhat III
1798–1790: Amenemhat IV. Decline of Middle Kingdom (due to civil war?)
1789–1786: Sebeknefru, sister of Amenemhat IV, comes to a weak throne.
Fall of Middle Kingdom.

Egypt
Second Intermediate Period: Dynasties 13–17

Dynasty 13 Dynasty 14: Ruled western Delta only
(1780-1633; 50 kings) (1786-1603: 76 kings)
1786–1776: Sekhemre-khutowe 1740–1720: Neferhotep begins to re-unite Egypt
and Sekhemkare
1776–1770: Interregnum 1720: The Hyksos invasion begins.
The Delta is penetrated and the last traces
of Egyptian unity lost.
1690: A second wave of invaders arrives
and begins to push its way up the Nile.
Dynasties 15 & 16 — The Hyksos: (1674–1558)

1670: The Hyksos invaders (Semites) capture the capitol Memphis.
(Joseph and his family perhaps entered Egypt during this period.)
Josephus — Against Apion I.14 — quotes Manetho on the six Hyksos(=“Shepherd”?) Kings of
Dynasty 15 who ruled for 284 years during this period: Salitis (who conquered Egypt), reigned 19
years; Bnon, 44 years; Aphnachnan, 36$ years; Aphophis, 61 years; Iannis, 50 years; Assis, 49
years. From this Josephus — Apion I.16, 26— infers that the Jews were the Hyksos (!), and that the
Exodus is the story of their expulsion.
c. 1650–1590: Apophis I and Khayana bring the Hyksos realm to its greatest extent, controlling
Lower Egypt and perhaps half of Upper Egypt (as well as having an alliance with the Nubians).
By 1600, native opposition to the Hyksos began to overcome the invaders.
Dynasty 17: (1650–1570; 15 kings)

c. 1590?: Sekenenre receives a complaint from
the Hyksos King (probably Aphophis) that his
hippopotami (located 400 miles from the Hyksos
capitol) are too noisy and are disturbing the king’s sleep (!);
the two apparently go to war and Sekenenre is killed
despite winning a diplomatic victory
1580: Kamose, son of Sekenenre and last king of
dynasty 17, begins a major campaign to expel the Hyksos.
The New Kingdom: Dynasties 18–19

Dynasty 18: (1570–1304; 14 kings)
1570: Kamose dies and leaves the kingdom to his brother Ahmose, who founds dynasty 18:
1570–1546: Ahmose I, who expelled the Hyksos.
1546–1526: Amenhotep (Amenophis) I, son of Ahmose I, who restored the Nubian frontier and
later conquered the country.

Egypt
1526–1518: Thutmosis I,1 husband of Amenhotep’s sister Ahmose; he led Egyptian armies into
Palestine for the first time (advancing his armies as far as the Euphrates).
1518–1504: Thutmosis II, son of Thutmosis I by an inferior wife and husband of Thutmosis I’s
!"#$%&'"(##)("$*+),-(+
daughter Hatshepsut.
!"#$%&'(
!#&)"$*&+'( !"#$%& ,"-*#$%.%'( '()*$+,&)
-.)%"&/%() ,"-*#$%.%'(( 0%1%
'&,2),& ,"-*#$%.%'(((
!#&)"$*&+'((
,"-*#$%.%'(/
312 !#&)"$*&+'((( !0
455556 !1"&)2*$) 7&+&,)1)1
3#&)1"24& '&,1).)$* ,-*2)1"2#$) !*8"%&*/.)$*
'&,1).)$*900
Figure 5: The Eighteenth Dynasty
1504–1482: Hatshepsut (queen) ruled, officially as regent for her stepson.
1482–1450: Thutmosis III, son of Thutmosis II by an inferior wife. While Hatshepsut lived, she
ruled the nation (even being portrayed as a man — beard and all! — and adopting an official
title, “Kamare”), but when she disappeared,2 Thutmosis became Egypt’s greatest conquering
king. Legally, Thutmosis ruled from 1504 to 1450.
1.!For Thutmosis I see perhaps Josephus, Against Apion I.14, 15, 26. I.14 (=§75) refers to O8E0?-&8#, Toutmaios, in
whose reign “a blast of God’s displeasure broke upon us” (i.e. the Egyptians). The reference is to the Hyksos.
Josephus says in that same chapter that the Hyksos=Jews were expelled in the reign of I&4P!-6?8+D4&#,
Misphragmothosis (§80), but in I.15 (§94) that they were expelled by O*+?D4&#, Tethmothis, and that they went from
there to Jerusalem. I.26 (§231) again quotes Manetho, saying, “it was in the reign of Tethmosis that they left.”
2.!It was speculated that Hatchepsut was killed by Thutmosis III. In 2007, however, DNA testing on a tooth was able
to identify the mummy of Hatchepsut. She was very fat, probably a diabetic, and seemed to have bone cancer.
But the discoverers think she died of an abscessed tooth (article in Discover magazine, January 2008).

Egypt
1453–1415: Amenhotep II, son of Thutmosis III and coregent from 1453.
1415–1401: Thutmosis IV, oldest living son of Amenhotep.
1401–1364: Amenhotep III. His wife was a commoner, Tiy; their time saw the beginning of
Dynasty 18’s decay as luxury and decadence reigned.
1364–1347: Amenhotep IV, who in 1358 changed his name to “Akhenaton” and started a
religious revolution. He worshipped the sun as the one God Aton, and founded a new capitol at
Amarna (which he called Akhetaton, “the horizon of the sun;” it lasted only twelve years), but
ignored the Palestinian provinces.1
1347–1344: Smenkhare, Akhenaton’s adopted heir and husband of his oldest daughter. There is
strong evidence, including genetic evidence, that he was Akhenaton’s son by an inferior wife.2 He
may never have ruled in fact. Others think he attempted a counter-reformation while Akhenaton
was still alive (our only inscription which mentions him but not Akhenaton was found at Thebes),
but died without accomplishing much.
1344–1335: Tutankhamon, the husband of Akhenaton’s third daughter Ankhesenpaton, was
probably the son of Amenhotep!III or Akhenaton. Originally named Tutankhaten to honour his
father-in-law’s god, a counter-reformation forced him to change his name. The boy became king
at about the age of nine, and died at about eighteen. (The desperation of the leaders of the Aton
cult was such that his widow Ankhesenpaton — or perhaps her mother Nefertiti — appealed to
the Hittites to send her a new husband to preserve her dynasty. But nothing ever came of this,
because the Hittite prince was murdered before he arrived.)
1335–1331: Ay, unrelated to the royal family but perhaps the father of Akhenaton’s wife Nefertiti
or Akhenaton’s shadowy “other wife” Kiya. Formal end of Dynasty 18.
1331–1303: Horemhab, a professional soldier who was not related to the royal family, restored
order to Egypt. (He also worked to destroy all vestiges — and even records — of the Aton
heresy.) He is not normally considered part of any dynasty. He chose to be succeeded by his vizier
Ramses, who founded…
1.!This neglect had the curious side effect of completely changing the Mesopotamian balance of power. Akhenaton,
by ignoring the provinces, allowed the Hittite king Suppiluliumas to destroy the kingdom of Mittani (until then
the great power in northern Palestine). When the Hittties themselves declined about a century later, it left
Palestine open for the arrival of the Israelites — and Mesopotamia free for the rise of Assyria (the great Assyrian
king Ashuruballit I — 1360-1325 B.C.E. — came to power in time to correspond with Akhenaton toward the end
of the latter’s reign.)
2.!Historical remains of Smenkhare are almost nil — no inscriptions or the like. The only real relic we have is a
mummy with no name attached. The casing of the mummy indicates that it was prepared for a woman in
Akhenaton’s family. It was, however, hurriedly adapted to receive a man of about twenty. Although certainty
cannot be attained, most scholars believe the body to be that of Smenkhare. Genetic tests and analysis of bone
structure indicate that this person — whoever he was — was a close relative of Tutankhamon, probably a
brother. The two youths, if not Akhenaton’s sons, were probably members of the royal family, perhaps sons of
the Pharaoh’s sister — or even of Akhenaton’s father Amenhotep III. There are some who see a resemblance
between Tutankhamon’s mummy and Akhenaton’s portraits.

Egypt
Dynasty 19: (1303–1200; 8 kings)

1303–1302: Ramses I
1302–1290: Seti I, son of Ramses, who reconquered much of Palestine.
1290–1223: Ramses II (for whom cf. Against Apion I.13), son of Seti I, who fought several
inconclusive battles with the Hittites in Palestine (most notably the Battle of Kedesh in about
1285, where Ramses’s own courage helped rescue troops ambushed by the Hittite king
Muwattalis). Ramses finally signed a treaty with the Hittites in 1275. He is often thought to be
the pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites. (One of his inscriptions tells of how he had the
wandering raiders called “Hapiru” serving on his building projects; cf. Ex. 1:11, telling how the
Hebrews built the Egyptian city Rameses)
1223–1214: Merneptah, the thirteenth son of Ramses, but the oldest to survive his extremely
long-lived father. Already old when he became king, Merneptah may have been pharaoh when
the Israelites escaped Egypt. On the other hand, he successfully fought off the first assaults of the
Peoples of the Sea (Philistines). He also claims to have defeated “Israel” around 1219, but the
meaning of this is unclear.
1214?: Amenmeses (who may have been a rebel who ruled during the reign of Seti II)
1214–1208?: Siptah
1208–1205?: Seti II (who may have been Merneptah’s heir; the order of that king’s successors is
highly uncertain)
1200: Death of Queen Tewosret (formerly wife and probably sister of Seti II) ends the 19th
dynasty.

Egypt
Third Intermediate Period: Dynasties 20–25

Dynasty 20: (1200–1069; 10 kings)
1200–1198: Setnekht
1198–1167: Ramses III, the only strong king of the 20th dynasty, repels the Peoples of the Sea.
He may have been killed by a conspiracy in his harem, and with his death the last Asian
provinces — and even Sinai — were lost.
1167–1069: eight further kings named Ramses slowly squander the wealth of the New Kingdom.
One source gives their reigns as follows:
1166–1160: Ramses IV (son of Ramses III)
1160–1156: Ramses V (brother of Ramses IV)
1156–1148: Ramses!VI (brother of Ramses V)
1148–1147: Ramses VII
1147–1140: Ramses VIII
1140–1121: Ramses IX
1121–1113: Ramses X
1113–1085: Ramses XI. He was little more than a prisoner during his life (with Upper Egypt
governed by Hrihor, High Priest of Karnak, and the Delta administered by one Smendis); his
murder resulted in a divided nation that temporarily lacked a Pharaoh.
Dynasty 21: (1069–945; 6 kings)

Hrihor rules upper Egypt. Although his Smendis rules the Delta. He is regarded as the
descendants are called priests, not kings, first King of Dynasty 21. His successors were:
they clearly ruled the Nile Valley: Psusennes II • [Nephercheres] • Amenemope •
Hrihor • Payonk • Peinuzem I • Masaherta • [Osorkis] • Psinaches
Menkhepperre • Peinuzim II
At various times, the leader of either dynasty might regard himself as Pharaoh, and some
authorities give a unified list of Pharaohs:
Smendis, Hrihor, Psusennes I, Peinuzim I, Menkhepperre, Peinuzem II
978–959: Siamun.
959–945: Psusennes II. (or Psuennes II). It is probably one of these last two kings who married
his daughter to Solomon and captured Gezer (1 Kings 3:1, 9:16, etc.; cf. Ant VIII.vi.1).
Dynasty 22: (945–715; 8 kings)
This Libyan dynasty was founded by Sheshonk I (945–924?; the Bible calls him “Shishak”;1
Josephus has variously “Isakos,” “Isokos,” and “Susakos,” and in Ant VIII.x.3 equates him with
Herodotus’s Sesostris, who seems in fact to have been an improved combination of several kings
of Dynasty 12!), who looted Jerusalem during the reign of Rehoboam (c. 928 or 918).
1.!“Shishak” is mentioned in the Bible in 1 Kings 11:40, 14:25; 2 Ch. 12:2, 5, 7, 9; also in LXX of
2!Kingdoms=2!Samuel 8:7 (describing David’s treasures which Shishak confiscated from Rehoboam);
3!Kingdoms=1 Kings 12:246, 249, 24* (the latter three references being described in the excursus on Two Tales
of Jeroboam I on p. 139; and in 2 Ch. 12:10

Egypt
Presumably this is also the king who harboured Hadad the Edomite (1 Kings 11:14ƒ.), and we
are told explicitly that he harboured Jeroboam I son of Nebat (1 Kings 11:26ƒ., 40). His dynasty
was centered at Bubastis, and originally controlled only the Delta, but his influence reached as far
north as Byblos near Sidon.
924–895?: Osorkon I.
“Zerah the Ethiopian,” who raided Judah in the reign of
Asa (2 Ch. 14:9), may have been a servant of Osorkon I.
895–874?: Takelot I
874–853?: Osorkon II
853?: Sheshonk II
860?–834?: Takelot II. He may have sent men to fight at the Battle of Karkar (853) alongside
Ahab and Ben-Hadad. After his time the princes of the 22nd dynasty splintered Egypt; when
Piankhy took control c. 720, he may have had to deal with as many as four princes of Dynasty 22
as well as those of dynasties 23 and 24
Dynasty 23: (818?–715; 6 kings)

Another Libyan dynasty
?–715: Osorkon IV

Tafnakhte, the apparent founder of this dynasty,
ruled from Sais in the Western Delta. The name
“Sais” may have been given to his dynasty, and come
into the Bible as “So.” So Tafnakhte may have been the
Pharaoh who encouraged Hosea of Israel to rebel against
Assyria (2 Kings 17:4). (Alternately, it might have
been Osorkon IV of the 23rd dynasty or Shabaka of
the 25th; see below.) Tafnakhte was succeeded by
Bochorus1 (or they may even have been the same
person!), who was conquered by Piankhy of the
25th dynasty but (according to one account) allowed
him to serve out his reign and even worked to codify
existing law. It should be noted, however, that
Manetho says Shabaka — Piankhy’s son or
brother — burned Bochorus alive.
1.!Bochorus was, according to the incredible account of Tacitus in Histories V.3, the Pharaoh under whom the
Exodus took place (cf. also Against Apion I.33, II.2 for other statements to this effect). Tacitus assembles several
other legends about Jewish origins in Histories V.2, the most interesting of which says that the Jews came from
Crete (i.e. that they were from the same place as the Philistines!).

Egypt

Cushites led by Piankhy conquer upper Egypt; by about 710 they control the delta as well.
725: A pharoah the Bible calls “So” encourages Hoshea of Israel to revolt against Assyria.
(2!Kings 17:4. “So” was either Shabaka son of Piankhy or more likely some lesser leader such as
Tafnakhte of the 24th dynasty, who ruled a splinter of the Delta, or Osorkon IV of the 23rd
dynasty — assuming that the Hebrew refers to any known historical person at all.)
701: Taharqa the brother of Shabaka (Biblical “Tirhakah”; 2 Kings 19:9, Isa. 37:9) induces
Hezekiah of Judah to rebel against Assyria, but offers little help during the siege that follows.
Sennacherib of Assyria attacked both nations, but was miraculously defeated (2 Kings 19:35–36;
Hist II.141; compare also Isa. 18, which may refer to the arrival of Egyptian ambassadors. It has
been argued that, since by some reckonings Taharqa did not succeed to the Egyptian throne until
c. 690 (succeeding Shebitku son of Shabaka), the events of 2 Kings 18–19 and Isa. 36–39 do not
describe the assault of 701, which is mentioned in Assyrian records, but a second revolt, not
otherwise documented, supposed to have taken place around 690. This, obviously, cannot be
proved.). Taharqa reigned around 715–671; in the latter year the Assyrians drove him from lower
Egypt. He ruled from Thebes until his death in 663. Around 664, his nephew Tanut-Amon
rebelled against Assyria, but was easily defeated by Ashurbanipal. Assyria then briefly took
control of all of Egypt.
Asshurbanipal’s conquest of Thebes (“No”) may be referred to in Nahum 3:8.
Assyrian Domination: 671–663

671: Esarhaddon of Assyria conquers lower Egypt.
668: Esarhaddon’s son Ashurbanipal rules Assyria and Egypt.

Egypt
The Saitic Renaissance: Dynasty 26

c. 660: Ashurbanipal’s Egyptian viceroy Psamtik I declares independence from Assyria and
founds his capitol at Sais. Psamtik would later date his rebellion from 663, the year his father
Neco of Sais died.
652: Assyrians expelled from Egypt as a consequence of revolts closer to Assyria.
616: Psamtik allies himself with the Assyrians and the two powers defeat the Babylonians later in
the year. Egyptian help arrives too late to save Asshur and Ninevah from the Medes (614–612).
610: Death of Psamtik I. His son Neco II becomes Pharaoh. Biblical reference are many: 2!Kings
23:29, 33, 34, 35, (24:7); 2 Ch. 35:20, (21), 22, 36:4; Jer. 46:2, (25:19), (46:25?) (47:1?)1
609: Neco, racing to the Euphrates to rescue Assyria, kills King Josiah of Judah at Megiddo and
assumes control of the Jewish nation. Neco and the Assyrians attempt to recapture Haran (which
the Babylonians had taken the preceding year), but are unsuccessful.
605: The combined armies of Assyria and Egypt are defeated by the Babylonians at Carchemish.
Assyria is finally destroyed. Neco is forced to abandon Judah and return to Egypt.
601: Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon raids Egypt. The bloody battle between the Babylonians and
Neco’s Egyptians is a draw, but Nebuchadnezzar’s advance is stopped. This defeat may have
encouraged the revolt of Jehoiakim of Judah that led to the capture of Jerusalem in 598.
593–588: Reign of Psamtik II son of Neco.
588: Hophra2 (Greek Apries), son of Psamtik, comes to the throne and encourages Judah to rebel
against Babylon. But he doesm’t support them (Jer. 37:11). He is so weak that he is eventually
forced to take Amasis (who had earlier been a general under Psamtik II) as a co-ruler.
569: Amasis (Egyptian “Ahmose”) deposes Hophra after the latter is defeated by the Greeks of
Cyrene.
568: Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon raids Egypt, fulfilling the prophecy of Jer. 43:8–13, 44:30,
46:13ƒ. (compare also Ezek. 29–32).
526: Death of Amasis.
525: Psamtik III, son of Amasis and last king of dynasty 26, is defeated by Persians under
Cambyses. Egypt passes under Persian domination; Psamtik is executed.
1.!Also in LXX of 2 Ch. 36:26 (Neco’s imprisonment of Jehoahaz), 36:4- (Jehoiakim’s exactions to pay off Neco);
Jer. 26:17 (=47:17 MT; note that LXX makes explicit the name that the Hebrew omits); also implicitly in
1!Esdras 1:25-29 in the Apocrypha, although 1:28 changes a reference to Neco in the Hebrew into a reference to
Jeremiah!.
2.!Hophra is named in the Bible in Jer. 44:30; referred to implicitly in Jer. 37:5, 7, 11, 43:9; Ezek. 29:2-3,
30:21-25?, 31:2?, 18? 32:2?, 32:31-32

Egypt
The Persian Period (I): Dynasty 27

525–522: Cambyses
522–520: Interregnum
520–486: Darius I
486–465: Xerxes I
465–424: Artaxerxes I
During his time a rebellion sponsored by the Greeks briefly wrested Egypt from Persian control,
but most of the country soon fell back into Persian hands, with consequent loss of might and
prestige for the Athenians.
424–404: Darius II. Unrest against Persia was by now very strong; a revolt in 412, for instance,
succeeded in destroying the Jewish Temple at Elephantine, although the Jewish colony survived
for a few more years.
The Late Dynastic Period: Dynasties 28–30

Dynasty 28: (404–398; 1 king — Amyrteos)
The Persian king Artaxerxes II, preoccupied by the rebellion of his brother Cyrus “the Younger,”
is unable to retain control of Egypt. Amyrteos probably gained real control c. 401 (the Jews of
Elephantine still gave their allegiance to the Persians in 402).

398–?: Nepherites I. He apparently destroyed the Jewish colony at Elephantine Island in Upper
Egypt for continued loyalty to Persia. (The origins of this colony are obscure; they may have
come to Egypt during the exile. In any case, their brand of Judaism, as described in very
extensive texts found in the colony, was very impure. The Jerusalem authorities ignored them due
to their worship of idols and their desire to found a Temple in competition with the one in
Jerusalem.)

Egypt

378–361?: Nectanebo I
c. 360: Tachos son of Nectanebo. He led an invasion of Palestine — with help from the Spartans
— and was on his way to attack Persia when a rebellion in Egypt forced him home (it may have
been that Nectanebo II, one of his generals, actually staged a coup while on campaign with the
army in Palestine. Tachos, who had intended to conquer Persia, wound up an exile there!).
359?–341: Nectanebo II. The Nectanebos were the last native truly kings of Egypt.
Unfortunately, Nectanebo II was not up to his task. When Artaxerxes III made his assault on
Egypt, Nectanebo blundered into a defeat, then fled (we note, however that a similar story is told
of Psamtik III two centuries earlier). Lower Egypt hastily opened its gates to avoid a sack by
Artaxerxes, and eventually Nectanebo found he had no country left.
The Persian Period (II): Dynasty 31

341–338: Artaxerxes III. In his folly, he sought to destroy Egyptian culture, and so led Egypt to
hate him and his successors. It would be remembered when they had an alternative.
338–336: Arses
336–330: Darius III
332: Alexander the Great attacks Egypt in order to secure his rear for attacks into Persia.
Disaffected natives welcome him, and his conquest is swift. He then founds Alexandria, the
greatest, noblest, and most modern city of the ancient world.
332: Conquest by Alexander the Great
332–305: Macedonian Domination

Egypt
Israel and Egypt

Below is a list of events in the history of Old Testament Israel in which Egypt took a part.
Due to the uncertainties of Egyptian history, of course, many dates can be provided only
tentatively, and the Pharaohs involved can only be conjectured. In these cases, the pharaoh
suggested by William F. Albright is generally listed first, and then others in order of decreasing
probability (as best I can tell from my sources). The pharaoh preferred by the most conservative
(fundamentalist) scholars is generally the one listed last.
Footnotes on specific pharaohs follow the table.
Event Year Pharaoh Dynasty

(B.C.E.)
Abraham’s sojourn in Egypt (Gen. 12:10–13:1) 1800? ? 12?
Wakhare-Kheti III 10
Joseph and Israel enter Egypt (Gen. 37, 39–50)1 1650? Aphophis? 15
1875? Sesostis II 12
A man of Judah marries a daughter of Pharaoh 1600? ? 16??
(1 Ch. 4:17–18) 2
A pharaoh “who knew not Joseph” (Ex. 1:8) 1570? Ahmose I 18
1310? Seti I 19
1650? ? 15?
The Israelites oppressed in Egypt (Ex. 1–2) 3 1290? Ramses II 19
1250? Ramses II 19
1370? Amenhotep III 18
1450? Amenhotep II 18
1470? Thutmosis III 18
1550? Ahmose 18
The Exodus: 1280? Ramses II 19
The Israelites escape from Egypt (Ex. 5–15) 1220? Merneptah 19
1145?4 Ramses VII 20 4
1350? Akhenaton 18
1375? Amenhotep III 18
1450? Amenhotep I 18
Solomon marries the daughter of a Pharaoh 950? Psusennes II 21
(1!Kings 3:1, 7:8, 9:16, 24; 2 Ch. 8:11; cf. Ant 970? Siamun 21
VIII.vi.1). Said Pharaoh had also conquered
Gezer (1 Kings 9:16; also Josh. 16:10 LXX)

Egypt
Jeroboam I son of Nebat is sheltered by an anti- 930? Sheshonk I 22

Israeli pharaoh. (in LXX, Jeroboam marries
Sheshonk’s sister-in-law — addition to 2 Kings
12). This or some other pharaoh had earlier
sheltered Solomon’s adversary Hadad the
Edomite (1 Kings 11:14–22. Admittedly this is
precarious dating, since Hadad is said to have
returned to Edom when David died — well
before the time of Jeroboam — but the feeble
kings of Dynasties 20 and 21 were in no
position to flout David; Shishak seems the only
possible candidate.) 5
During the reign of Rehoboam son of Solomon, 917/ Sheshonk I 22
Sheshonk (“Shishak”) sacked Jerusalem and !!!927
looted the Temple (1 Kings 14:25–28, 2 Ch.
12:2–12; also 2!Kingdoms=2!Samuel 8:7-
LXX, which says that Shishak would later
appropriate the spoils which David captures in
this verse)
During the reign of Asa, troops led by “Zerah the c. 903? Sheshonk I 22
Ethiopian,” who may have been an Egyptian Osorkon I 22
vassal, invade Judah (2 Ch. 14:9–14. Josephus
— Ant VIII.xii.1 — dates this to Asa’s tenth
year)
During the reign of Hoshea 2 king of Israel, “So” 725 Shabaka 25
of Egypt6 encourages Hosea to rebel against Tafnakhte 24
Assyria — a rebellion which ended with the Osorkon IV 23
destruction of Samaria and Israel (2 Kings 17:4)

Egypt
During the reign of Hezekiah king of Judah, 701 Taharqa 25

pharaoh “Tirhakah” offered support in the (c. 690?)
event that Judah rebels against Assyria.
Hezekiah rebelled, but Tirhakah offers little aid;
Jerusalem was saved by a miracle. (2!Kings 19:9,
Isa. 37:9). Egypt itself was attacked by Assyria
at this time, but this attack also failed
inexplicably (Hist II.141).
Assyria eventually became so disgusted with 671 Taharqa 25
Egyptian intrigues that Esarhaddon invaded the
delta. A few years later, in 664, Ashurbanipal
conquered the capitol Thebes/No. (Nahum
3:8?)
Egypt, under Neco II of the Saitic dynasty, again 609 Neco II 26
aspires to become a world power. Neco led an
army to aid Assyria against Chaldean Babylon,
and when Josiah of Judah opposed him, Neco
had the Jewish king killed. (2 Kings 23:29–30;
2!Ch. 35:20–24; 1 Esdras 1:25–31; cf.
Herodotus Hist III.159)
The Israelites installed Josiah’s second son 608 Neco II 26
Jehoahaz 2 as king. Neco II dissatisfied, deposed
Jehoahaz (taking him to Egypt in chains),
replacing him with his older brother Jehoiakim.
(2 Kings 23:33–35; 2 Ch. 36:2–4)
Neco II is easily defeated by the Babylonians at 605 Neco II 26
Carchemish; Egypt is forced to abandon its
Palestinian possessions. (2 Ch. 35:20; Jer. 46:2;
cf. Ant X.xi.1 and the note on Nebuchadnezzar
and Carchemish, p. 297)
The Egyptians still cannot stop intriguing. 588 Hophra (Apries) 26
Pharaoh Hophra encouraged the Judeans to
start their last, fatal revolt, but offered no real
help. (Jer. 44:30; cf. Jer. 37:5, 7, 11, etc.)
Many Judeans fled to Egypt after the fall of 586 Hophra (Apries) 26
Jerusalem. (2 Kings 25:26; Jer. 43:1–7)

Egypt
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon successfully raids 568 Amasis 26

Egypt, partially fulfilling Jeremiah’s prophecy of
disaster for those who fled there. (Jer. 43:8–13,
44:11–14)
NOTES:
1. The time of entry into Egypt can only be determined if we know the total time spent in
Egypt; we have no fixed dates before that time and must work back by dead reckoning.
The Hebrew of Ex. 12:40 gives the period of 430 years for the Egyptian residence,
Josephus Ant II.ix.1 gives the period as 400 years (similarly Gen. 15:13 MT); LXX and the
Samaritan Version of 12:40 gives 430 years as the period spent by the Patriarch in Egypt
and Canaan, hence Josephus in Ant II.xv.2 give the period spent in Egypt as 215 years. And
even this is awfully long if the sojourn really took only three generations (Levi to Kohath
to Amram to Aaron and Moses).
2. Since the daughter is identified only as “Bithiah,” her father only as Pharaoh, and her
husband only as Mered (otherwise unknown, but see next note), we obviously cannot even
usefully guess at the date of this event. The only hint we have is the name “Bithiah,”
Daughter of Yah[weh], which is clearly a Semitic name. Such a name would be possible for
the Hyksos kings of Dynasties 15 and 16, but hardly likely for a native Egyptian. A
Hyksos monarch would probably also be more willing to have his daughter marry a
Hebrew. But this is all speculative — so much so that some have proposed that “Pharaoh”
in 1 Ch. 4:17/18 is a proper Hebrew name rather than the Egyptian royal title. Note that
this verse is somewhat confused, and is emended by both REB and NRSV; cf. the NRSV
footnotes. LXX has a rather different form (as 4:18); NETS translates the relevant portion
of 4:18, “these are the sons of Gelia daughter of Pharao, whom Mored took” (“Gelia”
being the reading of LXXB; LXXA has “Beththia”) while AB gives “These were the sons
of Bithiah the daughter of Pharaoh whom Mered had married.”
3. Curiously, although our sources do not give this Pharaoh’s name, many give names for his
daughter who adopted Moses; Josephus (Ant II.ix.5) and others call her “Thermuth/
Thermutis”; the Talmud gives “Bithiah” (see preceding note; the name is surely derived
from that)
4. Although a date of 1145 is almost impossibly late for the Exodus, it has the advantage
that the Pharaohs of this period were very weak; Ramses VI was the last to control the
Sinai. We know nothing about the Pharaoh of the Exodus, except that Josephus in Ant
II.xii.2 tells us he was newly come to the throne — but this fits the obscure Pharaohs of
the later 20th Dynasty, who weren’t well-known and often didn’t reign for very long.
5. The text of LXX is very different from MT on this subject. LXXB omits 11:23-24 (the
story of Rezon of Damascus) and reads 11:26 so that it refers to Hadad’s rule over Edom
rather than Rezon’s rule over Aram (if this change goes back to the Hebrew, it might involve

Egypt
no more than a confusion of ‫ ד‬for ‫ר‬, which is a common confusion). LXXA has the story
of Rezon, but notes that Hadad (called Hadar in LXX) could not establish is power in
Edom and so had to flee to Aram. LXXB also moves much of the account of Jeroboam,
Solomon, and Rehoboam from 14:1-20 to a position after 12:24 and paraphrases heavily
(for the full extent of the alterations to this part of 1 Kings, see the excursus Two Tales of
Jeroboam I on p. 139).
6. “So” has been identified with Shabaka, but this is obviously quite a stretch. NIV suggests
Osorkon. Others would emend the text, reading “Sais” for “So” and adding at (‫אל סוא‬
‫ אל‬for ‫)אל סוא‬, giving “The King of Egypt at Sais” for “So King of Egypt.” If this is
correct, the Pharaoh is probably Tafnakhte. The uncertainty here is ancient; for “So”
LXX reads “Segor” (except a few texts read “Soba”=Shabaka?? and Origen reads
“Soa”); Lucian has “Adrammelech” (!) —!an Assyrian name derived from 2 Kings 19:37;
Josephus has So(as) in Ant IX.xiv.1.
After the fall of Jerusalem, Egyptian influence in Palestine was at an end until the time of
Alexander the Great. After Alexander’s death, Palestine came under the authority of the
Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt for about a century. But the Ptolemies were generally mild rulers; they
left few marks on the Bible (the only clear reminiscences are a handful of cryptic references in the
second half of the Book of Daniel) and only a moderate number on the Apocrypha. These
references are discussed in the section on the Ptolemies.
It is known that a Jewish colony survived on the island of Elephantine in the Nile from about
575 until 400 or later; it does not seem to have been oppressed. The colony and its contaminated
religion eventually died out, however, probably before the time of Alexander. (The Jews may have
suffered for continued allegiance to Persia after Persian control was lifted in 404.) Later on,
Judaism would survive well in Alexandria. The Bible was translated into Greek there under the
Ptolemies. In the end, of course, Egypt and Israel alike fell under Roman domination; this too
will be covered in the Ptolemaic history.

The Kingdom of Damascus
History of the Kingdom of Damascus

The Aramaean (Syrian) kingdom of Damascus was the great enemy of Israel for most of that
nation’s history. Here follows a brief account of the relations between the Northern Kingdom
and its eastern neighbor.
Date Event
c. 950 A youth, Rezon son of Eliada, rebels against Solomon. Originally he was a servant of
Solomon’s vassal Hadadezer king of Zobah, then the captain of a marauding band,
then finally the king of the newly-founded nation of Damascus (1!Kings 11:23–25).
c. 925 Rezon dies. Hezion seizes the throne and founds a dynasty. He is mentioned in passing
in 1 Kings 15:18. (Some have suggested that Rezon and Hezion are the same person.)
c. 915 Hezion’s son Tabrimmon comes to the throne. Mentioned in passing in 1 Kings 15:18.
c. 900 Tabrimmon’s son Ben-Hadad I1 comes to the throne. The length of his reign is
uncertain. Most archeologists believe that he died c. 860 and was succeeded by a second
Ben-Hadad (called Adad-Idri in Assyrian inscriptions). William F. Albright and others
championed the view that the two Ben-Hadads were the same. In any case, the
following events occurred during the reign of one or the other king:
c. 880 Asa of Judah and Baasha of Israel are at war; Ben-Hadad is supporting Israel. Asa
bribes Ben-Hadad with treasures from the Temple. The Aramaean king shifts his
support to Judah, and Baasha is forced to abandon his great outpost at Ramah. The
war is over, and Judah victorious. But in the view of the Chronicler, Asa has broken
faith with God by turning to earthly help, and is punished by contracting a foot disease
(1!Kings 15:16–23; 2 Ch. 16:1–10).
c. 860 Ben-Hadad and his army attack Israel and capture most of the Trans-Jordan. King
Ahab of Israel is forced to make major concessions to Damascus.
c. 857 Ben-Hadad begins another campaign against Israel. A desperate Ahab defeats him
heavily in two battles, and forces Syrian concessions (1!Kings 20:1–34).2 A three-year
peace is signed c. 856 (1!Kings 22:1), and the two nations become allies.
853 Ben-Hadad, Ahab, and a coalition of Palestinian kings fight off the Assyrian army at the
battle of Karkar. Palestinian independence is assured for a few more years.
c. 849 Ahab sets out to recover the Trans-Jordanian territory which Ben-Hadad had captured.
Ahab killed at the battle of Ramoth-Gilead (1 Kings 22:1–40. Others think that the
battle happened in 853, immediately following Karkar, to allow Jehoram of Israel a
twelve year reign between 853 and 841, when his successor Jehu paid tribute to the
Assyrians). Despite Ahab’s death, the Israelites may have won the battle, since Ramoth-
Gilead came into Israelite hands; see the next entry.
1.!For the Hebrew “Ben-Hadad” (=”Son of Hadad”) LXX reads consistently “the Son of Hadar” (the exchange of
“Hadar” for “Hadad” is probably due to the frequent confusion between Hebrew ‫=ד‬d and ‫=ר‬r).
2.!The chapter numbering is that of MT; in LXX this is chapter 21. For details, see the entry on Ahab, p. 79.

c. 843 Elisha anoints Hazael king of Damascus. Hazael kills his master Ben-Hadad and makes
himself king (2!Kings 8:7–15). At about this time Jehoram of Israel briefly recovers
Ramoth-Gilead (2 Kings 9:14 says that Jehoram was defending Ramoth-Gilead from
Hazael) when he was wounded).
841 Hazael recovers Ramoth-Gilead for Damascus, and wounds king Jehoram (2!Kings
8:28–29). These events would lead to the fall of the dynasty of Omri and the rise of the
house of Jehu (2!Kings 9). At about this time the Assyrian Shalmaneser III campaigns
against Palestine. He secures Jehu’s submission and besieges Damascus but does not
destroy the Aramaean kingdom. The Assyrians leave Palestine in 837, and the energetic
Hazael recaptures Trans-Jordan (2 Kings 10:32–33). 2 Kings 13:22 says that Hazael
“oppressed Israel all the days of Jehoahaz” (i.e. during the latter half of this Assyrian
retreat).1 It was not until 805 that the Assyrian Adad-nirari III led another campaign
into Palestine. The king who opposed him was either Hazael or his son Ben-Hadad II/
III (the Assyrian records don’t give a name; note that both are mentioned in Amos 1:4,
which dates from shortly after this. It is also possible that Adad-nirari did not conquer
Damascus until 796, when he again campaigned in the west).
c. 798 Hazael is succeeded by his son Ben-Hadad III (or II). It is probably this king who was
responsible for the siege of Samaria described in 2!Kings 6:8–23. With the failure of
this assault (the year was perhaps around 790) the Syrian threat to Israel declined. Many
think that Jeroboam II of Israel was able to conquer Damascus around 770 (2!Kings
14:25, 28), after Ben-Hadad apparently died (Assyrian records refer to “Hadianu” as
King of Damascus in 773; whether this is Ben-Hadad, his son, or a usurper is unknown.
On the other hand, the king of Damascus against whom Adad-nirari III campaigned in
about 796 was called “Mari”; this was undoubtedly Ben-Hadad, since he and Joash of
Israel are reported to have paid tribute to Assyria.).
c. 745 An unknown Rezin (not the same name as Rezon the adversary of Solomon2) becomes
king of Damascus. Around 738, he and Pekah king of Israel form an alliance against
Assyria. When they try to force Judah to join the alliance, the Southern king Ahaz calls
in Tiglath-Pileser III (Pul). In 733 the Assyrian Emperor destroys Damascus and kills
Rezin. The Syrian people are taken into exile in “Kir”3 (glossed by Josephus — Ant
IX.xii.3 — as “upper Media.” Josephus also claims that the Assyrians settled
Mesopotamian tribes in Damascus; while obviously not certain, this fits with Assyrian
policy). The Aramaean kingdom was at an end, never to rise again; Israel would outlast
it by a mere ten years (2!Kings 16:5–9; Isa. 7:1–9, etc.).
1.!The Lucianic text of LXX notes that Hazael conquered the land “from the Western Sea to Aphek.”
2.!“Rezin” is Hebrew ‫“ ;רצין‬Rezon” is ‫רזון‬.
3.!LXX omits the phrase “to Kir” — except that Origen’s text reads “to Cyrene”! (the region of Cyrene never came
under Assyrian control). Note that Amos 1:5 also mentions the exile of the Damascenes “to Kir”; LXX — which
renders this verse (and much of the rest of Amos) very differently — omits, apparently reading “to Kir” as an
adjective, “called/chosen/elect/famous” (referring to the people of Syria).

Another chronological reconstruction gives the dates and names of the Kings of Damascus as
follows:
Date Name:
950–925 New Dynasty: Rezon
925–915 New Dynasty: Hezion
915–900 Tabrimmon
900–860 Ben-Hadad I
860–843 Ben-Hadad II (Adad-Idri)
843–805 New Dynasty: Hazael
805–773 Ben-Hadad III (Mari’)
773–750 Hadianu
750–732 New Dynasty: Rezin

The Assyrian Empire
The Rise of the Assyrian Empire

Mesopotamia (Greek for “[The Land] Between the Rivers”) was a great spawner of Empires.
The fertile valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates gave rise to the nations of Sumer, Babylon,
Elam, and Akkad; it was coveted by Mitanni, the Hittites, and the Hurrians. On the banks of the
rivers rose the cities of Ur, Erech, Lagash, and Mari. The culture of Nuzi was built upon
commerce with the cities on the Tigris. Greatest of all the Mesopotamian realms, however, was
Assyria, which in the end came to rule all the land from Elam to Egypt.
The Sumerians settled in Mesopotamia in the centuries around 3000 B.C.E. Slowly they built
their cities and their nations, and slowly they built their culture up to the point where an imperial
government was possible.
The first great kingdom of Mesopotamia was Akkad (or Agade), created by Sargon in the
24th century B.C.E.1 Although the Assyrians were not really the heirs of the Akkadians, they
adopted Sargon and put him near the beginning of their king lists. With the death of his
grandson Naram-Sin around 2230, the Akkadian Empire decayed — helped, it would seem, by
marauders from the east, who gradually wore down the last members of the Sargonid dynasty.
After its time the valleys were ruled by the third dynasty of Ur (c. 2050–1960 B.C.E.). After this
came the Mari period, the rule of the Hittites, and the reign of the great Hammurabi of Babylon
(perhaps around 1728).
It was during this period that Assyria began its long, slow rise. Around 1800, after the fall of
Ur, Assyria became a major commercial power, ruling the upper portions of the river valleys.
Around 1750 Shamshi-Adad I — apparently an Amorite — assumed power over the new
Empire. (The stories of Abraham make it appear that this was the region that the patriarchs
came from. He probably set out from Ur around 1800, and arrived in Mari around the time of
Shamshi-Adad.2) But this early flash of glory was not to last. Mari, ruled by Zimri-lim (c. 1730–
1697), moved in on Assyria, and Shamshi-Adad’s sons became vassals of Hammurabi. Mari, too,
fell under Babylonian control after the death of Zimri-lim. Assyria did not re-emerge from
obscurity until around 1400, when Eriba-Adad formed an alliance with the Hittites and threw off
the overlordship of Mitanni. The two nations then divided Mesopotamia, with the Hittites
holding Asia Minor and the extreme west, while Assyria held the central and eastern lands. The
Hittites soon found themselves fighting the Egyptians, and their Empire declined after the battle
of Kadesh around 1280.
1.!One estimate dates Sargon’s usurpation to 2334 B.C.E. His son Rimush inherited an unstable throne 56 years later.
Rimush reigned for fewer than ten years, but his Naram-Sin successfully rebuilt the empire during a reign of 36
years.
2.!Although the chronological data in the Bible is far too vague to allow a precise dating of Abraham, the behaviors
it describes are indicative. Many of the patriarchal customs are strongly reminiscent of those of the
Mesopotamian region of Nuzi at this time — most particularly, the adoption of an heir by a childless man (in
which a child born in the master’s household becomes the master’s heir in return for promising him a decent
funeral; cf. Gen. 15:2) and the offering of a servant by the wife in order to bear the childless man’s her (Gen.
16:1ƒ.)

The Assyrian Empire
While the Hittites were in decline, Ashuruballit I (c. 1360–1325) set about founding the
Middle Assyrian Empire. He reasserted his independence from Babylon and set out to recover
the lands of his predecessors. He was so successful that Assyria would remain the dominant
power in the Tigris-Euphrates region for more than seven hundred years. Under his sons Arik-
den-ili (c. 1310–1299) and Adad-nirari I (1298–1266), Assyria gained control over all the lands
between Carchemish and the northern border of Babylon.
In 1266 Shalmaneser I became king. He built the city of Calah, and moved his capitol there.
He is often called the greatest king of the Middle Empire; he certainly was one of its most
forward-looking. He greatly expanded the Assyrian territory, and bequeathed a conquering
mystique to his successors. He died in 1236, and was succeeded by his son Tukulti-Ninurta I.
It was during Tukulti-Ninurta’s reign that Assyria conquered Babylon for the first time.
Assyria now controlled all of Mesopotamia. But in 1199 Tukulti-Ninurta was murdered by his
son Ashur-nadinapli. Babylon rebelled soon afterward, and Assyria seemed to be in danger of
vanishing. Although there was a brief upturn under Tiglath-Pileser I (1116–1078), Assyrian
power would be in abeyance for several hundred years. At the same time, Egypt had been greatly
weakened by the Peoples of the Sea. As a result, there was a power vacuum in Palestine. It was in
this vacuum that David founded his empire.
But Assyria was not yet ready to give up. Ashurrabi II (1012–972), Tiglath-Pileser II (966–
935) and his son Ashurdan II (934–912) kept up their wars against the Aramean tribes, and held
the nation together for their descendants.
Ashurdan’s son Adad-nirari II came to the throne in 912/11. He began to drive his troops
back down into southern Mesopotamia. When he died in 890, Tukulti-Ninurta II founded a new
dynasty. In a series of vigourous campaigns, he set out to restore his Empire’s power. He is usually
considered to be the founder of the “New Assyrian Empire,” the greatest and most glorious of all
the Mesopotamian kingdoms. It is the nation that destroyed Israel, that first conquered Egypt,
that threw down Babylon. The story of its kings is told on the following pages.

The Assyrian Empire
Scythians
Uratu
Cimmerians
Hittites
Haran
Carchemish Ninevah
734 Asshur
724 Media
701
Jerusalem Babylonia
Elam
Figure 6: The Assyrians Enter Palestine

Showing the conquests of:
Tiglath-Pileser III, (734-732), who conquered Damascus and subjugated Israel
Shalmaneser V, who attacked Samaria
Sargon II, who destroyed Samaria
Sennacherib, who almost destroyed Jerusalem (701?)
An Assyrian King List

Ashuruballit I (1360–1325)
Enlil-Nirari (1324??–1310)
Arik-den-ili (1309–1298)
Adad-Nirari I (1297–1266)
Shalmaneser I (1265–1236)
Tukulti-Ninurta I (1235–1199)
Ashur-nadinapli (1198–1197)
Ashur-Nirari III (1196–1191)
Enlil-kudur-usur (1190–1186)
Ninurta-apli-Ekur (1185–1183)
Ashurdan I (1182–1137)
civil war (1136)
Ashur-resh-ishi I (1135–1117)
Tiglath-Pileser I (1116–1078)

The Assyrian Empire
Ashur-apil-ekur (1077–1076)
Ashur-bel-kala (1075–1057)
Eriba-Adad II (1056–1055)
Shamshi-Adad IV (1054–1051)
Ashurnasirpal I (1050–1032)
Shalmaneser II (1031–1020)
Ashur-nirari IV (1019–1013)
Ashurrabi II (1012–972)
Ashur-resh-ishi II (971–967)
Tiglath-Pileser II (966–935)
Ashurdan II (934–912)
Adad-Nirari II (911–891)
Tukulti-Ninurta II (890–883)
Ashurnasirpal II (883–859)
Shalmaneser III (859–824)
Shamshi-Adad V (824–811)
Adad-nirari III (811–783; Semiramis regent 811–806)
Shalmaneser IV (783–773)
Ashurdan III (773–755)
Ashur-nirari V (755–745)
Tiglath-Pileser III (745–726)
Shalmaneser V (726–722)
Sargon II (722–705)
Sennacherib (705–681)
Esarhaddon (681–668)
Ashurbanipal (668–627?)
Ashur-itil-ilani (627–622)
Sin-shar-ishkun (622–612)
Ashuruballit II (612–605)

The Assyrian Empire
Genealogy of the Emperors of Assyria

Tukulti-Ninurta II 890–883
Ashurnasirpal II 883–859
Who fought against Ben-Hadad of Damascus
Shalmaneser III 859–824 and Ahab of Israel at Karkar in 854/3, and
who took tribute from Jehu of Israel.
Shamshi-Adad V Sammuramat (Semiramis)
Queen Regent 811-806
Adad-nirari III 811-783 Who crippled Damascus and took tribute
from Jehoash of Israel
Shalmaneser IV Ashurdan III Ashur-nirari V Weak Kings 783-745
783–773 773–755 755–745
New Dynasty: Who received tribute from Menahem of Israel,

Tiglath-Pileser III saved Ahaz of Judah from Israel and Damascus,
745–726 and placed Hoshea of Israel on the throne.
Shalmaneser V Who beseiged Samaria

726–722†
New Dynasty:
Sargon II Who destroyed Samaria
722–705†
Sennacherib Who attacked Hezekiah of Judah

705–681†
( ) Who took tribute from

Sharezer Esarhaddon ( ) Manasseh of Judah
681–668
Adrammelech Ashurnadinshumi
king of Babylon Ashurbanipal Shamashshumukin
d. 694† 668–627? Regent of Babylon
d. 648†
Ashur-itil-ilani Sin-shar-ishkun (Sarakos?)
627–622?† 622?–612†
The Fall of Assyria:
614: Fall of Asshur to the Medes under Cyaxares Key:
612: Fall of Nineveh (Assyria’s capitol city) to the armies
Pairs of dates are the years during
of the Medes, perhaps aided by Nabopolassar of
which an Emperor reigned. A
Babylon
single date is a date of death.
610: Haran, ruled by Ashuuballit II as the last capitol of Assyria,
All dates are B.C.E.
is conquered by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon
Name in BOLD are Assyrian
605: Battle of Carchemish. Pharaoh Neco of Egypt is unable to
Emperors.
save Assyrian remnants from destruction by Nebuchadnezar
A † indicates a violent death.
601: Ashuruballit and the last remnants of the Assyrian army are
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar
Figure 7: Genealogy of the Emperors of Assyria

The Assyrian Empire
The Emperors of Assyria

What follows is a list of members of the Imperial Families of the New Assyrian Empire from
the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890–883 B.C.E.).
Adad-nirari III: His father SHAMSHI-ADAD V died when he was still young, and for several
years Assyria was ruled by his mother SEMIRAMIS. Adad-nirari came of age in 806, and quickly
began a campaign of conquests. He was not the greatest of Assyria’s conquering kings, but
neither was he a pushover; his campaign against Damascus in 805 (or perhaps 796) probably
saved Syria’s rival Israel from destruction. Jehoash of Israel paid him tribute in 796. When Adad-
nirari died around 783, Assyria went into a serious decline until the accession of TIGLATH-
PILESER III in 745. It is believed that the next three kings (SHALMANESER IV, ASHURDAN III,
ASHUR-NIRARI V) were all Adad-Nirari’s sons, but none of them amounted to much.
Adrammelech: His name means Honour of the King. He was a son of SENNACHERIB.
According to the Biblical account, he and his brother SHAREZER killed their father while he was
worshiping in 681 B.C.E. (Assyrian sources, on the other hand, imply that there was only one
usurping child.) But a younger brother, ESARHADDON, drove the two into exile in Ararat and took
the throne. 2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38.
Ashurbanipal: The son of ESARHADDON. He was the last strong emperor of Assyria, and
was able to control all of the Empire except Egypt — and even that he conquered briefly in 664;
it was his viceroy Psamtik who founded the Saitic dynasty. Psamtik declared independence (dating
it from 663, although he did not achieve actual independence until later) at the time of the revolt
of Ashurbanipal’s half-brother SHAMASHSHUMUKIN, regent of Babylon, which was put down in
648. But Assyria was almost ruined by the effort. Ashurbanipal had to spend the rest of his reign
dealing with rebellions. In the early 630s he put down a revolt in the east and destroyed Elam,
long the fomenter of revolts (cf. Ezek. 32:24–25, which may have been inspired by
Ashurbanipal’s act). By this time, the Empire was being held together by his sheer magnetism and
skill. When he died in or shortly before 627, Assyria went to pieces. (The exact date of his death
is uncertain, but the tomb of the Babylonian emperor Nabonidas’s mother claims that his son
ASHUR-ITIL-ILANI ruled three years before Nabopolassar became king of Babylon in 625. So 627
seems the most likely year for Ashurbanipal’s death. This fits with a report that he reigned 42
years: 668–627.)
Ashurbanipal was also a great patron of the arts and literature. His library has been found; it
is the largest known collection of cuneiform documents, and is regarded as the largest library of
the ancient world except for that of Alexandria. The famous “Gilgamesh Epic” comes from
Ashurbanibal’s trove.
Ashurbanipal may have been the “Osnappar” of Ezra 4:10, although the description seems
to fit Esarhaddon better. Ashurbanipal, for all his power, is mentioned nowhere else in the Bible
— unusual for Assyrian monarchs of the time. His conquest of Thebes in Egypt may be alluded

The Assyrian Empire
to in Nahum 3:8.1 He may also have been the Emperor who took Manasseh 2 of Judah into
captivity, if that highly doubtful event (2!Ch. 33:10–13) ever took place.2
Ashurdan III: Apparently the second son of ADAD-NIRARI III to come to the throne (if
indeed Adad-nirari had children), he succeeded his brother SHALMANESER IV in 773. A weak
monarch, he had not accomplished much when he passed the kingdom on to his brother ASHUR-
NIRARI V in 755.3
Ashur-itil-ilani: A younger son of ASHURBANIPAL. His brother SIN-SHAR-ISHKUN was to
have been heir (and was even Ashurbanipal’s co-regent from about 629). But a general was able
to briefly put Ashur-itil-ilani on the throne. Sin-shar-ishkun was not satisfied with these
arrangements; he rebelled as soon as possible. (This revolt had much to do with the final fall of
Assyria.) The two met in battle around 622, and Ashur-itil-ilani was killed.
Ashurnadinshumi: SENNACHERIB installed this son as King of Babylon, but he was killed
by the Babylonians as part of a rebellion. The Emperor later destroyed Babylon in revenge.
Ashurnasirpal II: TUKULTI-NINURTA II was Assyria’s first vigourous monarch in centuries
(it was Assyria’s weakness that allowed David to found his empire), and Ashurnasirpal took after
his father. He was among the cruelest of the Assyrian kings — a brutal man from a nation known
for its brutality — and was largely responsible for the Empire’s practices of mutilation and
deportation. He came to the throne in 883; by the time of his death in 859 he had extended
Assyria to cover all of its old lands, and was looking toward Palestine.
Ashur-nirari V: The third son of ADAD-NIRARI III to rule Assyria. He, like his brothers, was
very weak, and accomplished little. He was probably fairly old by the time he came to the throne
in 755, and so held it only until 745. (It is at least conceivable that dynastic squabbles shortened
his and his brothers’ reigns; those were unsettled times.) Like his brothers, he apparently left no
sons; when he died, the (apparent) usurper TIGLATH-PILESER III seized the throne.4
Ashuruballit II: When Ninevah fell to the Medes in 612, SIN-SHAR-ISHKUN and the
Sargonid dynasty fell with it. But though Assyria had neither a king nor a capitol, it still had an
army and held a small territory around Haran. Needing a leader, the army accepted one of its
generals as Emperor. Harking back to past glories, he took the name Ashuruballit (the first
Ashuruballit had freed Assyria from the domination of Mitanni and inaugurated one of Assyria’s
greatest ages). It did not take long to prove that a glorious name could not guarantee success: the
Assyrians were driven from Haran in 609. With the destruction of the Egyptian army at
1.!The verse refers to “No-Amon,” i.e. the “district of Amon/Amun,” Amon being an Egyptian god, and 3:9 seems
to refer to its capture from an Ethiopian dynasty. On this basis NRSV renders the name “Thebes” (the Greek
name for the holy city of Amon), the assumption being that the verse refers to Ashurbanipal’s sack of the city in
665 and his expulsion of the Ethiopian prince Tanut-Amun or the latter’s uncle Taharqa.
2.!We know from secular records that Manaasseh did pay at least one and probably two visits to the Assyrian court.
There is no evidence, however, that these were anything other than the standard visits made by a vassal to his
overlord; in one instance, Manasseh seems to have been called upon to visit the court to swear fealty to the heir to
the throne.
3.!Ashurdan III may possibly be referred to in Hos. 5:13, 10:6; see the note on Tiglath-Pileser III, p. 293.
4.!Ashur-nirari V may possibly be referred to in Hos. 5:13, 10:6; see the note on Tiglath-Pileser III, p. 293.

The Assyrian Empire
Carchemish in 605, the reign of Ashuruballit and the history of Assyria were over (cf. Ezek.
31:3–17;1 also 32:22–23, describing the grave of Assyria).
Esarhaddon: His name means Conqueror, and it fit him. A younger son of SENNACHERIB. He
drove his brothers ADRAMMELECH and SHAREZER, who had murdered their father in 681, into
exile and assumed the throne himself. His mother was Naqia, and she was apparently both long-
lived and influential, since she later helped arrange the accession of her grandson ASHURBANIPAL.
A much more effective man than Sennacherib, Esarhaddon rebuilt Babylon and went on to
conquer Upper Egypt, although he was unable to hold it. Assyrian records mention that he
gathered tribute from Manasseh 2 king of Judah. In 672 he gathered his vassals to declare
Ashurbanipal his heir and Ashurbanipal’s half-brother SHAMASHSHUMUKIN the prince of
Babylon; this may be the time at which Manasseh was summoned to Assyria. Esarhaddon died in
669/8 as he marched against Egypt. His son Ashurbanipal was the last strong king of Assyria. In
the apocryphal book of Tobit, it is probably Esarhaddon who (under the name “Sacherdonos”!)2
is credited with restoring Tobit to his possessions (Tobit 1:22ƒ.) and with appointing Tobit’s
nephew Ahiqar as treasurer (Tobit 1:21). 2 Kings 19:37; Ezra 4:2; Isa. 37:38; in the Apocrypha in
Tobit 1:21, 22, 2:1; also probably 1 Esdras 5:69.
Sammuramat: The correct Assyrian name of the queen better known as SEMIRAMIS.
Sarakos: Greek name for SIN-SHAR-ISHKUN.
Sargon II: Probably a usurper. One inscription makes him the son of TIGLATH-PILESER III,
but this could easily be a self-serving fiction. In 722, Shalmaneser V died (probably assassinated)
while besieging Samaria. Sargon assumed the throne and concluded the siege of Samaria. It was
thus Sargon who formally deposed King Hoshea and sent Israel into exile. (E.R. Thiele, on the
other hand, believes that Shalmaneser had captured Samaria in 723 and that Sargon took over
his predecessor’s accomplishment along with his throne. It has also been suggested that
Shalmaneser conquered Samaria and deposed Hosea, but then died. Sargon faced several revolts
before he was able to return to Israel; it was thus some months or years before he finished
demolishing Samaria and deporting its people, probably in 720.) Sargon claims that “in my
accession year, Samaria I captured… I carried away 27,290 of its inhabitants and levied [tribute
of] fifty chariots. The city I rebuilt… [and] I set over them [my] governor [and] imposed
tribute….” His dynasty would become the most powerful in all of Assyria’s history. But the
beginning of his reign was troubled, for it took him a dozen years to conquer Marduk-apal-iddin
(Biblical Merodach-Baladan — 2 Kings 20:12; Isa. 39:1) who proclaimed himself king of
Babylon (722–710, and again briefly around 704). Sargon died in 705 in battle with the Persians
1.!It might be noted that this section, which in MT (followed by NRSV) describes the destruction of Assyria, has had
the reference to Assyria emended away in the RSV.
2.!Lest we think this an unlikely rendering, we should note that Esahaddon’s name is rendered “Asordan” (Lucian
“Achodran”) in LXX of 2 Kings and Isaiah; in Ezra we find “Asaraddon” (LXXA), “Asareathon” (LXXB), or
“Nachordan” (Lucian); 1 Esdras has “Asbasareth/Asbakaphath”; Josephus, Ant. X.i.5 reads “Asarachoddas.”
Clearly the Greek translators didn’t know the Greek names of Assyrian kings. Thus the odd form in Tobit should
not cause us particular concern.

The Assyrian Empire
(a rather severe defeat; his body was never recovered), and was succeeded by his son Sennacherib.
Isa. 20:1.
Semiramis: Properly called Sammuramat. The wife of the rather ineffective Emperor
SHAMSHI-ADAD V (824–811) and the mother of ADAD-NIRARI III. Her husband died when Adad-
nirari was too young to rule, and so she became Queen Regent during the years 811–806. Her
reign is said to have been successful, and Herodotus (writing long after her time) attributes several
major building projects to her (Hist I.183).
Sennacherib: The son of Sargon II. Hezekiah of Judah rebelled against him at the time of
his accession in 705. Sennacherib could not respond at once; he had to deal with Merodach-
Baladan (properly Marduk-apal-iddin, died c. 695) of Babylon, who had ruled that city from
722–710, and now seized power again. But by 703 the Babylonian revolt was crushed, and the
Assyrians could turn to Palestine. Sennacherib put down the other coastal states which had joined
Hezekiah in 703, and brought a great army against Jerusalem in 701. A many-month siege
ensued. The Assyrian, as always, claims a great victory — and with some reason. Of Hezekiah
he said “he did not submit to my yoke. I laid siege to 46 of his strong cities, walled forts, and to
countless villages in their vicinity, and I conquered them.... I brought out 200,150 people, young
and old, male and female, together with horses, mules, asses, cattle… and counted them as spoil.
Him I shut up in Jerusalem… like a caged bird.... I reduced his territory [and] increased his
tribute.”
But for some reason Sennacherib could not capture the city. The Bible attributes this to an
angel who killed 185,000 soldiers in one night (2 Kings 19:35); Herodotus — Hist II.141 —
describes a plague of mice that destroyed the Assyrians’ weapons, although he spoke of a battle
with the Egyptians not the Judeans (whom he had probably never heard of). Whatever the actual
event, the Jews viewed their salvation as miraculous — it was certainly highly unusual — and
referred to it several times in their later writings (see the references below). Sennacherib returned
to Ninevah. A thoroughly vindictive man, hated by his subjects and his family alike, his greatest
“accomplishment” was his destruction of Babylon in 689. This was part of the aftermath of the
second revolt of Merodach-Baladan. Sennacherib’s viceroy then rebelled. This revolt too was put
down, and the Emperor made his son viceroy. Rebels then killed the prince, and Sennacherib had
had enough. When he finally put down the revolt (after several defeats), he destroyed the city.
Years later, in 681, he was assassinated while worshiping “Nisroch, his god” by his son(s; the
Bible in 2 Kings 19:37 lists two, ADRAMMELECH and SHAREZER; Assyrian sources describe only
one, who is unnamed). A third son, ESARHADDON, drove the parricides into exile and assumed
the throne (presumably with the support of his mother Naqia). Some scholars try to make
Assyrian records match those in the Bible by assuming that the Biblical account combines two
revolts by Hezekiah: one in 701 — which is the only one mentioned in Assyrian records — and
another around 688, shortly before both kings died.
In the book of Tobit we find another fanciful explanation of the Emperor’s death. This book
describes Sennacherib as the son of SHALMANESER V (! — Tobit 1:15), in whose time Tobit took

The Assyrian Empire
to burying the (abandoned) dead (Tobit 1:17), for which crime Sennacherib deprived the Jew of
his property. This was soon followed by Sennacherib’s murder (Tobit 1:21). 2 Kings 18:13, 19:16,
20, 36; 2 Ch. 31:1, 2, 9, 10,1 22; Isa. 36:1, 37:17, 21, 37;2 in the Apocrypha in Tobit 1:15, 18, 21,
22; Sirach 48:18; 2 Macc. 8:19, 15:22; 3 Macc. 6:5.
Shalmaneser III: The first Assyrian king to be involved in Palestine. He came to the throne
in 859, and moved toward Israel in 854 (this might just possibly be the event described in Hos.
10:14; see also the next two entries). But Ahab king of Israel and Ben-Hadad king of Syria
formed an alliance against him. The Assyrian army met Ahab’s at Karkar (Qarqar) in 854/3.
And the Palestinian forces seem to have won (or at least to have fought to a draw), for the
Assyrians annexed no territory.
By 841, however, Israel and Syria had broken their truce. Syria had taken most of Israel’s
eastern territory in the Trans-Jordan. So Jehu king of Israel — who had overthrown the dynasty
of Omri and Ahab that had been feared by Syria and perhaps even faintly respected by the other
powers — made a deal with Assyria. He paid Shalmaneser tribute in return for protection; the
tribute is recorded on a stele. But we know nothing further about this, or about its effects on
internal Israeli politics, for the Bible has nothing to say about this or the battle of Karkar.
Shalmaneser died in 824, having spent years suppressing a revolt by one of his sons, and Assyria
went into a temporary decline under Shalmaneser’s son SHAMSHI-ADAD V. The Assyrians had left
Palestine by around 837, leaving Jehu’s Israel at the mercy of Hazael of Damascus.
Shalmaneser IV: The oldest son and heir of ADAD-NIRARI III. (At least, he is thought to
have been the son of Adad-nirari, although some sources claim that that king had no heirs.) He is
generally regarded as a weak king, although he managed to keep some pressure on Damascus
while fighting major wars with the kingdom of Uratu (Ararat). But these troubles and internal
strife kept him from engaging in any significant conquests. His heir was his brother (?) ASHURDAN
III, who was similarly weak.3
Shalmaneser V: The son of TIGLATH-PILESER III. It is he who initiated the siege of
Samaria in 726 that would result in the destruction of Israel. But just before the city fell in 722
(or perhaps shortly after; see the entry on SARGON II), Shalmaneser died, probably assassinated.
He was succeeded by a usurper, Sargon II (a fact that the Bible does not deign to notice. Some
scholars try to reconcile the Biblical and Assyrian records by claiming Shalmaneser besieged
Samaria as early as 726, and captured its King Hoshea in 724, but then died and left the final
conquest of the city to Sargon). He is also mentioned in the apocryphal book of Tobit (under the
name “Enemessaros”) as the king who conquered Samaria (Tobit 1:2) but then took Tobit on as a
1.!LXXB omits this use, referring simply to “the king of Assyria.”

2.!LXXA LXXQ omit this use; found in MT LXXB LXX‫ *א‬Lucian.
3.!Shalmaneser IV may possibly be referred to in Hos. 5:13, 10:6; see the notes on Shalmaneser V on p. 291 and on
Tiglath-Pileser III on p. 293.

The Assyrian Empire
buyer (Tobit 1:13–15) and allowed Tobit’s acts of charity (Tobit 1:17). 2 Kings 17:3, 18:9;1 in the
Apocrypha in Tobit 1:2, 13, 15, 16.
Shamashshumukin: The uterine half-brother (or perhaps even full brother) of
ASHURBANIPAL, and hence the stepson of ESARHADDON. In 672, Esarhaddon had summoned his
vassals to hear his will. He made Ashurbanipal his heir, but granted that Shamashshumukin be
made prince of Babylon. If the two brothers had held to their agreement, all would have been
well. But Shamashshumukin chose to rebel against his brother around 652. Ashurbanipal, for all
his might, needed until 648 to suppress the rebellion. At the end, Shamashshumukin killed
himself. But he had ruined Assyria; the Empire was destroyed within a few dozen years of
Ashurbanipal’s death.
Shamshi-Adad V: The chosen heir of SHALMANESER III, his succession was attended by
enough trouble that Assyria went a decline for some time. Shamshi-Adad never amounted to
much as a king, and had to spend most of his time repressing revolts. Indeed, had he not had
help from a Babylonian prince, his dynasty might have fallen (though Shamshi-Adad later turned
the tables and took his haughty vassal prisoner). Having finally achieved peace, Shamshi-Adad
died young, leaving the nation in the hands of his queen SEMIRAMIS until their son ADAD-NIRARI
III was old enough to rule.
Sharezer: He and his brother ADRAMMELECH plotted against their father Sennacherib. One
or both of them (the Bible lists them both, but Assyrian records mention only one rebellious
prince) succeeded in killing the king in 681, but he/they were driven out by a younger brother,
ESARHADDON. 2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38.
Sin-shar-ishkun: Greek “Sarakos.” A son of ASHURBANIPAL, and co-regent for the last few
years of the old king’s reign. But when Ashurbanipal died around 627, a general tried to set
another son, ASHUR-ITIL-ILANI, on the throne. Sin-shar-ishkun would not accept this, and
rebelled. The two brothers met in battle around 622, and Ashur-itil-ilani was killed. Sin-shar-
1.!Also perhaps the “Shalman” of Hos. 10:14 (or this might be Shalmaneser III or even Shalmaneser IV), although
this seems unlikely on linguistic grounds. Others have suggested that “Shalman” was a contemporary king of
Moab. Or Shalman might be an unattested Canaanite god. The verse is obscure and difficult, as shown by the
fact that there are half a dozen variants noted in BHK. LXX renders the name “Salamon” (Solomon?), but
refers to “Salamon leaving the household of Jeroboam/Jerubaal,” whereas MT credits “Shalman [with]
destroy[ing] Beth-Arbel.” The reading “Jeroboam” is that of LXXB LXXQ* of Hos. 10:14; LXXA LXXQc
“Jerobaal”; MT, probably correctly, “Beth-Arbel.”
None of these readings makes much sense to modern scholars; we know of no destruction of “Beth-Arbel” by
“Shalman.” Various emendations have been proposed, often based partly on the Greek. For example, some
would emend “Shalman” to “Shallum,” giving us “Shallum’s destruction of the house of Jeroboam” — which
makes some sense, since SHALLUM (2) son of JABESH usurped the throne of Jeroboam’s son Zechariah. But this
doesn’t involve a siege. If we instead read “Shalman” as “Shalmaneser,” i.e. Shalmaneser V, it points to the
Assyrian emperor who began the final siege of Samaria in 722. But this is a very late date for an oracle by Hosea,
even if we ignore the linguistic problems. Another option is to make “Shalman” the same as the Salamanu of
Moab mentioned in an Assyrian inscription; on this hypothesis Beth-Arbel might be equated with Irbid in
Gilead. But it is not clear why Hosea would mention this. Or Shalman might be an unattested Canaanite god.
The reference might also be tied into the reference in Hos. 5:13 to the King of Assyria, although that seems to fit
better with Tiglath-Pileser III. Odds are that the verse is corrupt in a way we just don’t understand.

The Assyrian Empire
ishkun was then able to make himself king. But not for long. The subject peoples had seen that
Assyria was failing, and were asserting their independence. Although Sin-shar-ishkun was able to
drive off the Medes (with Egyptian help) in 616, he could not stop them from conquering Asshur
in 614. In 612, they attacked and destroyed the capitol of Ninevah. Sin-shar-ishkun was killed in
the siege. A general, who took the glorious name ASHURUBALLIT II, tried to lead a last stand from
Haran, but was defeated by the Medes and Babylonians in 610. A final battle at Carchemish in
605 destroyed Assyria forever.
Tiglath-Pileser III: He almost certainly founded a new dynasty in 745 — in one
inscription he refers to himself as the son of ADAD-NIRARI [III], but this is almost impossible;
Adad-Nirari had died thirty-eight years earlier, and the claim is not repeated elsewhere. Another
document calls him the son of ASHUR-NIRARI [V]. Tiglath-Pileser’s own documents make no
mention of his ancestry, and fictitious genealogies were not unknown in Assyrian history. Assyria
had been ruled by weak kings since 783, but Tiglath-Pileser was far from weak. It was he, for
instance, who revived and broadened the policy of deportations of rebellious populations;
Tiglath-Pileser was the first to swap entire tribes. In addition, he brought Babylon firmly under
Assyrian control (he was the first Assyrian to actually be King of Babylon), and extended
Assyrian territory to the borders of Egypt, relegating Israel, Judah, Damascus, Edom, Moab, and
Ammon to the status of vassal states (or worse). Around 743 he received tribute from Menahem
king of Israel (in return for confirming Menahem on his throne — 2 Kings 15:19ƒ.; this may also
lie behind Hos. 14:3, if that verse refers to a specific Assyrian intervention). But when Pekah of
Israel and Rezin king of Damascus formed an alliance against him, he marched against them.
(The two had not in fact attacked Assyria but rather Ahaz king of Judah, and it was Ahaz who
had called in Tiglath-Pileser, but the alliance of Israel and Syria was aimed at Assyria.) Tiglath-
Pileser defeated the two kings, and proceeded to destroy Damascus in 732 (2 Kings 15:29–31,
16:5–9; cf. Isa. 7:1ƒ. and again perhaps Hos. 14:3). Israel was allowed to survive,1 but Assyria
made it a tributary state and confirmed Hoshea, the murderer of Pekah, as its king. (Hoshea
would rebel ten years later, and Israel would in turn be destroyed.) He died in 726 (perhaps the
same year Ahaz of Judah died; cf. Isa. 14:28ƒ.), and was succeeded by his son SHALMANESER V.
Tiglath-Pileser is called “Pul” (a form of his Babylonian name, “Pulu”) in 2 Kings 15:19; 1 Ch.
5:26; variations of his name are used in 2 Kings 15:29, 16:7, 10; 1 Ch. 5:6, 26;2 2 Ch. 28:20.3
1.!This was probably because Damascus had been a long-time adversary of Assyria and Israel less so. Tiglath-Pileser
may have considered Israel a Damascene dupe — and the Israelites had, in and case, just killed their king to
demonstrate their new submission to Assyria.
2.!In LXX, however, the names are different; in 1 Kings the name is _8E%, Phoul or _8E-, Phoua (so LXXB LXXA),
while in 1 Chronicles we find the curious variants _-%DN, Phaloch in LXXB LXXN+V and _-%D#, Phalos, in
LXXA.
3.!Tiglath-Pileser seems to be implicitly referred to in Hos. 5:13 (which refer to the king of Assyria), although the
Hebrew here is corrupt; LXXB LXXA LXXQ* refer to “King Jarim” (LXXQc has “Jareib”), who cannot otherwise
be identified. On the other hand, one of Tiglath-Pileser’s weak predecessors might be meant. But it should be
noted that these three kings (Shalmaneser IV, Ashurdan III, Ashur-nirari V) in their 38 years of reign managed
only one campaign in Palestine: in 783 an advance was made on Damascus. But, since this was the year

The Assyrian Empire
Tukulti-Ninurta II: The first king of a new dynasty, he came to power around 890
(following the death of ADAD-NIRARI II — 911–891) and set Assyria firmly on the path to a new
Empire. He was able to defeat the tribes that had been harassing Assyria for several centuries and
set the groundwork for the conquests of his son ASHURNASIRPAL II (883–859) and grandson
SHALMANESER III (859–824).
Shalmaneser IV died, the campaign was probably abortive. The weakness of these kings is shown by the fact that
they spent nine years “in the land” (i.e. they were unable to lead foreign campaigns) and had to spend six years
fighting their neighbour Uratu (Ararat). Even many of their “offensive” actions were probably part of the
defensive war against Uratu — e.g. the campaigns of 772, 765, 755 were against Hadrach, Uratu’s western ally.
It is also possible that Tiglath-Pileser is referred to in Hos. 10:6, although here Shalmaneser V is perhaps a better
bet; see the note on that king on p. 291.

Babylon: The Chaldean Empire
The Chaldean Emperors of Babylon

Babylon was the greatest city in Mesopotamia. Its temples, its walls, its population far
surpassed those of any other nation in the area. It was the home of the great lawgiver,
Hammurabi. It was the city in which Alexander the Great was to die, and even then it was over
two thousand years old.1 But in 700 B.C.E. it was an Assyrian vassal.
This did not sit well with the Babylonians, and they revolted constantly. Merodach-Baladan’s
revolt is mentioned in the Bible in 2 Kings 20:12. Merodach-Baladan2 had actually become king
of Babylon in 722, taking power when Shalmaneser V died. In 710 Sargon II expelled him from
his throne — although perhaps allowing him to remain at the head of his tribal holdings. But in
705, after Sargon’s death, another rebellion arose, and Merodach-Baladan decided that he, and
no one else, would rule Babylonia. He managed to hang on for about nine months before
Sennacherib put an end to his pretensions once and for all. It was probably during his first reign
that he made contact with Hezekiah of Judah (2 Kings 20:12ƒ., Isa. 39:1ƒ.3). Merodach-Baladan
made one more grab for power around 700, but was handily defeated and forced to flee; he
probably died a few years later.
Later, the Assyrians installed their own princes, including Shamashshumukin the brother of
the Assyrian Emperor Ashurbanipal. The rebellion of Shamashshumukin in 652 took four years
to suppress. Unrest was constant, as the Chaldean tribes fought for control of Babylonia. Around
627, Ashurbanipal died. After that, it was all over for Assyria. The Chaldeans, led by
Nabopolassar, declared their independence in 625 and set about founding an Empire of their
own. By 612, the Assyrian capitol Ninevah had fallen (an event predicted with bloody relish by
Nahum; cf. also Tobit 14:4, 15); by 605, the Assyrian nation had been destroyed forever. While
some of their territory was taken over by the Medes — who were largely responsible for the
destruction of Assyria — most of it fell into the hands of the Chaldeans. Their Empire is known
as the New Babylonian Empire or the Chaldean Empire; its rulers were:
1.!It should perhaps be mentioned that the early history of Babylon is not very well known to us. It was not until 747
B.C.E., with the accession of the Babylonian king Nabopolassar, that the history becomes reliable (if often
sketchy). A loyal ally and semi-vassal of Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria, Nabopolassar prospered with help from his
powerful neighbour. But after his death in 734, chaos reigned. Three kings assumed power in the years 733-729.
Finally Tiglath-Pileser had had enough. He displaced the last native king, Nabu-mukin-zeri, in 729/8. The
Assyrian monarch went so far as to have himself crowned king of Babylon, apparently under the name
“Pulu” (the “Pul” of 2 Kings 15:19, 1 Ch. 5:26), but died two years later.
2.!Properly Marduk-apal-iddin II. The first Marduk-apal-iddin had been a rather obscure king of Babylon, c.
1173-1161 B.C.E., probably as an Elamite or Assyrian vassal. He was the last independent prince of the Kassite
dynasty that had ruled Babylon off and on since c. 1550.
3.!Others, however, date the embassy to Hezekiah to 703, believing that Merodach-Baladan tried to divert attention
from himself by fomenting rebellion in Palestine.

1. Nabopolassar. (“Nebo protect the son.”) Reigned 612–605 B.C.E. Nabopolassar was
originally the viceroy of Babylon under Ashurbanipal emperor of Assyria. After the death of
Ashurbanipal (around 627), however, Assyria degenerated, and the provinces rebelled en masse.
In 626/5, Nabopolassar declared independence. For several years Babylon had to step lightly in
the shadow of Assyria, and Nabopolassar’s armies were defeated by the combined forces of the
Assyrians and the Egyptians in 616. But in 612 the Babylonians and the Medes captured the
Assyrian capitol Ninevah. Nabopolassar was then able to make himself king of Babylon.
In 605, the remnants of Assyria reaffirmed their alliance with Pharaoh Neco of Egypt
(compare Ant X.v.1). Nabopolassar sent an army against them later in that year, but died at about
that time. He was succeeded by his son
2. Nebuchadnezzar. (Sometimes Nebuchadrezzar; properly “Nabo-kudurri-usur,” meaning
“Nebo Protect My Children” or possibly “Nebo Protect the Boundary.” LXX typically
X-)8EN895848!=Nabuchodnosor.) Reigned 605–562 B.C.E. (2 Kings 24, 25; 1 Ch. 6:15; 2 Ch. 36;
Ezra 1:7, 2:1, 5:12, 14, 6:5; Neh. 7:6; Esth. 2:6; Jer. 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 34, 35, 37, 39,
43, 44, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52; Ezek. 26:7, 29:18–19, 30:10; Dan. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5);1 in the Apocrypha in
1!Esdras 1:40–41, 45, 48, 2:10, 5:7, 6:15, 18, 26; Judith 1:1, 5, 7, 11, 12, 2:1, 4, 19, 3:2, 8, 4:1,
6:2, 4, 11:1, 4, 7, 23, 12:13, 14:18; Esther A:3; Baruch 1:9, 11, 12; Ep.Jeremiah 1.2 He probably
led the army which captured the last Assyrian capitol, Haran, c. 610/9; he is known to have led
the army which his father had sent against Assyria and Egypt in 605. Shortly after his father died,
he led this army to victory over Assyria and Egypt at Carchemish. Egypt was driven from Asia
for good. Nebuchadnezzar’s first attack on Egypt, in 601, would be repulsed by Pharaoh Neco in
a bloody battle, but a later expedition, in 568, was very successful (Jer. 43:8–13, 44:30).
Nebuchadnezzar had many dealings with Judah, almost all of them unpleasant. In 601 king
Jehoiakim — who had become a Babylonian vassal just four years earlier — rebelled (2 Kings
24:1).3 In 597, after the accession of Jehoiakim’s son Jehoiachin, Nebuchadnezzar attacked again,
and carried off the king and much of the nobility of Judah into exile (2 Kings 24:10–17. This
was probably in connection with Nebuchadnezzar’s recorded campaign against Moab and
Ammon in that year). And in 589, Zedekiah the uncle of Jehoiachin and the last king of Judah
rebelled against Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem in 587, destroyed the Temple, and
carried more of the people into exile (2 Kings 25:1–21). A final deportation followed the death of
Gedaliah (around 582; Jer. 52:30). The nation of Judah was at an end.
1.!In LXX also in 2 Ch. 36:5-, as well as several uses in Daniel not found in the MT
2.!Also Tobit 14:15 in LXXB LXXA; not in LXX‫ א‬NRSV.
3.!Here, as elsewhere, the book of Daniel is confused in its chronology. In Dan. 1:1 Jehoiakim rebelled against
Nebuchadnezzar in his (Jehoiakim’s) third year, i.e. 606 B.C.E., while Jehoiakim was still an Egyptian vassal (cf.
2!Kings 23:24ƒ.) To add to this, a date three years later (Dan. 1:18ƒ.) is said to be Nebuchadnezzar’s second year.
This part works — Nebuchadnezzar’s second full year as king would have been 603 B.C.E., or three years after the
alleged campaign of 606. But it means that Nebuchadnezzar was called “King” in Dan. 1:1 a year before he was
crowned.

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Figure 8: Genealogy of the Chaldean Emperors of Babylon

In the Apocrypha, Nebuchadnezzar is incorrectly but understandably called the conqueror
of Nineveh in Tobit 14:15. This feat was actually accomplished by Cyaxares of Media with help
from Nabopolassar. In Judith 1:1ƒ. Nebuchadnezzar is called the Emperor of Assyria (!) and
credited with launching Holofernes’s invasion of Judah.1 This chronology is so grotesque that
some scholars believe it a deliberate falsehood, believing that nobody could be that wrong except
on purpose.
More solid is the claim that Nebuchadnezzar built the proverbial hanging gardens of
Babylon; he is said to have constructed them for the Median princess who became his wife.
Excursus: Nebuchadnezzar and Carchemish

The Bible mentions the battle of Carchemish only in Jer. 46:2 (cf. also 2 Ch. 35:20, 1 Esdras
1:25), but it is one of the major events of Middle Eastern history. Josephus gives more detail in
Ant X.vi.1, and perhaps another account in Ant X.xi.1, Against Apion I.19. Herodotus does not
mention the battle, but in Hist II.159 notes the Megiddo campaign of 609 (at which king Josiah
died) which preceded Carchemish. After Megiddo, the Assyrians and Egyptians were confined to
the west bank of the Euphrates, with their base at Carchemish. Josiah had apparently been killed
as he tried to prevent Pharaoh Neco II from strengthening the garrison at Carchemish or
Megiddo. For four years the Babylonians and Egyptians maneuvered for position. Then in 605
Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians crossed the river, destroyed the Egyptian garrison at
Carchemish (the key to their whole position), and sent the other Egyptian troops in Palestine into
a headlong retreat, defeating them again at Hamath. The Babylonians were able to occupy all of
Syria — and might have taken Egypt had not Nebuchadnezzar not been called home by the
death of his father.
1.!Judith’s contemporary king of Media, Arphaxad, does not exist. We might guess that [[Phraortes]] is meant.

Nebuchadnezzar was undoubtedly the greatest king of Babylon, and accomplished a great
deal. But the activities attributed to him in the book of Daniel are recorded nowhere else, and are
probably fictional. We know of campaigns he fought in nearly every year of his reign; there
wasn’t time for him to go out and act like a beast for seven years (Dan. 4:25, etc. In fact, a scroll at
Qumran tells a similar story of Nabonidas1). Nebuchadnezzar died in 562, and was succeeded,
not by the “Belshazzar” of Daniel, but by his son
3. Evil-Merodach. (Properly “Amel-Marduk,” “The Man is Marduk”; Josephus — Ant
X.xi.2 — “Abilmathadach[os]”; LXX QE&%?-!-9-N=Euilmaradach.2) Reigned 562–560 B.C.E.
(2!Kings 25:27; Jer. 52:31) He freed Jehoiachin from captivity after about thirty-seven years in
chains (2 Kings 25:27–29; Jer. 52:31–34). It may have been that Evil-Merodach would have freed
the Jews from exile. But he was unpopular with the Chaldeans (Berossus, in almost the only
historical reference by any author to Evil-Merodach, says that he was not “restrained” by either
“law or decency”). He was assassinated in a palace conspiracy after only two years.3 After some
confusion, he was succeeded by his brother-in-law, the usurper
4. Neriglissar. (Properly “Nergal-ashur-usur,” “Nergal, Protect the King”; Josephus —
Ant X.xi.2 — “Eglisar[os]”/“Niglisar[os].”) Reigned 560–556 B.C.E. Not mentioned in the Bible,
unless he is the Nergal-sharezer of Jer. 39:3, 13. He gained the throne as the husband of one of
Nebuchadnezzar’s daughters. Although he was the only Babylonian Emperor other than
Nebuchadnezzar to show any energy, he was really only a minor king, whose reign had no impact
on the history of the Jews. Like Evil-Merodach, his death resulted in confusion. His son was
5. Labashi-Marduk. (Josephus — Ant X.xi.2 —“Labosordach[os].”) Reigned 556 B.C.E.
The last Babylonian king known to be related to Nabopolassar. Rebellions against him began the
moment he took the throne (he may well have been young, and hence regarded as weak). He was
assassinated in a palace coup after only a few months. After a period of confusion, he was
succeeded by the usurper
6. Nabonidas. (or Nabuniad, “Nebo is Awe-Inspiring”; Josephus — Ant X.xi.2 —
“Naboandel[os],” whom he equates with the Biblical Belshazzar.) Reigned 556–539 B.C.E. A
more peaceful man than his predecessors (it is possible that he negotiated the 585 treaty between
Lydia and Media; cf. Hist I.73ƒ., where the ambassador is called Labynetus), Nabonidas did not
want the full responsibilities of rule. It is not clear how he attained the throne; it may have been
thrust on him. It is also possible that he was another son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar. Moreover,
1.!According to this account, the “Prayer of Nabonidas,” that king was confined to Tema in Arabia for seven years
by an “ulcer.” He was cured by a Jewish exorcist. While the details of the account can hardly be verified, we do
know that Nabonidas spent the better part of a decade at Tema — whereas Nebuchadnezzar in his prime never
spent as much as three years between campaigns. As late as 568 Nebuchadnezzar was still attacking Egypt.
2.!Euilmaradach is a Rahlfs’s conjectural spelling; LXXB has Eueialmarodek, LXXA Eueianarodach. In Jeremiah LXXA has
Oulaimaradach, LXXB Oulaimadachar, LXXQ Oulaimadarach, LXX‫ א‬Ouledamachar.
3.!A fact the Bible does not deign to notice. Indeed, Josephus once credits him with eighteen years on the throne and
with making Jehoiachin a high official of the realm. (In Josephus’s defense we should note that he got the facts
right in Against Apion I.20). Rabbinic tradition credits Evil-Merodach with a twenty-three year reign — which is,
in fact, the total for all the Babylonian kings after Nebuchadnezzar (of which, according to the incorrect
information in Daniel, there was only one, “Belshazzar,” who therefore had to be equated with Evil-Merodach.)

Nabonidas must have been fairly old in 556; his mother’s tomb records that she was born in the
twentieth year of Ashurbanipal of Assyria — c. 647 B.C.E. So he chose to make his son
Belshazzar1 his co-ruler (hence Dan. 5:1–30, 7:1, 8:12). Belshazzar commanded the army and
ruled the city of Babylon itself, while Nabonidas rebuilt temples (he has been called “the first
archaeologist”) and went on long journeys. But Belshazzar never became king. Nabonidas quickly
made himself unpopular. A native of Haran, he may have had pro-Assyrian tendencies, and he
often ignored Babylonian religious holidays — preferring (according to both his own and his
mother’s account) the older cult of Sin the moon god. It is said that he was away from Babylon
for ten years, spending most of his time at Tema in the Negeb. This may have been the source for
the story of Nebuchadnezzar’s dream in Dan. 4 — at least, a manuscript from the Dead Sea
Scrolls attributes such a dream to Nabonidas, and his extended absence may have encouraged
stories about odd behavior.3 Even worse, the Babylonian economy was weak; inflation was
rampant. In 539, Cyrus “the Great” of Persia attacked Babylon. (He later claimed that
Nabonidas’s impieties were responsible for his ambition and his success.) Neither father nor son
could oppose him. Belshazzar’s army, by one account, was quickly defeated at Opis, and the
prince killed (the army had been in Akkad rather than Babylon when Cyrus attacked; perhaps it
was not properly organized for the battle). Nabonidas, although a former general, sat idly by
while the Persians encircled Babylon. The Babylonians did not fear a siege, for their city walls
were deemed impregnable and the only other entrance to the city was across the river Euphrates.
But the Persians reportedly were able to drain the river (into an artificial lake the Babylonians
had made) and took the city easily on a feast-day (Dan. 5, except that the Biblical author had the
names of both the Persian and Babylonian kings wrong;4 Hist I.190–191. Most moderns,
naturally, think this story a romance). Others suspect there was treason involved; that disaffected
Babylonians opened the gates — contemporary records tell us that the Persian general Gobryas
entered Babylon “without battle.”5 Certainly there was little resistance after the walls were
breached. It is said that the city was so large that those in the central palace did not even know
when the walls were captured (this might have something to do with the story in Daniel 5: the
Persians could have entered the city before the Babylonian governor heard of it). Babylon
1.!Belshazzar — LXX \-%0-4-!=Baltasar by confusion with Daniel’s Chaldean name in 1:7 — is mentioned in
Dan. 5:1, 2, 9, 22, 29, 30, 7:1, 8:1, plus Baruch 1:11, 12 in the Apocrypha.
2.!Although I have not seen the possibility advanced elsewhere, there is one other way to salvage the historicity of the
“Darius the Mede” of Dan. 5:31, 6:28, etc. This is to assume that this Darius is Nabonidas! In some ways this fits;
Nabonidas, in effect, succeeded Neriglissar the son[-in-law] of Nebuchadnezzar (since the reign of Labashi-
Marduk was really just a time of revolt), just as “Darius” succeeded Nebuchadnezzar’s son “Belshazzar.”
Nabonidas, like “Darius,” became king at an advanced age (cf. Dan. 5:31). Nabonidas was a Chaldean, but his
odd behavior may have made him seem like a foreigner (with the result that he might have been nicknamed “the
Mede”). And Nabonidas, like “Darius,” was succeeded by Cyrus of Persia (cf. Dan. 6:28).
Please note that I don’t believe a word of this. But these vague points of contact may have given rise to the wildly
inaccurate legends underlying the book of Daniel.
3.!For details, see the entry on Nebuchadnezzar on p. 296 and the note on the “Prayer of Nabonidas.”.
4.!This since Belshazzar was not the Babylonian king, and “Darius the Mede” never existed.
5.!On the other hand, the Chaldean account of Berossus — quoted by Josephus in Against Apion I.20 — says that
Nabonidas led an army against Cyrus, was defeated, fled, was besieged, and surrendered.

became part of the Persian Empire, and Nabonidas was done away with. Shortly after this, Cyrus
allowed the Jews to return to Judah (2 Ch. 36:22–23; Ezra 1:1–5; see also Isa. 45:1 for the
prophet’s declaration that Cyrus was the Messiah who would rescue the Jews!).
Despite his unpopularity, Nabonidas did achieve something of a reputation. At least, when
Babylonia rebelled against the Persian Emperor Darius I in 520, its leader was one Nidintu-Bel,
who called himself “Nebuchadnezzar III” and claimed (possibly truly) to be Nabonidas’s son. But
Darius was able to capture and execute him within a few months.

The Persian Empire
The Persian Empire

The Persian Empire
The Assyrian Emperor Esarhaddon died in 668 B.C.E. His son Ashurbanipal inherited the
known world’s largest empire, including all of Mesopotamia from Cilicia to Elam, extending
north to Uratu and south all the way to the Nile delta. The Empire was peaceful and well-run.
Ashurbanipal faced several revolts during the first few years of his reign, but they were quickly
put down. In 664 he conquered Egypt. Never before had Babylonia and Egypt been united
under one monarch.
The Empire was prosperous. Ashurbanipal himself was a great patron of culture; his library
was the largest the world had yet seen. (This despite the fact that Assyrian literature was written
in syllabic cuneiform, which was difficult indeed to write.) People of many races met in the
Assyrian capitol of Ninevah. Religious toleration was high and commerce was brisk. The Empire
looked as if it could stand forever, and was at the height of its power.
But behind the mask Assyria was stretching thin. Few dared stand against Ashurbanipal, but
respect for Assyrian arms was waning. The Emperors were relying increasingly on mercenaries
instead of their own people. The policy of mass deportations had weakened the rebellious spirits
of some of the subject peoples, but it had also rendered them less able to put up a fight against
foreign invaders. Around 660, the Egyptian viceroy Psamtik rebelled. Ashurbanipal was far away;
there were local revolts to deal with, and unrest in Babylon and Elam. The Emperor could do
nothing. By 652 all of Egypt had returned to local rule. In that same year, the Emperor’s half-
brother Shamashshumukin, Lord of Babylon, started a revolt which was not crushed until 648.
Others, too, were restless. Ashurbanipal’s destruction of the Elamite capitol of Susa in 639
left a path open for Median invaders. Assyria held together by the personality of the Emperor.
When Ashurbanipal died in the early 620s, the empire disintegrated. His chosen heir,
Sarakos/Sin-shar-ishkun, was set aside. Cyaxares founded a Median Empire (based on a region
roughly equivalent to modern Azerbaijan), and Nabopolassar, the viceroy of Babylon, declared
independence. The new Assyrian Emperor, Ashur-itil-ilani, found himself caught in a civil war
with Sarakos which left him unable to combat the rebels and eventually killed him around 622.
Sarakos took the throne, but was no more successful; Nabopolassar formed the Chaldean
Empire, and Media expanded north, east, and west into Asia Minor, where it came in contact
with the Lydian kingdom of Alyattes.
In 616 the Medes moved against Sarakos. The Emperor bought a little time by forming an
alliance with Egypt; their combined arms fought off the invaders — for a while.
In 614 the Medes started a successful siege of the ancient Assyrian capital Asshur. Soon
afterward, they moved against the newer capitol Ninevah. By this time they had formed an
alliance with the Babylonians; Ninevah fell to their combined forces in 612. The Assyrians were
forced to retreat to Haran, which fell in turn in 610. The Egyptian Pharaoh Neco II, the son of
Psamtik, moved to save the remnants of the Empire, but was heavily defeated by Nabopolassar’s
son Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish in 605.1 Assyria — the nation which had lasted for well over
a thousand years — was destroyed forever.
1.!For details, see the note on the Battle of Carchemish under Nebuchadnezzar on p. 296.

The Persian Empire
In Mesopotamia there was a power vacuum. Nebuchadnezzar ruled Babylon until 562, but
his successors were weak. Media fought a long war with Lydia, which ended in an uneasy truce in
585. Cyaxares died soon after, and was succeeded by his ineffective son Astyges. In 560 the
overconfident Croesus succeeded to the throne of Lydia. The Middle East was ready for a
conqueror.
Thrace
491
Additional
Athens• Lydia Persian Territory
•
Sparta 546
Babylon Media
539 550
Egypt Assyrian Anshan

525 Empire (Persia)
c. 665
Figure 9: The Rise of Persia
showing the nations conquered and the boundaries of the former Assyrian Empire
In 553, said conqueror appeared. Cyrus of Anshan, a Persian prince, attacked Media.
Despite Astyges’s far greater resources, Ecbatana fell in 550 and the Median Empire became the
Persian Empire.
In 546, after a feint toward Babylonia (now ruled by the weak Nabonidas, who seems to have
had an understanding with Persia), Cyrus attacked and conquered Lydia. Finally, in 539, Cyrus
attacked Chaldea. Babylon fell in 538 to an army under Gobryas (either a Persian general or a
Babylonian defector), and Persia ruled all of the Middle East.
In 530/29 Cyrus died in battle. But his son Cambyses continued his father’s warlike policies,
and conquered Egypt in 525. The Persian Empire was now far larger — and more peaceful, for
the Persians were generally enlightened rulers — than any other nation the world had yet seen.
Cambyses died in 522, by poison or suicide. A usurper, claiming to by Cambyses’s dead
brother Smerdis/Bardiya, briefly came to the throne (actually, many now think this was the true
Smerdis. But he was accepted as a pretender at the time). He was killed by Darius in 520.
Darius I, known as “the Great,” brought Persia to the height of its power. Although his
invasion of Greece was defeated at Marathon in 490, he brought Persia to its greatest extent. The
realm was peaceful; it was to endure for another century and a half before it was conquered by
Macedonians under Alexander.

The Persian Empire
Unfortunately, the Biblical authors seem to be very confused about the Persian kings.1 Even if
we leave aside the nonexistent “Darius the Mede” of Dan. 5:31, etc.,2 the book of Ezra presents
the following sequence of events as the Temple was rebuilt:
• Cyrus grants permission for the rebuilding (Ezra 1:2ƒ., 1 Esdras 2:3ƒ.).
• Neighbouring peoples frustrate the building during the reigns of Cyrus, (Cambyses),
Darius, and Xerxes (Ezra 4:4–6)
• The neighbours accuse the Jews before the Emperor Artaxerxes (Ezra 4:7ƒ., 1 Esdras
2:16ƒ.)
• Artaxerxes commands that the work stop (Ezra 4:17ƒ.; 1 Esdras 2:26ƒ.)
• Permission is granted to resume the work on the Temple (Ezra 5:1ƒ.) in the second year
of Darius (Ezra 4:24)3
To make this chronology work out, we would have to assume that the Temple was begun in
538 B.C.E. and not completed until the time of Darius II (i.e. in the year 422)! And even this
contradicts 1 Esdras 5:73, which says that the building was suspended for only two years.4
Josephus in Ant XI.ii.5 etc. quietly corrects this chronology, and most moderns would accept
his scheme in outline:
• Cyrus grants permission to rebuild the Temple (538 B.C.E.). Work proceeds slowly,
hindered by a small and poor group of builders and perhaps by local opposition
• During the reign of Cambyses, the Jews’ neighbours attempt to end the building by
appealing to the Emperor
• Work is suspended at the Emperor’s order; the suspension lasts through the reign of
Cambyses (who died in 522) until the reign of Darius
• In the second year of Darius (probably 520 B.C.E., counting two years from the date of
Cambyses’s death, although the interregnum which followed did not end until 520, so a
date as late as 518 is possible), perhaps helped by the efforts of Zerubbabel 1, the Jews are
granted permission to resume work on the Temple (Ant XI.iii.1; cf. the promise Darius
made in 1 Esdras 4:43ƒ.). The work is finished c. 516.
The other great question of biblical chronology in Persian times, that of the date of Ezra,
admits of no such simple solution. For our best guesses, see the note on Ezra on p. 39.
1.!The correct order of the major kings (as can be seen from the genealogy below) is Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius I,
Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, Darius II, Artaxerxes II, Artaxerxes III, Darius III.
2.!For what little can be said about this non-existent figure, see the note on Nabonidas and Darius on p. 299.
3.!1 Esdras also dares these events to the second year of Darius (2:30), but adds that permission was granted to
rebuild the Temple only after the famous “Which is Strongest” contest in the Persian court (1 Esdras 3-4; cf. the
entry on Zerubbabel 1 on p. 205).
4.!An alternate assumption — which I came up with independently but which was known by the nineteenth century
— is that the names and letters in Ezra 4 are original and correct, but simply transferred to the wrong period.
The correspondence seems to refer to the building not of the Temple but of Jerusalem’s walls (Ezra 4:12; cf. the
version in 1 Esdras 2:18, which adds a gloss about building the Temple). If we assume that it is the walls that are
under discussion, and move Ezra 4:6-23 (and the parallel in 1 Esdras 2:16-30a) to the era of Nehemiah — a
distinct possibility, given that much of Ezra and Nehemiah is already scrambled — then everything makes sense.

The Persian Empire
Kings of Lydia
Kings of Media Gyges
ascended 704 d. 666
Deioces Ardys
ascended 702 d. 647 d. 617
Phraortes Sadyattes
d. 625† d. 605
Cyaxares Alyattes
d. 585 d. 560
Astyges Aryenis Croesus
( ) deposed 553;
Nebuchadnezzar d. 550† deposed 546
of Babylon Amytis
d. 562
Achaemenes
Cambyses Mandane Cyrus ascended in Persia c. 558

Conquered Media 550
Conquered Lydia 546
Cyrus Cassandane Conquered Babylon 539
d. 530†
( ) Hystaspes ( )
Gobryas
1/1 2/2 1
Cambyses Atossa Darius I ( ) Smerdis* Artaphernes
d. 522† d. 486 (Bardiya)
Amestris d. 524?†
Xerxes I§ Artabazanes
d. 465†
Key:
Darius Hystapes Damaspia Artaxerxes I
d. 465† d. 462†
d. 424† Names in Plain Text are male
Names in italic are female
A date in SMALL TEXT and
Xerxes II§ Sogdianus Darius II and marked d. is a death date.
d. 424† d. 424† d. 404
Emperors’ names are in BOLD
Artaxerxes II Ostanes † indicates a violent death
Cyrus the Younger (usually by assassination)
d. 358; b. c. 444 d. 401†; b. c. 423?
= indicates a marriage
Darius Artaxerxes III Arsames Sisygambis
d. 338†
Arses
d. 336† Darius III
d. 330†
NOTES:
* Smerdis the brother of Cambyses is reported to have been murdered in 524 at his
brother’s order. A false (?) Smerdis ascended the throne as Cambyses’s heir in 522.
He was deposed and killed by Darius I and six others in 520.
§ Xerxes is the Greek equivalent of Biblical Ahasuerus (Esth. 1:1, etc.)
Figure 10: Genealogy of the Persian Emperors

The Persian Empire
The Persian Royal Family

Achaemenes: An ancestor of the Persian royal family. A legend has it that he was raised by
an eagle. CYRUS “THE GREAT” named the Persian Empire the “Achaemenid Empire” after him.
Inscriptions (partly supported by Hist V.11) make him the father of one Teispes, who was perhaps
the great-grandfather of Cyrus and the great-great-grandfather of Darius I. But another version
says that Achaemenes was the father of Teispes, father of a Cambyses, father of a Cyrus who
probably lived around 640 B.C.E. who was the father of a second Teipses, this second one being
Cyrus’s great-grandfather.
Ahasuerus: The Biblical name (Esther 1:1ƒ.) for a Persian monarch believed to be XERXES
I; see the Excursus below on Esther.
Alyattes: The next-to-last ruler of the great empire of Lydia, which encompassed all of Asia
Minor west of the river Halys. He also exercised loose control over Greece, receiving tribute from
several cities. He reigned from 605 to 560. His son was the famous CROESUS. His daughter
ARYENIS was the wife of the Median Emperor ASTYGES and hence (by Herodotus’s account) the
grandmother of Cyrus. According to Herodotus, the marriage came about in the following
manner: In 585 Lydia and Media were preparing for the final battle of a long war. Just before the
battle began, an eclipse (which had been predicted by the Greek philosopher Thales) frightened
both armies to such an extent that they agreed to a peace that was to last “forever.” (Amazingly
enough, it did — because both nations were conquered by Persia in the next few decades.) To
cement the peace, the children of the two royal families were married (Hist I.74).
It has been suggested that the name “Alyattes” is the same as the name “Goliath,” the
Philistine slain by David. Given that the name has been through probably two different
translations, I don’t know how this could be proved, but it’s intriguing.
Amestris: The daughter of Otanes, one of the seven conspirators who put DARIUS I on the
throne. According to Herodotus (Hist VII.114), she was the wife of XERXES I. Does this make her
the “Vashti” of the Book of Esther? See below....
Excursus: Do You, Esther, Take This King…

The Book of Esther dates itself to the days of “Ahasuerus, the same Ahasuerus who ruled
over 127 provinces from India to Ethiopia [Cush].” But who was Ahasuerus?
We have little direct information. “Ahasuarus” is mentioned twice elsewhere in the Hebrew
Bible. The first mention, in Ezra 4:5-6, makes it clear that he came after Cyrus “the Great”; Ezra
4:7 may mean that Ahasuerus came before Artaxerxes [I], but this is not clear and still gives us
three kings, Cambyses, Darius I, and Xerxes I. In Dan. 9:1 we find “Darius the Mede” called the
son of Ahasuerus — but Darius the Mede didn’t exist, and even if he did, he isn’t the same guy
as Darius I. An “Asueros” is mentioned in most texts of Tobit 14:15 as a conqueror of Ninevah,
but that would make him a Mede, not a Persian (and the Mede involved was actually CYAXARES).
The ancient versions aren’t much help; the Vulgate, e.g., give the name as “Asueri,” which is
clearly a variant on “Ahasuareus.” The lack of information forces us to look at internal evidence.

The Persian Empire
We know from Esther 1:1 that this Ahasuarus ruled over a Persian Empire that included
Egypt. This confines us to the period from Cambyses to Artaxerxes II. We can probably eliminate
Cambyses because he didn’t sit still long enough. Darius I didn’t, either, plus the name “Darius”
was well-enough known that the author could probably have gotten it right. So our likely choices
are Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I.
The LXX chooses to render it Artaxerxes, using the name both in the main text translated
from the Hebrew (Esther 2:1 LXX, etc.) and in the additions (Esther A:1, etc.) For the LXX,
there is no doubt about the identification at all; the name is spelled the same way as in the Greek
historical writings. At least, “Artaxerxes” is the reading of LXXB LXXA LXXN+V; the manuscripts
known as L or (in NETS) as AT read “Assueros,” which is clearly a version of “Ahasuerus.” (The
LXX and AT texts appear to be separate Greek translations of the Hebrew which nonetheless
contain the same insertions, although each omits passages found in the other; the translations
differ so substantially from each other and from the Hebrew that one scholar remarked tartly that
Esther was the only book of the Hebrew Bible never actually translated into Greek.)
And if redating the book to the reign of Artaxerxes solves the “wife problem” (that is, the
problem that the wife of Xerxes was Amestris, not Vashti or Esther; more on this below), it
creates another. By this reckoning, Esther and Nehemiah are contemporaries, but show no
knowledge of each other.
One scholar therefore argued for Artaxerxes II as the husband of Esther. This is theoretically
possible if the entire action took place early in the reign, and it is true that the marriage laws for
the king were perhaps less strict then; children of an unofficial wife could succeed. But Artaxerxes
eventually lost control of Egypt, meaning that he didn’t reign over provinces from India to Cush.
However, the name “Ahasuerus” is much more like the Persian name which became “Xerxes”
in Greek than to the name “Artaxerxes.” “Xerxes” and “Ahasuerus” may not look much alike in
English, but this equivalence is not as odd as it seems, for the Greek N = Hebrew + = ch as in loch.
And it has been urged that the easily-swayed petty tyrant of Esther much resembles the rather
small-minded Xerxes we find in Herodotus and Æschylus (although how either of those two
would have known Xerxes’s personality is beyond me). Several English versions go so far as to
identify Ahasuerus as Xerxes in Esther 1:1 —
• Reading “Ahasuerus” are: KJV RSV NEB NABtxt JB NJB NASB REB NRSV (NETS AT “Assyeros”)
• Reading “Xerxes” are: MOFFATT NIVtxt TNIV NLT
• Reading “Artaxerxes” are: NETS (o' text)
Josephus makes a valiant attempt to reconcile the traditions; in Ant XI.vi.1 he claims that “on
the death of Xerxes the kingdom passed to his son Asueros, whom the Greeks call Artaxerxes.”
Our other clue is that this king’s second wife was “Esther” and his first was named
“Vashti” (Esther 1:9, 11, 12, 15–17, 19, 2:1, 4, 17 in the Hebrew; LXX has “Astin”; NETS says AT
reads “Ouastin”; the mss. of Ant. XI.vi.1 are split between “Astin” and “Ouastin,” the latter being
closer to MT; Vulgate typically “Vasthi”).
But could Esther be one of the wives of Xerxes? Unfortunately, Xerxes had only one
recorded Queen, Amestris, the daughter of the Persian noble Otanes. She cannot have been a

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Jewess. Nor was Amestris the sort of person that anyone would want as a role model; she had
Xerxes’s brother’s wife mutilated in a fit of jealousy (Hist IX.108ƒ.). It will be observed that the
name “Amestris” is rather similar to “Esther,” and Amestris’s cruelty is rather like Esther’s
gloating over the fate of non-Jews. But then what happened to “Vashti”? Is she just an odd
retelling of Herodotus’s tale of Gyges of Lydia, who was forced to see the King’s wife naked and
then realized he had to murder the king? (Hist I.8ƒ.).
For that matter, Artaxerxes I doesn’t offer a suitable consort either; his royal wife was
Damaspia, although he had significant sons by other women. But the very fact that these other
sons had to fight to succeed is proof that Damaspia, and only Damaspia, was the official wife of
Artaxerxes.
What’s more, by official Persian law the King after 522 could only take a wife from the
families of the seven nobles who had put Darius I on the throne. Amestris fit this rule; Esther
obviously did not.
Most scholars therefore conclude that Esther is fiction, designed to promote the feast of
Purim (although it’s not obvious where Purim came from if not associated with Esther — it has
been suggested that it is a pagan festival taken over by the Jews, but no one quite seems to know
how the taking-over happened). Probably the author heard that Amestris was the wife of Xerxes,
and converted that name to Esther — and assumed that there must have been harem intrigues at
the Persian court, since the kings did have harems. It’s just that they had official wives also, and
Esther wasn’t one of them.
Ardys: The son of GYGES king of Lydia. He came to the throne around 666, and reigned for
49 years (so Herodotus; moderns estimate his dates as c. 652–615). It was he who defeated the
Cimmerians who had slain his father. He then set about founding a Median Empire. He was
succeeded by his son SADYATTES (Hist I.15).
Arses: The youngest son of ARTAXERXES III. His father and brothers had been murdered by
Bagoas the Egyptian eunuch. Bagoas then ruled Persia, with Arses as his puppet (possibly under
the throne name Artaxerxes IV). The boy showed signs of independence in 336, and Bagoas had
him killed. Arses was succeeded by DARIUS III, who killed Bagoas.
Artabazanes: The oldest child of DARIUS I by his first wife, the daughter of GOBRYAS. He
was thus a possible successor of Darius. But Darius awarded the throne to XERXES I, his oldest
son by ATOSSA the daughter of Cyrus the Great.
Artaphernes: The half-brother of DARIUS I. As satrap of Sardis (Hist V.27) he proposed the
Persian invasion of Greece.
Artaxerxes I “Longimanus”:1 The son of XERXES I. As will be seen, he was not Xerxes’s
obvious heir; he had at least two older brothers. But he was able to claim the throne because he
was “born in the purple” — i.e. after Xerxes ascended. His reign began badly: Xerxes was
1.!The nickname “Macrocheir/Longimanus” = “Long-hand” was given because his right hand was larger and
longer than his left (Plutarch, Life of Artaxerxes [II] 1). This was not necessarily thought of as a disfigurement; long
arms were considered a desirable trait by the Persians — and a sufficiently active person may well develop a right
arm that is larger than the left.

The Persian Empire
assassinated by the ambitious courtier Artabanos (aided by the Emperor’s own eunuch).
Artabanos was able to pin the blame on Xerxes’s oldest son Darius. Artaxerxes killed Darius,
then foiled Artabanos’s attempt to kill him. The final threat to him came from his elder brother
Hystaspes, who returned from his satrapy in Bactria to claim the throne but was defeated in a
battle fought in a sandstorm. The remainder of Artaxerxes’s reign was relatively peaceful,1 even
passive: he allowed the war with Greece to lapse (peace was made official in 449) and it took him
years (c. 460–455) to suppress a revolt in Egypt. Still, he is probably the Emperor who allowed
Nehemiah to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (444 B.C.E. — Neh. 2:1. Nehemiah continued to
serve as governor of Jerusalem until about 4322). It is also possible that he is the Artaxerxes of
Ezra 7. (If so, the date of Ezra’s return would be 458 — unless the text is emended. This is often
done in the interest of resolving other problems; the date usually suggested is 428. But others
think that the Artaxerxes mentioned is Artaxerxes II3). Finally, LXX and Josephus make him the
husband of Esther; see the excursus Do You, Esther, Take This King… on p. 306. Artaxerxes
had at least three sons: XERXES II (his only legitimate son), DARIUS II, and their half-brother
SOGDIANUS. Artaxerxes was assassinated in 424 (along with his wife DAMASPIA), and was
succeeded by Xerxes, who reigned for only a few weeks before being killed by Sogdianus. Neh.
2:1, 5:14, 13:6; perhaps Ezra 7:1, 7, 11, 12, 21, 8:1 (see the note on Ezra on p. 39); for Ezra 4:7,
8, 11, 23, 6:15 (and parallels in 1 Esdras 2:16, 17, 30, 7:4) see the note on the building of the
Temple on p. 304.4
Artaxerxes II “Mnemon” (“Mindful”). His birth name may have been Oarses/Arses.
Considered by many to be the Artaxerxes of Ezra (Ezra 7:1, 7, 11–12, 21, 8:1; 2 Esdras 1:3). In
that case the date of Ezra’s return to Judah was 398 B.C.E. The question will probably never be
settled; for the little we can say, see the references below.
1.!Plutarch, Life of Artaxerxes [II] 1, calls him “[of] all the Persian Emperors the most remarkable for a gentle and
noble spirit.”
2.!That Nehemiah’s Artaxerxes is Artaxerxes I is almost the universal opinion of Biblical scholars. Students of
Josephus, however, plagued by insoluble problems in the lists of High Priests (see the entries on Jonathan on p.
215 and Jaddua on 216) often move Nehemiah down to the reign of Artaxerxes II (although if Nehemiah served
the second Artaxerxes, he must have known it; wouldn’t he have told us?)
3.!See the see the note on Ezra (and his date) on p. 39 for such details as we can give about this problem.
4.!In LXX “Artaxerxes” (presumably Artaxerxes I) is also referred to in Esther A:1, 13, 1:1, 2, 9, 10, 17, 2:16, 21,
3:1, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, B:1, 6:2, 8:1, 12, E:1, 9:10, 10:3, where MT reads “Ahasuerus” (Xerxes). See the excursus on
Do You, Esther, Take This King… on p. 306. An “Artaxerxes” is also mentioned in LXX of Darius I, where MT
and Theodotian read “Darius.”

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Artaxerxes had a younger brother, CYRUS “THE YOUNGER.”1 Cyrus had tried to assassinate
the Emperor at his accession, but did not succeed.2 The headstrong prince then tried direct
military action. In 401, he hired an army of Greek mercenaries and rebelled against his brother.
But the revolt was crushed at the battle of Cunaxa in that same year and Cyrus was killed. The
Greek mercenaries’ return home was the subject of Xenophon’s Anabasis.
Egypt took advantage of the unrest at the beginning of Artaxerxes’s reign and rebelled.3
Scholars’ opinion of the Emperor’s reaction vary; some think him incompetent; others regard
him as a skilled schemer. Although Artaxerxes was not able to quell the revolt, he held the rest of
his empire despite Greek meddling. Careful application of bribes by his satraps caused so many
wars is Greece that Artaxerxes was able to arrange a peace in 386. He might even have been able
to conquer most of Achaea but for a rebellion among his western Satraps (supported by the
Egyptian Pharaoh Tachos, who naturally wanted to keep Persia weak). Artaxerxes died in 358
(being almost certainly in his eighties — probably 86.4 This long wait led his son Darius into a
futile revolt that led to the prince’s execution). He was succeeded by Artaxerxes III —!possibly
against his will; there are hints that Artaxerxes II preferred a different heir but had to give the
throne to his legitimate heir. Perhaps Ezra 7:1, 7, 11, 12, 21, 8:1; 1 Esdras 8:1, 6, 8, 9, 18, 28; 2
Esdras 1:3 (see the note on Ezra’s chronology on p. 39).
Artaxerxes III “Ochus”: The successor of ARTAXERXES II. He was the last strong King of
Persia. A savage man (he killed most of his close relatives),5 he led an expedition against Egypt
around 352 and another in 342 which recaptured that nation for Persia. In the process, he
acquired a renegade Egyptian eunuch, Bagoas. Josephus tells us that they once led an expedition
against Judah (Ant XI.vii.1? — many think that this was simply a secondary phase of Artaxerxes’
Egyptian campaign). Bagoas aspired to rule Persia, and in 358 had Artaxerxes killed along with
all of his sons except the youngest, ARSES. Bagoas then ruled Persia, using Arses as a puppet king.
Artaxerxes is not mentioned in the Bible, but it has been conjectured that he is the “Arphaxad”
of Judith 1:1, 5, 13 in the Apocrypha. For a discussion of this, see the entry on Phraortes on p.
319.
Artaxerxes IV: the throne name of ARSES.
1.!From Plutarch (Life of Artaxerxes [II] 1) we learn of four children of Darius II and his wife Parysatis: Artaxerxes,
Cyrus, Ostanes, and Oxathres. But only the first two had any effect on history. The ages of these princes are
somewhat uncertain; it would appear that, since Cyrus was born after his father became king, he was some
twenty years younger than Artaxerxes! This has some support from Ctesias, who said that Parysatis bore 13
children, 11 of them after her husband became king, but the surviving epitome of Ctesias is garbled and contains
several impossible dates, so we don’t know how far to trust this.
2.!Apparently, after that incident, he was allowed to live only because of his mother’s desperate appeal — Plutarch,
Life of Artaxerxes [II] 4.
3.!The Jews of Elephantine remained loyal at least until 400, but revolt was no doubt stirring by then; Egypt was
probably free by 401. The Elephantine settlement was probably destroyed soon after 399.
4.!Plutarch reported that he lived to be 94, but also that he reigned for 62 years —!whereas in fact he reigned for 46
years.
5.!An ancient report has it that he killed eighty of his brothers in a single day!

The Persian Empire
Artystone: A daughter of CYRUS. According to Herodotus (Hist III.89) she was a virgin
when DARIUS I married her along with her sister ATOSSA.
Aryenis: The daughter of ALYATTES king of Lydia. As part of the truce between Alyattes
and CYAXARES king of Media, she was married to Cyaxares’s heir ASTYGES (Hist I.74). Within a
few months, Astyges succeeded to the Median throne. Among their children was MANDANE, whose
son CYRUS “THE GREAT” was destined to conquer both her husband’s and her father’s peoples.
Astyges: The last king of the Median Empire. He was the son of the CYAXARES who
conquered Ninevah; he came to the throne in 585. His wife was ARYENIS the daughter of the
great Lydian king ALYATTES (Hist I.74). According to Herodotus, Astyges and Aryenis were the
grandparents of CYRUS. Astyges had a dream which implied that the son of his daughter
MANDANE would displace him (Hist I.106ƒ.). So he ordered the girl to marry the undistinguished
Persian CAMBYSES (#1). Not satisfied with this, he ordered Mandane’s boy to be exposed. But the
child survived, and organized the Persians. Moderns dispute this, and note that Cyrus was prince
of the small Persian state of Anshan. But whatever his ancestry, in 553 he attacked and
conquered Media. In 550, he did away with Astyges. This probably wasn’t difficult to arrange;
Astyges seems to have been a cruel and unpopular ruler. The Median Emperor is not mentioned
in the Hebrew Bible, although he is found in the Apocrypha in Theodotian’s text of Bel and the
Dragon 1.1
Atossa: A daughter of CYRUS the Great. CAMBYSES (#2) had forced her to marry him, an
illegal act under Persian law. But she bore him no children. After the death of Cambyses in 522,
she was apparently married to the false Smerdis, then DARIUS I took her as his second wife. Her
oldest son, XERXES I, succeeded Darius. (Darius had older sons by his first wife, but chose to give
the throne to the descendants of Cyrus.) She is one of three named characters in Aeschylus’s The
Persians (the others being her son Xerxes and the ghost of her husband Darius)
Bardiya: Alternate name for SMERDIS.
Cambyses (1): A Persian of no particular importance, ruler of the small territory of
Anshan. According to Herodotus, ASTYGES the Median Emperor married Cambyses to his
daughter MANDANE (the purpose of this was to ensure that Mandane’s child would be low-born,
for Astyges had had a dream that Mandane’s child would overthrow him — Hist I.106ƒ.). His son
was CYRUS the Great. An inscription of Cyrus’s says that Cambyses was the son of (another)
Cyrus, who was the son of Teispes, said by DARIUS I to be the son of ACHAEMENES.
Cambyses (2): In Persian, his name was something like Cabujiya. The older son of CYRUS
“THE GREAT” by his wife CASSANDANE. It is hard to say whether he was a success or a failure as
Emperor. Signs of trouble came early. Cyrus made him King and High Priest of Babylon around
535 to give him practice in governing. But Cambyses refused to go through the motions of
required by the priesthood, and Cyrus had to take away his son’s title.
But Cambyses certainly increased the size of the Persian Empire. When Cyrus was killed in
529, Cambyses naturally became the Persian Emperor. His major accomplishment was the
conquest of Egypt in 525.
1.!The original LXX text (for which see the excursus on Two Greek Versions of Daniel on p. 240) omits the name

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This conquest was fairly easily accomplished; the then-pharaoh, Psamtik III, had come to the
throne only months before, and was no general. When the Egyptians were defeated at the mouth
of the Nile, Psamtik did not contest the Persian passage up the river, but instead fled to Memphis,
where he was easily overcome.
Sadly, Cambyses’s other tasks were harder, and his skills perhaps rather limited. A campaign
into Ethiopia, conducted along an overtaxed supply line, met very limited success. Worse, it kept
Cambyses far from home, damaging his popularity and perhaps his sanity.
What happened next is unclear. Cambyses never made it home. Herodotus tells us that he
went mad even before he returned from Egypt. As evidence of this he reports that the Emperor
ordered his brother SMERDIS killed around 524. At about the same time, he demanded the right
to marry his sister ATOSSA — an illegal act which he accomplished by a legal subterfuge.1
In 522, the clamour against Cambyses was such that the Magus Gaumeta, pretending to be
the dead Smerdis, rose in revolt. At least, that’s the ancient account. Some moderns believe that
this was in fact the real Smerdis; see the discussion in the entry on Smerdis, p. 320. Some also
think that Smerdis-or-whoever did not claim the throne until after Cambyses died. Alternately,
they blame Smerdis’s acclamation on an army rebellion against the hated Cambyses. They point
out that DARIUS I’s only witness to the murder of Smerdis died immediately after “confessing” to
the crime. Cambyses hurriedly started back to Persia, but died while on his way in 522, as a result
(depending on the source) of suicide, an accidental self-inflicted wound, or blood poisoning. Since
Cambyses left no children, Darius I was able to claim the throne, killing the Pseudo-Smerdis a
few months after Cambyses died and eventually gaining control of the rest of the Empire (c. 520).
Cambyses is not mentioned in the Bible under his own name, but it is widely believed
(following Josephus; cf. the discussion of the rebuilding of the temple on p. 304 and the emended
chronology there) that he is actually the “Artaxerxes” of Ezra 4:7, 8, 11, 23 and the parallels in
1!Esdras 2:16ƒ.
Cassandane: The wife of CYRUS — at least according to Herodotus. The unreliable Ctesias
gives the name of Cyrus’s wife as Amytis daughter of ASTYGES and says she outlived him.
Whatever her name, we have little information about her, but the Nabuniad Chronicle seems to
indicate that Cyrus’s first wife died in 538, so it appears Herodotus’s sources were better than
Ctesias’s. Cassandane bore Cyrus two sons, CAMBYSES (#2) and SMERDIS, and at least two
daughters, ATOSSA and ARTYSTONE (Hist III.89).
Croesus: The last king of Lydia, famous for his wealth and for the advice that Solon, the
Athenian exile, gave him: “Count no man happy before his death” (Hist I.33). Croesus was born
in about 595; he succeeded his father ALYATTES in 560. He was very successful at the beginning
of his reign; he gained power over most of Asia Minor and controlled the area’s Greek city-states
(Hist I.6). In 547 he went to war with his grand-nephew CYRUS the Great, having been told by an
1.!The lawyers came up with an ingenious trick to allow this: Although marrying a sister was not acceptable, the law
also stated that the King could marry whom he liked. So Cambyses did. This law would be changed in the next
reign so that the king could marry only into the “seven families” — but, obviously, Cambyses was dead by then.

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oracle that if he attacked Cyrus “a great empire would fall.” A great empire did fall — Croesus’s.
The Lydian capitol of Sardis was taken in 546, and Croesus became Cyrus’s prisoner.
Cyaxares: The old age and death of Ashurbanipal left the Assyrian Empire weak and
unorganized, and the peoples on its borders began to set up their own nations. The most
successful of these men was Cyaxares, son of PHRAORTES. Phraortes had assaulted Ninevah, the
Assyrian capitol, soon after Ashurbanipal died, but had been defeated and killed. His son was
determined to make Media into a nation which could conquer Assyria. In 614, he succeeded in
capturing the ancient Assyrian capitol Asshur. He then captured Ninevah in 612. (It is possible
that Cyaxares had support from Nabopolassar of Babylon.1) Assyria was destroyed, and Babylon
and Media shared the spoils. Cyaxares went to war with Lydia in the 580s, but in 585 sealed a
peace treaty with Alyattes of Lydia (an eclipse had frightened the two sides into ending their
war). Cyaxares wed his son Astyges to Alyattes’s daughter Aryenis, and died soon after (Hist I.74).
Tobit 14:15?2; perhaps Judith 1:1, 5 (see the entry on Phraortes, p. 319).
Cyrus “the Great”: The first king of Persia, and the founder of the Persian Empire.
Properly called “Kuroush” — a name still popular in Iran. There are two traditional stories of
his birth. One, the more legendary, has it that he was raised by wolves. (Herodotus gives a
legendary tale of how this legend arose.) The other is also from Herodotus (Hist I.109ƒ.), and
runs roughly as follows: ASTYGES, the king of Media, had a daughter named MANDANE. He
dreamed that her son would displace him. So he married her far below her station, to the Persian
CAMBYSES (#1). And when their son Cyrus was born, he ordered the boy to be exposed. But the
herdsman entrusted with the mission, who had just lost his own newborn son, raised Cyrus as his
own. When the boy grew up, he started a rebellion against Astyges. In 553 B.C.E., Cyrus’s
rebellion succeeded — Astyges’s cruelty had apparently made him many enemies — and the
Median Empire became the Persian Empire. Cyrus did away with Astyges in 550.
Archaeologists, working mostly from inscriptions, now tell a different story: Cyrus, son of
Cambyses, was originally prince of the small Median client-state of Anshan, which he ruled from
1.!Our best guess is that Cyaxares stormed Ninevah himself, but that Nabopolassar sent an army to the area to keep
the Medes from gathering too much glory and power. When the two kings met, they formed an alliance,
cemented (according to a late tradition not found in Herodotus) by the marriage of Nabopolassar’s son
Nebuchadnezzer to Cyaxares’s granddaughter Amyitis.
2.!There is much confusion about the reading of Tobit 14:15, which refers to the downfall of Nineveh. Tobit exists in
two types of text, very distinct. LXX‫א‬, and LXX‫ א‬alone, has a text which generally agrees with the Hebrew
fragments found at Qumran. The other LXX manuscripts, including LXXB LXXA, have a very different text.
Modern scholars tend to follow LXX‫ א‬because of its kinship with the Hebrew. In 14:15, LXX‫ א‬gives the name
KN&-N-!8#, Achaicharos, perhaps to be understood as “Ahikar” (so e.g. NRSVmarg NJBmarg); NETS interprets this to
mean that Tobiah saw the city of Ninevah “being led into Media, which Achiaros, the king of Media, had taken
captive.” In LXXB LXXA those responsible for the fall of Ninevah are X-)8EN895848! and K4E;!8#; NETS
says that Tobiah heard of “the destruction of Nineue, which Nabouchodnodor and Asuaeros had captured” —
i.e. which Nebuchadnezzar and Xerxes (Ahasuerus) had captured. The latter is of course impossible;
Nebuchadnezzar lived a century before Xerxes. NRSVtxt therefore emends the reading of LXX‫ א‬to read
“Cyaxares.” This reading is also found in NAB, JB, NJBtxt. NEB REB split the difference and says that “Ahasuerus”
alone conquered Nineveh. The reading “Nebuchadnezzar and Xerxes/Ahasuerus” is found in GOODSPEED and
RSV. I very strongly doubt that the original read “Cyaxares,” but it is of course the name that should be there.

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560/559. Mandane, or some other Median princess, may of course have been his mother, but if
so, he bore no gratitude to Astyges. In 553, after about three years of preparation, he revolted
against Astyges, and conquered Media in 550 (aided perhaps by an uprising in the Median
army).
We have no absolute information about how old Cyrus was at this time. That he reigned over
Persia starting in 560 or 559 seems nearly certain. Cicero had a report that he was 40 years old at
the time. This would make him about 70 at the time he died in 530, which is certainly not
unreasonable. But it is noteworthy that his children were young at his death. His oldest son,
CAMBYSES (#2), still had no children when he died in 522. His second son, SMERDIS, apparently
had only one child, a daughter. Cyrus’s eldest daughter, ATOSSA, bore four children to DARIUS I
after 522. Another daughter, ARTYSTONE, who also married Darius and bore him two sons, was
still a virgin in 522 (Hist III.89). It seems a much better bet that Cyrus was in his twenties when
he assumed the Persian throne, and still in his thirties when he took over Media.
Whatever his age, Cyrus continued to be extremely successful. In 546, Persia conquered
Lydia, the kingdom of CROESUS in western Asia Minor (Hist I.77ƒ.) And in 539, Persians under
Gobryas conquered the Chaldean Empire of Babylon. Soon after, in 538, Cyrus allowed the Jews
to return from the Babylonian Exile (2 Ch. 33:22–23; Ezra 1:1–4).1 His successes and his policy
of religious toleration led some Jews to acclaim him as the messiah (see Isa. 45:1). This was
hardly a fair picture; modern research makes him seem a power-hungry tyrant. But he treated his
people fairly, offering safety and justice to all his subjects as best he could. Both Herodotus and
Xenophon regarded him as an ideal king. Cyrus died in 530 in battle against the Massagetae, and
was succeeded by his son Cambyses (#2).2 2!Ch. 36:22–23; Ezra 1:1–8, 3:7, 4:3–5, 5:13–17, 6:3,
14; Isa. 44:28, 45:1; Dan. 1:21, 6:28, 10:1; in the Apocrypha in 1!Esdras 2:1–3, 10–11, 4:44, 57,
5:55, 71, 73, 6:17, 18, 22, 24, 25, 7:4; also in Theodotian’s text of Bel and the Dragon 1 (LXX
omits).3
1.!It has been suggested that certain of the Babylonian Jews may have been underground partisans of Cyrus. This
might explain why he treated the Jews so well — and why they praised him so highly: he may have made
extravagant promises in exchange for their help. This is highly speculative; all other evidence would imply that
the Jews were loyal to Babylon. And Cyrus never did anything for the Jews that was not typical of his tolerant
policy toward conquered people in general. Still, it is assumed that Cyrus was a Zoroastrian (although no direct
evidence of this is known; the first Persian monarch to make an explicit Zoroastrian statement was Darius I), and
hence a monotheist; it has been suggested that he might have made him more kindly disposed to the even more
monotheistic Jews. Still another possibility is that Judah was largely uninhabited after the Exile, and hence an
area where the still-independent Egyptians could set up forward defenses; Cyrus might have wanted to establish a
friendly client-state there.
2.! This is the account of Herodotus, and most historians accept it. Xenophon tells a different tale; in the Cyropaedia,
VIII.vii, he gives a long speech to his sons, and “After these words, he shook hands with them all, covered himself
over, and so died [peacefully]” (VIII.vii.28). But the Cyropaedia seems to rest on no good sources; this is probably
just an expression of a belief that a supposedly near-ideal king like Cyrus should have a peaceful death.
3.!In addition, the references to “Darius the Mede” in Dan. 5:31 (so MT Theodotian; LXX has “Artaxerxes”), 6:1, 6,
9, 25, 28, 9:1 seem to point to Cyrus. Well, maybe; for what little we can say about him, see the note on
Nabonidas and Darius on p. 299. MT also refers to “Darius the Mede” in Dan. 11:2, but LXX Theodotian there
read correctly “Cyrus.”

The Persian Empire
Cyrus “the Younger”: A son of DARIUS II and the younger brother of ARTAXERXES II.
Perhaps the most attractive of the later Achaemenids, he was apparently intelligent, well-
organized, and gracious.1 What he was not was cautious. A born troublemaker, as satrap of Lydia
he interfered in the Peloponnesian War on the side of the Spartans, then tried to assassinate his
brother at his coronation. This attempt failed (and nearly cost Cyrus his life; he was only
pardoned at his mother’s urgent appeal), but did not curb Cyrus’s ambitions. In 401 B.C.E. he
organized a revolt against his brother,2 hiring a Greek army (the “Ten Thousand”) to support his
claim. But the rebellion was crushed and Cyrus was killed at the battle of Cunaxa (Artaxerxes, a
much more devious man than his brother, managed to more or less immobilize the army’s
leadership and so render it utterly ineffective).3 The story of the return home of his Greek
mercenaries is told in Xenophon’s Anabasis.
Damaspia: Wife of ARTAXERXES I. Their only son was XERXES II. Damaspia was said to
have died on the same day as her husband was assassinated.
Darius I “the Great”: The son of HYSTASPES, and the third Persian Emperor. Also called
“Hystaspis.” He was born around 550. In 522, CAMBYSES (#2) died. Darius tells us that a Persian
Magus, pretending to be Cambyses’s brother SMERDIS, assumed the throne. When Darius found
out that “Smerdis” was not who he claimed to be, he organized a revolt along with six others.
They killed the usurper later in 522, and Darius assumed the throne. (Allegedly the new king was
to be chosen from the seven — who would thereafter be the King’s chief counselors — but there
is a wide consensus that Darius cheated.) Many moderns doubts doubt Darius’s story and think
the false Smerdis was the real one; this is discussed in the entries on Cambyses on p. 311 and on
Smerdis on p. 320. Faced by many revolts, Darius mounted one of the most effective campaigns
of history; by 520 he had the entire Empire under control. Soon after, he set up his famous
inscription at Behistun, giving his version of the story of how he came to the throne and exulting
about the nineteen battles he had won and the nine kings he had defeated in a single year. The
inscription also gives Darius’s claim to legitimacy; he alleges descent from ACHAEMENES. The
inscription (partly supported by Hist VII.11) makes Darius the son Hystapes, son of Arsames, son
of Ariaramnes, son of Teispes (called %i-is-pi-i& in Persian records; he was the great-grandfather
of Cyrus “the Great”) son of Achaemenes.
1.!Xenophon, Anabasis I.9.1, says of him, “Of all the Persians who lived after Cyrus the Great, he was the most like a
king and the most deserving of Empire.” Of course, Xenophon had to try to justify being a mercenary in his
army....
2.!His claim, apparently, was that he was “born in the purple,” i.e. after his father (who had not expected to become
Emperor) succeeded to the throne. There was precedent for this; XERXES I was not the oldest son of DARIUS I.
But, in the past, there had always been other reasons — Xerxes I was the oldest of Darius’s sons to be descended
from Cyrus the Great. The only other reason in the case of Cyrus the Younger was that he was his mother
Parysatis’s favorite child (Plutarch, Life of Artaxerxes [II]); she had tried to maneuver Darius into appointing Cyrus
his heir, but all she accomplished was to have him made satrap of Lydia.
3.!Xenophon claims the Greeks won Cunaxa, but the death of Cyrus —!killed, the story went, while personally
attacking Artaxerxes — kept the Greeks from moving to exploit their win. This is almost certainly a combination
of folklore and self-justification.

The Persian Empire
Darius proved to be an extremely effective King, and brought the Persian Empire to the peak
of his power (even if he did boast about it a bit too much). It was Darius who organized the
Empire into satrapies (cf. Dan. 6:1, although every other detail in this verse is unhistorical); he
established roads and an efficient postal system. It was almost certainly in his time and with his
support that the great expedition of Zerubbabel 11 and Jeshua rebuilt the Jerusalem Temple
(Ezra 4:24, 6:1–15, etc.). He also introduced the notion of coinage to much of the Middle East.
The Persian coin known as the daric is named for him; it is the first coin mentioned in the Bible
(1!Ch. 29:7, Ezra 2:69, 8:27, Neh. 7:70ƒ.) He promoted fiscal reforms, and at least once gave
orders for the formal publication of a book of laws. Plato — hardly a great friend of Persia —
calls him a lawgiver. !"#$%#&#'()*+$), $-'./01$2
!"#$%&%'%(
)%*+(%(
,-./( !.*$.$&'%(
0*'1234 2!'(#$' 0*'1234 2;%.(*$<
34$542567289,9:9 =9$5425>?289,9:9<
,$&@-(%(2A !.($&%(
,-./(2BC#%2D.%$CE F-(C$(+%(
,$&@-(%(2GAAH 67)11' I$.*/(2A
J%.K%(2A
Figure 11: The Genealogy of Darius I
There is also good reason to believe that Darius was responsible for the first written version of
Old Persian, or at minimum for converting a writing style to a carving style; he seems to have
been responsible for the oldest inscriptions in his native language (including the Behistun
inscription that tells the story of how he came to the throne).
1.!For the apocryphal story of how Darius granted permission to build the Temple, see the entry on Zerubbabel 1 on
p. 205.

The Persian Empire
Darius’s Invasion of Greece

Failed Invasion
of 492 B.C.E.
Marathon *
Invasion
of 490
Figure 12: Darius’s Invasion of Greece, 490 B.C.E.

But none of these worthwhile actions brought Darius his lasting fame. Instead, he is best
remembered for the expedition he ordered to Greece. Around 500, the Greek cities of Asia
Minor — led by Miletus and encouraged by the Athenians and others — revolted against Persia.
Darius spent many years suppressing the revolt — Miletus did not fall until 494 — and then
turned his attention to the Greek powers behind the rebellion. But his great invasion of 490 was
defeated at Marathon.1 Darius died in 486, and was succeeded by XERXES I, his oldest son by his
second wife ATOSSA the daughter of Cyrus. Ezra 4:5, 24, 5:5–7, 6:1, 12–15; Hag. 1:1, 15, 2:10;
Zech. 1:1, 7, 7:1; in the Apocrypha in 1 Esdras 2:31, 3:1–8, 4:47, 5:2, 6, 73, 6:1, 6, 7, 23, 34, 7:1,
4, 5.2 His ghost is a character in Aeschylus’s The Persians, along with his wife Atossa and his son
Xerxes.
Darius II “Nothus”: A son, probably illegitimate (he was apparently the son of a Babylonian
concubine), of ARTAXERXES I. His birth-name was Ochos; his wife was his half-sister Parysatis.
When Artaxerxes was assassinated in 424, the old king was succeeded by his oldest son, XERXES
II. But Xerxes’s half-brother SOGDIANUS murdered Xerxes and tried to assume the throne.
Darius defeated and killed Sogdianus and assumed the throne himself, successfully defending it
against the revolt of his brother Arsites. Nevertheless the prestige of the Persian monarchy was
further compromised by this throne-swapping, and possibly by the accession of a half-breed
Emperor. It is known, for instance, that the satrap Pissouthenes (probably the legitimate heir of
XERXES I) soon revolted (possibly out of fear, since Darius would distrust him), and that the
1.!Darius’s invasion may be referred to in Dan. 11:2, although the context would seem to fit the invasion by Xerxes I
better. Xerxes was, after all, the fourth Emperor of Persia (which fits the description in Daniel, although the verse
also seems to imply that the invader was Persia’s last king, which would be Darius III), and raised an even greater
army for the undertaking than his father had. Of course, it is also possible that “Daniel” combined the two
attacks. Or maybe he combined Darius I and Darius III. Or both.
2.!A “Darius the Mede” is also mentioned in Dan. 5:31 (so MT and Theodotian; the original LXX reads
“Artaxerxes”), 6:1, 6, 9, 25, 28, 9:1 (here called the “son of Xerxes” in LXX!), 11:1 (LXX and Theodotian here
read correctly “Cyrus”); also in 6:4, 6, 8, 13, 16, 19 LXX (not in MT Theodotian). These references, however,
should be to Cyrus. For that matter, the references in Extra would appear on the surface to be to Darius II. For
this whole mess, see the notes on see the note on Nabonidas and Darius on p. 299, on the building of the Temple
on p. 304, and on Phraortes on p. 319.

The Persian Empire
Persian Emperor lost much of his power over his satraps during the reigns of Darius and
ARTAXERXES II. Even so, Darius ruled until 404, and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes II.
Another one of his sons was CYRUS “the Younger.” Neh. 12:22.1
Darius III “Codomanus”: A distant relative of the Persian royal line, he was the second
cousin of ARSES. In the time of ARTAXERXES III, he had helped quell a revolt and had been given
a satrapy. He might have quietly vegetated there had it not been for the machinations of the
eunuch Bagoas. Bagoas’s mass executions of Artaxerxes’s relatives in 338 had made Darius the
de facto heir to the throne. Then, in 336, Bagoas killed the young king Arses. Darius, as the
logical successor, was also slated for assassination. But Darius killed Bagoas first (legend has it that
Bagoas offered Darius a cup of poison, but Darius required Bagoas to take the first sip), and
assumed the throne. Darius was the last king of Persia, and came to the throne at an extremely
inauspicious time. In 335, Alexander the Great led his armies against Persia. Alexander won
three great victories over Darius. The battle of Granicus in 334 gave Alexander passage into
Persia; that of Issus in 333 gave him control of Asia Minor. He then moved into the heart of
Persia, and won another great victory at Gaugamela on October 1, 331. Soon after, he took and
burned Persopolis. Darius was assassinated by his satrap Bessus (who tried to make himself king
as Artaxerxes IV/V) in 330. The Persian Empire, which had ruled the Middle East for two
centuries, the greatest empire the world had ever seen, was at an end. 1 Macc. 1:1; cf. also Dan.
8:6–7, 11:2–3.
Darius son of Artaxerxes II. This unfortunate prince was the oldest son of ARTAXERXES
II. It was his bad luck that his father lived into his eighties, meaning that Darius had to wait a
long, long time to gain his throne. Eventually he grew tired of sitting around, and rebelled
against his father. But the old man wasn’t too far gone to put the rebellion down — and was
practical enough to put his son to death lest another prince try to improve upon his methods.
Deioces: The son of an unknown Phraortes. According to Herodotus, he united the
scattered towns of the Medes and built their capitol Ecbatana (Hist I.95ƒ.). Herodotus says that
he ruled for 55 years (c. 700–647), and was succeeded by his son PHRAORTES father of CYAXARES.
Contemporary records are, of course, nonexistent, but most scholars accept the existence of a
Daiaukku=Deioces, but make him a contemporary of Sargon II of Assyria (who died in 705) and
the father of Cyaxares I, father of Khshathrita, father of Phraortes (although Khshathrita and
1.!Although it is generally believed that the reference in Neh. 12:22 is to Darius II, the text says simply “Darius the
Persian” and does not mention any specific events that would allow us to clarify matters. Counting generations
makes it appear that the last High Priest mentioned, Jaddua, would be roughly contemporary with Darius II. But
Josephus very possibly has a lacuna in his list of High Priests at this point; if the Bible suffers from the same
defect as Josephus, then Darius III might be intended. It is worth noting that the High Priest at the time of
Darius III and Alexander the Great was named Jaddua (Ant. XI.viii.5). For further details of this confusion, see
the stories of the High Priests Jonathan on p. 215 and Jaddua on p. 216 In addition, the “Darius the Mede” of
Daniel (who seems in fact to have been CYRUS “THE GREAT” if he was anyone) in Dan. 9:1 is actually called the
“son of Ahasuerus” (i.e. Xerxes, as LXX although not Theodotian translates). The only Persian king Darius to be
the son of either a Xerxes or an Artaxerxes was Darius II. This is chronologically impossible — Daniel would
have had to be in excess of 175 years old when Darius II became king — but the author of Daniel knew very
little Persian (or Babylonian) history.

The Persian Empire
Phraortes may have been different names for the same king). It seems to have been Khshathrita
who unified the Medes.
Gobryas: The father of the first wife of DARIUS I the Great. He was one of the seven
conspirators who put Darius on the throne of Persia. He may also have been the general who
took Babylon; at least, they have the same name (on the other hand, the conqueror Gobryas —
who may have been a Babylonian defector — was said to have died the week after taking
Babylon).
Gyges: King of Lydia. Supposedly he began his career as a bodyguard of Candaules king of
Lydia. Candaules, according to Herodotus (Hist I.8ƒ.) was so enamored of his wife’s beauty that
he forced Gyges to see the queen naked. (The first chapter of the book of Esther may be a vague
echo of this event — or, I suppose, vice versa; legends of this sort are common.) The queen
detected the plot at the moment Gyges saw her, and gave him two choices: to be killed or to
become king and marry her. Less than thrilled with his options, he eventually (and hesitantly)
chose to live. He and the queen murdered Candaules in his sleep, and Gyges became king of
Lydia. (The people didn’t approve of this usurpation, but supposedly the Delphic oracle
demanded that they accept it, so they did.) Gyges ruled for 38 years, but died in battle against the
Cimmerians (who may have been allied with the Medes) in 666.1 This is partially corroborated by
Assyrian records, since Gyges (known to the Assyrians as Guggu, and perhaps the “Gog” of
Ezek. 38:22) sought the help of Ashurbanipal of Assyria against the invaders (compare the
reference to “Gomer and his horde” in Ezek. 38:6. “Gomer” is the Hebrew name for the
Celts=Cymry=Cimmerians). Gyges was succeeded by his son ARDYS.
Hystapes: The father of DARIUS I the Great. He was the governor of Susa in the time of
CAMBYSES (#2). Little else is known of him.
Mandane: A daughter of ASTYGES king of the Medes, and the mother of CYRUS the Great.
What legendary details we know of her story, which come mostly from Herodotus, are given in
the entries on Astyges and Cyrus.
Phraortes: The son of Deioces, whom Herodotus called the founder of the Median Empire
(Archaeology, by contrast, makes Deioces Phraortes’s great-grandfather, unless the intervening
“king,” Khshathrita, was just a throne-name for Phraortes). Phraortes is the first King of the
Medes to be known both from Herodotus and inscriptions. He reigned from about 647 to 625;
his son was CYAXARES the conqueror of Assyria. Phraortes had tried to take Ninevah himself
around 625 (very soon after the death of the Assyrian Emperor Ashurbanipal), but was defeated
and killed. His death, according to Herodotus, opened the way for the great Scythian invasion of
the Middle East which may have been reflected in the prophecies of Zephaniah and Jeremiah (it
should be noted, however, that many scholars question whether this invasion ever occurred).
Phraortes is not mentioned by name in the Bible, but it is possible that there is a mention in
the Apocrypha. Judith 1:1, 5, 13 refers to a Median king “Arphaxad.” The chronology of Judith
1.!This is Herodotus’s chronology; other sources imply dates for Gyges’s reign of c. 680-652.
2.!“Gog” is also mentioned in LXX of Amos 7:1 — a verse where the Greek hardly resembles the MT (NETS renders
it, “Thus the Lord showed me and behold, a early offspring of grasshoppers coming, and behold, one locust
larva, Gog the king”) — but Amos lived well before Gyges.

The Persian Empire
is impossible — it makes Nebuchadnezzar an Assyrian king, and dates him after the exile! — but
if this Arphaxad is to be found among Median kings contemporary with Assyria, Phraortes
would seem to be our best bet. If, however, “Arphaxad” was a contemporary of the real
Nebuchadnezzar, then he is probably Cyaxares. Others would equate Arpaxad with Persia’s
ARTAXERXES III, who led an army through Judah on his way to attack Egypt. Artaxerxes also had
an officer named Orophernes, which is similar to the name Holofernes, the evil general in Judith.
Thus the best guess may be that Judith’s account is loosely based on Artaxerxes’s invasion but
retrojected into Assyrian times.
Pseudo-Bardiya: See SMERDIS and cf. CAMBYSES (#2).
Pseudo-Smerdis: See SMERDIS and cf. CAMBYSES (#2).
Sadyattes: According to Herodotus (Hist I.16), the father of ALYATTES king of Lydia. He
ruled for twelve years, from about 617 to 605.
Smerdis: Also called “Bardiya.”1 The younger son of Cyrus the Great. His brother
CAMBYSES (#2) was extremely jealous of him, for Smerdis had performed a feat of strength
(bending an Ethiopian bow) which no one else — including Cambyses — had accomplished. So,
according to both Herodotus and DARIUS I, Cambyses had Smerdis secretly murdered around
524. But after Cambyses died in 522, the Magus Gaumeta claimed to be Smerdis and seized the
Persian throne. It was not until the murderer of the true Smerdis came forth that the truth
became known. The false Smerdis was then killed by Darius I and his six co-conspirators (522
B.C.E.). At least, the above is story told in Darius’s great inscription at Behistun2 and repeated at
length — but with substantial variations in detail — by Herodotus (whose story clearly contains a
lot of folklore). It is also said to be found in other ancient sources; the only one which does not
accept it is Aeschylus, who of course knew things only from the Athenian side. Many moderns
think that the “Pseudo-Smerdis” was in fact Smerdis himself, whom Darius killed to gain power.
They note that Darius’s only significant witness to Smerdis’s death conveniently died immediately
after telling the story, and that some clues seem to indicate that this Smerdis did not take the
throne until after Cambyses was dead, rather than before as Darius claimed. What is more,
Darius was always speaking of the falsehoods of others — clearly implying that many of his
contemporaries regarded his story as false, even if he did couch in good Zoroastrian language.
Darius was then made emperor — allegedly when he and his co-conspirators drew lots for the
office and Darius won. Naturally most scholars doubt the honesty of this lottery. Cook, discussing
the matter, concludes that Darius’s “story smells, and few scholars now believe that it really as a
pretender that the Seven killed. It is impossible then to clear Bardiya of the charge of revolting
against his brother; but since he had the immediate support of Persians, Medes, and the rest,
1.!“Bardiya” is probably the correct name; an inscription at Behistun calls him Brdiya. Also, Aeschylus called him
“Mardos” (I-!98#, line 774 of The Persians in the Loeb edition — and it clearly refers to Smerdis, since he is
said to have succeeded Cyrus and to have been assassinated). “Mardos” is said to be more likely a corruption of
“Bardiya” than of “Smerdis.” But of course it was Herodotus who gave the world this story, so I follow his
namjng convention.
2.!To be sure, after the death of this first Smerdis, at least two other false Smerdises arose. So much for Darius’s
propaganda machine.

The Persian Empire
there most have been something in the nature of a rising against Cambyses, and the interval of
more than three months before he ascended the throne could even imply some reluctance on his
part.”1
Sogdianus: A son, probably illegitimate, of ARTAXERXES I, and half-brother of XERXES II
and of DARIUS II. Artaxerxes was assassinated in 424, and was succeeded by Xerxes II.
Sogdianus, unsatisfied with these arrangements, killed Xerxes and tried to assume the throne
himself. But he had ruled for only half a year when Darius II deposed and killed him.
Xerxes I: The oldest son of DARIUS I the Great by his second wife, ATOSSA the daughter of
Cyrus the Great. It was he who ordered the great expedition against Greece that resulted in the
battles of Thermopylæ (480 B.C.E.), Salamis (480), and Plataea (479). The pass of Thermopylæ
was the main road into Greece, but the gallant Spartans under Leonidas could not hold it,
though they fell to the last man. Soon after, Xerxes fell on Athens (which the Greeks had
evacuated) and destroyed it. But the Greeks, led by Themistocles, replied by smashing the Persian
navy at Salamis. Xerxes, irritated and short of supplies, evacuated much of his force, leaving only
an army under Mardonius. The Spartans (with a little help from the Athenians) defeated this
force at Plataea. The Greek campaign was over.
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Figure 13: Xerxes’s Invasion of Greece, 480-479 B.C.E.

Despite the failure of the invasion of Greece, Xerxes was a successful and powerful king:
although he faced revolts in Egypt and Babylon, he dealt efficiently with both. In the Bible, he is
referred to as Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1, etc.), and called the husband of Esther (probably, anyway;
see the excursus on Do You, Esther, Take This King… on p. 306). But the tales about him, told
1.!J. M. Cook, The Persian Empire, 1983; reference is to the 1993 Barnes & Noble edition, p. 52.

The Persian Empire
only in the very late book of Esther (and perhaps the equally late Dan. 9:11), are obviously false.2
Apart from the events told in Esther, Xerxes’s reign had no significant effect on the Jews. The
only reference to Xerxes in the Bible which may be near-contemporary and accurate is in Ezra
4:6. Xerxes was assassinated in 465, and was succeeded (after the usual intrigue and murders) by
his son ARTAXERXES I.3 Ezra 4:6; Esther 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; (Dan. 9:1); also in Esther A, B, E,
but there — as in all of LXX Esther — called “Artaxerxes”; see the note on Artaxerxes I. Xerxes
is also referred to in the Apocrypha in some texts of Tobit 14:15, but this is probably an error for
CYAXARES.4
Xerxes is also a character in Aeschylus’s The Persians, along with his mother Atossa and the
ghost of his father Darius.
Xerxes II: The legitimate son of ARTAXERXES I by his wife DAMASPIA. When his father was
assassinated in 424, Xerxes assumed the throne. But he was killed 45 days later by his half-
brother SOGDIANUS. Sogdianus tried to assume the throne himself, but he was soon eliminated by
DARIUS II.
1.!For Dan. 9:1, which refers to “Darius the son of Ahasuerus” (Xerxes), see the footnote concerning Nabonidas and
Darius on p. 299.
2.!It should be noted that LXX, and also Josephus in Ant XI.vi.1, date Esther to the reign of Artaxerxes I. But the
LXX version of Esther is clearly secondary — note, for instance, that the story of the rebellious eunuchs is told
twice!); it includes several large sections to make the savagely secular Esther (the only book in the Hebrew Bible
not to mention God, as well as the only book not found at Qumran) a more religious writing.
3.!Artabanus, who murdered Xerxes, tried to take over, and was not fully expelled from power until some seven
months after Xerxes died. His claim to the throne was apparently that Xerxes was trying to seduce another man’s
wife.
4.!For the LXX reading of this verse, and its emendations, see the note on the recensions of Tobit, and the note on
Tobit 14:15, on p. 313 under Cyaxares.

The Glory That Was Greece

“Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes.” “I fear the Greeks, even when they bear gifts” (Virgil, The Aeneid,
Book II, line 49). So said Laocoön before the walls of Troy as his countrymen stared at the great
figure of the horse. But for all the wisdom of his words on that fatal day, we all carry the gifts of
the Greeks with us today, and would be far less without them.
Not that the Achaeans of Agamemnon’s host were particularly civilized. Agamemnon
himself had nearly lost the war in a fit of pique against the overgrown baby Achilles. But Greek
culture was young.
"""
Civilization entered Greece relatively late. While Sumeria and Egypt had developed
advanced cultures before 3000 B.C.E., the Achaeans did not even arrive in Greece until around
2500 B.C.E. Even after these first settlers had built their cities, many further waves of invaders —
the Arcadians, Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians — would come to add their blood and their
traditions to the land’s roots.
It was not until about 1800 that a true culture began to rise. The Minoan civilization, which
was centered in Crete although the culture was Greek, built great monuments and ruled much of
the Ionian peninsula. But it fell within a few decades — perhaps as a result of a volcanic
eruption, perhaps due to foreign invasion — and the Greek cities were left to mind their own
business.
Around 1500, the so-called “Mycenaean Era” began. A few city-states controlled the vast
majority of the land. Greatest of all was the city of Mycenae, with its towering walls and
tremendous fortifications.1
This was the nation which — according to the legend — attacked Troy around 1250.
Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, was recognized as overlord of all of Greece. His brother
Menelaus had become king of Sparta by marrying its Queen, Helen. (Agamemnon had married
Helen’s sister Clytæmnestra; she would eventually murder him.) When Helen of Sparta was
abducted by the Trojan prince Alexander (Paris), Agamemnon had just the excuse he needed to
launch a crusade against Troy. It has been suggested that the abduction of Helen was just an
excuse; Greece declared war because Troy was blocking trade through the Hellespont.2
Others think that we just don’t know what caused the Trojan War —!or even if the was a
Trojan War. The discovery of Troy by Schliemann settled that the place existed, but it is very
difficult to make the archaeologic record match the data in Homer.
1.!Note that the chronology of this period is rather vague. Sir Arthur Evans, who discovered the Minoan civilization
at Knossos, had strong, influential, and often thoroughly inaccurate opinions. Unfortunately, no contemporary
historical documents have been found, and any texts that might prove useful are locked away in the unreadable
script known as “Linear A.”
2.!This economic view of the Trojan War probably assumes a little too much knowledge on the part of the
Myceneans. From the Christian standpoint, one might argue that the main significance of the Trojan War epic
was linguistic; see the excursus on A Tantalizing View of the Trojan War on p. 334.

But even at this early stage the Greeks already had a tradition of disunity. Each little king
ruled his own province,1 and had as little to do with the Mycenaean government as possible. The
kings spent most of their time in petty wars with their neighbours.
This was all right as long as the Mycenaean state had no external enemies; none of the local
powers was strong enough to dominate the others. But when the Dorians invaded Greece around
1100 B.C.E., there was no lord strong enough to stand against them. The Achaean civilization fell.
Over the next several centuries, the Greeks clawed their way back up. New forms of
government were created — almost none of the new city-states were hereditary monarchies,
though some were ruled by “tyrants.” A few major cities — Sparta, Athens, Thebes, Corinth —
came to dominate large areas of the peninsula. Many of these cities had not existed in the
Mycenaean era, and those that had had been far less important. It was during this period —
starting perhaps around 800 B.C.E. — that the Greeks began to set up their first foreign colonies
in Asia Minor and Sicily and Italy. The Homeric poems, the earliest works of Greek literary
culture, sprang from this period. The Greeks gradually came to view themselves as a people (the
“Hellenes”), even though there remained substantial differences between the cities.
In the end, two great power blocks arose. Athens abolished its monarchy in 683. It went
through a constitutional phase under Solon (594), then a tyranny under Pisistratus (560). Finally,
guided by Cleisthenes (509–507), it developed into a direct democracy with a representative body,
the Boulé, that proposed laws be voted on by a popular assembly. Juries were also highly
democratic; there were no lawyers, and jurors were selected simply by lot.2
Athens’s rival, Sparta (Lacedemon), had developed into a rigid aristocracy, with a large
number of slaves ruled by a smaller number of soldiers ruled by a small aristocratic class which
was directed by five “ephors” (judges — the supreme authority), two “kings” (senior generals),
and a twenty-eight member “gerousia,” or Senate. The Spartans had the most efficient military
in the world (boys were inducted at the age of seven, and spent the rest of their lives in arms),
and set about forging a “Peloponnesian League” to rule all of southern Greece.
Tensions between Sparta and Athens rose constantly during this period. Sparta maneuvered
Athens into exiling Cleisthenes in 508, but he was allowed to return in 507. In 506 the struggle
turned to war. Greece seemed to be about to tear itself apart when it was forced to pull itself
together to face a greater threat.
In 499, a number of Greek cities in Asia Minor, led by Miletus, rebelled against the Persian
Empire. Aided by Athens and Eritria, they were able to capture the old Lydian capitol Sardis.
1.!In Homer, for instance, we know that Agamemnon ruled Mycenae, Menelaus Sparta, Odysseus Ithaca, Nestor
Pylos, etc.
2.!A standard trial would proceed as follows: A citizen would bring a charge against another. A jury of 501 citizens
would be selected; this represented between one and three percent of the Athenian citizen population. The
person bringing the charge would be the prosecutor, and would be allotted a fixed period of time to present his
case. The accused would have an equal time to rebut. The jury would then vote on guilt or innocence; a simple
majority decided. If the result was a conviction, both the prosecutor and the defendant would be allowed to
propose penalties. The jury would then choose one of the proposed penalties. Total time consumed: significantly
less than one day.
For an example of this sort of swift and indifferent justice, see the note on the trial of Socrates on p. 328.

The Persian Emperor at the time was the vigourous Darius I; he was not one to take such
things lightly. Over the next several years he reconquered Asia Minor. Miletus was destroyed in
494. The Emperor then prepared a great invasion of Greece, to teach the Ionian meddlers a
lesson.
Darius’s first invasion misfired when his fleet was destroyed in a storm in 492. Determined
not to repeat that mistake, his second attack was carried out by land.
Even in the face of this threat, the Greeks could not unite. Some, such as Thebes, supported
Persia; others tried to maintain neutrality. But enough opposed the invasion that Athens was able
to defeat the invaders at Marathon in 490 (Hist VI.112ƒ.).
Darius died in 486, but his successor Xerxes I briefly carried on his dream. In 480 the Persian
despot embarked what Herodotus calls the largest army in recorded history (Hist VII.20). It was
so huge that many of the Greek cities were afraid to stand against it. But Athens and Sparta
made peace in order to fight the common enemy.
Xerxes was initially very successful. Later in the year 480, he killed the Spartan king Leonidas
and all his forces at the pass of Thermopylæ (Hist VII.176ƒ.). He also captured and destroyed
Athens, which the brilliant Greek general Themistocles had convinced the people to evacuate.
But in 479 Themistocles’s Athenian navy decisively defeated the Persian fleet at Salamis (Hist
VIII.83ƒ.). Xerxes chose to abandon his invasion and return to a life of idleness and sloth. Only a
small portion of his troops were left under Mardonius to carry on the fight. This force was
defeated in 479 at the Battle of Plataea by the Spartan army (with a little help from the
Athenians — Hist IX.58). Persia had been driven from Greece forever.
With Persia off of the Greeks’ backs, they were once again free to engage in their favorite
pastime of civil war. Sparta defaulted its leadership role when Pausanias (the victor at Plataea)
was recalled for brutality and treason. This left Athens as the leading Greek state.
At first Athens tried to maintain the peace by forming the “Delian League,” a democratic
self-defense organization (477). But this first attempt at a “League of Nations” would fail as
signally as its twentieth century counterpart. From the first, the Athenians — one of the largest
of the Greek states and the hero of the Persian Wars — played an overly large part.
Athens was at its cultural height. The 460s saw the rise of Pericles, the greatest orator and
statesman of antiquity. The greatest Greek drama — the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides, as well as the comedies of Aristophanes — dates from this period. Herodotus wrote
“the world’s first history” at this time; his successors Thucydides and Xenophon were growing
up. Socrates was active during toward the end of this period.
But as Athens grew greater, a different form of decline set in. Success against Persia meant
that the eastern menace seemed less dangerous. Gradually the best statesmen and generals were
set aside. Themistocles himself was exiled in 470 (to end his life as a Persian vassal). Cimon took
over the campaign against Persia, and won a signal victory in 465, but was exiled in 461 as too
pro-Spartan.
In the years that followed, Athens grew increasingly imperial. In 461 she openly broke with
Sparta by forming an alliance with that city’s arch-enemy Argos. The Spartans got even by

allying with Thebes. A brief war broke out, which — although indecisive — strengthened
Athens’s grip on its allies. After Cimon’s return in 451, peace was concluded, and Greece once
again turned against Persia. By 449 Cimon’s forces had harassed Asia Minor so successfully that
Artaxerxes I agreed to peace (the “Peace of Callias”) in 448.
Suddenly the Delian League found itself without a purpose. But the Athenians were not
willing to give it up. Tensions began to rise once again. A peace conference was called by Pericles
in 447, but failed due to Spartan opposition. Athens began to form its own empire around the
Delian League. Even in the 460s cities had been repressed when they tried to withdraw from the
League; now new cities were recruited by force.
By 443, when Pericles was elected to the first of fourteen consecutive terms on the council of
generals, Athens and Sparta were on a collision course. Surrounded by an aggressive populace,
all Pericles could do was warn the people of what was to come and prepare their treasury and
armaments for an extended conflict.
In 431 the inevitable happened: Athens and Sparta went to war (the “Peloponnesian War”).
Athens was initially very successful. But Pericles and a third of the population of the city died of
a plague in 429, and the Delian League began to fracture. The demagogue Cleon refused
Spartan peace offers in 425; he was defeated and killed in 422. Even so the Athenians probably
had more success than the Spartans in the early phases of the war, but the strain on their treasury
was severe (Sparta, which had a centralized economy powered by a huge slave population, did
not really have to worry about economics).
In 421 a peace was negotiated by Nicias of Athens (know, naturally enough, as the “Peace of
Nicias”). But in 415 the young nobleman Alcibiades argued against Nicias, and led an army
against Sicily. The Athenian government began to fall to pieces. Alcibiades was recalled to face
charges of sacrilege before he even reached Sicily. Rather than face the charges, he fled to
Sparta. The Sicilian expedition, despite able commanders, was annihilated, and Athens found
itself having to pay for a fiasco that also cost her much of her fighting strength.
The Spartans, meanwhile, turned to the offensive. Alcibiades encouraged the whole process,
organizing troops, negotiating with the neighbouring cities (he even gained a subsidy from the
Persians!), encouraging revolt among Athen’s allies. In 411 he even cajoled the Athenians into
abandoning their democratic constitution. (All this without even having a city to truly call his
home!)
Times looked bleak for Athens. Then in 410 there was a complete reversal. Alcibiades — who
clearly hoped to return to Athens — convinced Athens’s eastern allies to hold to their allegiance.
A counter-revolution in that year brought more of the population back into the government, and
several naval victories followed. In 407, Alcibiades, the demagogue-turned-enemy-turned-savior,
returned home.
But Alcibiades could not save Athens single-handed. In 406, one of his commanders
blundered into a reverse at the hands of the Persian fleet. The Athenian navy — which had been
the city’s bulwark since the Persian Wars — was falling apart. Alcibiades (by now an enemy of
both Athens and Sparta) was deposed.

Athens was left almost without a government. A great victory in 406 partially retrieved the
situation, but the people could not bring themselves to make peace. In 405 the Spartans won a
great naval victory at Ægospotami. The Athenian navy was all but destroyed, and Athens’s
military might with it. In 404 Athens was besieged and fell.1 The Delian League was ended, and
Sparta was the dominant power in Greece.2 But the war had weakened all parties. In 387 the
Spartans were forced to return the Greek cities of Asia Minor to Persian control. In 371 Thebes
decisively defeated Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra, and Greece once again fell into chaos. The
stage was set for a new era in Greek history.
"""
Achaea was a tiny area comprising only about half of what we now call the nation of Greece.
On the borders of this were a number of nations — Epirus, Illyria (Albania), Macedon, and
Thrace — which spoke Greek dialects and followed some Greek customs but which the true
Greeks regarded as barbarians. In the 350s one of these “barbarians” set in motion perhaps the
most amazing event in military history.
Philip II was the one-eyed king of Macedon. He succeeded his brother Perdiccas in 359,3 and
began a major campaign to unite his nation (long a weak and disunited backwater to the
northeast of Greece). Efficient and brutal, he accomplished this in a single year. He then turned
his attention to Greece, and in a series of campaigns from 356 to 340 succeeded in conquering
most of the cities north of the Attic peninsula. In 340 he turned against Athens and Thebes. In
338 his troops triumphed at the Battle of Chaeronea. The king’s young son Alexander led the
cavalry, and gained much of the credit for the victory.
In 337 all of Greece except for Sparta submitted to Philip and formed the so-called
“Corinthian League.” It was decided that the Greeks would go to war against Persia — still the
great colossus which ruled all the eastern world. But Philip was undaunted. He knew his troops
1.!This is one of the rare instances of a war having a positive side effect: it established the world’s first official
alphabet. Until the war, Athens had maintained its own 21-letter alphabet. In 403 the city formally adopted the
Ionic alphabet. The rest of Greece soon followed suit.
2.!The city of Athens in fact made a remarkable recovery from it defeat. In 403 the population overthrew the
government installed by Sparta (the “Thirty Tyrants”) and restored democratic rule. But Athens had lost its
treasury, its fortifications, its navy, its allies, much of its population, and most of its prestige.
What’s more, it was no longer the cultural powerhouse it had once been. Most of its great geniuses were dead —
Aeschylus died in 456, Sophocles and Euripides in 406 (the latter by then in self-imposed exile). Aristophanes
lived until 385, but he was the last of his breed.
Plus Socrates was executed by the Athenians in 399 — by a divided jury, 281 voted to convict, 220 to acquit. The
official charge was “turning youth away from the gods,” but it seems to in fact have been for for favouring the
Spartans. He was probably executed because he refused to accept a lesser sentence. (The prosecutor had
proposed the death penalty; Socrates made a variety of un-serious suggestions such as a state subsidy. The
offended jury chose death.) Plato flourished during this era, but had nothing to contribute to Athenian politics; he
was pro-oligarchy.
Thus weakened, Athens would never again be able to serve as the leader of Greece.
3.!The history of the Macedonian kings before Philip is very confusing. The family, known as the Argeadai, had
reigned since about 500, but Philip’s father Amyntas III (reigned c. 392-370) came from a cadet branch of the
line; he was the second cousin of his predecessor Orestes. After Amyntas died, he was succeeded by his sons
Alexander (II) and Perdiccas (III) before the throne passed to their younger brother Philip in 359.

were superior.1 The armies prepared. Then, in 336, at the age of 46, Philip was assassinated (cf.
Ant XI.viii.1).2
His successor was Alexander,3 still a youth of twenty. Not many of the Greeks would trust
him. But in 335 he crushed Thebes, and was able to lead an army into Asia Minor. He won a
battle at Granicus the next year (cf. Ant XI.viii.1, 3), and the road to Sardis (the westernmost of
Persia’s great cities) lay open. The city fell later that year, and Alexander proceeded to Gordium.4
At about this time he had to deal with slight setbacks when his fleet revolted, but he quickly
regained the ground by winning the battle of Issus (cf. Ant XI.viii.3), where the heavy Persian
infantry proved no match for the outnumbered but far more mobile Greeks. The Persian
Emperor Darius III escaped, but most of his family and booty fell into Greek hands. All of Asia
Minor was now under Alexander’s control.
Persia was still strong, but after eight years of civil war it could not seem to put up any
resistance. Darius seemed afraid to fight. A brutal siege gave Alexander control of Tyre — a city
which had never before fallen to an enemy — in 332. He then set out on a lightning campaign
that gave him control of all of Palestine and Egypt by the middle of 331. He founded his greatest
city, Alexandria in Egypt, later that year. Soon after, he again attacked the Persian armies and
decisively defeated Darius III at Gaugamela. In 330 the Persian royal city Persepolis was burned.
The disgruntled satrap Bessus murdered Darius and tried to assume the throne, but Alexander
outwitted the usurper by declaring himself the heir of the Persian kings (1 Macc. 1:1). He then
set about to re-conquer their rebellious Empire.
In 328, Alexander began to use conciliation as well as might. He wanted to unite his to
kingdoms. Gradually he added Persian troops to his armies; eventually they made up almost his
entire force. In that year he married the Sogdian princess Roxane; in 324 he set up a new legal
code to place his two realms on equal footings. To further tie the Persians to himself, he married
Barsine Statire, the daughter of Darius III (although Roxane remained his wife, and bore his only
son).
Even while he was conducting these negotiations, Alexander continued to lead campaigns
around his empire. But rebellions of his troops at Hyphasis in 326 (where it is said that he wept
“because there were no more worlds to conquer”) and Opis in 324 forced him to return to
1.!The Persians so feared Greek mercenaries by this time that their commanders took to disguising their eastern
soldiers as Greeks in an attempt to make their enemies flee the battle. It has been argued that the only thing that
kept the Greeks of this period from conquering Persia was the number of Greek states being subsidized by Persia.
2.!Among Philip’s other accomplishments was the rebuilding and improvement of the city of Crenides, which he
renamed Philippi. It was this city — later the site of the battle of Philippi — to which Paul wrote his Philippian
letter. Philip is not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, but in the Apocrypha his name is mentioned in 1 Macc. 1:1,
6:2.
3.!Alexander is not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, but he is clearly the subject of Dan. 8:5-8, 18, 11:3-4. In the
Apocrypha, his name occurs in 1 Macc. 1:1, 7, 6:2, plus repeatedly in Josephus.
4.!Gordium was the city where, according to legend, a peasant, Gordius, had once tied a knot to a wagon and
prophesied that whoever could loose the strands would become “Lord of Asia” — i.e. the Persian Emperor.
Noble after noble had tried to until the ropes, but all had failed. When Alexander arrived, he surveyed the
situation, cut the Gordian knot with his sword, and rode off to conquer the east.

Babylon and reorganize his government. While there, he died of a fever in June of 323 (1 Macc.
1:7; cf Ant XI.viii.7).
Truly did he earn the title that history has bestowed upon him: “Alexander the Great.”
"""
Not all of Alexander’s activities were military; he a student of Aristotle and a patron of the
arts. He worked hard to spread the Greek culture to the world. He founded the city of
Alexandria, an unusually beautiful and modern metropolis. But very little survived his death.
Legend has it that, when he was on his deathbed, he was asked who he wanted to succeed him.
Since he lacked a capable heir, he is said to have left his Empire “to the strongest.”
As it happened, Alexander’s only heirs were a posthumous son Alexander and a feeble-
minded, illegitimate half-brother Arrideus (crowned as Philip III). When the Emperor’s death was
announced, the troops supported Arrideus, while the high officers supported Alexander. As is
usual in such cases, the vultures (in this case, Alexander’s generals) gathered to see what spoils
they could grab (cf. 1 Macc. 1:6). For the moment, a joint rule was patched up, making both
Philip Arrideus and Alexander (IV) kings. A regency was formed in which each of these generals
took a part. Rather than place one officer in overall charge, three were given the chief roles.
Perdiccas was regent, Craterus treasurer, and Antipater — who had ruled Greece in Alexander’s
absence — continued his governorship. Lesser officers were granted provinces: Ptolemy ruled
Egypt; Eumenes (the only Greek among Alexander’s mostly-Macedonian lieutenants)
Cappadocia (eastern Asia); Antigonus Phrygia (southwestern Asia), and Lysimachus, formerly
captain of Alexander’s bodyguard, Thrace (the Greek borderland north of Asia).
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Figure 14: The Diadochi States, 316 B.C.E.

The illusion of unity did not last. A revolt in Greece in 322 (the “Lamian War”), although
eventually put down by Antipater and Craterus with help from the fleet, demonstrated that the
Macedonians and Greeks were divided. (Antipater reacted by subjugating the Greeks, formerly
considered the equals of the Macedonians — at least in theory.) Then the regent Perdiccas was
killed by his officers after an abortive campaign against Ptolemy (who had stolen Alexander’s

body!) in 321. Craterus died in battle with Eumenes. Ptolemy put forward two of his friends
(Peithon and Arrideus) as new regents, but they were too insignificant to be accepted by anyone.
A new government was desperately needed. A peace conference at Triparadeisus, despite
scufflings, managed to reshuffle the offices of state, with Antipater declared regent. But he died in
319 of old age. His designated successor, Polypercheron, lacked the prestige to deal with
Ptolemy’s revolt. And so Antigonus refused to accept the Regent’s authority, and Cassander (the
son of Antipater, who felt snubbed at being passed over by his father) soon raised a revolt against
Polypercheron. Soon after, the supporters of Alexander IV and Arrideus turned against each
other. Olympia (mother of Alexander the Great) had Arrideus killed in 317. But Cassander
captured Olympia, Alexander IV, and Roxane in 316. Olympia was executed at once; Roxane
and her son were allowed to live for another six years, but were ignored by all parties.1 By 315 the
regency was dead. From then on it was every man — or every carrion-eater — for himself.
Despite the bloodshed of the preceding eight years, there were still many claimants to the throne:
Antigonus Monophthalmos (“one-eyed,” who was governor of the Eastern part of the Empire)
and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy — as well as the Greek
Eumenes, and Seleucus, a seeming nobody whom Antigonus had just deposed as governor of
Babylon. These seven, and others, spent more than thirty years trying rebuilt Alexander’s
Empire. This era, from 315 to 280, came to be called “the wars of the Diadochi” (successors).
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The period from 315 to 305, in particular, was an era of constantly shifting alliances and
ever-changing fortune. No one was victorious for long; no one was defeated except by being
killed. A truce in 311 served only to allow the remaining generals (Antigonus, Cassander,
Lysimachus, and Ptolemy) time to rally their forces. Even during the truce, Antigonus was busy
trying to dislodge the newcomer Seleucus, and Cassander took the opportunity to execute
Roxane and Alexander IV. An amazing number of marital alliances were concluded in this
1.!Note Dan. 11:4, which says that “[Alexander’s] kingdom shall be… divided… but not to his posterity.” Compare
also Dan. 8:8

period (almost all of the successors had two or three wives in their lifetimes, and many of their
sisters had three husbands), but few of these accomplished anything. In 307 Antigonus again
opened hostilities. Then in 305 Ptolemy I gave up his aspirations and allowed himself to be
crowned King of Egypt (only). (Antigonus had begun to call himself “king” in 306, but he
considered himself King of all of Alexander’s conquests.)1
The rest of the Diadochi perforce followed suit (cf. 1 Macc. 1:8ƒ.), but they certainly didn’t
stop fighting. In 301 Seleucus (who had used a few troops lent to him by Ptolemy to carve out a
principality for himself starting in 312/11) and Lysimachus killed Antigonus (until then the most
successful of the Macedonian lords) at the battle of Ipsus.2 With his death, reunion of the
Macedonian Empire became completely impossible; no other general had the military means to
do it. Demetrius Poliorcetes took up his father’s cause, but after a brilliant start his fortunes took a
turn for the worse, and eventually his army collapsed. He took refuge with Seleucus, who allowed
him to drink himself to death in 285.
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Three great “empires” eventually emerged: the Antigonid Kingdom in Macedonia (founded
by Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes and grandson of Antigonus
Monophthalmos), that of Seleucus in Asia Minor and Iran (except for Egypt and Palestine,
Seleucus controlled all the lands of the old Persian Empire), and that of Ptolemy in Egypt. The
last two nations would continue their feuding for the next hundred and fifty years, with Judah
being caught squarely in the middle. Initially, the Jewish state belonged to Ptolemy. But its
fortunes shifted as its neighbours maneuvered against each other. What follows is a set of
1.!The four “horns” (kingdoms) of Dan. 8:8 are probably based on the political situation in this period. If the time
envisioned is 305, the four states are probably are probably those of Antigonus (Syria and the East), Cassander
(Macedonia), Lysimachus (Thrace and Asia), and Ptolemy (Egypt). But a date c. 285 is equally possible, in which
case the four states are undeniably those of Antigonus Gonatas (Macedonia), Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus
(Syria and the east). A date after 280 is precluded, because the Seleucid Empire took over Lysimachus’s province
of Asia at that time, leaving only three states.
2.!For such details as we have on the Battle of Ipsus, see the excursus The Battle of Ipsus on p. 335.

biographies of the Successors, telling the story of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms, and
what indignities they inflicted on Judah.
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Excursus: A Tantalizing View of the Trojan War

Neither the works of Homer nor more recent economic explanations for the Trojan War
really explain its full place in Greek consciousness. In later Greek mythology, the war against
Troy was only a single incident in the vast tragedy of the House of Tantalus. Tantalus, who had
tricked the gods into cannibalism, was punished in Hades with eternal hunger and thirst were just
out of his reach — hence “to tantalize.” His grandsons, the brothers Atreus and Thyestes, fought
a terrible fratricidal war in which Atreus fed Thyestes the flesh of his murdered children.
Thyestes replied by raping his own daughter, since only by this means (an oracle claimed) could
he produce a champion to slay his brother.
Atreus’s sons were Agamemnon and Menelaus. Agamemnon became king of Mycenae, but
was slain by his wife Clytaemnestra and her lover Aegisthus, the son of Thyestes who had also
slain Atreus. This was Clytaemnestra’s revenge for Agamemnon’s sacrifice of their daughter
Iphigenia to get a clear wind for Troy. (Compare Agamemnon’s sacrifice of Iphigenia with
Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac in Genesis 22; note also that in some accounts Iphigenia is saved by
a goddess — but not in all! Other parallels are examined in the excursus Jephthah’s Only
Daughter and Her Sisters on p. 29.)
Menelaus was lucky; he was just separated from his wife Helen (of Sparta; later Helen “of
Troy,” the sister of Clytaemnestra) for ten years.
The curse on the house of Tantalus was finally expiated by Agamemnon’s son Orestes;
having been forced to kill his mother to avenge his father, he went mad, but at last was pardoned
by Athena. These events are the subject of Aeschylus’s Oresteia, the only intact three-play tragedy
from ancient Athens.
It is noteworthy that some of the worst parts of the New Testament concept of Hell seem to
derive from the tales of Tantalus and his fellow sufferers. The part of Hell devoted to punishment
of special sinners was Tartarus; although the most common New Testament word for Hell is
“Gehenna” (a variant on the Hebrew phrase (“valley of Hinnom”), but in 2 Pet. 2:4 we find the
verb 0-!0-!8D, tartaroo, to cast into Tartarus. This verb occurs only in this place in the New
Testament, but is also found in LXX of Job 41:24, and in Philo, Josephus, and the Book of
Enoch. Prior to that, the word is very rare; it is typical of the author of 2 Peter to use an obscure
word when a sensible one would do just as well. We find 0-!0-!8#, Tartarus, mentioned in LXX
of Job 40:12, 41:22.

The Diadochi
The Diadochi
Antigonus I Monophthalmos (“One-Eyed”). Died 301 B.C.E. The most important of the
successors after the death of Antipater in 319. He had originally been one of Alexander’s chief
generals, charged with keeping Alexander’s line of communication open after Issus (a difficult
task, involving at least three pitched battles). During the Regency he had been given command of
Phrygia. He was forced to flee his post when he refused an order from the regent PERDICCAS to
attack a rebellious chieftain. But the rumours he spread about Perdiccas allowed him to regain his
stature. Antipater appointed him to a command in Asia, and he quickly expelled EUMENES,
Perdiccas’s agent. After Antipater’s death Antigonus took control of most of Asia, confining and
eventually killing Eumenes in 316.
Antigonus was the only one of the successors who had any serious chance of reuniting
Alexander’s Empire. His one serious mistake — which seemed minor at the time — was driving
SELEUCUS from Babylon in 316. Seleucus, aided by Ptolemy, captured Gaza in 312, and a
strenuous campaign in 310–9 failed to dislodge him; this small setback for Antigonus ultimately
proved fatal. In 306, having handily defeated Ptolemy’s navy, Antigonus made his position official
by crowning himself king (presumably of Alexander’s Empire, although none of the successors
had specific kingdoms). But this simply forced the other successors to unite against him. His
attack on Egypt failed due to bad weather, and his opponents responded by assuming diadems
themselves. Seleucus and Lysimachus killed Antigonus at the battle of Ipsus in 301 (he was
probably in his mid-seventies by this time; we can’t be sure, but one source guesses he was born in
382). His son DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES — who had been his chief general since 312 —
attempted to rebuild his Empire, but it was too late.1
Excursus: The Battle of Ipsus and Macedonian Tactics

Our information on the Battle of Ipsus is sketchy, but what we know seems typical of
Macedonian battle formations. On one side were the forces of Antigonus I and Demetrius
Poliorcetes; on the other, those of Lysimachus and Seleucus. Demetrius commanded the elite
right wing which was to attack the allied forces of Lysimachus and Seleucus. Demetrius routed
Seleucus’s left wing, but instead of falling on the allied center, which would almost certainly have
won the battle, he continued to pursue the fleeing troops. Seleucus moved a corps of elephants to
block Demetrius’s return, and then he and Lysimachus crushed Antigonus’s remaining forces. By
the time Demetrius returned, Antigonus was dead and his army effectively destroyed.
This battle showed the danger of Macedonian tactics. Antiochus III (Seleucus’s great-great-
grandson) would lose the battles of Raphia and Magnesia for the same reasons: his elite troops
insisted on chasing the troops they had defeated rather than turning on the surviving part of the
enemy army.
1.!Indeed, it was largely Demetrius’s fault that Antigonus lost the Battle of Ipsus; see the excursus on that battle.
Antigonus is not mentioned in the Bible (except as one of the successors in Dan. 11:4, 1 Macc. 1:8-9), but is
referred to by Josephus in Ant XII.i.1, Against Apion I.22.

The Diadochi
Antipater. 397-319 B.C.E. When Alexander was alive, Antipater was been his regent in
Greece, directing local affairs and keeping the population quiet from 334 to 323; among other
things, he defeated the revolt of Agis III of Sparta in 331. After Alexander’s death he remained
the commander in that area and succeeded in suppressing the rebellious Greek cities in 322 (the
“Lamian War,” after the city in which Antipater was besieged until he was rescued by CRATERUS
and the fleet). When PERDICCAS was killed in 321, Antipater was chosen regent. But he died of
old age in 319, effectively destroying hopes for the success of the regency. At his request, he was
succeeded as regent by POLYPERCHERON, but that officer was quickly driven out by CASSANDER
(who as Antipater’s son coveted the title himself).
Cassander. Died 298/7 B.C.E. His wife was Philip II’s daughter Thessalonica. The son of
ANTIPATER, he was very angry when his father appointed POLYPERCHERON as his heir rather than
Cassander himself. In consequence, he formed an alliance with ANTIGONUS. When Antigonus
defeated the Regent’s navy, Cassander was in a position to take over Macedonia. Polypercheron
fled to Alexander’s mother Olympia in Epirus, but her invasion of Macedon — although it
allowed her to capture and execute Philip Arrideus — ultimately left her, along with Alexander’s
wife Roxane and son Alexander IV, in Cassander’s hands (316). He killed Olympia at once, and
the other two were dead by 311. But for all his gifts and skills,1 Cassander failed to establish a
secure dynasty. When he died of disease in 298, his oldest son Philip IV became king, but died
within months. Two younger sons, Alexander V and Antipater, then divided his kingdom, but
were done away with in 294 as Demetrius moved to recapture the Macedonian heartland.
Craterus. Died 321 B.C.E. Originally the treasurer of the Regency (which gave him an
effective veto over the activities of his colleagues) and also guardian of the new kings. It was his
army that allowed ANTIPATER to hold on long enough for the fleet to turn the tide in the Lamian
War. But he died in battle against EUMENES in 321 as he and Antipater fought against
PERDICCAS.
Demetrius Poliorcetes, known as “the Beseiger.”2 334–285 B.C.E. The son of ANTIGONUS
MONOPHTHALMOS, and eventually his chief general (we are told that father and son got along
well and cooperated wonderfully). At the age of twenty-two he led the army that SELEUCUS and
PTOLEMY defeated at the battle of Gaza/Gezer (cf. Against Apion I.22). But he apparently learned
his lesson; his later career as a general was much more successful. In 306 he all but destroyed
Ptolemy’s navy off Cyprus. Although his siege of Rhodes was foiled by Ptolemy in 304, he
generally made short work of opposing cities (hence his nickname). When his father was killed at
the battle of Ipsus in 301 (a defeat in which Demetrius’s rashness played a major part: in his zeal
to pursue the enemy’s routed cavalry, he took his troops out of position to support his father; see
the note on The Battle of Ipsus on p. 335), Demetrius gradually put his Empire back together,
until he began to appear almost as much a threat as his father. His greatest achievement was his
reconquest of Macedonia in the years following the death of CASSANDER in 298/7. In 294 he
1.!Cassander was said to know Homer by heart. He also founded the city of Thessalonika (c. 315 B.C.E.), which he
named for his wife. This city, modern Salonika, later housed the Christian community to which Paul would send
two letters.
2.!The name “Poliorcetes” means literally “city-snatcher,” hence Demetrius’s English nickname “the Besieger.”

The Diadochi
killed Cassander’s older son Alexander V and drove his younger brother and joint ruler Antipater
into exile at the court of LYSIMACHUS. Gradually Demetrius rebuilt his army until he was the
again the strongest (and most despotic) of the Macedonian princes. As a result, Lysimachus and
Pyrrhus I of Epirus invaded his Macedonian base in 288. Rather that wait to rebuild his
scattered armies, Demetrius at once set off on a lightning campaign into Mesopotamia. Seleucus
simply kept out of his way until Demetrius’s undersized army deserted. Abandoned, Demetrius
fled to the court of Seleucus, who kindly allowed him to drink himself to death. (This was typical
behavior for Poliorcetes; Plutarch paints a portrait of a hard-living, hard-drinking, womanizing
hero brought down by his devotion to pleasure.) Amazingly enough, even though the Antigonid
dynasty appeared destroyed, Demetrius’s son Antigonus II Gonatas managed to rebuild the
Macedonian state; it endured until the Romans destroyed it in 146 B.C.E.1
Eumenes. Died 316 B.C.E. Sometimes called “Eumenes of Cardia” to distinguish him from
the several kings of Pergamum with the same name. The only non-Macedonian among the
successors — which makes it somewhat ironic that he was the only one of them who was always
loyal to Alexander. Under Alexander he had directed the Imperial Chancery. PERDICCAS
appointed him governor of Cappadocia, and later chose him to (in effect) guard his rear when
the Regent moved to attack PTOLEMY while himself being attacked by CRATERUS and ANTIPATER.
Eumenes succeeded in killing Craterus, but Perdiccas was killed by his officers, leaving Eumenes
on his own. He was quickly driven from Asia by ANTIGONUS MONOPHTHALMOS. Eumenes turned
to POLYPERCHERON, but that officer was unable to hold his position. Although the respite gave
Eumenes time to rebuild his armies, Antigonus soon was after him again. Although neither side
gained a strong advantage at the battle of Parætacene (317) or Gabiene (316), some of Eumenes’s
troops sold him out at the latter battle and Antigonus had him executed.
Lysimachus. Died 281 B.C.E. He was originally the captain of Alexander’s bodyguard. In
the first Regency agreement he was given control of Thrace. For many years thereafter he stayed
quiet, conserving his troops and his money. It was not until 302 that he at last involved himself in
his colleagues’ wars. In that year the threat of ANTIGONUS forced him into the field. He attacked
Antigonus’s possessions in Asia Minor, forcing the senior general to unite his army to retrieve his
losses. Lysimachus then joined his army with that of SELEUCUS, and the two killed Antigonus at
Ipsus in 301.2 This gave him control of much of Asia Minor. But then Demetrius Poliorcetes
began to rebuild his father’s power. Lysimachus therefore joined with Pyrrhus I of Epirus in
attacking Demetrius’s Macedonian base. Demetrius took his armies to Mesopotamia, where
Seleucus led his armies on a wild goose chase that eventually exhausted them. During this period
Lysimachus built a strong power base in Asia Minor and Greece. But his harsh treatment
alienated the Greek cities. In 282 Seleucus took the opportunity of attacking him, and many of
Lysimachus’s fortresses opened their gates to Seleucus. The rivals met at the battle of
Corupedium in 281, and Lysimachus was killed. His logical heir would have been his oldest and
1.!Demetrius is not mentioned in the Bible (except implicitly in Dan. 11:4, 1 Macc. 1:8-9), but is
mentioned by Josephus in Against Apion I.22.
2.!For details, see the note on The Battle of Ipsus on p. 335.

The Diadochi
ablest son Agathocles, but Arsinoë II, Lysimachus’s third wife, was determined that one of her
sons, not their older half-brother, would succeed their father. She convinced Lysimachus to kill
Agathocles in 283. As a result, he had no capable heir when he died. Seleucus was able to seize
most of his Asian possessions, and Ptolemy Ceraunos (the exiled oldest son of Ptolemy Soter who
had become one of Lysimachus’s officers) took over Greece, killing most of Lysimachus’s
remaining offspring.1
Perdiccas. Died 321 B.C.E. The original Regent of the Macedonian kingdom. At first his
rule was vigourous, for he suppressed some Persian vassal-states in Asia. His career took a turn
for the worse when Alexander’s mother Olympia turned against him. At the same time
ANTIGONUS (who had refused one of Perdiccas’s orders and fled his province) began to spread
rumours about him which turned ANTIPATER and CRATERUS against him. Leaving EUMENES to
guard his rear, in 321 Perdiccas led an expedition against PTOLEMY (who had stolen Alexander’s
body!) in Egypt. But the campaign met with no great success, and Perdiccas was murdered by his
officers (including SELEUCUS).
Polypercheron. An officer of Alexander’s who had served in India. He was one of
ANTIPATER’S generals during the final stages of the Lamian War. When Antipater died, he named
Polypercheron to succeed him as Regent. Unfortunately, PTOLEMY was still in revolt, ANTIGONUS
(who might have been the best choice for regent) soon joined him, and Antipater’s son
CASSANDER (who had wanted the regency for himself rather than being the second-in-command
of one of his father’s officers) was by no means ready to fight against them. Polypercheron lacked
the status to fight the rebels on his own. Antigonus’s navy soon defeated the Regent’s, preventing
his army from receiving reinforcements. Cassander then drove him from Macedonia; he was
forced to flee to Epirus and the court of Alexander’s mother Olympia. She led an army against
Cassander, and captured and executed her stepson Philip Arrideus, but also turned Macedonia
against her. Cassander quickly regained control of Macedonia, and Polypercheron was forced
into exile, finally being forced to become a mercenary — first for Antigonus and then for
Cassander. His ultimate fate is unknown.
Ptolemy Soter (“Savior”). Died 285 B.C.E. Unlike the rest of the successors, who wanted to
be in charge of all of Alexander’s empire, his first act was to build himself an independent power
base. So he took over Egypt (based on a grant from the incompetent Philip Arrideus), rose in
revolt, and simply let attackers come to him.2 The first to move against him was the Regent
PERDICCAS, but that officer — by then involved in a war with CRATERUS and ANTIPATER — was
assassinated by his lieutenants after a minor setback. Ptolemy was able to nominate two of his
officers (Peithon and Arrideus) as the new Regents, but they were quickly replaced after the
conference at Triparadeisus. From that point on Ptolemy was largely excluded from Macedonian
affairs. Even so, his revolt proved very destabilizing to the Regency, since it gave rebels a center to
1.!Lysimachus is not mentioned in the Bible (except implicitly in Dan. 11:4, 1 Macc. 1:8-9), but is mentioned by
Josephus in Ant XII.i.1.
2.!This sort of sneakiness became almost Ptolemy’s trademark. According to Ant XII.i.1, he captured Jerusalem by
entering the city on a sabbath “as [if] to sacrifice” but then turning on the Jews who could not defend themselves
on that day. He had earlier stolen Alexander the Great’s body on the pretext of honouring it.

The Diadochi
rally around. His navy — despite a heavy defeat by DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES in 306 — did allow
him to control a large portion of Asia, but (apart from his relief of Rhodes in 304 and his
support for Seleucus in 312) he rarely sent his army abroad. By a great stroke of luck,
Demetrius’s navy turned to him after the latter’s death. This gave him a control of the sea that
lasted until Roman times. The prosperity it yielded allowed his Ptolemaic dynasty (described on
the following pages) to be the most long-lived of the Macedonian successor-states.1
Pyrrhus (Pyrrhus I of Epirus): Properly not one of the successors, and indeed not even a
Macedonian (he wasn’t even a true Greek!). Even so, he managed to have an immense influence
on Hellenistic affairs. Born around 318, he left Epirus (at this time a weak shadow-state of
Macedon) in 301 to enlist in the armies of DEMETRIUS POLIORCETES. No doubt hoping to gain
glory and experience in battle, he instead found himself a prisoner after his side’s defeat at Ipsus.
Sent as a hostage to PTOLEMY’S Egyptian court, his manner soon gained him attention and the
hand of Ptolemy’s daughter. In 300 the Egyptians financed Pyrrhus’s successful attempt to
reconquer his homeland. As king of Epirus (in western Greece) until 272, he continued to
meddle in the affairs of the Diadochi. Around 289, for instances, he formed the alliance with
LYSIMACHUS that drove Demetrius from Macedonia. With Demetrius out of his way, Pyrrhus
tried to take over Macedonia, but — abandoned by Lysimachus who coveted Alexander’s
homeland himself — he was not able to conquer Antigonus Gonatas’s strongholds in central
Greece. After that Pyrrhus turned his attention westward, interfering in Sicily and Italy. Although
he won most of his battles, he achieved little overall (his “Pyrrhic victory” over Rome at
Ausculum in 279 did much to hasten his return home). In 272 Pyrrhus, having been frustrated in
the west, made one last attempt to take over Macedonia. But Antigonus Gonatas — bolstered by
the reputation he had won against the Gauls in 276, defeated the Epirotes, and Pyrrhus was
killed.
Seleucus Nicator (“Conqueror”). Died 280 B.C.E. If ever there was a rags-to-riches hero,
this is he. He was originally merely a friend and minor official of Alexander; he had no power
base. He first appears on the scene as one of the murderers of PERDICCAS. Despite this black
mark, he was considered the best and most just of Alexander’s successors.2 Appointed by the
Regency to govern Babylon, he was driven from his post by ANTIGONUS MONOPHTHALMOS in
316. He fled to the court of PTOLEMY and officially informed the other Successors of Antigonus’s
treachery. Given a small army by Ptolemy, he took over Gaza after the defeat of DEMETRIUS
POLIORCETES at that city in 312, and set about building an empire. He did a good job of it, too:
from Gaza he gradually gained control of most of Antigonus’s eastern provinces, fighting off an
attempt to expel him in 310–9. (The only area he could not control was in the far east — and
even there he managed to win a force of elephants from the Indian monarch in exchange for a
pledge of non-interference. These elephants would be a crucial help at Ipsus.) In 301 his forces
1.!Ptolemy is not mentioned in the Bible (except implicitly in Dan. 11:4, 1 Macc. 1:8-9), but is mentioned
by Josephus in Ant XII.i.1ƒ., Against Apion I.22, II.4.
2.!Cf. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander VII.22, “Seleucus was… the greatest king among Alexander’s successors. There
can, I think, be no doubt about this: he had the noblest mind of them all and, after Alexander himself, ruled over
the largest territory.”

The Diadochi
and those of LYSIMACHUS defeated Antigonus at the battle of Ipsus,1 and Seleucus gained still
more of Antigonus’s land. He also saw to it that Demetrius was allowed to drink himself to death
in 285. finally he had a showdown with Lysimachus at Corupedium in 281. He was once again
victorious; Lysimachus fell, and his Asian territories came into Seleucus’s hands. Although
Seleucus was assassinated by Ptolemy’s disinherited son Ptolemy Ceraunos, he had established an
empire that would hold together for centuries. The story of his successors, like those of
Ptolemy’s, is told on the following pages.2
Figure 18: Alexander’s Successors…
1.!For details, see the note on The Battle of Ipsus on p. 335.

2.!Seleucus is not mentioned in the Bible (except implicitly in Dan. 11:4, 1 Macc. 1:8-9), but is mentioned by
Josephus in Ant XII.i.1, XII.iii.1, 2, XIII.vi.7, XVIII.ix.8, Against Apion II.4.

The Successors of Alexander
‡Antigonus I
Monophthalmos ‡Antipater Olympias Philip II of Macedon
Lagos Arsinoë b. c. 398; d. 319 d. 316† d. 336†
b. c. 380; d. 301†

2 1/2 1 Roxane Alexander III
Ptolemais ‡Demetrius Phila ‡Craterus 1/2 2 1 ‡Cassander Thessalonica d. 311† b. 356; d. 323
b. c. 349 d. 321† ‡Lysimachus Nicea ‡Perdiccas Berenice §‡Ptolemy I “Soter” Euridice d. 298/7 d. c. 296†
Poliorcetes 305–285 Alexander IV
d. 281†; b. c. 360 d. 321†
b. 334; d.283 1 2/3 2 b. 323; d. 311†
Demetrius Later married Arsinoë I §Ptolemy II Arsinoë II Ptolemy Euridice Alexander V Philip IV Antipater Philip III Arrideus
d. c. 255† to Arsinoë II “Philadelphus” b. c. 315; d. 270 Ceraunos b. c. 302; d. 294† b. c. 306; d. 297 b. c. 304; d. 294† b. c. 358; d. 316†
Agathocles
Antiochus Laodice 285–246 First married d. 279†
d. 283† to Lysimachus
Stratonice *‡Seleucus I “Nicator” Apama of Sogdiana Key:
305–280†; b. c. 355 Magas of Names in Plain Text are male
Antigonus 1
Cyrene Names in Italic are female
II Gonatas Phila II ( ) *Antiochus I “Soter” Stratonice I d. c. 258
? 280–261† Names in Bold indicate a ruler of Judah
d. 239 ‡ indicates one of the Diadochi
Antigonus III 2 1 ? 1 2
Doson Chryseis Demetrius II Stratonice II Laodice *Antiochus II “Theos” Berenice II §Ptolemy II “Euergetes” Berenice III * indicates a Seleucid Emperor
229–221† 239–229 261–246 d. 246† 246–221 § indicates a Ptolemaic Emperor
b. c. 277 all dares are dates of reign unless
*Seleucus II “Callinicus” Antiochus “Hierax”
Philip V marked b. (born) or d. (died)
246–226; b. c. 265 d. 228/7† Arsinoë II §Ptolemy IV “Philopator”
221–179 All dates are B.C.E.
b. c. 238 d. 203† 221–203 † indicates a violent death
*Seleucus III “Soter Ceraunos” *Antiochus III “Magnus” indicates a pretender
226–223† 223–187†; b. 243 indicates illegitimacy
Perseus Demetrius
179–167 d. 181†
*Seleucus IV “Philopater” Laodice *Antiochus IV “Epiphanes” Cleopatra I §Ptolemy V “Epiphanes”
187–175† 175–163 d. c. 173 203–181; b. 209
1
The Diadochi
2/1 2
*Demetrius I “Soter” Antiochus §Ptolemy VI “Philometer” Cleopatra II §Ptolemy VIII “Physcon” Cleopatra III
161–150†; b. c. 185 b. c. 177 181–145†; b. c. 187 d. c. 115 170–163 & 145–116 116–101†
b. c. 185
*Demetrius II “Nicator” Cleopatra Thea *Antiochus VII “Sidetes” Ptolemy VII

145–138 & 129–125† Formerly wife of 138–129† *Antiochus V *Alexander Cleopatra Thea d. 145†
Alexander Balas “Eupator” Balas d. 121† ( ) §Ptolemy IX “Lathyrus” Cleopatra IV
Later wife of 116–107 & 88–81
163–162†; b. 172 150–145†
Seleucus (V) *Antiochus VIII “Grypus” *Antiochus IX “Cyzenicus” Demetrius II & §Ptolemy XII “Auletes” Cleopatra Berenice §Ptolemy X “Alexander” ( )
d. c. 125† 124–113 & 111–96; b. c. 141 116–95† Antiochus VII 81–58 & 54–51 101–88, 81† 107–88†
*Antiochus VI
“Epiphanes Dionysus” §Ptolemy XI
Seleucus VI *Demetrius III *Philip I *Antiochus XI *Antiochus X “Eusebes” 143–142 Cleopatra VI Berenice IV Julius Cæsar §Cleopatra VII Mark Antony Arsinoë IV Ptolemy XIII “Alexander” II
d. c. 95† 95–88 94–84 87–84 I 95–83 58–57; d. 57? 58–54† b. 100; d. 44† 51–30†; b. 69 b. 83; d. 30† b. c. 66; d. 41† 51–47†; b. c. 64 81†
Ptolemy XIV
*Philip II *Antiochus XIII Cæsarion (Ptolemy XV) Alexander Cleopatra Juba II of Numidia 47–43†; b. c. 58
67–66 “Asiaticus” 43–30†; b. 46? “Helios” “Selene”
69–68 & 65–64
Alexander’s Successors
341
The Diadochi
The Successor Dynasties

Alexander the Great was one of the “Nine Worthies” of medieval tradition (along with
Hector, Julius Caesar, Joshua, David, Judas Maccabeus, Arthur, Charlemagne, and Godfrey of
Boullion, a group now remembered only for being mentioned in Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Part
Two). But his successors were anything but worthy. His generals divided his empire and held onto
their little corners with ruthless force (Dan. 11:4, 1 Macc. 1:8–9).
Judah lay on the border between the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt.
As a result, it was often fought over, cursed, invaded. The country originally belonged to the
Ptolemies, and the Jews were granted a measure of tolerance. But in 198 the land swung
permanently into Seleucid control, and soon after they suffered a bitter repression until freed by
the Maccabean revolt.
Chapter eleven of the book of Daniel gives a detailed (if veiled) description of the relations
between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies; as a result, most of the entries have been cross-
referenced with that work.
Since all the kings of Egypt were named Ptolemy, and most of the Seleucids were Antiochus
or Seleucus, the practice of giving a nickname was adopted in ancient times. I have included
these nicknames (with translations) with the monarchs’ names. In addition, I have given most
dates in two forms: dates of the common era that we now use (B.C.E.), and in the Seleucid Era
(S.E.) dates that are consistently used in the Books of Maccabees. The year one of the Seleucid
era was 312 (or 311) B.C.E.1 when Seleucus I won a major victory at Gaza/Gezer that gave him a
kingdom (he had for a time been regent of Babylon, but had been expelled by Antigonus and
forced to seek help from Ptolemy).
We should note that we have three Jewish sources for this period, Daniel, 1 Maccabees, and
2!Maccabees, and their perspectives are completely different. Daniel, written probably while the
Maccabean Revolt was still going on and finished before the result was known, was a radical
supporter of the martyrs and an enemy of the Maccabees; in later terms, he would probably
count as a radical Pharisee. 2 Maccabees is also Pharisaic, and in favour of martyrdom; it may
well have accepted Daniel and regards Judas Maccabeus positively but dislikes the rest of the
family. 1 Maccabees is written by the best historian of the period, but one who is a partisan of
the entire Maccabean line (not just Judas but also his father and brothers), who doesn’t think
much of martyrdom (he probably didn’t believe in an afterlife), and doesn’t even refer to God
except in indirect language. He was clearly of the same school of thought as the later Sadducees.
The list below shows the Ptolemies in order, then the Seleucids in order, with sidebars to each
report showing the contemporary rulers of the other dynasty.
1.!The date of the battle of Gaza is known — but there was no standardized calendar at the time. Some nations
used solar calendars, some used lunar — and besides, there seem to have been two Seleucid systems in place, one,
primarily Macedonian and one Babylonian, one of which began the year in the spring and the other in the fall.
So, half the time, an event would fall in one year in one system and another year in the other. And it appears that
the author of 1 Maccabees, at least, had multiple sources using the different calendars and he didn’t know which
was used in at least some instances.

The Ptolemies
The Ptolemies
Ptolemy I “Soter” (“Savior”), reigned 306–285 B.C.E. (6–27 S.E.).
• Contemporary Seleucid Monarch: The Ptolemaic Dynasty
Seleucus I Ptolemy I — 305–285
• Scriptural references: None (Ptolemy Ptolemy II — 285–246
Soter is not named in the Bible, but Ptolemy III — 246–221
is referred to implicitly in Dan. 11:5)
Ptolemy IV — 221–203
Ptolemy V — 203–181
Ptolemy VI (sole rule) — 180–170
Ptolemy VI with Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II
— 170–163
Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II — 163–145
Ptolemy VIII with Cleopatra II — 145–142
Ptolemy VIII with Cleopatra III — 142–116
Cleopatra II with Ptolemy IX — 116–115
Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra III — 115–107
Ptolemy X and Cleopatra III — 107–101
Ptolemy X and Cleopatra Berenice — 101–88
The
Ptolemaic Ptolemy IX restored — 88–81
Kingdom at Ptolemy XI Alexander II and Cleopatra Berenice
its maximum — 81–80
extent, Ptolemy XII — 80–58
c. 280-260 B.C.E.
Berenice IV (and/or Cleopatra VI) — 58–56
Figure 19: Ptolemaic Egypt Berenice IV and Archelaus — 56–54
See also the article on Ptolemy Soter on Ptolemy XII restored — 54–51
p. 338 in the article on The Diadochi. Cleopatra VII — 51–30
Ptolemy was the son of Lagos (hence the name “Lagids” sometimes used for his dynasty); he
earned the title “savior” in 304 B.C.E. when he prevented the island of Rhodes from being
captured by Demetrius Poliorcetes. He was the only one of the Diadochi to be related to
Alexander; they were (approximately) third cousins on his mother’s side. He had joined
Alexander’s inner circle in 330 (his memoirs are partially preserved by Arrian). He was the first of
the Macedonians to concede that Alexander’s Empire could never be reconstructed. He therefore
had himself appointed governor of Egypt, secured his position by rising in revolt, and avoided
participation in his colleagues’ wars as best he could (giving him the freedom to found the famous
Alexandrian library as well as support the famous mathematician Euclid). Although he took part
in defensive alliances against Antigonus — at least on paper; he rarely supplied troops — his only
offensive actions were in the Mediterranean. By building a strong navy and constantly

The Ptolemies
negotiating with the island city-states, he was able to assemble enough alliances to give him
effective control of the islands and even at times of southern Asia Minor. It is perhaps typical that
it was Ptolemy who supported and equipped Seleucus I when the latter was forced out of
Babylon by Antigonus in 316; he wanted someone else to protect him from Antigonus. In 306/5,
following Antigonus’s assumption of the “kingship,” Ptolemy crowned himself King of Egypt
(abandoning hope of reuniting Alexander’s empire); his rivals soon followed suit. Early in his
reign, he took control of Judah by attacking Jerusalem on a sabbath.1 Although Seleucus
occasionally held sway over the region of Palestine, Ptolemy had a treaty claim to the land (since
he had bankrolled and supported Seleucus’s capture of Gaza) and finally succeeded in making it
good (cf. Dan. 11:5). Ptolemy’s oldest son was Ptolemy Ceraunos, the son of Euridice daughter of
Antipater, but his third wife (or perhaps only his mistress) Bernice convinced Soter to disinherit
Ceraunos in favour of her son Philadelphus. Ceraunos, forced into exile, succeeded in
assassinating Seleucus I before being killed by the Galatians in 279.2 Berenice’s son, meanwhile,
succeeded to the throne of Egypt as
Ptolemy II “Philadelphus” (“Loving his Sister”), reigned 285–246 B.C.E. (27–66 S.E.).
• Contemporary Seleucid Monarchs: Seleucus I, Antiochus I , Antiochus II
• Scriptural references: None (Ptolemy II is not named in the Bible, but is referred to
implicitly in Dan. 11:6)
He acquired his nickname “Philadelphus” because he would eventually marry his full sister
Arsinoë II (the widow of Lysimachus), despite being married to Arsinoë I (the daughter of
Lysimachus by Nicea daughter of Antipater). (Of course, brother-sister marriages were common
in the Egyptian royal families.) Philadelphus greatly expanded and improved the Egyptian library
at Alexandria, making it the best in the world. It was he who finally firmly established Egyptian
control of Judah. Indeed, during the “First Syrian War” of 275 he captured all of Phoenicia
from Antiochus I, and prevented Antiochus II from regaining it in the “Second Syrian War” of
262. (In the end Ptolemy returned northern Phoenicia to the Seleucids — but only in return for
an alliance against Antigonus Gonatas.) It was during his reign (and perhaps with his
1.!Ptolemy’s conquest of Syria took place in 319 after the peace conference at Triparadeisus. Eumenes reconquered
the area soon after, which left most of it in Antigonus’s hands after 316. Seleucus drove the Antigonid forces from
the area in 312, leaving only Ptolemy and Seleucus in a position to dispute it. Ptolemy firmly re-annexed the area
in 301, and Seleucus did not press the matter.
2.!When Ceraunos was exiled, he fled to the court of Lysimachus and became one of his officers. When Lysimachus
was killed by Seleucus I at Corupedium, Ceraunos took over his kingdom as, apparently, the senior surviving
general (Lysimachus’s surviving children were too young to rule). Ceraunos also married the old king’s widow
Arsinoë II (his half-sister!), apparently in another attempt to strengthen his power. This marriage, however, is said
to have lasted for only a single day, and Ceraunos proceeded to kill two of Arsinoë’s children. He probably had
plans for her, too, but she managed to flee to Egypt, where she married her full brother Ptolemy II, and was
apparently so capable a consort that Ptolemy later deified her! Continuing his pattern of sneakiness, Ceraunos
assassinated Seleucus I in 280 and took over most of the Seleucid army. This gave him control of Asia and a
large part of Syrian and Mesopotamia. Ceraunos suddenly looked like he was in a position to dominate the
Macedonian kingdoms. But he was swiftly killed — by the Galatians, in 279 —!and most of his conquests ended
up independent or in the hands of Seleucus’s son Antiochus I.

The Ptolemies
sponsorship) that the Septuagint — the Greek translation of the Old Testament — was begun
(Ant XII.ii.1ƒ.; cf. also the Letter of Aristeas1 and the writings of Philo). On the negative side, he
seems to have (re-)instituted a cult in which his subjects worshipped him as a god. He was also the
creator of the world’s first closed economy: a series of decrees saw to it that only Ptolemaic
money could circulate in Egypt. By the end of his reign, Egypt was almost a pure communist
dictatorship2 — all production planned, controlled, and directed by the Ptolemaic administration
(a situation that would persist well into Roman times). Ptolemy II is probably the “King of the
South” of Dan. 11:6. He was succeeded by his son
Ptolemy III “Euergetes” (“Benefactor”), reigned 246–221 B.C.E. (66–91 S.E.).

• Contemporary Seleucid Monarchs: Seleucus II, Seleucus III, Antiochus III
• Scriptural references: None (Ptolemy III is not named in the Bible, but is referred to
implicitly in Dan. 11:7-9)
Euergetes brought Egypt to its greatest extent by waging a successful war against the
Seleucid Seleucus II (the “Third Syrian War,” allegedly fought on behalf of Ptolemy’s nephew,
Seleucus’s half-brother the son of Berenice). This gave him control of much of Syria and Asia
Minor (Dan. 11:7–8; cf. Against Apion II.5, where Ptolemy is said to have celebrated his victory
with sacrifices at the Jerusalem Temple). Indeed, he was in position to attack Antioch (the
Seleucid capitol) when a revolt forced him to return home. The Seleucid Seleucus II eventually
counterattacked Egypt but was decisively defeated (Dan. 11:9). Ptolemy had some troubles with
Judea, where the High Priest Onias II refused to pay tribute. But the Tobiad Joseph saved the
situation by having himself appointed tax collector (Ant XII.iv.1, but see also the notes on
Menelaus, Onias II, and Onias III).
Euergetes also brought Egypt to its cultural height; the most important scientific work (as
opposed to mathematical work) in Egyptian history took place in his reign when the Alexandrian
librarian Eratosthenes of Cyrene succeeded in measuring the circumference of the earth.
Euergetes died in peace — one of the last Ptolemies to do so — and was succeeded by his son
Ptolemy IV “Philopater” (“Loving his Father”), reigned 221–203 B.C.E. (91–109 S.E.).
• Contemporary Seleucid Monarch: Antiochus III
• Scriptural references: 3 Macc. 1:1, 4, (6), 3:12, 7:1. Also mentioned implicitly in Dan.
11:12
1.!The Letter of Aristeas, an apologetic forgery of the second century B.C.E., apparently was intended to convince the
Palestinian Jews of the authority of the LXX Greek translation of the Law. (It is noteworthy that, of all the
portions of LXX, the Law is the most accurate and closest to the Hebrew.) The Letter is, other than the LXX
itself, the earliest literary product of Alexandrian Jewry, and — compared to their later writings — is relatively
sober. It claims that Ptolemy encouraged and paid for the translation of the LXX, which is obvious fiction, but
the miraculous element is relatively subdued.
2.!One contemporary document records that “No one has the right to do what he/she wants, but all is regulated for
the best.” Let this be held against the Ptolemies, it should be noted that their system seems to have increased crop
yields by 50-100%. Much of this excess, of course, was given to the government or sold abroad, but even so the
life of the peasants must have improved somewhat.

The Ptolemies
Philopater probably took his name as a bit of propaganda; he had several members of his
family murdered, and his father may have been one of his victims. Ptolemy went to war against
Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire at Raphia (the “Fourth Syrian War,” 217 B.C.E. — Dan.
11:11; 3 Macc. 1:1ƒ.), briefly gaining control of northern Syria. According to the
pseudepigraphal1 3 Maccabees, Ptolemy then tried to enter the Temple, but was stopped by the
High Priest Simon II (3 Macc. 1:8ƒ., 2:12). Ptolemy was angry enough to attempt to destroy the
Jews of Alexandria (2:27ƒ.) by having them trampled by elephants (5:1ƒ.), but was divinely foiled
(6:16ƒ.3). Thereafter the king was the friend of the Jews. Despite this, Philopater’s rule quickly
degenerated into a time of pleasure-seeking and laziness. To pay for his expensive tastes,
Philopater cut back on his army and neglected his fleet (long the backbone of Ptolemaic power).
The result was a revolt in Upper Egypt which left the region around Thebes semi-independent
from about 207 to 186 (this despite the fact that Philopater — apparently for the first time in
Ptolemaic history — allowed native Egyptians to serve as front-line troops at Raphia — Polybius,
Histories V.107 — which obviously improved their social position). His only real redeeming quality
was that he was a patron of arts and literature.
Ptolemy V “Epiphanes” (“[God] Manifest”), reigned 203–181 B.C.E. (109–131 S.E.).

• Contemporary Seleucid Monarchs: Antiochus III, Seleucus IV
• Scriptural references: None (Ptolemy V is not named in the Bible, but is referred to
implicitly in Dan. 11:13-15, 11:18, which cryptically describe Cleopatra I, the daughter of
Antiochus III who became Ptolemy’s wife.
As the young king of a declining nation, the early years of Epiphanes’s reign were marred by
insurrections (Dan. 11:14). The Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III took advantage of this by
attacking Egypt in 198. The Battle of Panion/Banias4 in 198, in which Antiochus defeated the
Egyptian general Scopas and later besieged him in Sidon, gave Antiochus control of Syria and
Palestine (the “Fifth Syrian War” — Dan. 11:12–17; Ant XII.iii.3). Antiochus then married his
daughter to Ptolemy (Dan. 11:17; Ant XII.iv.1). Egypt would probably have eventually become a
Seleucid province had it not been for Antiochus’s defeat by the Romans at Magnesia and the
crippling of his nation by the Peace of Apamea in 188 (Dan. 11:18–19). But as Ptolemy grew
older, he became tougher; by 183 he finished reconquering southern Egypt (the famous Rosetta
Stone was carved to commemorate this and related events). But his sudden death, even though
the succession was orderly, quickly led to disruption. Epiphanes was succeeded by his oldest son
1.!Pseudepigraphal and probably fictional; similar stories of conquerors being foiled are told of figures such as
Pompey the Great and Ptolemy VIII Physcon; for the latter, see the note below.
2.!So Lucian; LXXA LXXN+V omit verse 2:1. NETS places it in [brackets] as questionable; NRSV includes it in the text,
omits in the margin.
3.!Josephus also tells this story, in Against Apion II.5 — but he dates it to the time of Ptolemy VIII Physcon or perhaps
Ptolemy IX Lathyrus..
4.!Panion/Panium/Paneas was the ancient name of the site (Polybius, our earliest source for the battle, called it
“Panion”; Pliny called it “Panias”); the modern name is Banias; in New Testament times it was known as
Cæsarea Philippi. And, yes, it’s that Cæsarea Philippi, the chief city of Philip “the Tetrarch’s” realm — although
Herod Agrippa II renamed it Neronia after Nero.

The Ptolemies
Ptolemy VI “Philometor” (“Loving his Mother”), reigned 181–145 B.C.E. (131–167 S.E.).
• Contemporary Seleucid Monarchs: Seleucus IV, Antiochus IV, Antiochus V, Demetrius I,
Alexander Balas, Antiochus VI, Demetrius II
• Scriptural references: 1!Macc. 1:18, 10:51, 55, 57, (58), (11:1), 11:3, 8, 13, 16, 17, 18; 2
Macc. 1:10?, 4:21, 6:8?, 10:13; 4 Macc. 4:22. Also mentioned implicitly in Dan. 11:25-26.
Ptolemy VI, like his father, came to the throne as a youth — he was born around 187 (125
S.E.) and was originally dominated by his mother Cleopatra I (daughter of Antiochus III of
Syria), who was regent until her death around 173. When she died, Ptolemy set out on a
campaign to recover Palestine from the Seleucid monarch Antiochus IV. Antiochus quickly
turned the tables, however, and invaded Egypt in 170 B.C.E. (142 S.E.). Ptolemy was captured in
169,1 and Antiochus, having occupied the border-fortress of Pelusium and made himself (in
effect) Lord Protector for the young king, settled back to watch Egypt tear itself to pieces
(1!Macc. 1:16–20). The Egyptians replied by putting Philometor’s brother and sister on the
throne as Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II. (The designation Ptolemy VII is reserved for
Philometor’s son, although the boy never reigned.2) Antiochus then released Philometor and
attacked Alexandria on his behalf, again hoping to start a civil war. But the Egyptians made the
two brothers joint kings,3 and Antiochus invaded again in 168. The Romans — who had troops
to spare after the Battle of Pydna — were again forced to protect Egypt.4
Once the Romans were gone and Egypt safe, Ptolemy VIII plotted revolt against his brother.
Pardoned in 165, he took up arms again in 163 and briefly expelled Philometor from his throne.
Philometor regained his crown when Physcon alienated the mob that had elevated him in the first
place, but all this shuffling left the Egyptian throne and nation in a weakened condition. (It was
probably this internal unrest that kept Philometor from intervening in the Jewish revolt of 167
B.C.E.; much as he undoubtedly would have liked to be involved, he had internal troubles to deal
with.)
1.!Dan. 11:26 implies that Ptolemy VI was betrayed by his officers. There is no hint of this in other sources.
2.!Ptolemy VII should have assumed power when Ptolemy VI died, but Ptolemy VIII Physcon took control at that
time — and naturally had Ptolemy VII eliminated as a threat to his throne; this took place no later than 144.
This probably gave Physcon extra satisfaction because it struck at the boy’s mother Cleopatra II — officially
Physcon’s wife but also his chief enemy. Ptolemy VII is officially listed as “Neos Philometor,” the “New
Philometor,” after his father, but he is not mentioned in any Biblical source.
3.!Dan. 11:27 clearly deals with this situation, but it is not apparent whether Ptolemy VI is negotiating to gain his
release (the most obvious explanation) or whether Antiochus IV and Ptolemy VIII are negotiating on how to keep
Philometor in custody — or even if it is the two Ptolemies negotiating on how to share power. Note, however,
that the two Ptolemies were only about twelve and ten years old; most of the negotiating must have been done by
their counselors.
4.!The Roman legate Gaius Popilius Laenas, who had been given a sort of roving commission to clean up Asian
affairs after the destruction of Macedonia, had arrived in Egypt in 168. Finding Antiochus once again preparing
to attack Alexandria, he informed the Seleucid Emperor that Rome wanted Egyptian independence preserved.
Antiochus said that he would think about it. Popilius drew a circle in the sand around Antiochus and ordered him
not to cross it until he had an answer for the Senate. Antiochus, outbluffed and humiliated, backed down and left
Egypt (Livy, Histories XLV.12ƒ., following Polybius. This story also underlies Dan. 11:30, which tells how “ships of
Kittim” — i.e. Romans; so explicitly LXX — stopped Antiochus).

The Ptolemies
About a dozen years later (150 B.C.E., 162 S.E.), the pretender Alexander Balas became
Seleucid Emperor (1 Macc. 10:1). This instability in Syria led the Jewish “High Priest” Onias IV
to found a rival to the Jerusalem Temple in Leontopolis in Egypt around 149 (Ant XIII.iii.1).
Shortly after, Balas formed an alliance with Egypt, and married Philometor’s daughter Cleopatra
Thea (1 Macc. 10:51–58). Three years later, the rightful Seleucid Emperor Demetrius II tried to
reclaim his kingdom (1 Macc. 10:67). Balas appealed to Ptolemy, who offered him support but
was secretly trying to capture the Empire for himself with Demetrius as his vassal (1 Macc. 11:13,
although some modern scholars follow Diodorus in think Ptolemy was simply trying to regain
Syria rather than take over the Seleucid Empire1). The final showdown came in 145 B.C.E. (167
S.E. — 1 Macc. 11:19). Balas was killed, but Demetrius became Emperor in his own right, for
Ptolemy died of wounds received after he fell from his horse in the midst of the enemy (1 Macc.
11:18; Ant XIII.iv.8).
Ptolemy VIII (VII) “Euergetes II” (“Benefactor”), commonly called “Physcon” (“Fat”),
joint rule 170–163 B.C.E. (142–149 S.E.). Sole rule 145–116 B.C.E. (167–196 S.E.). Born
c. 184 (128 S.E.).
• Contemporary Seleucid Monarchs: Antiochus IV, Antiochus V, Demetrius I, Alexander
Balas, Antiochus VI, Demetrius II, Antiochus VII, Antiochus VIII
• Scriptural references: Sirach prologue; 1!Macc. 15:16.
Physcon became king when his older brother Ptolemy VI was captured by the Seleucid
Antiochus IV in 170/69. The Seleucids then released Ptolemy VI, hoping to start a civil war, but
an agreement was reached by which the two brothers ruled jointly. Physcon rebelled abortively in
165, then again in 163, and was set aside. He appealed to the Romans, who theoretically granted
him some territory but gave him no means to hold anything but Cyrene. But when Philometor
died in 145 in the course of his attempt to take over the Seleucid Empire, Physcon became sole
king, murdering Philometor’s son Ptolemy VII. This did not at once bring him full control of the
country; he first had to fight a civil war with his sister and (future) wife Cleopatra II (who had
formerly been Philometor’s wife and mother of Ptolemy VII). Cleopatra’s rebellion was
suppressed around 143. But in 142 Physcon took Cleopatra III, daughter of Philometor and
Cleopatra II, as his second wife. Understandably irritated at being set aside in favour of her own
daughter, the elder Cleopatra gradually turned Alexandria against Physcon; he was ousted
around 130 — only to return in 129. (Physcon’s vindictiveness is shown by the fact that he killed
his and Cleopatra’s son Ptolemy Memphites and presented her with the severed limbs.) The two
1.!I can see how moderns, used to the irredentist movements of the twentieth century, might think this, since Syria
had been Ptolemaic territory until the time of Antiochus III. But the Diadochi monarchies had no historical
borders to be attached to. They weren’t all that different from brigands who were in it for what they could get.
Ptolemy VI might well have been fishing in troubled waters and making multiple plans based on how well he
succeeded. We really can’t know.

The Ptolemies
were not finally reconciled until 124. This unpleasantness led to some trouble for the Jews at
Leontopolis, because their “High Priest” Onias IV had supported Cleopatra.1
Ptolemy took the throne name “Euergetes II,” referring back to the greatest king of his
dynasty, but was eventually nicknamed “Physcon” because he became enormously fat (a trait he
shared with his brother Ptolemy VI and his son Ptolemy X — but which he made all the more
obvious by insisting on dressing in transparent clothes to show off his bulk). His reign was the
longest in Ptolemaic history, but it ended quietly, for Physcon managed to work out his
aggressiveness on his own people and relatives without having to turn to foreign war. (Besides, he
granted the native Egyptians near-equality with the Greeks, which caused both Greeks and
Romans to despise him. It would have been hard for him to assemble enough mercenaries to
engage in foreign war.) At one point he kindly supplied a pretender to the Seleucid throne
(Alexander Zebinas, who opposed Demetrius II in about 126), but this did not involve Physcon’s
army, only his sneaky mind. He was initially hostile to the Jews, and tried to repress them, but a
miraculous intervention saved them and he became their friend. (Scholars note that this sounds
suspiciously like what happened in the reign of Ptolemy III.) He may even have had a Jewish
loremaster in his court. It was in his time that the book of ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) was
translated from Hebrew into Greek (Sirach, Prologue). His reign probably saw the completion of
the Septuagint (LXX) translation of the Old Testament, apart from odds and ends like Daniel
and Esther and the books of the Apocrypha.
After Physcon’s death, both Ptolemies and Seleucids vegetated while Rome grew stronger.
Physcon foolishly divided his nation, giving Cyrene to his illegitimate son Ptolemy Apion (who
would leave it to the Romans in 96). In Egypt itself Cleopatra II again wielded great power for a
short time, but died within a few months. Control then passed to Physcon’s sons (both by
Cleopatra III). Civil wars kept the people occupied while brothers traded the throne. The reigns,
though not the complicated relationships, of the various Ptolemies can be seen in the sidebar to
the entry on Ptolemy I on p. 343.
Ptolemy IX “Lathyrus” (“Chick-pea”!) His official title was Soter=Savior II).2 He ruled with
his mother Cleopatra III; when an Egyptian military expedition into Palestine failed, Cleopatra
traded in Lathyrus for her younger son Ptolemy X “Alexander” (who until then had been
content with the vassal-state of Cyprus). Lathyrus exchanged kingdoms with his brother by
fleeing to Cyprus, but soon led an army to Syria and defeated the Jewish prince Alexander
Janneus (BJ I.iv.2, Ant XIII.xii.2). Cleopatra III drove Lathyrus back to Cyprus about 102. (From
there Lathyrus also intervened in Seleucid affairs, setting up Demetrius III Eukairos as one of
1.!For the somewhat confused question of Onias IV, his dating, his ancestry, and when he (or perhaps his father/
uncle Onias III) built the alternate Temple, see the note on Onias IV on p. 219. An account of the role of the
Jews in Egyptian events after Ptolemy VI, along with a mention of their importance under that king, is given in
Against Apion II.5
2.!Ptolemy Lathyrus of course is not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, which was surely complete by his time, but
LXX of Esther (F:11=11:1) states that that book was translated in the fourth year of “Ptolemy and Cleopatra,”
which seems to fit best with Lathyrus — although Ptolemies V, VI, VIII, and XI also had wives named Cleopatra,
and Ptolemy XII Auletes has also been suggested, since he may have ruled with one of his daughters, Cleopatra
VI or Cleopatra VII.

The Ptolemies
three rival “Emperors” active in the 90s.) But Ptolemy Alexander was tired of being under his
mother’s thumb; he killed her around 101, which turned Alexandria against him. Deposed in 89,
he briefly fought his way back but was again deposed and killed in 88. Lathyrus then regained his
throne for a few years. When he died in 81 the Romans intervened to place Ptolemy Alexander II
(sometimes called Ptolemy XI), the son of Ptolemy X, on the throne. The young prince, in
return, was forced to marry his stepmother and cousin Cleopatra Bernice. Not wanting to share
his throne, he quickly murdered her. The Alexandrian crowd returned the favour within weeks.
Since there were no legitimate Ptolemies left alive (and the Romans were quite likely to intervene
again after all these shenanigans1), the crown went to Auletes, a bastard son of Ptolemy IX. He
took the throne as
Ptolemy XII “Auletes” (“pipe-player,” also called “Nothos,” “bastard”; officially “Theos
Neos Dionysos”=God [the] New Dionysus), who reigned until 51 B.C.E. (251 S.E.). The fact that
he managed a relatively long reign, plus his music (he was apparently very skilled on the pipes,
although this brought him no credit, since it was considered an unseemly skill for a king), seem to
be all the good things that can be said about him. He bears the curious distinction of being
remembered best for his children. The oldest two, Cleopatra VI and Bernice IV, were daughters
of his sister Cleopatra V; the boys Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV were born of a second wife;
the mother of Cleopatra VII and Arsinoë is unknown. A Roman puppet, Auletes paid a huge
bribe for Roman support (it was not until 59, when he started handing over the cash, that Rome
formally recognized him as king), and so was forced to oppressive means to pay off the interest
on his debts.2 The people responded by rebelling in 58. The throne then fell to his daughters
Cleopatra VI and Berenice IV (the former perhaps ruling the north and the latter the south, or
perhaps Berenice succeeded Cleopatra. In any case, by 56 Cleopatra was dead or retired and
Berenice was in sole charge). Berenice proceeded to marry Archelaus of Pontus (a son of Rome’s
arch-enemy Mithridates), since she needed a husband to lead their armies. Auletes was restored
in 55 with help from the Jews and Romans led by Aulus Gabinius and Mark Antony (BJ I.viii.7).
Auletes received their help in return, naturally, for the promise of even more money. And the
Romans had to restore him; how else could he pay off his earlier debts? Having regained the
throne, Auletes had Berenice executed. (Archelaus had died in battle.) When he died in 51, both
of his sons were minors. He therefore gave a share of the rule of Egypt to his daughter
Cleopatra VII (born 70/69 B.C.E., ascended 51 B.C.E., died 30 B.C.E.). Upon her father’s
death, Cleopatra was married to her younger (half-)brother Ptolemy XIII (born 64 B.C.E.); in
theory the two reigned together. Cleopatra was, of course, the elder and at first the dominant
partner. But Ptolemy’s council managed to push her aside in 49. Trying to stay on the good side
of Julius Cæsar, they then proceeded to murder Pompey when he arrived in Egypt after his defeat
at Pharsalus. But Cæsar came anyway — and didn’t like what he found. Cleopatra had already
raised an army to try to regain power. Cæsar decided to call a peace conference. And at that
1.!This was all the more true since the brutal Sulla was then dictator of Rome, and since — according to Roman
legend, anyway — Ptolemy X had willed his country to the Romans in return for their help.
2.!He, and Cleopatra after him, proceeded to massively debase the currency, issuing coins with only half the precious
metal content of their predecessors.

The Ptolemies
conference the Roman (by now in his fifties) met the twenty-one year old Cleopatra. The rest, as
they say, is history. Although the politics of the situation probably favoured giving Ptolemy sole
control, Cæsar forced a (temporary) reconciliation between the two rivals. This was unsatisfactory
to much of the establishment (including many of Ptolemy’s advisors), and soon an Egyptian army
was besieging Cæsar and the two monarchs. The besiegers were quickly joined by Cleopatra’s
younger sister Arsinoë, whom they declared queen. But although Cæsar was badly outnumbered,
his military skill — assisted by squabbles among his enemies, which he helped along by releasing
Ptolemy to them — allowed him to hold on until reinforcements arrived. Soon after, Ptolemy
XIII was conveniently found to have drowned. Cæsar then ordered Cleopatra to marry a
younger brother, Ptolemy XIV (born 58 B.C.E.). He also took Arsinoë captive to Rome (a blessing
in disguise, since it kept her away from her sister for a few years. Cleopatra and Mark Antony
eventually caught up with Arsinoë in sanctuary, and executed her in 41 — cf. Against Apion II.5).
By this time, Cleopatra was more interested in Romans than in Egyptians (this despite the
fact that, according to Plutarch — Life of Antony 27 — she was the first member of her family to
speak Egyptian, as well as Hebrew/Aramaic, Greek, and a Nubian dialect). Soon after, she had a
son whose father (she claimed) was none other than Julius Cæsar himself. (It should be noted,
however, that some Romans thought that the boy — called “Cæsarion” — was born later, in
about 44, rather than 47/6 as Cleopatra claimed. If true, he could not have been Cæsar’s son.)
She may have been in Rome to visit Cæsar when he was assassinated in 44. She then returned to
Egypt, to take direct command of her country for the first time.
When Ptolemy XIV died in 44/3 (under suspicious circumstances, naturally), Cleopatra took
Cæsarion as her co-ruler under the title Ptolemy XV. She now was in complete control of Egypt
— except for the minor problem that Egypt was a Roman dependency. With Cæsar dead,
Cleopatra needed a Roman ally.
And the Roman she found certainly seemed to fit the bill: he was Mark Antony, the right-
hand man of Cæsar and, on the face of it, the man most likely to succeed him as dictator. In 41
he summoned her to review the political situation between Egypt and Rome. Cleopatra came,
but she was more interested in politicians than in politics. Certainly she didn’t intend simply to
explain her diplomatic position toward Rome. The picture Plutarch paints — of Cleopatra
dressed as Venus sailing a golden barge up to meet Antony — may be slightly exaggerated, but
there is no doubt that Cleopatra got Antony’s attention. It was not long before she became his
mistress; she conceived twins within months.
At first, Cleopatra did not dominate Antony’s behavior. They were not always together;
indeed, they were separated for the entire period from 40 to 37. (Antony was drawn away by a
series of disasters: the Parthian invasion of Syria; the so-called “Perusine War,” in which Antony’s
brother Lucius, encouraged by Antony’s wife Fulvia, attacked Octavian — and was quickly
defeated1; and finally the revolt of Sextus Pompey.) Antony and his new wife, Octavian’s sister
Octavia, were not parted until 37 when Antony began to prepare for his Parthian campaign. By
then Antony’s relationship with his rival Octavian was in bad shape.
1.!For details, see the note on the Perusine War on p. 423

The Ptolemies
Antony may have turned to Egypt in 37 to seek the logistical support he wasn’t getting from
Rome. But even if that was his reason, we know that he ordered his wife Octavia to remain in
Rome, and that Antony took this excuse to continue his affair with Cleopatra. And it was to
Egypt, not Rome, that Antony returned after being soundly thrashed by the Parthians in 36.
Even then, Antony could hope to take over Cæsar’s legacy, since Octavian was having his own
troubles. If Antony had been an abler man, Cleopatra might have become the first Roman
Empress. But Antony could not defeat Octavian. Stories are told of how Cleopatra’s cowardice
cost Antony his chance to win the great battle of Actium on September 2, 31 B.C.E.1 Indeed,
Cleopatra’s influence may have lost him the battle in advance: her presence drove away Antony’s
strongest supporter, the vigorous republican Domitius Ahenobarbus (Shakespeare’s “Enobarbus,”
consul 32 B.C.E.). And it was Cleopatra who demanded a naval battle — since that would involve
the Egyptian fleet — rather than the land battle suggested by Antony’s general Canidius. And
Canidius was clearly right, since Antony’s army was larger than Octavian’s, whereas his fleet was
undermanned and inexperienced. Octavian’s navy, in addition to having gained experience in the
war against Sextus Pompey, had the advantage of being commanded by Agrippa. Plus Antony
had had to burn much of his fleet for lack of rowers.2 Antony’s ships were also weighed down by
the sails — not used in battle — he had put aboard to enable the fleet to flee. There was every
reason to believe that Agrippa would demolish Antony’s ill-supplied flotilla.
After Actium, Cleopatra and Mark Antony were doomed. They fled to Egypt, leaving their
army behind. Canidius tried to bring the troops back to Syria, but was met with a rebellion (no
doubt helped along by Octavian’s offer of complete pardon to the legions). Canidius and a few
senior officers were all that made it back to Egypt. Both Antony and Cleopatra committed
suicide in 30 B.C.E. Cæsarion was killed by Octavian at about the same time, and Egypt became a
1.!The typical story is that Cleopatra, who was with the naval reserve, fled in the middle of the battle, and Antony
gave up the fight to follow her. The stories, taken primarily from Plutarch (e.g. Life of Antony 66) but also Dio
Cassius (Histories L.33), are widely discounted, since Octavian and his admiral Agrippa had maneuvered Antony
into a very tight corner where his navy was forced to fight at a severe disadvantage or be trapped. But there is
little doubt but that Cleopatra’s influence had guided him into the corner.
2.!There is no consensus on which side had the larger fleet. It is generally agreed that Antony’s flotilla had the
advantage in tonnage. He may even have had more ships (one estimate gives him 500 vessels to Agrippa’s 400).
But Antony’s ships, even with all the soldiers he embarked, were undermanned; it seems clear that Agrippa had
more sailors and a more maneuverable fleet. Plus he had the positional advantage; Antony had to bring his fleet
out through a narrow passage and then deploy it to fight. So stiff were the odds against Antony that many
moderns refuse to believe that Antony intended Actium to be decisive; they believe that he was simply trying to
break out his fleet. (And in this he partly succeeded.) But Antony treated Actium as decisive; after the battle he fled
Greece and functionally forfeited the war to Octavian.

The Ptolemies
Roman province.1 The line of the Ptolemies was at an end,2 but had endured longer than any
other Macedonian dynasty.
1.!Egypt, however, was unlike any other Roman province, since its wealth, isolation, and fertility (it was the single
largest source of Rome’s grain supply) would have made it a wonderful place from which to start a revolt. As a
result, it was cut off from the rest of the Empire (not even Senators were ordinarily allowed to visit it) and made a
direct Imperial fief, governed by an imperial nominee of relatively low rank (for instance, the former Jewish
procurator Tiberius Alexander, a knight, was procurator in 68 C.E.). This makes it very questionable whether
Matthew’s account of a visit by the Holy Family to Egypt (Matt. 2:13-15) — which is widely doubted for other
reasons — could even have been possible. They might have been able to go there, but getting home would have
been another matter!
2.!Antony and Cleopatra’s daughter Cleopatra Selene was allowed to live (as it happened, Octavian killed only one
of Antony’s six children, Antyllus, and only one of Cleopatra’s four, Cæsarion), and even permitted to marry the
Numidian king Juba II, but she was careful not to bring too much attention to herself. Their son Ptolemy was
made king of Mauretania (23-40 c.e.) but was eventually executed by Gaius Caligula. Ptolemy of Mauretania’s
sister Drusilla married Antonius Felix (the procurator of Judea 52-59? C.E.). Cleopatra Selene also apparently
sheltered her brothers Alexander Helios and Ptolemy; they seemingly faded quickly into obscurity.

The Ptolemies
The Seleucids
Seleucus I “Nicator” (“Conqueror”), reigned 305–280 B.C.E. (7–32 S.E.)
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarchs: Ptolemy I, Ptolemy II
• Scriptural references: None (Seleucus Nicator is not named in the Bible, but is referred to
implicitly in Dan. 11:5. See also 4 Macc. 3:20ƒ.)
Although not originally a member of the regency which was to rule Alexander’s empire,
Seleucus quickly became a major factor in Macedonian affairs. A personal friend of Alexander,
he had been satrap of Babylon from 321, but was driven out by Antigonus I Monophthalmos in
316. In 312/311, by a desperate gamble, he established himself as a major power: with a few
troops supplied by Ptolemy I at the Battle of Gaza/Gezer he took over that city (thus establishing
the Seleucid Era), which started him on the path to control of the entire Mesopotamian portion
of Alexander’s Empire. From there he moved eastward, taking over Parthia and Bactria.
Although he could not control Chandragupta’s India, he maintained a cordial relationship with
the Indian monarch that gave him a secure frontier and the elephants he needed for his wars. In
305, Seleucus — by then convinced that he could not conquer the rest of the Macedonian
kingdoms — founded the Seleucid Empire in response to Antigonus’s assumption of the
“kingship.” It was he, along with Lysimachus, who killed Antigonus (until then the most
successful of the Diadochi) at the Battle of Ipsus in 301.1 In 281 he killed Lysimachus at the
Battle of Corupedium (the last battle of the wars of the Successors), which gave him control of
most of Asia Minor. It also left him as the last of Alexander’s high officers, and the most
successful (cf. Dan. 11:5). He was also considered the most just and honest (for this and other
notes on him, see the entry on Seleucus Nicator, p. 339 under The Diadochi). Seleucus was a
great founder of cities; among those he established was Antioch (300 B.C.E.). In 280, he was
assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunos (the disinherited son of Ptolemy I) during yet another attempt
to conquer Macedon, and was succeeded by his son
Antiochus I “Soter” (“Savior”), reigned 281–261 B.C.E. (32–51 S.E.)

• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarchs: Ptolemy II
• Scriptural references: None (Antiochus I is not named in the Bible, passing unnoticed
between Daniel 11:5 and 11:6.)
Less successful than his father, Antiochus faced many revolts. When he came to the throne,
Ptolemy Ceraunos (who had killed Seleucus I) took over the Seleucid army. At the same time
Ptolemy II Philadelphus attacked Syria. The Galatians killed Ceraunos, and Antiochus managed
to save northern Syria, but his position was weak. Things improved a bit in 275, when he
defeated the Galatians (thus earning his title “Savior,” since the Galatians had caused terrible
1.!For such details as we know about this battle, see the note on The Battle of Ipsus on p. 335.

The Ptolemies
trouble in Greece and Asia).1 So Antiochus, with the aid of the Egyptian renegade Magas of
Cyrene, attacked Egypt (the “First Syrian War”). But the attack failed, and Antiochus yielded the
entire Phoenician coast in the peace of 272. Relations between the Seleucids and Egypt were
permanently damaged, since Antiochus and Ptolemy II did not have the reasons for mutual
gratitude that their fathers did.
Worse still was the revolt of the Asian prince Eumenes. Antiochus was severely defeated, and
Eumenes was able to establish the independent kingdom of Pergamum (this was the first blow of
the “Second Syrian War,” fought primarily by Antiochus II). The Seleucids lost much of Asia
Minor to this resurrected version of Lydia. In time this quarrel would result in open war with
Egypt. Antiochus was slain in battle with the Galatians in 261, and was succeeded by his son
Antiochus II “Theos” (“God”), reigned 261–246 B.C.E. (51–66 S.E.).

• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarch: Ptolemy II
• Scriptural references: None (Antiochus II is not named in the Bible, but is referred to
implicitly in Dan. 11:6.)
Antiochus was another unsuccessful monarch; in his time the eastern portions of the Empire
began to break free under the leadership of the Greek Diodotus I of Bactria (from 256) and the
Persian Arsaces I (from 247). The latter founded the nation of Parthia, a reincarnated Persian
Empire that would give the Roman Empire its first challenge. Personally, Antiochus was said to
have been immoral, crude, and drunken, a despot ruled by favorites. After an unsuccessful war
with Egypt (the “Second Syrian War,” from 260, in which Antiochus regained northern Syria —
by diplomacy not combat — but little else), Antiochus tried to form an alliance with Egypt by
marrying Bernice, the daughter of Ptolemy II (c. 250 B.C.E.). But all of this came to naught when
Bernice was murdered by Antiochus’s first wife, his half-sister (second cousin?) Laodice (Dan.
11:6). Antiochus also founded the city of Laodicea in Asia Minor (mentioned in Col. 4:16), and
named it after Laodice. Suspiciously, Antiochus died during a visit to Laodice shortly after
declaring Seleucus (his son by Laodice) his heir. (One version of the story has it that Laodice
poisoned Antiochus, brought in a double to declare Seleucus the heir, and then allowed the
double to die!) He was succeeded by his son
1.!This victory, called the “Elephant Victory,” may be referred to in 2 Macc. 8:20, where Jews and Macedonians
defeated a large force of Galatians. There are difficulties with this hypothesis, however: 2!Maccabees describes
the battle as taking place in Babylon rather than Asia, and it is unclear how Antiochus I could have acquired such
a large force of Jews in the first place —!they are said to outnumber his Macedonian troops two to one. As a
result, some have hypothesized that this verse refers to the wars between Seleucus II and Antiochus Hierax (since
the latter’s force was composed primarily of Galatians) or some dispute during Antiochus III’s invasion of Asia.
Alternately it has been supposed that this was a war between the Ptolemies (who often held large portions of
southern Asia Minor) and the Galatians. All that we can say with certainty is that, if the passage in 2 Maccabees
refers to anything in our historical sources, it must be the Elephant Victory, the only real chance the Jews had to
fight the Galatians. But the possibility exists that the passage refers to a battle not in our records, or indeed to a
fictional quarrel.

The Ptolemies
Seleucus II “Callinicus” (“Gloriously-Victorious”), reigned 246–226 B.C.E. (66–86 S.E.).

• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarchs: Ptolemy II, Ptolemy III
• Scriptural references: None (Seleucus II is not named in the Bible, but is referred to
implicitly in Dan. 11:9.)
Seleucus’s title was anything but earned; his reign was a disaster. When he came to the
throne he was faced with a revolt in Asia Minor; while he was tending to this, Ptolemy II of
Egypt occupied Syria (the “Third Syrian War”) on a pretext of supporting Seleucus’s half-
brother, the (murdered) child of Bernice (Dan. 11:7–8). Although Seleucus regained Syria, except
for the coast, his invasion of Egypt in 242 was easily repelled (Dan. 11:9). Egged on by their
mother Laodice, Seleucus tried to associate his brother Antiochus Hierax (“the Hawk”) with him
in his rule (giving him control of Asia Minor), but this was another disaster, and Hierax had to be
put down. (War broke out in 237; Hierax won independence in 236 when Seleucus lost a battle to
the Galatians. But Hierax was pushed aside by his Galatian troops and defeated by Attalus of
Pergamum, removing Asia from the Seleucid orbit altogether. Hierax then made another grab for
power, but Seleucus finally managed to suppress his brother around 228. Antiochus fled and was
killed in Asia Minor a few months later.) Seleucus eventually fell from his horse and died, and was
succeeded by his older son
Seleucus III “Soter Ceraunos” (“Savior Thunderbolt”), reigned 226–223 B.C.E. (86–89
S.E.).
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarch: Ptolemy III

• Scriptural references: None1
Seleucus had little chance to leave his impact on history; he was assassinated (we think) in the
course of an ongoing war against Pergamum in Asia Minor after a reign of only three years. He
was succeeded by his younger brother
Antiochus III “Magnus” (“[The] Great”), reigned 223–187 B.C.E. (89–125 S.E.)
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarchs: Ptolemy III, Ptolemy IV, Ptolemy V.
• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 1:10, 8:6; 3 Macc. 1:1, 4; also 2 Macc. 9:23, although his
name is not given explicitly. Also mentioned implicitly in Dan. 11:10, 11:13, 11:17-19]].
Born in 243 (69 S.E.), Antiochus was only twenty when he came to the throne. He was, for a
while, the most successful Seleucid monarch since Seleucus I. He suppressed a revolt in 221/220
that threatened to remove Mesopotamia from the Empire. This gave him such a reputation that it
was sufficient to refer to him as “Antiochus the King” (1 Macc. 1:10). Having restored his Empire,
Antiochus was able to turn against Egypt (Dan. 11:10ƒ.). Temporarily checked by Ptolemy IV at
Raphia in 217 (the “Fourth Syrian War” — 3 Macc. 1:1ƒ.), he suppressed the revolt and
1.!There is a possible implicit reference to Seleucus III in Dan. 11:11. This refers either to the sons of Antiochus II
(so qere Theodotian Vulgate NRSV), which means Seleucus III and Antiochus III, or to a singular son (so ketib
LXX), which is presumably Antiochus III alone.

The Ptolemies
attempted usurpation of his cousin Achæus (221–213),1 then turned to the east. In a series of
campaigns from 212 to 204 he recaptured Parthia and imposed terms on Bactria. With Ptolemy
IV dead and Ptolemy V a child, Antiochus turned again on Egypt. He captured Judah as a result
of the Battle of Panion in 198 (although he granted the Jews certain rights — 2 Macc. 3:2; Ant
XII.iii.3ƒ. — which his son would later deny), and won major victories in Egypt itself. He was
then able to force a peace by marrying his daughter to Ptolemy (Dan. 11:15–17; Ant XII.iv.1). At
this point Antiochus’s fortunes began to change; he had gone too far, and Rome warned him
against further expansion. Antiochus ignored this and entered Asia Minor in 192 B.C.E. Urged on
by various Greek governments, he invaded Greece later in that year. His campaign was perhaps
not overly energetic (Livy — Histories XXXVI.11 — reports that he married a local girl and
allowed himself to be distracted), and his Ætolian allies allowed themselves to be defeated.
Antiochus’s troops at Thermopylæ were outflanked and destroyed by the consul Acilius Glabrio
in 191. The Emperor himself escaped, but fled to Asia Minor without an army. Having scraped
up more troops, he was met in battle by the Roman Scipio Asiaticus. Heavily defeated at the
Battle of Magnesia2 in 190 (1!Macc. 8:6ƒ.3), Antiochus was forced to accept the disastrous Peace
of Apamea (Dan. 11:17–19) in 188. The king had to pay a large indemnity (3000 talents
immediately, and 1000 talents a year for twelve years) and send his younger son Antiochus as a
hostage to Rome. As a result, the Parthian portions of the Empire again broke away as their
Seleucid governors declared independence. Antiochus, defeated and bankrupt, was forced to rob
temples to gain the money needed for war. As a result, he was murdered by outraged townsfolk
somewhere in Elam (Dan. 11:19; this may also have inspired 2 Macc. 1:16). He was succeeded by
his son
1.!Achæus had supported Seleucus II against Antiochus Hierax, and from then on was a leading figure in the
Empire. In 223 Antiochus III gave him command in Asia Minor, and Achaeus responded by reconquering much
of Pergamum — but then rose in revolt. For eight years he maintained his kingdom in Phrygia, but then was
betrayed by his mercenaries and killed.
2.!Antiochus made the same mistake at this battle as he had at Raphia (for which cf. Dan. 11:11-12), and that
Demetrius Poliorcetes had made at Ipsus (see the excursus The Battle of Ipsus): having crushed the enemy’s left
flank with his own elite right-flank troops, he failed to encircle the Roman center but instead allowed his best
soldiers to pursue the routed elements. The steady Roman right flank then proceeded to crush Antiochus’s weak
left.
3.!Note, however, that the countries of Media and India, which 1 Macc. 8:8 says the Romans took from Antiochus
and gave to Eumenes (of Pergamum) did not become part of Pergamum (the former Lydia), but instead took this
opportunity to declare their independence.

The Ptolemies
Seleucus IV “Philopater” (“Loving his Father”), reigned 187–175 B.C.E. (125–137 S.E.).
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarchs: Ptolemy V, Ptolemy VI
• Scriptural references: 1!Macc. 7:1; 2 Macc. 3:3, 4:7, 5:18, 14:1, (4 Macc. 3:20, 4:3, 11, 13,
15). Also mentioned implicitly in Dan. 11:201
Seleucus was the first Emperor to influence Jewish affairs directly: he forced the Jews to
accept internal officials that he nominated (2 Macc. 3–4). But Seleucus had to tread lightly in the
shadow of Rome. Like his father, he had to pay tribute (this debt would not be fully paid until
173) and send his son Demetrius to Rome. To raise cash, he send his official Heliodorus to try to
get money out of the Jerusalem Temple (Dan. 11:20; 2 Macc. 3:1–4:7)2. Heliodorus did not
manage to extort any cash (2 Macc. 3:25ƒ. tells how he was divinely foiled3), but Seleucus
continued to seek after Jewish money, entering into negotiations with Simon the captain of the
Temple guard (2 Macc. 4:1ƒ.) Nothing came of this, however, because Heliodorus assassinated
Seleucus and tried to place himself on the throne, possibly using Seleucus’s infant son Antiochus
as a puppet4. Heliodorus was in turn killed by Seleucus’s younger brother Antiochus, who had
just escaped from Rome. Antiochus then became
Antiochus IV “Epiphanes” (“[God] Manifest”), reigned 175–163 B.C.E. (137–149 S.E.).

Called “Epimanes,” “madman,” by his enemies — and with some cause.
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarchs: Ptolemy VI, Ptolemy VIII
• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 1:10, 16, 20, 3:27, 6:1, 16, 55, 10:1; 2!Macc. 1:14, 155, 2:20,
4:7, 21, 37, 5:1, 5, 17, 21, 7:24, 9:1, 2, 19, 29, 10:9, 13; 4 Macc. 4:15, 21, 5:1, 5, 16, 10:17,
17:23, 18:5. Also mentioned implicitly in Dan. 7:8, 24-25, 8:9-14, 11:20-326
Antiochus spent fourteen years as a Roman hostage after the Battle of Magnesia in 190 (cf.
1!Macc. 1:10), but escaped to claim the throne after his older brother Seleucus IV’s death.7 His
time in Rome caused him to take over many Roman institutions. He adopted their political office
1.!4 Macc. 3:20 refers to a “Seleucus Nicanor,” but no such king ever reigned (the closest name was “Seleucus [I]
Nicator”). Context makes it clear that Seleucus IV is meant. The confusion continues in 4:15, where Antiochus
IV is called Seleucus’s son rather than his brother.
2.!The same story is told in 4 Macc. 4:1-14, but of another Seleucid official — Apollonius, for whom cf. 2!Macc. 4:4
— rather than Heliodorus.
3.!There is little evidence of an actual miracle here; it has been suggested that Jason of Cyrene’s history of the
period was influenced by a need to conform to the predictions in Daniel.
4.!This infant Antiochus, Seleucus’s second son (after Demetrius I), was killed soon afterward, and played no further
part in Seleucid affairs.
5.!The events in 2 Macc. 1:13-17 actually happened to Antiochus III, but commentators universally believe that the
author intends to refer to Antiochus IV.
6.!In addition to the explicit mentions in Maccabees and the hidden ones in Daniel, Dan. 11:36-40 claims to be a
paraphrase of one of his decrees (if original, it would certainly show why he was called “madman”!); it has been
suggested that Psalm 74 refers to Antiochus’s persecution.
7.!He apparently started from Athens (where he tried to play the demagogue); while in that city he was granted
recognition and support from Pergamum. Even so, he seems to have gained the throne by underhanded methods
(cf. Dan. 11:21).

The Ptolemies
structure (which proved an utter failure and brought him ridicule),1 built a temple to Jupiter —
and engaged in that favorite Roman pastime, conquest. Antiochus was the last Seleucid Emperor
who was able to involve himself successfully in foreign wars. In 170 he prepared for battle in
Egypt by killing the Jewish High Priest Onias III (2 Macc. 4:34. Antiochus had deposed Onias in
175 — 2 Macc. 4:7; compare BJ I.11, which seems to combine Onias III and Onias IV). At the
same time he sent troops east. His general Eucrates won some successes, and although he later
declared independence, the turmoil he caused probably bought Antiochus some useful time. In
169 B.C.E. Antiochus invaded Egypt and captured the young king Ptolemy VI (Dan. 11:21–28;
1!Macc. 1:16–19; Ant XII.v.2. Note however that 1 Maccabees and Josephus do not distinguish
Antiochus’s first successful invasion from the second that was foiled by the Romans). Temporarily
stymied when the Egyptians placed Ptolemy VI’s brother Ptolemy VIII Physcon on the throne, he
returned briefly to his empire (stopping for a short time in Jerusalem —Ant XII.v.3 — where,
despite the fact that the city welcomed him, he brutally suppressed the existing government; see
below). Then in 168 he again invaded Egypt (Dan. 11:29). He was met by a single Roman
official, who drew a line in the sand and ordered Antiochus not to cross it (Dan. 11:30). The story
is from Polybius2 — and tells of how the Roman G. Popilius Laenas drew a circle around
Antiochus and ordered him not to cross it until he had an answer for the Roman Senate; cf. the
entry on Ptolemy VI. Antiochus, humiliated, was forced to retreat — only to find the eastern part
of his Empire in rebellion. (It has been suggested that Antiochus IV was fairly popular with most
of the people of his Empire. I don’t know how we could know, unless it is based on his generous
record of gift-giving, but it strikes me as highly unlikely given the number of revolts he faced.)
To unite what remained of his kingdom, Antiochus attempted to impose Greek philosophy
on it. (This was urgently needed since the Seleucid Empire was a Greek empire, but since
Magnesia had had almost no access to Greece. Antiochus had to develop Greek officials and
soldiers internally. In addition, the Emperor was, according to Polybius, far too free with money;
only a large and stable realm could pay his expenses. Cf. also Ant XII.vii.2; 1 Macc. 3:30 also calls
him far too lavish. There are hints that, by 173 b.c.e., he may have been behind on the tribute to
Rome —!although others think it was paid off by then.) This meant that Jewish influences had to
be stamped out. So Antiochus appointed Jason the Hellenizer to be High Priest in place of his
brother Onias III, then chose even worse false priests, and finally desecrated the Temple and
stripped it of its furnishings Even worse, he installed a statue of Zeus in the sanctuary (169 B.C.E.,
143 S.E. — Dan. 11:30–39; 1!Macc. 1:20–24). He was attempting to unite his people; what he
experienced instead was the Maccabean Revolt (167 B.C.E. and beyond — 1!Macc. 2).3
1.!It has been suggested that Antiochus was trying to imitate the life and successes of Scipio Africanus, the man who
defeated Hannibal and later triumphed over Antiochus III. To this end, Antiochus IV — who probably knew and
may even have been under the patronage of Scipio — tried to imitate Scipio’s political techniques, and may also
tried to imitate the Scipio’s attempts to claim a special relationship with certain gods. This would explain
Antiochus IV’s peculiar acts — in effect, he wanted to adopt Scipio’s genius in the technical sense of that term —
but it seems a very strange delusion indeed.
2.!Polybius, Histories XXIX.27; also Livy, Histories XLV.12.
3.!Along with the Jewish accounts, this is briefly alluded to in Tacitus, Histories V.8

The Ptolemies
Antiochus was pulled two ways. He wanted to recover Parthia; he also wanted to control the
Jews (who, led by Judas Maccabeus, were resisting him strongly — 1 Macc. 3–5). He chose to
lead an army to Parthia and left troops under the minister Lysias to deal with Judas. But
Antiochus and Lysias were both unsuccessful (no doubt Antiochus’s poverty had weakened his
armies).
We don’t know much about the last months of Antiochus’s reign. Something obviously killed
him, but the sources do not agree. Polybius mentioned madness. Moderns have invoked
tuberculosis. 2 Maccabees mentions rage, grief, and a chariot accident. The letter prefixed to 2
Maccabees says in 1:16 that he was killed by priests — apparently by confusion with his fater.
Antiochus died in Parthia no later than the end of 163 B.C.E. (according to 1!Macc. 6:8–16) and
probably a year earlier1. Lysias, to sustain his power, then set Antiochus’s son on the throne as
Antiochus V “Eupator” (“[Having a] Good Father”), reigned 163–162 B.C.E. (149–151

S.E.). Born probably 172 B.C.E. (140 S.E.) or perhaps slightly earlier.
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarch: Ptolemy VI

• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 3:33, 6:15, 17, 55; 2 Macc. 2:20, 9:25, 10:10, 13, 11:22, 27,
13:1, 3, 4, 14:2.
From his time on, dynastic struggles were constant in the Seleucid Empire. So was rebellion:
Armenia broke away soon after Antiochus IV’s death, and the Seleucid state thereafter shrank
constantly. Antiochus V was a boy of (probably) nine when he came to the throne (some estimate
that he may have been twelve), and was completely dominated by his father’s minister Lysias. But
Antiochus IV had tried to give most of Lysias’s powers to his foster-brother Philip (1 Macc. 6:14–
17); Lysias was forced to offer the Jews religious toleration to be free to fight him (1 Macc. 6:55–
59).2 But worse was to come for Lysias. Demetrius, the son of Seleucus IV, escaped from Rome to
claim the throne. Lysias and Antiochus were killed by the palace guard in 162 B.C.E. (1 Macc.
7:1–4). Demetrius then assumed the throne as
1.!Ancient historians were very confused about this event. Some of the confusion may come from different versions
of the Seleucid calendar, but it can’t explain the whole problem. Antiochus III died while looting a temple in
Elam/Elymias; Jewish authors may have combined this with the story of Antiochus IV, who (according to
Polybius) died at “Tabae” in Persia, a name thought by many to be an error for “Gabae” in Elam. 1!Macc. 6 says
that Antiochus IV tried to storm Elymias, failed, and returned to Babylon (in Ant XII.ix.1 the retreat becomes a
rout and a severe defeat), then died of grief upon hearing of the Jewish successes. 2!Macc. 9:3 agrees that
Antiochus suffered a defeat (although the site is given as Persopolis in 9:2), but says that he retreated to Ecbatana.
There news of the Jewish revolt reached him; in his fury he vowed revenge, but was stricken with an intestinal
disease and thrown from his chariot. Polybius’s account (Histories XIII.9) is as usual relatively sober, but credits
Antiochus’s death to an impious attack on temples. He also mentioned insanity. Although 1 Macc. gives the date
as late 163 — after the restoration of the Temple! — some sources imply that Antiochus died as early as Spring
164. The best evidence available dates his death to the last months of 164 (compare 2 Macc. 9, where he dies
before the Temple is rededicated).
2.!Lysias also eliminated the obnoxious High Priest Menelaus (2 Macc. 13:3ƒ, Ant XII.ix.7). This was done for
political reasons, but it probably helped his religious diplomacy.

The Ptolemies
Demetrius I “Soter” (“Savior”), reigned 162–151 B.C.E. (151–162 S.E.).

• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 7:1, 4, 8:31, 9:1, 10:2, 3, (6), 22, 25, (46), 48, 49, 50, 52,
15:1; 2 Macc. 14:1, 4, 5, 11, 26.
The son of Seleucus IV, he was sent to Rome as a hostage when his father became Emperor.
The Romans kept him in captivity throughout the reign of his father and of his uncle Antiochus
IV. When Antiochus died, Demetrius petitioned to be made Emperor. Rome refused, and
accepted the claim of Antiochus V — who, as a child, wasn’t likely to make trouble. Demetrius
then escaped from Rome and went to take his throne1 — a surprisingly bold action from a king
who later locked himself away and made himself completely inaccessible to his subjects.
After he became Emperor, his first major concern was the Jewish revolt. Although a first
army was defeated (1 Macc. 7:26–32; 2 Macc. 14:11–15:39), a later force managed to kill Judas
Maccabeus (160 B.C.E., 152 S.E. — 1 Macc. 9:1–22). Demetrius was wise enough not to revive the
laws against Judaism. He made himself unpleasant to the Maccabeans, however, by his support
of the High Priest Alcimus. He also alienated his Greek subjects by shutting himself off (literally!)
from their needs (Ant XIII.ii.1), and his meddling in the affairs of neighbouring states turned
Egypt and Pergamum against him. Jonathan, Judas’s brother, took over the leadership of the
Jews, and eventually Demetrius found himself in trouble. A pretender named Balas, claiming to
be a second son of Antiochus IV, was able to assemble enough foreign support to attack
Demetrius (1 Macc. 10:1). Demetrius, trying to gain allies, appointed Jonathan governor of
Judah. But Balas offered Jonathan the High Priesthood in 152 B.C.E. (160 S.E. — 1 Macc. 10:15–
21). Jonathan then gave his support to Balas. The battle which followed (150) was seemingly a
draw2 — despite the fact that Demetrius was deserted by many of his troops — but Demetrius
was killed (1 Macc. 10:48–50). So Balas became
1.!This date is definitively dated to 162 B.C.E. by Polybius (Histories XXXI.11ƒ.), who actually played a part in these
events; cf. 1 Macc. 7:1, Ant XII.xi.1
2.!In 1 Macc. 10:49, LXX‫ *א‬LXXA report that Demetrius’s army was routed and pursued by Alexander, but LXX‫א‬c
LXXN+V report that Demetrius routed Alexander. Josephus, whose report in Ant XIII.ii.4 may (we may hope!) be
based on the now-lost account of Polybius, reports that Demetrius’s left wing defeated Alexander’s right, but
Alexander’s left crushed the Emperor’s right, where Demetrius himself was stationed, and so killed him.
The modern editions are very mixed about the correct reading of 1 Macc. 10:49. Kappler’s critical edition of
LXX says that Demetrius won the battle, but NETS changes this to read that Alexander won (apparently the only
place in this book where NETS goes against Kappler). The Rahlfs LXX says that Alexander won; the Vulgate
manuscripts are mixed but the best seem to say that Alexander won. Of the English versions, NEB AB JB NJB REB
say that Demetrius won; GOODSPEED RSVtxt NRSVtxt NAB say that Alexander won. I would incline to say that the
text where Demetrius wins but then dies is superior, even though the evidence for it is weaker; if Alexander had
won and Demetrius died, there would be no reason for the variant to have arisen.

The Ptolemies
Alexander Balas (officially Alexander “Epiphanes,” “[God] Manifest”), reigned 150–

145 B.C.E. (162–167 S.E.).
• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 10:1, 4, 15, 18, 23, 47, 48, 49, 51, 58, 59, 68, 88, 11:1, 2, 8,
9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 39.
Best known to history as Alexander Balas. Although the fact is not clear from 1 Maccabees
(10:1) or Josephus, Balas was very definitely a pretender, unrelated to the Seleucid royal family.
He was set up by Pergamum and Egypt and eventually supported by Rome. Balas strengthened
this support by marrying Cleopatra Thea, the daughter of Ptolemy VI (1 Macc. 10:51–58). But
after about three years, Demetrius I’s son Demetrius II claimed the throne. The Antiochenes may
have made life even more complicated by offering to make Ptolemy king, since Balas was
incompetent and Demetrius still very young and unrespected. Ptolemy did not take the throne —
probably for fear of offending Rome — but did occupy parts of Syria while forcing Demetrius on
the Antiochenes. Balas was not ready to quit, however; with a fresh army he soon re-invaded.
Eventually, in 145 B.C.E., the forces of Demetrius, Balas, and Ptolemy met. Alexander was
defeated; he fled and was assassinated (1 Macc. 11:17). Ptolemy died of his wounds. Almost by
default, Demetrius became
Demetrius II “Nicator” (“Conqueror”), reigned 145–138 B.C.E. (167–174 S.E.). Born

161 B.C.E. (151 S.E.)
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarch: Ptolemy VIII.
• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 10:67, 69, 11:9, 12, 19, 30, 32, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, (45), 52,
55, 63, 13:34, 35, 36, 14:1, 2, 3, 38, 15:22; 2 Macc. 1:7.
Demetrius II is said to have been the second son of Demetrius I, his older brother having
been killed by Alexander Balas (a third brother was Antiochus VII). Demetrius was a boy of
(probably) fourteen when he assumed the throne. When he arrived in Syria from Crete in the
year 147 B.C.E. (1 Macc. 10:67), his first action was an unsuccessful attack on Jonathan and the
Jews (1 Macc. 10:69–89).1 Demetrius then had the sense to ally himself with Ptolemy VI; he
offered to become Ptolemy’s vassal in return for military help, and went on to marry Ptolemy’s
daughter Cleopatra Thea who had been married to Balas (1!Macc. 11:9, 12:24). Although
Ptolemy’s motives are very open to question, Demetrius became Emperor after a battle between
Ptolemy and Balas which resulted in the deaths of both (1 Macc. 11:13–19). Demetrius even
recaptured Syria, and finally settled the question of the Ptolemaic/Seleucid border. (Of course,
1.!This may be referred to in the Qumran Commentary on Nahum (comment on 2:11b) — but this could also be
Demetrius I, or somebody else entirely (perhaps not even named Demetrius; the name is only partly legible). The
answer to the question depends in part on who the “Kittim” mentioned in the verse are. The most likely
explanation is that they are the Romans (cf. the use of “Kittim” for the Romans in Dan. 11:30, where LXX in
fact renders it “Romans”), in which case the desecration of the Temple mentioned is that by Pompey in 63 B.C.E.
But the “Kittim” could also be the Cretan mercenaries of Demetrius II (in which case the “Demetrius” of the
Qumran text would have to be Demetrius I), or perhaps even the army of Ptolemy IX that fought against
Alexander Janneus. The question is probably beyond solution.

The Ptolemies
the Jews were in the process of forming a buffer state between the two rivals.) Demetrius was then
reconciled to Jonathan, and confirmed him as High Priest (1 Macc. 11:30–37) in return for an
army,1 but broke his word and left troops in Jerusalem (1 Macc. 11:53). He was, after all, only a
boy, and dominated by the Cretan mercenary captain Lasthenes (cf. 1 Macc. 11:31–32; note that
1!Macc. 11:32 has Demetrius calling Lasthenes his father) who had placed him on the throne and
would use any method to keep him there. He tried at the same time to save money by reducing
his native-born army (1!Macc. 11:38). This left the Cretans in complete control, and they made
full and brutal use of it. So it was not long before rebellion began again. A nobleman named
Trypho,2 who had supported Alexander Balas, now tried to make Balas’s young son Antiochus
the Emperor. Jonathan gave his support to Antiochus. By 143 Demetrius was forced to flee and
Trypho crowned
Antiochus VI “Epiphanes Dionysus,” reigned 143–142/1 B.C.E. (169–179 S.E.). Born c.

149 B.C.E.
• Contemporary Ptolemaic Monarch: Ptolemy VIII
• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 11:39, 54, 57, 12:39, 13:31.
Antiochus son of Alexander Balas was yet another boy monarch, and a puppet in the hands
of Trypho. But Trypho quickly grew tired of ruling in another’s name. To consolidate his power,
he killed first Jonathan (who supported Antiochus) and then Antiochus himself. Jonathan was
succeeded by his older brother Simon; Trypho was briefly able to hold the throne of the Empire
(c. 142/141–138; 1 Macc. 12:39–13:32).3
Demetrius II was still maintaining an army in exile; he granted Simon formal independence
for the Jews in 142 B.C.E. in return for help against Trypho (1 Macc. 13:41–42). But rather than
fight the local usurper Trypho, Demetrius turned to attack Parthia, and was captured by “Arsaces
the king of Persia” in 140 (1 Macc. 14:1–3. Asaces V was the Parthian Emperor better known as
Mithridates I). Mithridates treated Demetrius well — he even married him to his daughter — but
kept him firmly in custody and annexed Babylonia. With the hated Demetrius out of the way,
Trypho’s support quickly evaporated (1 Macc. 15:10). In time, Antiochus the brother of
Demetrius arrived in Syria, and killed Trypho in 138 B.C.E. (1 Macc. 15). He then became
1.!1 Macc. 11:45-51 tells how these troops prevented the Antiochenes from overthrowing Demetrius.
2.!For Trypho cf. 1 Macc. 11:39, 54, 56, 12:39, 42, 49, 13:1, 12, 14, 20, 21, 22, 24, 31, 34, 14:1, 15:10, 25, 37, 39
3.!The dating of these events is somewhat obscure. Trypho, who was not a member of the Seleucid dynasty, did not
use their calendar. But he is credited with a four year reign, seemingly 142-138. But Livy says that Antiochus VI
is said by Livy to have been ten years old when he died. Yet he is thought by many to have been born in 150.
This would make the date of his death 140 — certainly after Trypho took the throne. It is possible that Trypho
merely deposed Antiochus in 142 and did not kill him until a couple of years later. Or Livy or someone might be
in error. It makes little difference in practice, since Antiochus was clearly out of the picture after 142.

The Ptolemies
Antiochus VII “Sidetes” (“Of Side” — a town in Pamphylia where he was born), reigned
138–129 B.C.E. (174–183 S.E.).
• Scriptural references: 1 Macc. 15:1, 2, 10, 11, 13, 25.
Officially titled “Antiochus Euergetes,” and often called “the Great.” Trypho’s seizure of the
throne had left him without holdings or power. But he gained a base of support by marrying
Cleopatra Thea (previously wife of Alexander Balas and Demetrius II). He then drove Trypho
from Antioch,1 and was able to take the throne. Antiochus was the last energetic Seleucid
Emperor. He destroyed part of the walls of Jerusalem in 135 and forced John Hyrcanus I to
submit (this was a follow-up to the rebellion of the Jewish noble Ptolemy son of Abubus — BJ
I.ii.2–3, 5). But he did not deny the Jews all rights, and they were able to re-assert their
independence after his death. Antiochus then turned against Parthia, recapturing Babylon in
130. Had he been willing to accept Parthian peace proposals, he might have been able to truly
rebuild his kingdom. But Antiochus decided to go for broke and continue his campaign. The
Parthians responded by freeing Demetrius II, hoping to start a civil war. It didn’t make much
difference; Antiochus was still fighting the Parthians when he was killed in 129 B.C.E. With him
died the last hope for the Seleucid Empire. The throne again defaulted to
Demetrius II Restored, reigned 129–125 B.C.E.

• Scriptural references: None
The Jews were grudgingly allowed independence under Simon’s son John Hyrcanus I.
Mesopotamia was permanently lost to the Parthians. The remainder of Demetrius’s reign was
short; he never had the strength to engage in war again. Indeed, his own army hated him enough
to call on Egypt for a replacement prince (Ant XIII.ix.3). Ptolemy VIII Physcon supplied the
pretender Alexander Zebinas/Zabinas (variously alleged to be the son of Alexander Balas or
Antiochus Sidetes). Demetrius was defeated and killed in one of the cities where he fled.
(According to some accounts, it was his wife Cleopatra Thea who killed him2.) Alexander (II)
managed to rule for about two years, but in about 123 was defeated by Demetrius’s second son
Antiochus VIII “Grypus” (“hooknosed”). By this time, the Seleucid “Empire” was confined
to Syria, and its rulers’ only occupation was civil war.3 Antiochus was challenged by his half-
1.!BJ I.ii.2 says this was with Jewish help, but 1 Macc. 15:25ƒ. says he refused Jewish help and turned to attach the
Jews once his throne was secure.
2.!The full version of this story runs something like this: Alexander defeated Demetrius, and Cleopatra prevented his
escape. Seleucus V, the son of Demetrius and Cleopatra, then seized power; Cleopatra poisoned him for being
too independent. With Cleopatra’s support, Demetrius’s second son Antiochus then took the throne — and
proceeded to kill his mother Cleopatra for being too dangerous.
3.!According to BJ I.ii.7, Grypus’s only interaction with the Jews was a botched attempt to relieve the Jewish siege of
Samaria. Ant XIII.x.2 credits this to Antiochus IX. The latter is perhaps more likely, since the incident also
involved Ptolemy IX Lathyrus, who allied himself to Antiochus IX around 106. If Antiochus VII is in fact meant,
the date is c. 113; otherwise the date is c. 107.

The Ptolemies
brother Antiochus IX Cyzenicus (“of Cyzicus,” the son of Antiochus Sidetes) in 113; despite
managing to murder each others’ wives (who were sisters), they eventually split the country
between them (111–96) without ever really making peace. As a result, what little military might
the Seleucids still had was useless against its enemies. And even Grypus’s descendants could not
maintain peace among themselves. Grypus was killed in a palace coup c. 96; his son Seleucus (V)
killed Cyzenicus in 95. Cyzenicus’s son Antiochus (X) Eusebes drove Seleucus into exile, where he
died. Grypus’s son Philip (I) then made himself king. Ptolemy IX Lathyus (then in Cyprus, and
extremely active in foreign affairs as he prepared to invade Egypt) responded by elevating Philip’s
younger brother Demetrius (III) Eukairos1. There were thus three rival “Emperors” in 94.
Antiochus died a natural death (!), but Philip and Demetrius went to war in 88. Philip prevailed
when Demetrius was captured by the Parthians, but this only stirred up their brother Antiochus
(XII2), who decided it was his turn to wear a crown. He was killed by the Arabs in 85/843. To
give another measure of this insanity, consider the career of the Egyptian princess Cleopatra IV,
daughter of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III: she in turn married Ptolemy IX, Antiochus
VIII, Antiochus IX, and Antiochus X4! From that time on the real rulers of Syria were the
Armenians under Tigranes I5. But Seleucid nobility still strove to become Emperor. At least two
more princes eventually joined the game: Philip’s son Philip II and Antiochus X’s son Antiochus
XIII (the last recorded Seleucid monarch). The crown-swapping continued for twenty more
years. Eventually Rome decided it had had enough. Antioch, the capitol, fell to Pompey in 64
B.C.E.
1.!Demetrius III tried to take over the Jewish kingdom during a revolt against Alexander Janneus, but the Jews —
forced to choose between a foreign monarch and Janneus — hesitated long enough that the Maccabean was able
to recoup his losses (BJ I.iv.4-5; Ant XIII.xiii.4-xiv.3). Demetrius won the battle which followed, but this merely
resulted in the Jews rallying to Janneus, which forced the Seleucid to withdraw. Soon after, Demetrius — like
Demetrius II — was captured by the Parthians. This may have something to do with why Josephus calls him
“Akairos” (“Ill-timed,” “Untimely”) instead of his official nickname “Eukairos,” “Well-timed.” In any case, he
was the last Seleucid to seriously threaten the Jews (but see the note on Antiochus XII below), who by now ruled a
stronger state than the Seleucids.
2.!Don’t ask me what happened to Antiochus XI. He was the twin of Philip I, and ruled jointly with him for part of
95, but then disappeared.
3.!In the course of this campaign he came briefly into conflict with the Jewish prince Alexander Janneus — it was
hard to keep out of conflict with Janneus — but since he did not stay to fight, this had little effect on either
monarch’s fortunes (BJ I.iv.7).
4.!A not-quite-so-extreme example is offered by the earlier Cleopatra Thea. She had had only three husbands —
Alexander Balas (1 Macc. 10:57-8), Demetrius II (1 Macc. 11:9), and Antiochus VII Sidetes — but even then the
anarchy was so complete that she ran the country herself and issued her own coins.
5.!As best we can tell, there was no Seleucid Emperor from 83 (when Tigranes took control) to 69 (when the Roman
Lucullus conquered Tigranes). Once Tigranes fell, however, another mad round of throne-swapping began —
for a few years, until the Romans finally stopped it.

The Book of Daniel and the Successors

The book of Daniel is the source of much scholarly controversy: Was it written, as it claims,
at the end of the Babylonian period (sixth century B.C.E.), or was it written in the second century,
at the end of the events which it describes?
I’m not going to get into that.1 As far as I know, everyone agrees that the visions in the second
half of Daniel refer to the events from the time of Alexander the Great to Seleucid persecution
of the Jews. The description below takes the relevant portions of Daniel 7-12, in my own rather
hasty translation (I just sat down and compared English and Greek versions and took what seems
clearest and most faithful to the intent of the text) and explains what it is referring to. This is
probably not a complete list of the allusions in chapters 7-10, but the material on chapter 11
should be nearly complete. Items to with explanations in the margin are shown in bold.
Daniel 7:8: I was considering the horns, when another little horn arose Antiochus IV
among them. Three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots to make room
for it. This horn had eyes like the eyes of man, and a mouth speaking boastfully.
Daniel 8:5: As I was looking on, a male goat came from the west, Alexander the Great
crossing the whole earth without touching the ground, and the goat
had a horn between its eyes.* 8:6: It came to the two-horned ram Persian Empire:
that I had seen standing by the river, and ran at him with furious Medes & Persians
power. 8:7: I saw it approach the ram. It ran at him in fury, and
broke his two horns. The ram had no strength to stand before him; it 530 B.C.E.:
cast him to the ground and trampled him there was none to Fall of Persia
rescue the ram from his hand. 8:8:!Then the male goat grew very 523: Death of Alexander
great — but when it was strongest, the great horn was broken; Lysimachus, Ptolemy I,
and from it came up four notable ones toward the four winds of Antigonus?, Cassander?,
heaven. Demetrius?, Seleucus I?
* “horn between its eyes” without elaboration is the reading of Theodotian; LXX has “one
of its horns was between its eyes”; Hebrew reads something like “it had a horn of seeing between
its eyes.”
1.!Well, OK, maybe I’m going to get into it a little. The information in the section on Babylon will show that the
author of Daniel didn’t know beans about the Babylonian Empire, despite supposedly living in it. The
information above shows that the author of Daniel did know a lot about the Ptolemies and the Seleucids, even
though they lived after he was allegedly alive. The usual conclusion, with which I agree, is that Daniel was written
during the Maccabean period. The best guess is that it came into being around 165 B.C.E., after the Maccabean
Revolt began but before the outcome was clear — after all, it gets the ending of the revolt wrong. But I don’t
demand you agree with this analysis. Maybe Daniel was crazy but the later material was a genuine revelation.
There are three Biblcal books dealing with these events: Daniel, 1 Maccabees, and 2 Maccabees. The three all
bring different axes to the tale, with 1 Maccabees being most strongly opposed to the other two.There is one
curiosity, though. 1!Macc. 2:59 speaks of the three children in the fiery furnace (Daniel 3), and 2:60 mentions
Daniel in the lion’s den (Daniel 6). 1!Maccabees was written more than half a century after the crisis of 165, so it
could have known the book of Daniel, but would it refer to a writing of its enemy with such respect? Was it a
folktale that they both used? Was 1 Maccabees usurping the claim of Daniel? Did the author accept part but not
all of the book? This admits of no simple answer.

8:9: And out of one of them came forth a little horn, which grew Antiochus IV,
extremely great, toward the south, and toward the east, and toward the 169-168, 164, 167
beautiful land.
Daniel 11:2: “Now will I tell you the truth. Three more kings will arise in
Persia. The fourth will be far richer than any of them, and when his riches Xerxes I?
have made him strong, he will send his might against the kingdom of Greece. 480-479 B.C.E.
11:3:!And a mighty king shall arise and rule with power, and do whatever Alexander the Great
he wants. 11:4: But even while his power is still increasing, his kingdom will died 323
be shattered and divided toward the four winds of heaven — but not to his
posterity, nor according to the dominion with which he ruled; his kingdom
will be uprooted and go to others.
11:5: “Then the king of the south will grow strong. But Ptolemy I Soter
one of his princes will grow stronger still, and rule a still Seleucus I Nicator
greater realm. 11:6:!After many years they will make an alliance;
the daughter of the king of the south will come to the king Bernice II daughter of Ptolemy II
of the north to seal an agreement. But she will not retain and sister of Ptolemy III marries
her power, nor will his children rule. She will be given up, and Antiochus II
those who came with her, and her child, and the one who She is killed 246 B.C.E.
supported her. 11:7: But a branch from her roots shall stand
up in his place. He will attack the army and enter the fortress of Ptolemy III?
the king of the north, and work against them and prevail:
11:8: And he will carry their gods, and their idols, and their Seleucus II
precious vessels of silver and gold off to Egypt as booty. He will 242 B.C.E.
not attack the king of the north for some years after that —
11:9:!only to have him attack the king of the south in his Seleucus II
kingdom, and then return into his own land.

11:10: “His sons† will prepare for war, and gather Seleucus III? and Antiochus III
great armies, and pass through like a flood, again bringing
the war to his fortress. 11:11: The king of the south will Ptolemy IV
be moved with rage, and will come forth and fight against Antiochus III
the king of the north, who will gather a great Battle of Raphia, 217 B.C.E.:
multitude; but the multitude will be given into his Ptolemy IV defeats Antiochus III
hand. 11:12: And when he has overcome the multitude,
his heart will be exalted; and he shall overthrow tens of
thousands: but it will do him no good. 11:13: For the king Antiochus III again
of the north will return, with an even greater multitude, Battle of Panion, 198 B.C.E.:
and after many years will return with great army and Antiochus III defeats Ptolemy V
many supplies.
11:14: “At that time many will rise against the king of Ptolemy V
the south. And robbers among your own people will Onias III?, Jason?, Menelaus?
exalt themselves to bring about the vision; but they will fail.
11:15: So the king of the north will come, and cast up a Antiochus III
siege-mound, and take a heavily fortified city. The armies
of the south will not hold, not even his picked troops; there
will be no strength to withstand him. 11:16:!But he that
comes him will do as he wishes, and no one will withstand
him before him. He will take his stand in the Antiochus III conquers Palestine
beautiful land, all of which will be in his power.
11:17:!He will decide to come with all the strength of his
kingdom, and upright ones as well,§ to bring about his Cleopatra I, daughter of
ends. He will give him a woman in marriage, but it Antiochus III, marries Ptolemy V
will accomplish nothing. 11:18: After this shall he turn his
attention to the coasts, and shall capture many. But an Antiochus III invades Greece.
officer who faces his insolence will turn the insolence back L. Cornelius Scipio defeats Antiochus III
on him. 11:19:!Then he will turn back to the fortresses of at the Battle of Magnesia in 195 B.C.E.
his own land: but he will stumble and fall, and not be
found. Death of Antiochus III, 187 B.C.E.
† “sons” (‫בָניו‬
ָ ‫)ּו‬, referring presumably to Seleucus III and Antiochus III, is the reading of the
MT qere, Theodotian, and the Vulgate; the MT ketib and the original LXX read “son” (‫בנֹו‬ ְ ‫)ּו‬,
which presumably means Antiochus III only.
§ The Hebrew here may be troubled; LXX (followed by NRSV) seems to imply “he shall bring peace
terms”; Theodotian’s reading is somewhere in between the Hebrew and Greek readings.

11:20: “His place will be taken by one who sends an official Seleucus IV
for the glory of the kingdom — but within few days he Heliodorus, Seleucus’s tax-collector,
will be broken, although not in anger nor in battle. 11:21: In 175 B.C.E.
his place will arise a vile person, to whom royal honour has Antiochus IV
not been given; he will come in openly and obtain the
kingdom by intrigue. 11:22: Armies will be swept away before
him, and broken; so will the prince of the covenant. Onias III?
11:23:!And after an alliance is made with him he will act
deceitfully and become strong with a small faction. 11:24: He
will openly enter the richest parts of the province, doing what
neither his fathers nor his forefathers did; he will scatter
among his followers the plunder, spoil, and riches. And he will
prepare plans against fortresses, but only for a while.
11:25:!He will stir up his power and his courage against the
king of the south with a great army; and the king of the Ptolemy VI, 169 B.C.E
south will wage war with an even greater army — but he will
not succeed, for there will be plots against him 11:26: by those
who eat at his table. His army will be swept away, and many
will be slain. 11:27:!And both these kings will have their Antiochus IV & Ptolemy VI
minds on evil, and they will sit at one table and speak lies —
but it will come to nothing, for it is not yet the appointed time
of the end. 11:28: He will return to his land with great wealth,
but his heart will be set against the holy covenant. He will do
what he wants, then return to his own land.

11:29: “At the appointed time he will return, and Antiochus IV again invades Egypt,
come into the south; but it will not turn out as before. 168 B.C.E.
11:30: For ships of Kittim‡ shall come against him, Popilius Laenas of Rome draws the
troubling him and causing him to retreat. Then he will “Line in the Sand”
become enraged against the holy covenant; as he comes
back, he will give heed to those who forsake the holy cf. 1 Macc. 1:20ƒ.
covenant. 11:31: His forces will defile the sanctuary and
fortress, and stop the daily offering, and set up the
abomination that makes desolate. 11:32: His intrigues will
seduce those who forsake the covenant: but those who are
loyal to their God will stand firm and take action.
11:33:!The wise among the people will teach many, but for
many days they will fall by the sword and by flame, and
they will be held captive and plundered for many days.
11:34: When they fall victim, they will receive a little Mattathias? Judas Maccabeus?
help, but many will join them insincerely. 11:35: And some 166 B.C.E.? 1 Macc. 4:20ƒ?
of the wise will fall, to test then, and purify and cleanse
them, until the time of the end — for there is still a wait
until the appointed time.
11:36: “And the king shall do according as he pleases.
He shall exalt himself, and magnify himself above every There is no historical parallel to this verse
god, and shall speak terrible things against the God of or what follows. This appears to be the
gods. He shall prosper till the time of wrath is point at which the author shifts from
history to apocalyptic forecast.
accomplished, for what is determined shall be done....”
‡ “Kittim”: So MT, Theodotian; LXX Vulgate say explicitly (and correctly) “Rome”

The Emperors of Rome during the Christian Era
The Grandeur
That Was Rome

From the gate came shouting and a clash of arms. The old King looked out into the night
and saw the light of many torches, weapons gleaming in the flames. Had the Greek, Sinon, lied?
Had the enemy returned?
The shouting grew louder. Over the sound of fighting came women’s voices, screaming. The
enemy had taken the walls! Even now, they were driving toward the center of the city.
Had Hector died in vain? What of the lives of Alexander, of Mestor, of all the King’s sons
and allies? Had the day finally come which they had fallen to try to prevent?
Wearily, the old King made his way to the sanctuary at the center of the palace, there to
await the end. Around him, he saw his city being put to the sword. So many of the King’s sons
had already been slain — how well he remembered the day when Hector had died! What hope
had there been since then? Now the city lay dying, and his people with it. Of the King’s fifty sons,
only one would survive the day.
The King stopped before the altar. What better place was there to die? Too old to lead his
troops in battle, all he could do was wait.
Outside the door, a youth screamed. In rushed the King’s youngest son Polites, to die at his
father’s feet. Hard behind him came his killer, Neoptolemus, son of the man who slew Hector.
The king could bear it no more. For the first time in the war, he took up his spear to slay the
intruder. Neoptolemus, laughing, struck the old man. Over his body, and over his city, the flames
rose.
King Priam was dead. Troy had fallen.
After the sack, a few survivors gathered. Knowing that all they could expect from the Greeks
was death or slavery, they resolved to set out for a new land — far from the Greeks and their
King Agamemnon. As their leader they chose Æneas, a cousin of Priam and the son of
Aphrodite. In a single ship, they set out for the west. Tempest-tossed, they would wander far and
see many strange things ere fate allowed the rest. Fortune took them to Crete, to Sicily, and to
Carthage (where Æneas broke the heart of Queen Dido) before they finally found a home in
Italy.
Perhaps four hundred years later, two boys were born of the line of Æneas. The children of a
Vestal Virgin, the king ordered them exposed. The legend says that they, like Cyrus “the Great”,
were raised by wolves then rescued by a herdsman. But the boys grew well and strong, hidden
from the lord who had cast them out. In the end, they went on to found their own city. But ere it
was fully built, the boy Remus teased his brother Romulus, and Romulus slew him.
Thus was Rome founded, in blood and wrath. And so for a thousand years the city would
stand, surrounded by tyranny, ruled by war. The year, legend has it, was 754/3 B.C.E.
For its first two centuries, Rome was ruled by kings — elected by the people, but ruling for
life. Romulus was the first, and he stayed on his throne until about 718. His successors, Numa
Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, and Servius Tullius, built and
enlarged the city. Although some were Etruscan rather than Latin, all were good kings, successful
builders, leaders in war. They held off Rome’s hostile neighbours and promoted peace and justice

in the realm. About them they built up a circle of rich landowners, the Senate1, to provide the
nation with guidance and leadership.
The wars rarely stopped during this time, for Rome was surrounded by hostile peoples. The
Etruscans, immigrants from the north, brought in a new culture and pressed the city hard. They
changed Rome’s culture in many ways (for instance, the Romans adopted the Etruscan rather
than the Greek alphabet). But always the city held out, and the people kept some liberty.
Then, in 534, Tarquinius Superbus became King of Rome. From the start, he showed
himself to be an unjust tyrant. And his son was worse. In 510, while on a campaign, the boy
raped Lucretia (Shakespeare’s Lucrece), the chaste wife of a senator. This was the worst crime he
could commit against the innocent woman, and it drove her to suicide. Her husband and father
rose in revolt. One of the greatest leaders of the rebellion was Lucius Junius Brutus, who had
avoided being executed by Tarquin only by pretending to be mad. Tarquin was driven out, and
the Roman kingdom was replaced by the Roman Republic in 509.
The Senate was now in control. But this brought little improvement in the lot of the common
people. The state came to be ruled by two “consuls,” co-heads of state who served for one year.
But the law required that these always come from the senatorial ranks. Unrest grew.
In 494 an open revolt started, and the Senate was forced to give concessions. The people were
allowed to elect tribunes. The tribunal power consisted of the right to veto any piece of
legislation which was proposed. (It was this concession that led to the exploits of Coriolanus,
described in the Shakespeare play of the same name.) Gradually — in fits and starts, as various
forms of government were tried (including the elected tyranny of the decemvirs) — the people
gained more voting power and freedom.
Excursus: The Political Organization of Rome

In a world where class consciousness is considered undesirable and our elected leaders
theoretically no different from the rest of us, the Roman social organization inevitably seems
strange and cumbersome — and, indeed, it was continually breaking down. Whether the
breakdown was actually worse that that which afflicts modern nations is debatable — after all,
the Roman Republic was twice the current age of the American when it fell, and the United
States shows every indication of sharing internal tensions that doomed Rome. But to understand
Rome requires us to understand its social hierarchy.
By the late Republican era, there were four basic ranks in Roman society, Senators (named
because they were usually old men), Equites (knights, or Equestrians; this was the last group to
develop), Plebeians (common folk), and slaves. Provincials came to form a fifth class, more or less
between Plebians and slaves, but they never really fit well into the Roman social system.
Freedmen, or former slaves, also had limited rights, which varied over the years; they remained
loosely attached to their former owners for decades or generations.
The highest offices of state were, of course, open only to Senators, but the Knights were also
nobles who exercised great power, especially under the later Empire. The qualification for
knighthood was property: a knight could afford to fight as a cavalryman. Senators were expected
1.!For the Senate and other social ranks, see the excursus The Political Organization of Rome below.

to have even more money, but also had to hold office; a man became a senator after serving a
term as quaestor, the lowest of the magistracies; quaestors often served as executive assistants to
higher magistrates.
Freedmen made up the bulk of the people of Rome; as time passed it became harder for
them to climb the social scale. A special office, that of “Censor,” emerged to determine who
belonged in which class; in later years, when this office ceased to function properly, the task was
taken over by the Emperor.
Under the Republic, except in times of emergency, the chief officers of state were the
consuls. Two were elected each year. The consuls were generals-in-chief, chief financial officers,
moderators in the Senate, and in general the replacements for the kings Rome no longer had.
They were elected by twos, and for one year only, so they would not be tempted to make
themselves kings. (Eventually certain offices were reserved for ex-consuls to keep from wasting
their military and/or political talents.) Under the Consuls served the praetors (judges), and below
them were the aediles and quaestors. The tribunes, whose primary purpose was to block unjust
laws (as well as proposing laws for popular referenda) were a sort of independent officialdom.
These, too, served for one year.
The Roman electoral system was peculiar; although all citizens were entitled to vote, their
votes did not carry equal weight. The Roman electoral system was something like the United
States Senate (and, indeed, the American Constitution borrows a lot from Roman institutions —
flaws and all). The population was divided into tribes of unequal sizes. In an election, the
members of each tribe cast their votes, and the candidates who received the majority of the tribe
members’ votes received the (single) vote of the entire tribe (i.e. the vote system within the tribe
was winner-take-all). In concept this was designed to ensure fairness in voting; it saw to it that the
masses in the city, who could turn out for every vote and who were in any case the least
productive members of the society, could not outvote the rural population (since the tribes of the
city belonged to only four of the thirty-five trines). But in practice it allowed room for grave
unfairness, since the Senate saw to it that all new Roman citizens, such as the Italian allies after
the Social War, were placed in only a few tribes. These more populous tribes had no more voice
than the much smaller tribes dominated by the aristocracy. So the Senate continued to dominate
the consular elections until first violence and then the Imperial system overthrew it.
Rome was still a small state, confined to a region about the city. Around 388 the city was
sacked by the Gauls, resulting in the destruction of all earlier historical records; everything about
city history before 388 must be considered questionable. The only part of the city to be spared
was the Capitol1, and that only in return for a huge bribe.
This seems to have greatly increased the Romans’ determination. Never again would the city
fall! By means of alliance, war, treaty, bribery, and any other means that came to hand, Rome
turned the cities around her into buffers, using their revenues and their peoples for her own ends.
1.!The city of Rome eventually spread over seven hills, the Capitoline (where most government business was
conducted, hence our word “Capitol”), Palatine, Aventine, Esquiline, Quirinal, Viminal, and Cælian. These seven
hills are implicitly alluded to in Rev. 17:9.

By 285 Rome had control of almost the entire Italian peninsula. Most cities were client-states
with some self-government, but all looked to Rome. And some resented it. In 282 the city of
Tarentum called in Pyrrhus of Epirus to help it maintain its independence. Rome had to face its
first foreign war.
The wars with Pyrrhus were not too arduous. Rome lost a battle at Heraclea in 280, but held
Pyrrhus to a “Pyrrhic victory” at Ausculum in 279. (Pyrrhus’ comment was that another such
“victory” would leave him without an army.) In 275 Pyrrhus returned to Greece; in 272
Tarentum surrendered. Rome now controlled all of Italy. Soon it would begin to expand beyond
it.
In 264 Rome faced its greatest test: it took on the African city of Carthage.
The First Punic War was something of an accident: a small war in Sicily was getting out of
hand, and one of the cities involved called upon the local superpowers for help. Carthage moved
in, which forced Rome to respond to keep the Carthaginians from gaining too much power near
home. The war lasted for twenty-three years, and at first it was nearly a draw. The Romans with
their steady legions could always win on land, but the Carthaginians had the advantage at sea
(Polybius — Histories I.20 — reports that the Romans at first did not even know how to build a
quinquereme, the heaviest class of battleship). Rome nearly bankrupted itself in building its fleet.
But in the end, the Romans won. Carthage had to give up its Sicilian possessions and pay an
indemnity.
The Carthaginians did not intend to take this lightly. Having lost the central Mediterranean,
they set out to build a power in Spain. In 218, hostilities broke out again.
The Roman situation was bleak. Hannibal, one of the greatest generals of all time, led an
army into Italy, and Rome suffered the worst defeat in her history at the Battle of Cannae in 216.
Hannibal lured the Roman army into a trap, and destroyed it in detail. The Senate, led by Fabius
Maximus, turned to a defensive strategy (which came to be called “Fabian tactics”) against
Hannibal. But things were still getting worse. In 215, the Antigonid Philip V of Macedon (King
of Macedon 221–179, and grandson of Antigonus Gonatas, himself the grandson of Alexander’s
general Antigonus I Monophthalmos) declared war on Rome.
For the most part, Rome ignored Philip, leaving it to their Ætolian allies to keep him
distracted. They could deal with him when the time came. Indeed, the Romans ignored
Hannibal, even though he was at the gates of Rome. Instead, forces under the Scipios (father,
brother, and son). were sent to conquer Spain, which kept Hannibal from receiving
reinforcements. Other forces kept the Carthaginians busy on other fronts.1 By 204, the youngest
Scipio had taken all of Spain, and was moving his army to attack Carthage. Hannibal was forced
to return to Africa. Scipio met his army at Zama at 202, and Hannibal was finally defeated.
Carthage was again forced to accept peace on Roman terms — and this time the terms were stiff.
1.!There is a very, very faint chance that one of these diversionary wars is alluded to in the Bible. Ecclesiastes — a
very late book — refers in 9:14-15 to a city preserved against a “great king” by the wisdom of a poor man. In
211/10 B.C.E. the city of Syracuse was captured by the army of the Roman proconsul Marcellus (not a king, but
about as close as Rome came to having one). Syracuse would, however, have fallen years earlier had it not been
for the defenses constructed by Archimedes, a commoner but also the greatest scientist and engineer of antiquity.

Later, Rome would use a technical infraction of this agreement to condemn Carthage.
Prodded by Cato the Elder’s unceasing cry of delenda est Carthago (“Carthage must be destroyed”),
Rome declared war in 1491. Carthage fought valiantly, but she was spent. The Third Punic War’s
result was a foregone conclusion. Carthage was destroyed in 146.2
By this time Rome had turned interventionist. She fought a rematch with Philip V in 200 (cf.
1 Macc. 8:5, Ant XII.x.6) and speedily won (although she did not then annex the conquered
territory, but in 196 allowed the cities to — temporarily — form their own governments3). In 190
she chased the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III out of Asia (cf. 1 Macc. 8:6, Ant XII.x.6.
Antiochus was also forced to pay tribute, and so began to loot shrines such as the Jerusalem
Temple). The Romans reacted by taking over Ætolia (which had requested Antiochus’s
intervention and then made it almost impossible for him to work effectively). In 171, encouraged
by Eumenes of Pergamum, Rome presented a list of grievances to Philip V’s son Perseus.
Perseus, unfairly accused, had little choice but to go to war. After three years of sparring, Rome
destroyed the Macedonian army at the Battle of Pydna in 1684, and abolished the Antigonid
Kingdom of Macedon in the following year (1 Macc. 8:5, Ant XII.x.6).
After that, the new territories flowed in steadily. In 133 Rome inherited the Asian nation of
Pergamum (western Turkey) from its King Attalus III. In the 160s she signed a mutual defense
treaty with the Maccabean rebels in Judah (not that anything ever came of that)5. In 146 she
destroyed the Greek city of Corinth6 and assumed de facto control over most of Greece (a control
which gradually tightened over the following decades). The Jugurthine War of 111–105 brought
North Africa into the Roman sphere. Ptolemy Apion, the bastard son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon
1.!Carthage had had an ongoing border dispute with Numidia ever since the Numidians had been given a large
block of territory on the Carthaginian periphery following the Second Punic War. Disputes between the two were
always referred to Rome, which always (fairly or not) decided in favor of Numidia. Finally Carthage refused to
accept one of these biased judgments, and the Romans had the excuse they needed.
2.!Although Carthage is not referred to in the MT of the Old Testament, LXX has several references. Isa. 23:1
refers explicitly to the destruction of Carthage — which actually makes some sense. Isa. 23 is an oracle against
Tyre, and 23:1 in the Hebrew refers to the destruction of a Tyrian colony in “Tarshish.” Although Tarshish is not
Carthage, and the latter city fell after Isaiah was written, Carthage was easily the largest and strongest of many
Tyrian colonies.
Carthage and/or Carthaginians are also referred to in LXX of Isa. 23:6, 10, 14; Ezek. 27:12, 25 (so LXXA;
LXXB omits), 38:13; in each case as a translation of MT’s “Tarshish.” (In several of these cases LXXA has
variants on “Chalcedonians” for “Carchedonians”=Carthaginians). In other LXX books we find the translators
more correctly rendering “Tarshish” by variations on Y-!4&#, Tharsis.
3.!For more on this, see the entry on Flaminius, who led the war against Philip.
4.!For details on this campaign, see the entries on Acilius Glabrio and Scipio Asiaticus.
5.!It is noteworthy, however, that 1 Macc. 8:19 speaks of the Senate and 8:22 of the bronze tablets on which the
treaty was recorded. 1 Macc. 15:16 speaks of the consul Lucius (Lucius Cornelius Piso, consul 140 B.C.E.). All of
these are authentic Roman details of the period, implying that the treaty was real. On the other hand, Roman
allies all tended to eventually become Roman vassals — and Judah was no exception. It is also interesting to note
that the Romans made the initial treaty in 161, immediately after the Seleucid Demetrius I had escaped from
Roman captivity (in 162 — Polybius, Histories XXXI.11ƒ.) to take over his Empire. It would not be surprising if
Rome was deliberately reminding the new Emperor of its power — the power which had ruined his grandfather
Antiochus III thirty years before and openly toyed with his uncle Antiochus IV a mere eight years earlier.
6.!The destruction was carried out by Lucius Mummius, even though the Corinthians did not resist; this is probably
one of the events underlying 1 Macc. 8:10, which describes the Greeks being made slaves.

of Egypt, bequeathed Cyrene (supposedly an Egyptian vassal-state, but Apion ignored

commands from Alexandria) to Rome in 96. Nicomedes IV did the same with Bithynia in Asia
Minor in 74. A long series of wars with Mithridates VI of Pontus gave Rome control of all of
Asia Minor by 66. Soon after, the Romans conquered Seleucid Syria (in 64) and Palestine (in 63).
By the time Julius Cæsar came to power, the entire Mediterranean world except for Egypt was in
Roman hands, and even Egypt — ruled by the Roman creature Ptolemy XII Auletes — was
beholden to Rome.

!

Figure 20: Roman Conquests 250-30 B.C.E.

For all its worldly power, all was not well within the Republic. The Senate had learned how to
circumvent the tribunes and had complete control of the judicial system. The people of Rome
itself were regularly plundered; the Latin allies were oppressed. Once again, revolution was
brewing, and strong leaders tossed control of the state back and forth between them.
In 133 Tiberius Gracchus came to power, and set about organizing reforms. But he was slain
within the year. In 123 his brother Gaius took up the standard of reform, but he too was
assassinated in 121.
Once the Gracchi were dead, there was no real hope for reform of the Republic. (A third
populist, Lucius Appuleis Saturninus, tribune 103, 100, was assassinated after accomplishing even
less than the Gracchi. The assassination of a fourth populist, the tribune Livius Drusus, was the
direct cause of the Social War of 91. The populists were among the first victims of Roman
political violence; they would not be the last.) The only question was who would be able to make
himself dictator.
The first to try to take over was Gaius Marius. An extremely successful general, he brought
about reforms in both the army and the civil government. But his primary objective was not
justice but authority. In the 90s he tried to seize power, but was opposed by his protégé Sulla.
Marius had the people’s support, Sulla (for the most part) the Senate’s. Their hostility turned to
open warfare during the Social War (during which Rome’s Italian allies revolted to end their

oppression) in 91.1 In 88 Mithridates of Pontus went to war with Rome. Both Marius and Sulla
sought the right to pursue the war against Mithridates; both were appointed — Sulla by the
Senate and Marius by the people. Sulla went so far as to attack Rome to force Marius out (giving
orders for his execution), but — having been swiftly victorious — set out for Asia before Marius
was captured or the city pacified. Sulla also allowed the consul-elect Cinna to take office, only to
have the latter break his promise of loyalty to the dictator and allow Marius back into the city.
But Marius died in 86. Cinna was left in command of his party, but was assassinated in 84.
Carbo then took control of the radicals, but Sulla returned to Rome in 83 (having been forced by
the political situation to make a premature peace with Mithridates) and drove out or killed the
few remaining members of the anti-aristocratic party. With the support of the Senate, he had
himself appointed dictator in 82 and introduced a reactionary law code.
Sulla retired in 79 and died in the following year, and civil government returned to normal.
The last members of Marius’s party, led by Sertorius, were defeated by Pompey in the 70s.
Crassus crushed a slave revolt led by Spartacus in 71. In 70, Pompey and Crassus were elected
consuls, and (despite many disagreements) managed to annul most of Sulla’s legislation. Pompey
then began an extraordinary military campaign2 in which he cleared the pirates from the
Mediterranean in 67, conquered Pontus in 66, Syria in 64, and Palestine in 63. The conspiracy
of Catiline, which intended radical (if not entirely specified) changes, was put down by Cicero in
62. Troubles with the Senate caused Pompey, Crassus, and the newcomer Julius Cæsar to form
the “First Triumvirate” in 60. On paper this sounded good; each brought a different gift to the
group: Pompey his military reputation; Cæsar his oratorical skill, his High Priestly title (to which
he had been elected in 63), and his popular support; and Crassus his wealth and connections. But
it was strictly a marriage of convenience; Pompey — although happily married to Cæsar’s
daughter — was fundamentally conservative,3 Cæsar was very much a reformer, and Crassus (the
moderate who held the two together) ultimately too much the moneygrubber. Then in 53 Crassus
was killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae, and Pompey’s wife died. Suddenly, Rome
1.!The Social War in effect pitted the city of Rome against her Latin allies. In the early stages of the war, the
Romans — despite the generalship of Marius and Sulla — were repeatedly defeated and two consuls slain. Rome
responded in 90 by passing laws which granted all loyal colonies Roman-style privileges. In 89 the law was
extended to all Italian cities. Rome thus solved the smaller of its two great problems, but the larger — the
rapaciousness and corruption of the aristocracy — was unabated. It was, of course, the gradual extension of
Roman citizenship after the Social War (with its guarantee of full and appropriate judicial proceedings) that
protected Paul in Acts 22:25ƒ. and Paul and Silas in Acts 16:37.
Note also that the tribune Claudius Lysias of Acts 22:28 probably could not have served in the army had it not
been for Marius’s reforms — originally the legions consisted only of Roman citizens — and without being in the
legions, he could not have earned his citizenship.
2.!These extraordinary commands were another bane of the Republic. Marius had been given the first, to fight off
the Celtic invasions. Pompey’s was also highly successful. The problem was, the victors in such campaigns tended
to come back rich, respected, and with big armies at their backs. They were therefore in a position to reorganize
the government as they saw fit. The career of Sulla should have given the people warning. But civil government
had grown so weak that it simply had no way to combat the strongest of all these marshals: Julius Cæsar and his
adopted son Augustus.
3.!Pompey, amazingly, refused to grab absolute power when it was offered to him. Had his lack of ambition not been
coupled, in his later years, by a lack of drive, he might have been able to rescue the Republic.

had two rulers, and people rushed to join one or another party. The Senate sided with Pompey;
the people with Cæsar.1
To everyone’s amazement, Cæsar proved amazingly strong. As consul, he had used Pompey’s
support to pass populist laws (aristocrats grumbled that he had used the consulate to perform the
functions of a tribune — Plutarch, Life of Pompey 48). The Senate tried to stop him by making
Pompey consul without colleague in 52, but Cæsar maintained his demands.
The year 50 saw the real end of the Roman Republic. It was the last year of peace before the
last and greatest of the “Civil Wars.” In 49 the Senate charged Pompey to defend Rome against
Cæsar, who as governor of Gaul was refusing to give up his post and surrender his army. Later in
the year, Cæsar brought his army into Italy, crossed the Rubicon River, and marched on Rome.
Pompey and the senatorial party were forced to flee. Cæsar followed, and defeated the Pompey at
the Battle of Pharsalus in 48. Pompey fled to Egypt and was assassinated there.
Cæsar followed to Egypt and appointed Cleopatra queen. He won the famous Battle of Zela
in Pontus in 47 (Cæsar’s report on the battle consisted of three words: veni, vidi, vice: “I came, I
saw, I conquered”). After the battle of Thapsus (in North Africa) in 46 (at which he defeated
Pompey’s father-in-law Q. Cæcilius Metellus Scipio) he was appointed dictator for ten years. He
proceeded to kill Pompey’s older son at the Battle of Munda (in Spain) in 45.
Munda marked the zenith of Cæsar’s career. There were no enemies left. So Cæsar had
himself appointed dictator for life, and spent his remaining years putting what was left of the
Republic in order. He instituted reforms of all sorts (including installing the Julian calendar2), and
revamped the Roman officialdom. A generous man, he pardoned most of Pompey’s remaining
supporters and even gave them important posts. But recent years had trained men to scheme, and
scheme they did. A group of senators (most of whom were Pompeians who had been pardoned
by Cæsar) conspired against the dictator and killed him in 44.3
The death of Cæsar left Rome almost without a government. The conspirators, led by Caius
Cassius, Marcus Brutus (the Brutus of Shakespeare), and Decimus Junius Brutus, had no
1.!Even before this, irregularities had been common; partisan violence had prevented proper elections from being
held in 55 (no consuls were elected for 54) and 53 (when neither consuls nor praetors were elected until July). By
the end of 53 gangs let by Clodius (a sort of bogus populist allied to Cæsar) and Milo (a reactionary) were at war
in the streets. In 52 Milo killed Clodius, but by now the populace was in arms. Even after the dispersal of the
gangs, the electoral process remained irregular. As early as 59 Cæsar’s colleague as consul, Bibulus, had been so
limited in his effective power that he simply tried to block public business by constantly waiting for omens. (The
joke made its round that, instead of it being the consulship of Bibulus and Cæsar, it was the consulship of Julius
and Cæsar.)
2.!The original Roman calendar had only 355 days irregularly distributed among the months. The calendar was kept
in line with the seasons by intercalation — the occasional addition of extra months to the year, a practice used to
this day by the Jews, probably based on the Babylonian calendar. During the first century B.C.E, however,
intercalation had been irregular, due both to civil unrest and the political interests of the priests responsible for
the calendar. Cæsar realigned the calendar with the seasons (by making the year 46 445 days long!), lengthened
the calendar year to 365 days, and added a leap year every four years (the Julian calendar, still used by many
Orthodox churches, but in the west replaced after 1582 — later among Protestants — by the Gregorian calendar,
which omits three leap years every four centuries).
3.!The exact date, in modern terms, was March 15, 44 B.C.E.

program except their own advancement, and were driven out by the people.1 Only two major
figures were left in Rome: the orator Cicero and Cæsar’s general Mark Antony — and they were
bitter enemies. Antony was able to grab Cæsar’s fortune — but it was not enough. Against him
came Cæsar’s adopted heir Octavian. Antony, in an attempt to increase his popularity, led an
army against Decimus Brutus. Octavian sent two armies against Antony (after all, Antony had his
inheritance money) led by the consuls Aulus Hirtius and Gaius Vibius Pansa. Octavian then
joined them with a force of his own; the allied troops was victorious but both consuls were killed.
Octavian then became consul (at twenty, he was probably the youngest consul in history; he was,
in fact, too young even to legally be a Senator!).
But Octavian was simply too young; he couldn’t get the support he needed. In the end, he
made an agreement with Antony and with the general Marcus Aemilius Lepidus; they formed
the “Second Triumvirate” at the beginning of 42. This alliance was even more uneasy than the
First Triumvirate, but it did manage to defeat Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi in 42.
The battle was fought by Antony and Octavian, but all of the success belonged to Antony. His
reputation was at an all-time high, and it went to his head.
Philippi was almost the only positive accomplishment of the Triumvirs’ first years. Against it
must be set the proscriptions which they used to raise money. (A proscribed man was declared a
traitor and killed; his estates were confiscated.) Among those eliminated this way — despite
Octavian’s opposition — was Cicero, who had ruled Rome after Cæsar’s death, and also given
Octavian his chance at power — his actions had, in fact, arguably saved Octavian’s life. To
balance things out, Lepidus’s brother and Antony’s uncle were also condemned, along with many
more distant relatives and acquaintances.
1.!Although there were said to be sixty conspirators (Suetonius, Cæsar 80), only about a third of this number are
known to history. And most even of them are obscure. The most important of them are:
Caius Cassius Longinus
Marcus Junius Brutus
Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (Shakespeare’s “Decius,” who had been so close to Cæsar that the dictator had
mentioned him in his will and scheduled him to be consul in 42). As commander of Cæsar’s fleet at the naval
battle of Masilia, he had done Caesar great service. He was one of the first conspirators to die; after a term as
proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul (44-43 B.C.E.) — a post to which he had been appointed by Caesar! — he was killed
while en route to Macedonia.
Gaius Trebonius. tribune 55, consul (suffect) 45. Appointed governor of Asia by Cæsar. Executed by Dolabella 44.
C. Publius Servilius Casca. Tribune 44
Lucius Cornelius Cinna. Brother of Cæsar’s ex-wife
Tillius Cimber. Praetor 45? Succeeded Cassius as governor of Bithynia 44/43.
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus

Excursus: The Last Gasp of the Republic

The picture of the years 44-42 presented in these pages is simplistic; these were perhaps the
most politically complex years in world history. After Cæsar’s death Antony, as the surviving
consul, immediately took steps to ensure his control. He encouraged the Senate to reward
Cæsar’s killers with many honours (while also ratifying Cæsar’s decrees). But he also aroused the
people against the conspirators; they left Rome at once. In June of 44, seeing that the city was not
calming down, they left Italy to assume their posts. Antony then began to act like a demagogue,
clearly hoping to take over Cæsar’s rôle as a dictator. He tried to keep Octavian out of Italy, used
forged documents to Cæsar’s to alter Senatorial appointments (e.g. Antony demoted Brutus and
Cassius from commanding the important provinces of Macedonia and Syria to commanding the
minor ones of Bithynia and Crete), had the ex-consul Dolabella chosen his co-consul and sent to
Syria (logically, Antony should probably have appointed Lepidus, Cæsar’s other chief aide, as his
co-consul. But that would have given a potential rival too much power. Antony instead shipped
Lepidus off as governor of Spain), and grabbed the dictator’s estate. Late in 44, in an attempt to
show his loyalty to Cæsar (and probably to gain some easy military glory), Antony led an army
against Decimus Brutus, the nearest of the conspirators. But Decimus, to Antony’s surprise, was
able to hold him off for the moment. Cassius, meanwhile, was destroying Dolabella in Syria. And
Cicero was arousing the Senate against Antony in his absence. Cicero had Octavian given
command of an army to use against Antony (thus placing him in the ridiculous position of being
an ally of his adopted father’s murderer!), and convinced the Senate to send no fewer than three
armies — those of Hirtius, Pansa, and Octavian — against Antony in 43 (Plutarch, Life of Antony
17). Antony was badly defeated and forced to retreat into Gaul, but Hirtius and Pansa both died
(Hirtius in the battle; Pansa did not die of his wounds until several days later, leading to rumours
that Octavian had murdered him — Dio Cassius, Histories XLVI.39). Octavian returned to Rome
in triumph to take over their consulship — only to find that the Senate, having used him, wanted
to cast him aside. (They actually gave Pansa’s army to Decimus! — Dio Cassius, Histories
XLVI.40).
Lepidus, meanwhile, was ferrying an army from Spain. On his way to Rome, he encountered
Mark Antony. What happened next is unclear; Lepidus’s troops went over to Antony, but whether
this was with or against their commander’s wish is uncertain. Soon after, the other governors of
the west added their forces to his. Antony was once again a power to be reckoned with. Octavian,
meanwhile, was being totally frustrated by the Senate; they gave him consular honours but not
consular powers. He used his army to take over Rome, but of course had no support in the
Senate. It was under these circumstances that Antony and Octavian made an alliance, with
Lepidus as third party to guarantee their behavior toward each other — a trick that might have
worked better had they picked a stronger third man.
The Triumvirs made a formal agreement in November 43, and proceeded to cow the Senate
into giving them five years of power, then proceeded with the proscriptions and the war against
the assassins of Cæsar that concluded at Philippi in 42.

Nor were these the only frictions. Antony’s brother Lucius (consul 41 B.C.E.) went to war
against Octavian (the Perusine War) in 41–40. For all Antony’s (probably sincere) claims of
innocence, government by committee just wasn’t working.
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Figure 21: The Triumvirs’ Division of the World
The Triumvirs tried to solve things by splitting up the Republic (in 40) so that each might
have an area to rule. Octavian received the West, Antony the East. Lepidus, who really didn’t
amount to much, was given part of Africa. Antony had settled in Egypt, and his policies were
designed to please his Egyptian mistress, Queen Cleopatra VII. As a result, the two Triumvirs
were well on their way to war when the revolt of Sextus Pompeius reached its height. Sextus was
Pompey’s younger son, and had taken hold of the Mediterranean with a large fleet. Rome was in
danger of starvation. Meanwhile, the Parthians had taken over Palestine and Syria. Once again,
Antony and Octavian were forced to work together. Antony went so far as to marry Octavian’s
sister. In 39, an agreement was reached with Sextus. In 37, the Parthians were driven out of
Palestine. Antony then went back to Egypt, and for all intents and purposes forfeited the struggle
to Octavian. In 36, the fleet of Octavian’s admiral Agrippa defeated Pompey. Lepidus was
deposed, and Octavian took over his land and armies. To make matters worse, Antony had
agreed in 37 to lend Octavian a fleet to deal with Sextus — and Octavian never returned it.
The final showdown came in 32. Octavian declared war on Cleopatra (and hence on Antony)
in that year. Both sides marshalled their forces in Greece. Even though Antony had much of the
Senate on his side (since he had promised to restore the Republic — Dio Cassius, Histories L.7), as
well as more money and troops, none of this could overcome the Triumvir’s defective strategy. In
31 Agrippa decisively defeated Antony at the naval Battle of Actium. Even though the armies
hadn’t so much as skirmished, Antony retired to Egypt. Agrippa and Octavian soon followed.
Antony’s armies were defeated or melted away; at last he was besieged in Alexandria. In 30 he
committed suicide; Cleopatra killed herself soon after.

The entire power of the Roman world now lay in the hands of Octavian. Over the next few
years he took on all the powers that Cæsar had had, and others. In 27, with the consent of the
Senate, he began the process which resulted in the formation of the Roman Principate (Empire).
He himself was awarded the title Augustus Cæsar.
Augustus brought Rome to its height. It was an era of peace — almost the first peace Rome
had ever known. Tradition had it that the doors of the Temple of Janus were closed only in
peacetime. When Augustus closed them, it was said to be only the third time in history
(Suetonius, Augustus 22; the other two times were in the time of King Numa and in 235, after the
First Punic War). Virgil, the greatest poet Rome ever had, lived in Augustus’s time. Ovid was a
product of Augustus’s later years. The historian Livy wrote during the first Emperor’s reign.
The Roman Empire was the largest the world would ever see. For three hundred years no
outsider could threaten it. Its architecture was tremendous, its people vigorous, its
accomplishments unprecedented. For the most part, its people were treated justly and with
compassion. The goal of Rome was good government and peace. For this reason, Augustus had
called an end to military expansion.
It was into this nation that Jesus was born, during the reign of Augustus, around 6 B.C.E.

The Emperors of Rome

Date Reign or Event!! !!Names of Emperors shown in BOLD; dates are of their reigns.
753 B.C.E. Traditional Founding of Rome
509 Establishment of the Roman Republic
264–146 Punic Wars. Rome becomes a world power
60 first Triumvirate — Cæsar, Pompey, Crassus
53 Death of Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae
48 Death of Pompey after the Battle of Pharsalus
48–44 Julius Cæsar assumes dictatorial powers
43 Second Triumvirate — Antony, Lepidus, Octavian
42 Battle of Philippi. The murderers of Cæsar are killed
31 Battle of Actium. Antony defeated & commits suicide
27 B.C.E.–14 C.E. Octavian (Augustus), given dictatorial powers, creates the Roman Principate (Empire)
14–37 Tiberius. (Death of Jesus, 30?)
37–41 Gaius (Caligula)
41–54 Claudius
54–68 Nero
68–69 Galba (Usurper)
69 The “Year of Four Emperors”: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian
69–79 Vespasian (Destruction of Jerusalem 70)
79–81 Titus
81–96 Domitian
96–98 Nerva.
98–117 Trajan.
117–138 Hadrian.
138–161 Antonius Pius.
161–180 Marcus Aurelius.
180–192 Commodus
192/193 Second “Year of Four Emperors”: Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Severus
193–211 Septimius Severus
212 Caracalla ends the distinction between Roman citizens and non-citizens
⋮
270–275 Aurelian
284–305 Diocletian and Maximian
⋮
306–337 Constantine I. (Christianity becomes a legal religion 312.)
⋮
379–395 Theodosius I
395 Division of the Empire into Eastern & Western Empires.
410 Fall of Rome to Goths under Alaric.
476 End of the Western Roman Empire.
527–565 Justinian, Emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire.
1203–1204 Crusaders sack Constantinople.
1453 Fall of Constantinople. End of Byzantine Empire.

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Lucius Cornelius Cinna
d. 84 B.C.E. C. Julius Cæsar Marcia Julia Gaius Marius
d. 85 B.C.E. 157–86 B.C.E.
1

Cornelia Julia I Marcus Antonius Creticus
Gaius Julius Cæsar Marcus Atius Balbus Gaius Marius
100?-44 B.C.E.† d. 51 B.C.E. the Younger
2 1 Atia C. Octavius d.82 B.C.E.† Lucius Antony
Julia II Pompey Mucia d. 43 B.C.E. d. 59 B.C.E. d. 40 B.C.E.
d. 54 B.C.E. 106–48 B.C.E.†
1 2/2 1 2/3 2
Gnaeus Pompeius Sextus Pompeius Scribonia Octavian Livia Tiberius Octavia Mark Antony Fulvia
d. 45 B.C.E.† 75–35 B.C.E.† (Augustus 57b.c.e.–30 c.e. Claudius d. 9 C.E. 83?-30 B.C.E. d. 40 B.C.E.
Figure 22:
Cæsar) Nero d. 38 B.C.E. Marcus Antonius Antyllus
63 B.C.E.-14 C.E. c. 45-30 B.C.E.†
1 3/1 2/2 1
Pomponia Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Julia III Tiberius Vipsania Drusus Antonia II
63–12 B.C.E. d. 14 C.E. 42 B.C.E.-37 C.E. d. 20 C.E. 38–9 B.C.E. 36 B.C.E.-37 C.E.
Gnæus Domitius
Lucius Gaius Agrippa Julia IV Agrippina I Germanicus Drusus Julia Ahenobarbus
d. 29 C.E. c. 15 B.C.E.- 14 B.C.E.-19 C.E. d. 23 C.E. d. 31 B.C.E.
Cæsar Cæsar Postumus Livilla
20 B.C.E. 12 B.C.E 33 C.E.† d. 31 C.E.† Lucius Ahenobarbus Antonia I
-4 C.E. .-14 C.E.†
3 4/2 1
The Julio-Claudian Dynasty

Julia Drusus Nero Livia Cæsonia Gaius Drusilla Tiberius Messalina Claudius Agrippina II Gn. Domitius
Livilla d. 33 C.E. d. c. 33 C.E. Julia d. 41 C.E.† (Caligula) d. c. 39 C.E. Gemellus d. 49 C.E.† 10 B.C.E.-54 C.E. d. 59 C.E.† Ahenobarbus
† † 12–41 C.E.† d. 37 C.E.† d. 41 C.E.
( )
d. 41 C.E.† 1 2
Britannicus Octavia Nero Poppæa
40–54 C.E.† 39–62 C.E.† 39–68 C.E.† d. 65 C.E.†
Claudia
385
d. c. 64 C.E.
T he Flav ian Dyn as ty

Flavius Sabinus Vespasia Polla
T. Flavius Sabinus Vespasian Flavia ( )

City Prefect of Rome Ascended 69 C.E. Domitilla
d. 69 C.E.† 9-79 C.E.
T. Flavius Sabinus Titus Domitian Flavia

Consul 69 C.E. 41–81 C.E. 51–96 C.E. Domitilla
T. Flavius Sabinus Domitilla T. Flavius Clemens

Julia Consul 95 C.E.
Consul 82 C.E.
d. 96 C.E.
Vespasian Domitian
T he “Good Em perors ”
“Ulpius”
Nerva
( ) M Ulpius Trajanus 35?-98 C.E
.
C. Salonius Ulpia Trajan adopts
Matidius Patruinus Marciana 53–117 C.E.
P. Aelius
HadrianusAfer
1 2
L Vibius Sabinus Matidia I ( )
.
Hadrian Vibia Sabina Matidia II Rupilia Faustina M Annius Verus

76–138 C.E. .
Anna Galeria Faustina I Antoninus Pius Annius Verus

86–161 C.E.
Anna Galeria Faustina II Marcus Aurelius

121–180 C.E.
Lucius Verus Lucilla Commodus

d. 169 C.E. 161–192 C.E.†
Figure 23: The Flavian Dynasty and the “Good Emperors”

The Emperors Summarized

27 B.C.E. Augustus
14 C.E. Tiberius
37 Gaius (Caligula)
41 Claudius
54 Nero
68 Galba
69 Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
79 Titus
81 Domitian
96 Nerva
98 Trajan
117 Hadrian
138 Antoninus Pius
161 Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus
169 Marcus Aurelius
176 Marcus Aurelius with Commodus
180 Commodus
193 Pertinax
Didius Julianus
Septimius Severus
198 Septimius Severus with Caracalla
209 Septimius Severus with Caracalla and Geta
211 Caracalla and Geta
212 Caracalla
217 Macrinus
218 Diadumenian
Elagabalus
222 Severus Alexander
235 Maximin
238 Maximin, Gordian I, and Gordian II; Balbinus, Pupiensis, and Gordian III
244 Philip the Arab
249 Decius
251 Trebonianus Gallus with Volusian
253 Æmilian
Valerian with Gallienus
260 Gallienus
268 Claudius II

270 Aurelian
275 Tacitus
276 Florian
Probus
282 Carus
283 Carinus & Numerian
285 Diocletian
286 Diocletian (with Galerius) and Maximian (with Constantius)
305 Galerius and Constantius
306 Galerius, Severus, Maxentius, Constantine I
307 Galerius, Maxentius (with Maximian), Constantine I
308 Galerius (with Licinius and Maximin Daia), Maxentius, Constantine I
311 Constantine I, Licinius, Maxentius, Maximin Daia
312 Constantine I, Licinius, Maximin Daia
313 Constantine I, Licinius
324 Constantine I “the Great”
337 Constantine II, Constans, Constantius II
340 Constans, Constantius II
350 Constantius II, Magnentius
351 Constantius II with Gallus, Magnentius
353 Constantius II with Gallus
354 Constantius II
355 Constantius II with Julian
361 Julian “the Apostate”
363 Jovian

The Romans in Palestine

Date Event
198 b.c.e. Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire of Syria wrests Palestine from Ptolemaic Egypt.
189 Rome forces Antiochus III to relinquish control of Asia.
167 Maccabean Revolt begins. The Jews rebel against Antiochus IV.
161 Judas Maccabeus forms an alliance with Rome (1 Macc. 8:1–32).
142 Judea becomes independent under Simon (1 Macc. 14:41).
67 Civil War in Judea. Both sides request Roman help in 64.
64 Pompey’s armies annex the remnants of the Seleucid Empire as the province of Syria.
63 Pompey conquers Jerusalem and makes Judea into a Roman client-state ruled by
Antipater of Idumea. (John Hyrcanus II titular ruler.)
40 Judea is taken from Rome by the Parthians and the Maccabean Antigonus Mattathias.
37 Herod, with Roman help, reconquers Judea. Mark Antony makes him King of Judea.
30 Herod is confirmed as King of Judea by Augustus.
4 B.C.E. Death of Herod. His son Archelaus is made Ethnarch of Judea by Rome.
6 C.E. Archelaus deposed by Rome. Judea ruled by Procurators (e.g. Pontius Pilate, 26–36).
30? Execution of Jesus by the Roman authorities.
41 Herod Agrippa I rules Judea. Rule of Procurators temporarily ends.
44 Herod Agrippa dies. Judea again under the procurators.
48 Counsel of Jerusalem. Christians declared free of the Jewish law.
52 Antonius Felix procurator of Judea until c. 60.
58 Arrest of Paul.
60 Paul sent to Rome.
66 Abuses of procurator Gessius Florus and predecessors spark the Jewish Revolt.
66 Roman forces under Gallus move to crush the revolt. They fail, and Vespasian is
appointed Roman commander.
68 Forces of Vespasian begin the siege of Jerusalem.
70 Fall of Jerusalem to the forces of Vespasian’s son Titus. Destruction of the Temple.
73 Fall of Masada. End of the Jewish revolt.
132 Second Jewish revolt (Bar-Kochba rebellion) begins.
135 Rebellion crushed. Jerusalem destroyed and rebuilt as the city Aelia Capitolina.
The Roman Empire was an oddity: An absolute monarchy which nonetheless offered its
citizens substantial rights. But just what those rights were did depend on the monarch. This made
relations between the Empire and the Jews, and the Empire and the Church, extremely
important. To understand the history of the Church requires some understanding of the history
of the Empire — and the Emperors. The following pages try to supply some of that background,
not just for the New Testament period but after, as the Empire went from ignorant to hostile to
actively pro-Christianity.

The Roman Emperors during the Christian Era

1. Gaius Julius Cæsar. 100?–44 B.C.E.; reigned 48–44. consul 59 (and regularly after 49);
praetor 62. Technically, Cæsar was not the emperor of Rome. But since his prestige helped to
establish the Empire, he is usually listed as the first member of the “Julio-Claudian Dynasty.”
Famous beyond any of his countrymen, he was the last pagan among the “Nine Worthies” of
medieval tradition (Joshua, David, Judas Maccabeus, Hector, Alexander the Great, Cæsar,
Arthur, Charlemagne, and Godfrey of Boullion leader of the first Crusade).
Cæsar’s political career began early, when he married Cornelia the daughter of the radical
politician Cinna. This instantly made the young man an enemy of the reactionary dictator Sulla;
since Cæsar was also the nephew of Sulla’s rival Marius, the dictator tried to have him killed
(Suetonius, Cæsar 1). Later Cæsar would prove his populist tendencies by being the only Senator
to oppose the death penalty for the radical followers of Catiline (Suetonius, Cæsar 14). A stern
soldier, he was nonetheless the most merciful man of an autocratic age: whereas his opponents
slaughtered their defeated enemies, Cæsar generally pardoned them, and rarely if ever resorted
to torture (Suetonius, Cæsar 74–75). His personal morality was perhaps more suspect; his amour
with Cleopatra VII was only the most famous of his many extramarital affairs.1
Cæsar came to the forefront of Roman politics in 63. In that year he was elected the Roman
High Priest despite being opposed by much more distinguished men. In 62 he was elected praetor.
But the financial burdens imposed by the election campaigns virtually bankrupted him — so
much so that he would not even have been able to assume his post as governor of Spain (for 61)
had not Marcus Licinius Crassus covered his debts (Plutarch, Life of Cæsar 11; Life of Crassus 7).
But his career took a sharp turn in 60. At this time the most powerful men in Rome were Crassus
(the richest man in the Republic, but politically hampered by the effects of his avarice) and
Pompey (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Rome’s most successful general, who had recently brought
the east under his control but who badly needed political help) The two had been feuding since
their joint consulship of 70. Cæsar managed (for the moment) to reconcile them, and the three
formed the so-called “First Triumvirate” (three-man council). The three men were able to bring
the Senate into line, and agreed to divide the Republic.2 Then Crassus was killed at Carrhae by
the Parthians in 53. (Cæsar, meanwhile, was subduing Gaul and unsuccessfully raiding Britain.)
1.!A quip had it that Cæasar was “every man’s woman and every woman’s man” (Suetonius, Cæsar 52). And — like
all Romans of the period — he was massively corrupt and had very sticky fingers.
2.!The Senate was refusing to grant Pompey’s men the land he had promised them. Crassus, meanwhile, wanted a
part in the tax-farming of Asia, but — as a rich and well-hated man — was opposed by many senators. Cæsar
did not have a specific grievance, but wished to be consul for 59 — his first year of eligibility — and so earn the
right to become a provincial governor. Cæsar did become consul, satisfied his associates’ needs, and then set out
for his province of Gaul. The trading of favours continued after 59. Pompey’s friend Aulus Gabinius and Cæsar’s
associate Piso became consuls for 58. Pompey married Cæsar’s daughter; Pompey and Crasses were elected
consuls in 55, and proceeded to extend Cæsar’s governorship over Gaul. Pompey was granted the government of
Spain (although he allowed a lieutenant to exercise it — an unprecedented event in Roman history) and Crassus
was given charge of Syria.

Now it was Cæsar who was in political trouble. He wished once again to be elected consul,
but the Senate would not let him enter Rome with his troops.1 Cæsar led his army from Gaul in
49, and took it across the Rubicon into the heart of Italy. Cæsar’s army and the Senatorial forces
(led by Pompey) finally met at the battle of Pharsalus in Greece in 48. Pompey was defeated and
forced to flee to Egypt. He was killed that year by order of Ptolemy XIII (perhaps at the urging
of his older sister and wife Cleopatra VII).
Cæsar was now in complete control of Rome. His opponents in the provinces were
eliminated at the battles of Zela (47), Thapsus (46), and Munda (45). Cæsar then returned to
Rome to administer his reforms personally. He became consul for life. He assumed direct control
of many provinces, and bullied the Senate into total submission. But he was assassinated in 44 by
conspirators led by, among others, Marcus Brutus and Gaius/Caius Cassius Longinus.
Cæsar had never had any direct impact on Palestine (although Josephus in Against Apion II.4
says that he confirmed the rights of the Alexandrian Jews). During his reign, Judea was ably ruled
by Antipater of Idumea. But the consequences of Cæsar’s death were profound. Cæsar’s adopted
heir Octavian and Cæsar’s friend Mark Antony briefly went to war. To settle this, they formed a
“Second Triumvirate” along with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. It was this group that in 42 defeated
the assassins of Cæsar at Philippi. Cassius and Brutus both committed suicide.
Octavian and Antony were not satisfied by this, however. In 36 Octavian deposed Lepidus
and ruled with Antony alone. Even this did not satisfy their thirst for power; the inevitable war
began in 31. Octavian defeated Antony at the battle of Actium in that year, and Antony
committed suicide (along with Cleopatra) in 30. Octavian now ruled the Republic. In 27 the
Senate allowed him to create the “Principate” (Empire). The Emperor was given the right to
appoint Consuls, to control the army, and to direct the administration of the provinces. At the
same time Octavian himself was granted the title
2. Augustus Cæsar. 63 B.C.E.–14 C.E.; reigned 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E. Luke 2:1. The first official
emperor, he was was the grandnephew and adopted heir of Julius Cæsar. He was born Gaius
Julius Octavianus, meaning that he belonged to the same clan, but not the same family, as Julius
Caesar.2
It was this family influence which made him a member of the Second Triumvirate, but it was
his ability that made him emperor. He founded the Principate and established most of its policies.
His rule was a period of unprecedented power, peace, and prosperity for Rome. But in Palestine,
times were not good. Augustus established Herod as king of Judea, even though Herod had been
a supporter of Mark Antony. It was in Augustus’s time that Jesus was born (Luke 2:1). Augustus
had several grandchildren by his daughter Julia, but only one boy — Agrippa Posthumus —
survived him. And Posthumus did not get along with his grandfather. So when Augustus died, he
1.!This was legally correct: a man with an army at his back was not allowed to run for consul. Cæsar had a choice:
bring the army home to celebrate a triumph, or give up the army — almost guaranteeing his murder — and run
for consul.
2.!In Cæsar’s will Octavian was adopted as the Dictator’s son and given three-quarters of the older man’s estate
(after certain bequests were made). The other quarter of the estate was divided between two other grand-
nephews — who refused it as dangerous. Cæsar’s secondary heirs were a rather hilarous pair: his friend and
colleague Mark Antony and his murderer Decimus Junius Brutus.

was succeeded by Tiberius, the son of his wife Livia by a previous marriage (who proceeded to
have Posthumus executed — Tacitus, Annals I.5).
3. Tiberius Claudius Nero. 42 B.C.E.–37 C.E.; reigned 14–37 C.E. Luke 3:1. Tiberius was
Augustus’s stepson. He was a successful general during Augustus’s reign (cf. Suetonius, Tiberius
16ƒ., telling of how he subdued Illyria and so prevented a concerted German attack on Rome),
but spent many years in disfavour and apparently a thinly-disguised exile. He was not formally
declared heir to the throne until 11 C.E. Legend has it that Tiberius was designated Augustus’s
successor mostly because there was no other suitable candidate available (Suetonius, Tiberius 23).1
At the beginning of his reign he was a just and considerate ruler. But as time passed, he became
ever more cruel, and occupied himself with perverse and sadistic pleasures (cf. Suetonius, Tiberius
42ƒ.). This was partly due to personal tragedy; his son Drusus was poisoned by the Prætorian
prefect Sejanus2 in 23 (Tacitus, Annals IV.8; Suetonius, Tiberius 23). Although Tacitus considers
Tiberius malignant, he also (Annals IV.1) credits the Emperor’s worst crimes and decay of
character to Sejanus. (Many moderns, who consider Tiberius badly misunderstood, agree with
this sentiment). In 26 Tiberius withdrew from Rome (Annals IV.57) and his government went
downhill. The Emperor left officials (such as Pontius Pilate) at their posts for far too long, and so
allowed many problems to get out of hand (cf., e.g., Ant XVIII.vi.5; Tacitus, Annals I.80;
Suetonius, Tiberius 41). He also exiled, and probably killed, many of his relatives, including his
stepdaughter (Augustus’s granddaughter) Agrippina and her son Drusus (the heir-apparent) in 33
(Tacitus, Annals VI.22ƒ.). It was also widely believed that he had his nephew, adopted son, and
likely heir Germanicus (the father of Caligula) poisoned, although there is no substantial
evidence for this. Legend has it that the Romans danced in the streets when Tiberius died. It was
apparently in the fifteenth year of his reign (c. 29) that Jesus began his public ministry (Luke 3:1);
he was executed soon afterward. A city on the shores of the Sea of Galilee was named after
Tiberius; the name was sometimes applied to the sea itself (John 6:1, 23, 21:1). He was succeeded
by Gaius, a grandson of his second wife Julia (Augustus’s daughter) by a previous marriage.
1.!Augustus had no sons; his daughter Julia — considered a disgrace to her family — had three sons by Augustus’s
friend and colleague Agrippa, but Lucius and Gaius (whom Augustus adopted as his own sons) died young, and
the surviving son, Agrippa Postumus, was too “brutish” to be an acceptable heir. Julia and Agrippa’s daughter
Agrippina the Elder had several children, but they were only infants when Augustus died. Augustus, like Julius
Cæsar before him, had no real choice but to adopt an heir who was not his direct descendent. Augustus showed
great favour to Germanicus (the son of Tiberius’s brother Drusus and Augustus’s sister Octavia’s daughter
Antonia), but he was still young when Augustus died (and his brother Claudius even younger and very
unimposing). That left only Tiberius (a child of Augustus’s third wife Livia by a previous marriage), whom
Augustus tied into his family by marrying him to Julia. Even so, Augustus “wanted to have another iron in the
fire,” and so made Tiberius adopt Germanicus as his son (Tacitus, Annals I.3). TIberius, however, later had two of
Germanicus’s sons executed (Suetonius, Tiberius 54).
2.!Lucius Aelius Sejanus, from an equestrian (knightly) family, was the de facto founder of the famous Prætorian
Guard (Tacitus, Annals IV.2), since he gathered its companies into a single coherent unit and tied it closely to the
Emperor with whom it was so intimate — Tiberius relied on the Guard so much that he called Sejanus “The
partner of my labours.” Eventually, however, Sejanus aspired to the Principate. To further his claims he seduced
Tiberius’s niece and daughter-in-law Julia Livilla. He then poisoned her husband, the Emperor’s son Drusus
(Annals IV.7ƒ.). His continued plotting was largely responsible for the exile of Agrippina the Elder — the widow
of Tiberius’s nephew and adopted son Germanicus — and her sons Drusus and Nero. In 31 Sejanus became
consul. But in that year Tiberius discovered his treachery and had him executed.

4. Gaius Cæsar Augustus Germanicus. (Caligula) 12–41 C.E.; reigned 37–41. Gaius was
given the name “Caligula” (Little Boot) as a boy with the army of his father Germanicus. The
soldiers saw him wearing a miniature army uniform, boots and all, and bestowed the nickname
on the child (Tacitus, Annals I.41). He remained immensely popular as long as he had no power.
But later assessments of Gaius were not so favorable.
Indeed, “sucking up” seems to have been his great skill. Even as Tiberius was executing the
young man’s relatives, Gaius was complimenting the old Emperor. Never did he protest the
executions. Both Tacitus (Annals VI.19) and Suetonius (Gaius 11) report that it was said of him,
“Never was there a better slave or a worse master.”
When Tiberius died, there were few logical successors available. The leading candidates were
Tiberius’s grandson Tiberius Gemellus and Gaius, who, legally, was also the Emperor’s grandson
(he was the son of Germanicus, Tiberius’s nephew whom the latter had adopted at Augustus’s
insistence). The prefect of the Prætorian Guard nominated Gaius, and the Senate concurred.
One of Gaius’s first acts, naturally, was to have Gemellus executed — Suetonius, Gaius 23. Soon
after, the Emperor went mad. He committed incest with his sister Julia Drusilla (Ant XIX.ii.5) and
perhaps his other sisters as well (Suetonius, Gaius 24; this and the following chapter of Suetonius’s
biography, plus section 36, describe nearly a dozen acts of rape and fornication the Emperor
committed), drank pearls, ate golden meat1 (Suetonius, Gaius 37), and allegedly intended to have
his favorite horse Incitatus made consul (Suetonius, Gaius 55). He also spent in less than four years
the fortune that Augustus and Tiberius had spent over sixty in accumulating, and so (among
other things) opened a brothel at which he prostituted married women in exchange for cash
(Suetonius, Gaius 40). Eventually he decided he was a god, and held discussions with his
“brother” Jupiter (Suetonius, Gaius 22; cf. Ant XIX.i.1). Executions were an everyday event in his
reign, and he once threatened to kill every member of the Senate. The extremity of his madness
is shown by the manner in which Suetonius divided his biography into two parts: “Gaius the
Emperor” and “Gaius the Monster.” Fortunately, Gaius was assassinated by members of his
guard in 41, and could not complete his program of destruction. He was succeeded by his uncle
Claudius.
Gaius is not mentioned in the New Testament by name. But toward the end of his reign he
ordered the Jews to install an image of him in the Temple (Ant XVIII.viii.2, corroborated by
Tacitus, Annals XII.53). It has been suggested that this may be the “desolate sacrilege” of Matt.
24:15; Mark 13:14. King Herod Agrippa I went to plead with Gaius (they had been friends in
former days, and Gaius had awarded him the territory of Philip “the Tetrarch” as a kingdom),
but to no avail. If Gaius had lived, and the image had been installed, it would probably have
ignited a Jewish rebellion even greater than the revolt of 66. But Claudius was a much gentler
man, and rebellion was averted (for the moment).
5. Tiberius Claudius Drusus, later known as Tiberius Claudius Cæsar Augustus
Germanicus. 10 B.C.E.–54 C.E.; reigned 41–54. Acts 11:28, 18:2, 23:26. Probably the gentlest and
sanest of all Augustus’s successors, but unpopular with the Roman people for that very reason.
He was the uncle of Gaius, and it is said that that emperor allowed Claudius to live simply for the
1.!Gold is sufficiently non-reactive that it is safe to consume in reasonable quantities; there is no great danger of
heavy metal poisoning. But, of course, it is non-nutritious.

sake of the practical jokes he played upon him (Suetonius, Gaius 24). Claudius was not very
imposing. He stuttered, he limped, and even his family delighted in insulting him (Suetonius,
Claudius 3). He was also a student of literature (cf. Ant XIX.iii.1), which was hardly a respectable
occupation in those brutal times. Nor did he seek to become Emperor. His lack of ambition is
shown by the fact that he wasn’t even a Senator! Until Caligula made him a consul, he had been
a simple knight (Suetonius, Gaius 15). Rather than seeking to be Emperor, he was elevated by the
palace guard, which actually kidnapped him! — Suetonius, Claudius 10; cf. BJ II.xi.1. They were
reportedly seeking an ineffective monarch who would allow them to advance their own positions.
But once he achieved power, Claudius did his best to do a good job in office. It was Claudius who
finally conquered Britain. Other than this, his reign was a time of peace. Still, Claudius knew
how to be forceful. In 49 he had his wife Messalina executed for adultery (Tacitus, Annals
XI.26ƒ.). Also in 49 he expelled all the Jews from Rome (Acts 18:2; cf. Suetonius, Claudius 25 —
but note that Suetonius, Tiberius 26, credits Tiberius with much the same proclamation, and
Tacitus, Annals II.85, more or less corroborates this). The New Testament notes that there was a
famine in Palestine in Claudius’s time (Acts 11:28).
Claudius is the last Roman emperor to be mentioned by name in the New Testament. He was
succeeded by Nero, the son of his second wife Agrippina by a previous husband, even though he
had a son Britannicus. It was rumoured that Agrippina poisoned Claudius in 54 to ensure Nero’s
succession (most sources agree he was poisoned — e.g. Tacitus, Annals XII.25ƒ.; Ant XX.viii.1;
Suetonius, Claudius 44 — but they cannot agree on the poisoner).
6. Nero Claudius Cæsar Drusus Germanicus. 37–68 C.E.; reigned 54–68. Rev. 13:18? 17:9–
10?1 His birth name was Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. The stepson of Claudius, his mother
Agrippina the Younger convinced that emperor to make Nero his heir even though Claudius had
a son Britannicus (Suetonius, Nero 33; Tacitus, Annals XIII.16). Soon after coming to the throne,
Nero had Britannicus executed. This set the tone of the reign, which was a time of corruption,
tyranny, oppression, and licentiousness. He also killed his mother Agrippina (Suetonius, Nero 34;
in chapter 28 Suetonius tells of his incestuous passion for her; compare Tacitus, Annals XIV.2ƒ.)
as well as eliminating his first two wives (Suetonius, Nero 35). Nero may have started the great fire
1.!Nero is not mentioned by name in the Bible, but there seem to be two veiled references to him. The first, in Rev.
13:18, is to the “number of the beast,” stated in most manuscripts (e.g. ന47 ‫ א‬A P 046 051 Byz, although with
orthographic variants) to be “666.” Since the letters in the Greek and Hebrew alphabets also stood for numbers,
it is widely accepted that this number is derived from some name. Many names have been proposed, but the most
likely is that it is derived from the Hebrew ‫“ = נרון קסר‬Neron Cæsar” — a defective spelling but not an unlikely
one; it is attested in other writings, and the number “666” also has the interesting property of being three repeats
of the highly imperfect number six. (Seven, be it noted, is a number the author of the Apocalypse likes a lot. So
6=7-1 is a good number for a bad emperor). If the terminal n of “Neron” is dropped, we get ‫“ = נרו קסר‬Nero
Cæsar,” which has the value 616; this reading, found in C and some texts known to Irenaeus, is the best-known
variant. 616 is also the equivalent of +*8# ,-&4-!, “Theos Cæsar,” “Cæsar the God,” and would be a small
error for J-&8# ,-&4-!, “Gaius Cæsar,” which adds up to 606. When written as numerals, the differences
between the two readings are relatively slight; 666 is N]' and 616 is N&'. 2344 reads, improbably, 665. These
alternate meanings would be an extra justification for why this variant arose — although it is believed that the
Emperor who inspired the Apocalypse was in fact Domitian.
The second reference to Nero appears in Rev. 17:9-10, which mentions the sixth Emperor of Rome. If we count
Julius Cæsar, which almost everyone did, that’s Nero.

which burned most of Rome in 64 (cf. Suetonius, Nero 38; Tacitus, Annals XV.38ƒ.), which he
blamed on the Christians (Tacitus, Annals XV.44). (Rome suffered many fires, but this — which
burned ten of the city’s fourteen districts — was the worst in its history. Arson was suspected, and
Nero — who was away from the city on a singing engagement — was widely blamed. After all,
he took the opportunity to build himself a new palace. Even those who did not blame Nero for
starting the first thought it was a result of divine displeasure at a recent “wedding ceremony” at
which a certain Pythagoras had publicly “married” and homosexually coupled with Nero. It
should be noted, however, that Nero did go to great lengths to relieve suffering after the fire.
Tradition has it that Peter was crucified during Nero’s reign; it seems nearly certain that Paul
died, in Rome, some time between 62 and 67.1 It may be that 1 Peter was written during his
reign.
Nero cared for nothing but flattery and pleasure. He was a skilled harpist, and neglected his
empire to participate in musical competitions — competitions which he always won, despite what
was said to be a poor voice, because the judges that voted against him stood the chance of being
executed. But his neglect of his duties came to haunt him. His last years of were marred by
rebellion. Two great revolts sprang up in 68. In Gaul, that of Julius Vindex was quickly put
down. But in Spain, the legions acclaimed Servius Galba emperor. When the news reached
Rome, riots broke out. Nero was forced to flee; eventually he killed himself.
It was during the reign of Nero that the Jewish revolt broke out (66). This is especially ironic
since his wife from 62–65 was Poppæa, who seems to have been a Jewish sympathizer (e.g. Ant
XX.viii.11; also Josephus’s Life 3). But the revolt would not be settled until the time of Vespasian.
7. Servius Sulpicious Galba. 3 B.C.E.–69 C.E.; reigned 68–69. The first emperor to have no
relationship at all to the Cæsars. Galba was a member of a Senatorial family, and had served as
consul before becoming governor of Spain around 66. He had a reputation as a firm and
honourable man — and indeed (unlike his immediate successors) he was basically honest,
although miserly and strict to the point of harshness. In 68, his troops acclaimed him emperor.
He arrived in Rome well after the death of Nero, entering the city just before the beginning of
the year 69. But he had reigned there for only a few months when he was murdered on Jan. 15,
69. His murderer was Otho, who had hoped to be acclaimed Galba’s heir but had been rejected.
8. Marcus Salvius Otho. 32–69 C.E.; reigned 69. Otho had been a close friend of Nero’s, and
had perhaps even helped Nero arrange his sexual debauches,2 but had then been sent into near-
exile as a provincial governor. By the time of Galba’s reign, he had accumulated such massive
debts that his only hope was to become Emperor (Suetonius, Otho 5). When Galba named Piso
Licinianus as his heir, it was too much for Otho. A man who seems to have lacked any trace of
morality, he murdered Galba on Jan. 15, 69, and assumed the Principate himself.
1.!The KJV subscription to 2 Timothy mentions this explicitly, referring to Paul’s “second [trial] before
Nero” (implying a date around 66/67). But this subscription, like all the subscriptions in the KJV, is clearly
spurious; although found in K L 1175? Byz, it is omitted by ‫ א‬A C D F G [ 6 33 1739*.
2.!Tacitus, Annals XIII.45ƒ., Histories I.13, tells us that Otho pimped his wife Poppaea Sabina to Nero (indeed, Nero
was said to have married her to Otho to cover his own lust; cf. Suetonius, Otho 3). We know with certainty that
Nero later married Poppaea.

Otho did not long enjoy his triumph. The forces of Vitellius were already moving on Rome.
Otho committed suicide on April 16, 69 (following a setback at the Battle of Bedriacum) after a
reign of only three months.
This may have been the best thing about his reign. Our sources agree that Otho’s armies
were merely defeated, not seriously disorganized, after Bedriacum (also called the Battle of
Cremona). Otho could have fought on, but decided it was best for Rome to end the civil war at
once — even if it left the nation to a man even less honourable than Otho himself:
9. Aulus Vitellius. 14–69 C.E.; reigned 69. The early history of Vitellius’s family is disputed
(Suetonius, Vitellius 1). But his father Lucius had been consul, as had Vitellius himself. Lucius
Vitellius had also been legate of Syria (and thus the direct superior of the procurators of Judah)
starting in 35.1 In 69, Vitellius the younger was governor of Lower Germany — a post to which
he had been appointed by Galba (Tacitus, Histories I.9). But he had no respect for either that
emperor or his successor. Like Otho a man of dissolute habits (Tacitus pounds this point home
repeatedly; cf. also Suetonius, Vitellius 4), he took advantage of the confusion of early 69 to attack
Rome. His troops were victorious at the Battle of Bedriacum, and Otho committed suicide.
Vitellius then became Emperor. But a few months later, his troops were defeated by those of
Vespasian.
By a curious twist of fate, Vespasian’s first victory over Vitellius was fought at Bedriacum/
Cremona, where only months before the Vitellians had defeated Otho. The second battle of
Cremona (October 24, 69) was the only serious battle of the campaign, even though Vespasian’s
older brother would later be killed in a brawl between factions in Rome (which also resulted in
the burning of the Capitoline Temple and records-center) and it took almost two months for the
victorious Flavian troops to reach the city.
Vitellius made no serious attempt to flee when Rome was captured (Tacitus, Histories III.84–
85) and was killed by Flavian troops and the Roman mob on Dec. 20, 69.
10. Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian. 9–79 C.E.; reigned 69–79. The last man to assume the
principate in 69, the (first) “Year of Four Emperors.” A younger son of a relatively obscure
family, in 68 Vespasian was the commander of the army in Judea which was attempting to
suppress the Jewish revolt. He does not seem to have aspired to be emperor; the office was thrust
upon him. Indeed, it was not Vespasian but one Antonius Primus — a man of very questionable
reputation — who won the victories which put Vespasian on the throne (Tacitus, Histories III.2ƒ.;
also Suetonius, Vitellius 17). Vitellius was killed on Dec. 20, 69; Vespasian did not arrive in Rome
until the spring of 70. But once there, he proved a capable emperor — quite a relief to a nation
which had been misruled for most of the last fifty-five years. Vespasian was so popular that he has
even had two miraculous healings attributed to him (Tacitus, Histories IV.81; Suetonius, Vespasian
7. It is curious to observe that one of these healings was of a blind man who was cured when
1.!Lucius Vitellius had been consul no fewer than three times, in 34, 43, and 47 — an unusual honour. Still more
unusual was his appointment as Claudius’s co-Censor from 47-51. While there were some slurs on Lucius
Vitellius’s private life, and he was clearly an accomplished flatterer, there is no doubt that his official career was
one of high distinction. Suetonius (Vitellius 2) reports that he was even given control of the Empire during
Claudius’s attack on Britain. During his time as legate of Syria, he played an important role in Jewish affairs
—!for instance, he was responsible for deposing Pontius Pilate as procurator (Ant XVIII.iv.2) and Caiaphas as
High Priest (Ant XVIII.iv.3) in 36. He died in 51.

Vespasian spat upon his eyes; compare the healing performed by Jesus in Mark 8:23, John 9:6ƒ.;
also Mark 7:33. Making it particularly interesting is the fact that these healings took place in
Alexandria, a city traditionally associated with Mark). His son Titus conquered Jerusalem in 70,
and put a final end to the Jewish revolt in 73. From that time on, Vespasian’s reign seems to have
been one of the most peaceful in Roman history.
11. Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus. 41–81; reigned 79–81. The older son of Vespasian.
In his youth he had a reputation for irresponsibility — he is even rumoured to have had an affair
with Bernice of Palestine, the sister of Herod Agrippa II and twelve years his senior (Suetonius,
Titus 7). But as he grew up, he became more purposeful. When Vespasian became emperor in 69,
he left the siege of Jerusalem in the hands of Titus. It was Titus who captured Jerusalem and
destroyed the Temple in 70. He became emperor in 79, and the people soon came to love him.
But he died suddenly in 81, leaving his throne to his brother Domitian.
12. Titus Flavius Domitian. 51–96; reigned 81–96. The younger son of Vespasian,
Domitian seems to have been perfectly cast as the spoiled young prince (cf. Tacitus, Histories IV.2).
He also engaged in the common princely pastime of plotting against his brother (Suetonius,
Domitian 2). But when Titus died childless in 81, Domitian became Emperor. At first, he seems to
have tried to administer his empire effectively. But he became more and more paranoid as time
passed, and his later years were something of a reign of terror. It was in his time that the first
large-scale persecution of Christians was carried out. (This persecution is widely thought to have
inspired the book of Revelation, although there seem to be no direct references to Domitian in
the text.) Even so, Christianity entered the royal family during his reign. Domitian’s adopted heirs
were the children of his cousin Flavius Clemens (Suetonius, Domitian 15); their mother Domitilla
(Domitian’s niece) is now known to have been a Christian. It is conceivable that this is why
Domitian had Clemens executed in early 96. Domitian was assassinated on Sept. 18, 96, by
members of his household staff. With his death the dynasty of the Flavians came to an end.
13. Marcus Cocceius Nerva. 35?–98; reigned 96–98. The first of five so-called “good
emperors,” Nerva was elected to the principate after the death of Domitian. He seems to have
had no ambition, and quickly set about reforming the Empire. But Nerva’s reforms did not
proceed very far, for he died after a reign of only sixteen months. He was succeeded by his
adopted heir Trajan.
14. Marcus Ulpius Trajan. 53–117; reigned 98–117. Trajan was adopted by Nerva as his
heir in 97. In 98 he became emperor. He brought the Roman Empire to the height of its success.
His military expeditions conquered large parts of northern Europe; his campaigns against the
Parthian Empire extended the frontier all the way to the Persian Gulf. Trajan successfully
reorganized the Imperial finances, and constructed many public works in Rome. He was very
popular with the people, the army, and the Senate, even though the provincial governors of his
period seem to have become increasingly ineffective. Many strange stories are told of Trajan’s

later years and his death,1 but all that is definitely known is that he died in the east in 117, just
after his last campaign against Parthia.
15. Publius Aelius Hadrian. 76–138; reigned 117–138. A distant relative of Trajan, and that
emperor’s adopted heir. The main purpose of his reign was to preserve Trajan’s realm — a
purpose which Hadrian fulfilled admirably, although he did give up his predecessor’s Parthian
conquests. Hadrian’s wall in northern England is one of the defensive works he built for this
purpose. Hadrian also improved the Roman bureaucracy by introducing a new class of civil
servants. This made him extremely popular with the people of Rome. Hadrian was a poet and
philosopher, and his legal reforms were the basis for the later Justinian code. But his reign had his
darker side. It was during his principate, in the year 132, that the second great Jewish revolt, the
Bar-Kochba rebellion, broke out. When the rebellion was finally suppressed, in 135, Hadrian had
Jerusalem destroyed. He rebuilt it as the Roman city Aelia Capitolina (named after himself).
16 & 17: The Antonines.
16. Titus Aurelius Antoninus (Antoninus Pius). 86–161; reigned 138–161. A successful
administrator, he was voted his title “Pius” by the Senate. He strengthened the defenses of the
realm in many areas. He was succeeded by his adopted son/son-in-law
17. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. 121–180; reigned 161–180. The last of the “good
emperors.” He spent most of his life trying to hold his empire together. One of his consistent
methods for this was the persecution of Christians. Aurelius’s persecution was the harshest and
longest-lasting that the Church had yet seen. Yet Aurelius was also a philosopher. His book
Meditations (or To Himself) has earned him the name “the Philosopher Emperor,” and is still read.
Aurelius’s greatest fault was his inability to judge people. He seems never to have realized that
his wife was faithless and his son worthless. His goal was to always have a co-ruler, and originally
chose his adopted brother Lucius Verus.2 During this time Aurelius fought the first of his wars in
the east and north. But Verus died in 169 (some suspected poison, since Verus, although not
particularly cruel, was somewhat licentious and certainly not very effective). Aurelius replaced
him with Commodus, who was Aurelius’s own son. Commodus seems to have been totally
worthless, but Aurelius designated him as his heir and co-ruler in 177. Many date the true decline
of the Roman Empire to the year 180, when Aurelius died of a plague he brought back from the
east. Rome still had one gift to give to the world: the Christian religion, which would become
legal during the reign of Constantine. But for the time being, Rome had to deal with
1.!There is a tale that Trajan’s body was discovered, uncorrupted, and that he told a tale of being left forever in
limbo because, although virtuous, he was unbaptized and could not enter heaven. St. Gregory prayed for him to
be allowed into heaven, and he was. Dante improved on this tale, in which Trajan was brought back to life so that
he could show his faith as a living man and be saved. This was still further improved in the alliterative Middle
English tale St. Erkenwald, in which a virtuous judge’s body is found in London. St. Erkenwald is summoned and
has the corpse tell the tale. Erkenwald brings him back to life, then cries on his body to baptize him. The judge’s
soul is carried to heaven; his body crumbles to dust.
2.!Marcus Aurelius Verus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus were the adopted sons of Antoninus Pius (Lucius being
the son of Lucius Commodus, who had briefly been Hadrian’s heir. Marcus was the son of Annius Verus, Pius’s
brother-in-law). When Marcus Aurelius became Emperor, he adopted the name Antoninus after his adoptive
father and passed the name “Verus” to Lucius, who then dropped the name “Commodus.” The reason for this
name-swap eludes me. The relationship between the two men was further strengthened when Verus married
Aurelius’s daughter Lucilla.

18. Commodus. c. 161–192; Reigned 180–192. From the first, Commodus was an
immoral, lazy fool. Soon after becoming Emperor, Commodus turned into a megalomaniac,
believing himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules. His reign saw many insurrections and
conspiracies (his sister attempted his murder as early as 183). With each new plot Commodus —
like Domitian before him — grew more paranoid and deadly. Murder became the chief tool of
his policy. High offices were bought and sold — with disastrous effects on military and provincial
leadership. He was assassinated on the last day of 192 by conspirators headed by his favorite
concubine Marcia. Several nobles sought to become Emperor. Two — Pertinax and Didius
Julianus — briefly gained the principate in 193 (making it the second “Year of Four Emperors”).1
But stability was not restored until the accession of…
T he Severi
Bassianus
2
Septimius Severus Julia Domna Julia Maesa Julius Avitus Alexianus
145–211 d. 222†
ascended 193
Julia Sextus Julia Gessius

Caracalla Geta Soaemius Varius Avitas Mammaea Marcianus
186–217† 190–212† d. 235
Elagabalus (Heliogabalus) Severus Alexander
204–222† 208–235†
Figure 24: The Severi

21. Septimius Severus. 145–211; reigned 193–211. Disgust at Julianus’s purchase of the
principate brought forward at least three pretenders.2 Severus, although he necessarily adopted
the legal fiction that he was the adopted son of Marcus Aurelius, was the first Emperor to openly
rule by right of conquest as a military despot. Although his foreign wars brought bad as well as
good,3 he at least was better than Commodus at holding the Empire together. Unfortunately, he
was very autocratic — even brutal — and passed his imperious temperament on to his sons
1.!Pertinax, who had been one of Aurelius’s officials, had power thrust upon him, but tried to reform the government
too quickly and was killed after less than three months by the Prætorian Guard. The guard then sold the
Principate to Julianus for an incredible 25,000 sesterces apiece. This provoked a revolt among the legions which
limited Julianus’s reign to less than ten weeks.
2.!Along with Severus in Pannonia (roughly modern Croatia) there arose Clodius Albinus in Britain and Pescennius
Niger in Syria. Severus, of course, was closest to Rome, and hastened to the city. Having taken it without a battle,
Severus had Julianus executed and the prætorians punished. He bought off Albinus by giving him control of
much of the west, then attacked and defeated Niger at Issus in 194. Having fought a mildly successful war with
the Parthians over their support of Niger, Severus returned west and defeated Albinus at Lugdunum in Gaul in
197.
3.!Severus gained significant territory in his war with Parthia, nearly duplicating Trajan’s campaign in Mesopotamia,
and fortified the border city of Nisibis (which was to prove a strong bulwark against the Parthians) — but he also
sacked several important cities of his own Empire, including Antioch and Byzantium.

Caracalla (c. 186-217; reigned 211–217) and Geta (c. 190–212; reigned 211–212). The former
quickly murdered the latter, then began to take out his cruelty on the Roman people. Caracalla
declared non-citizens equal to Roman citizens, but this was hardly a kind act; it was done to
increase the imperial revenue. His successors in the years 217–235 all claimed to be tied to
Severus somehow, but few of them amounted to anything. Caracalla’s assassin Opilius
Macrinus1 (reigned 217–218) died in a military revolt that brought the purple to the
“incredible” Elagabalus (204-222; reigned 218–222), the grandson of Severus’s second wife’s
sister, whose chief claim to fame is that he was (apart from Caligula in his madder moments —
cf. Suetonius, Gaius 52) the only known Imperial cross-dresser. After four years he was killed in a
struggle with the guard which resulted in the elevation of Severus Alexander (208–235;
reigned 222–235), Elagabalus’s cousin and the only one of Severus’s successors to accomplish
anything.2 After Alexander and his mother were assassinated, the Empire went through eleven
Emperors in thirty-three years.3 Most of them proved to be disasters; almost all were assassinated.
Even the luckiest were highly unfortunate: the distinguished Decius (249–251) was slain by the
Goths (who were becoming a serious threat) after instituting a severe persecution of Christians.
His officer Valerian (253–260) was so unsuccessful as to be captured by the Sassanid rulers of
Persia in 260. Valerian was succeeded by his son Gallienus (260–268), who reformed the army
and granted toleration to Christians. In 256 he had driven off a Frankish invasion. But he had
little real power to wield: Rome was bankrupt and threatened on all sides. The Arabs under
Zenobia of Palmyria ruled the east and a general named M. Latinius Postumus the far west.
Gallienus was educated, capable, and (for the period) kind — but not so capable as to be able to
deal with all this. He faced more than a dozen revolts before his troops finally killed him.
1.!Macrinus had been prætorian prefect before assuming the purple, and was the first Emperor who had not
previously been a Senator.
2.!Severus Alexander was the Emperor under whom Dio Cassius wrote his great history. Alexander had made Dio
consul, but later had to send him into retirement because the army disliked his strictness. Dio’s history, in 80-odd
volumes (many now lost), covers the years up to 229.
3.!These eleven were Maximin (235-238), Alexander’s bodyguard and assassin, possibly the tallest man in the Empire
but hardly the brightest; although he restored the German frontier, his greed, know-nothing sentiments, and
humble origins (he began life as an ordinary soldier, and never once visited Rome) led to a revolt on behalf of the
ancient Gordian I (238) and his son Gordian II (238). This led to a second insurgency, sponsored by the Senate, on
behalf of the senator Balbinus (238) and the general Maximus/Pupiensis (238), who had in their custody the
teenager Gordian III (born 225). Maximin was able to kill the elder Gordians, but was then killed by his guards,
whereupon the Praetorian Guard killed Balbinus and Pupiensis while making Gordian III (238-244) a puppet
emperor. In 242 Gordian and his regent Timotheus won a campaign against the Parthians, but Timotheus died
soon afterward, leaving Gordian unprotected. In 244 he was killed by the Guard commander Philip the Arab
(244-249). But the legions by now knew that the Emperor was their puppet, and Philip in turn became their
victim. They acclaimed the distinguished senator Decius as Emperor (249-251), and Philip did not survive the
battle which followed. Decius, at least, was not assassinated; he and his son died in battle with the Goths. His
successor and betrayer Gallus (251-253) concluded a treaty with the Goths which turned the people against him.
In 253 the Emperor and his son and associate Volusian were murdered, and the successful general Æmilian, who
had beaten back the Goths, took their place (253). But Decius’s officer Valerian, appointed in 251 to the newly-
revived office of Censor, chose to avenge his benefactor by himself taking the throne (253-260). Unfortunately, as
so often happens, the able subordinate proved an incompetent supreme commander. During his reign the
Sassanid Shapur I attacked Syria (in the years following 255), capturing cities such as Nisibis and sacking the
Roman fortress of Dura-Europus. Valerian marched against the Parthians and was captured near Edessa in 260.

Gallienus was followed by the so-called “Soldier Emperors,” who were successful military
men elevated by their troops. The first of these, Claudius II (268–270), defeated the Goths
despite having half the Empire’s troops withheld by various pretenders. But the pestilence which
had ravaged the Empire for twenty years quickly claimed Claudius as well. This brought the
Empire into the hands of Aurelian (270–275), who succeeded in reuniting the Empire and
beating back the barbarians. Aurelian was probably the ablest Emperor since Trajan (perhaps
since Augustus); had he lived, he might have truly reformed the Empire. As it was, he fought off
the Goths and other invading tribes, recaptured the east, reasserted control over the west,
reformed the currency (although there is dispute about how well this worked), and built walls
around Rome. (It has been claimed that Rome did not need walls at this time. Maybe not. It soon
would.) It is a tribute to his memory — or to the fear created by the cabal to his assassins — that
no one tried to replace him for many months after his assassination.1 At last the Senate elevated
the elderly Claudius Tacitus (c. 200–276; reigned 275–276). But his office wore him down
quickly,2 and his brother Florian (276) was not able to hold the purple in the face of various
pretenders and the assassins of Aurelian. The general Probus (276–82) was merely adequate;
although he successfully defended the frontiers and finally eliminated Aurelian’s murderers, the
legions assassinated him for assigning them work they considered demeaning. His Prætorian
prefect Carus (282–283) had the bad luck to be hit by lightning, and the shock was as fatal to his
policy as to his body.3 His younger son Numerian (283–284?) was assassinated after a reign of
probably only a few months,4 and the elder, Carinus (283–285?) was surrounded by revolts —
including that of Diocletian, which was in the process of overcoming the Emperor when the
latter was murdered. Anarchy returned. The seemingly-doomed Empire was rescued by…
44. Diocletian. c. 256–316; reigned 284–305. An extremely able administrator, he divided
the Empire into Eastern and Western halves and governed them separately, with each half
having an Emperor (called the “Augustus”) and, in effect, an apprentice (called the “Cæsar”).
Diocletian ruled the east, with Galerius as his Cæsar,5 and associated Maximian with him as
western ruler (from 286), with the gentle and capable Constantius (I) as his Cæsar.6 By this
action, Diocletian managed to temporarily halt Rome’s decline. For the most part, he also
1.!At least, the later story is that the Guard didn’t want to choose anyone, and turned to the Senate, and they didn’t
want to nominate anyone either.
2.!It is possible that he was assassinated by the same cabal as took out Aurelian.
3.!It is widely believe that this alleged lightning strike was an assassination, but no one seems to have known who did
it. Could it have been the Persians whose country he was invading? Our sources for this period are extremely
scanty, and almost every version of the history is different.
4.!We don’t know the date of his death, except that it was after April 284. A legend has it that his body continued to
be carried in a closed litter by his assassin, and that his death was finally admitted in November 284 after the
smell became too strong. Apparently we are expected to believe that none of the assassins had the sense to
dispose of the body. The fact that this story is seriously reported will tell you just how bad are the records from
this era.
5.!Galerius’s chief accomplishment was his reconquest of the Roman client-state of Armenia from the Parthians.
This was not without its cost — Galerius, like Crassus and Mark Antony before him, had his forces brutally
mangled on the plain of Carrhae (Haran). But Galerius won the final battle of the war, freeing Rome from the
Partian threat for many years.
6.!Constantius was the only one of the four Emperors who refused to take part in the persecution of Christians; he
also avoided his colleagues’ idle luxuries.

promoted justice and peace, although he severely persecuted the Christians (and was forced to
demand high taxes to pay for the luxury of four imperial courts). His attempt at universal price
controls was also a failure. Then in 305, Diocletian retired (and maneuvered Maximian into
retiring also) and turned the Empire over to his chosen successors. The result was disastrous.
Constantius died in 306, and a fight for the succession began immediately between his son
Constantine and Galerius’s nominee Severus (306–307). Constantine won fairly quickly, and
strengthened his position by marrying Maximian’s daughter Fausta, who was probably not yet
ten. Galerius wasn’t happy, but he went along. But it set a bad precedent. The war quickly
spread, and other leaders joined the fray.1 Then Galerius died in 311. The result was total
anarchy. Maximin Daia and Licinius at once set out to divide his territory. For a brief time the
Empire was divided between Constantine in Britain, Gaul, and the Northwest; Maxentius in
Italy, Africa, and the Southwest; Licinius in Greece and the Northeast; and Maximin in Asia,
Syria, and Egypt. But this did not last long. Maxentius was a cruel and greedy monarch; even as
he prepared for war with Constantine, his exactions and debauches turned Italy against him.
Constantine invaded his lands, and killed him, in 312.2
1.!It is debatable whether Galerius had any right to name Constantius’s successor — but name him he did, only to
see his nominee opposed by Constantine (who was elevated by his people). Galerius saved face by appointing
Severus as Augustus with Constantine as his Cæsar. But even this arrangement fell apart when Maximian’s son
Maxentius (306-312) rebelled and took control of Italy. Maximian soon joined his son’s cause — and the fun
really began. Severus, coming to Italy to claim his position, was beaten off, forced to flee to Ravenna, and
besieged by Maximian. His surrender, abdication, and suicide were clearly forced. Galerius then led an army
against Maximian and Maxentius, but was quickly chased from Italy. Despite this, Galerius elevated Licinius as
Augustus in the west (308-324), having also created Maximin Daia (308-313) Cæsar in the east. But the latter was
not content with being a mere apprentice; he soon rose in revolt. Licinius, for the moment, stayed true to his
master — but there were still six “Emperors” in four factions: Galerius with Licinius, Constantine, Maxentius
with Maximian, and Maximin Daia. Constantine married Maximian’s daughter, and did not needlessly provoke
Galerius, but the others were generally at each others’ throats. Indeed, it wasn’t long before Maxentius
suppressed his own father Maximian, forcing the latter to flee to Constantine and (temporarily) give up his
ambitions. But when he tried to overthrow his benefactor, Constantine showed his great ability by defeating the
old general and forcing him to suicide (c. 310).
2.!Maxentius, by all accounts, had every military advantage in this campaign — larger forces, more supplies, and the
walls of Rome as a shield. But as Constantine approached Rome (or at some time around then; details of the
story vary), he had a vision showing him the Chi-Rho (☧, a symbol of early Christianity) and telling him “by this
[sign] conquer.” Constantine tentatively professed Christianity (or at least adopted the Chi-Rho; it has been
pointed out that Greek N! is not only the first letters of N!&408#, christos, Christ but of N!;408#, chrestos, usefulness,
good fortune, so it is possible that he was merely saying that he had had a dream promising him good fortune), put
the emblem on his shield, and moved to attack. Maxentius came out of Rome, abandoned most of his
advantages — and was heavily defeated at the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312) Maxentius himself was drowned
when the bridge broke under him and his fleeing troops (see, e.g., Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 44;
Eusebius had the story from Constantine himself).

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Figure 25: Diocletian’s Division of the Empire
No sooner had this news been published than word arrived that Maximin Daia was attacking
the holdings of Licinius. But Licinius (who by now had formed an alliance with Constantine)
speedily caught up with Maximin’s army and routed it. Maximin died soon after, apparently of
natural causes (some suspected poison, but there are no extant reports of explicit violence). This
left Licinius in control of the east (313), as Constantine was in control of the west. The two,
naturally, soon went to war, but then managed to patch up a peace that lasted many years (c.
314–322). Then at last the war resumed, and Constantine defeated Licinius in a series of battles
which finally forced the latter to abdicate his throne (he died soon afterward). So after forty years
of divided government, the Empire once again had a single leader:
47. Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantine. Called Constantine I “the Great.” 280?–337;
reigned 307–337; sole rule 324–337. Initially Constantine ruled only a quarter of the Empire,
being the apprentice in the west (succeeding his father Constantius, who died in 306). In 312 he
gained control of the entire western Empire; in 324 he captured the east, and the Empire was
once again whole. But this is not what made Constantine famous. Instead, he is best remembered
for two great acts which encouraged the spread of Christianity. The first was the Edict of Milan
(313), which made Christianity legal and made Sunday an official day of worship.1 The second
great act was the convening of the Council of Nicæa, perhaps the most important gathering in
Church history, which Constantine called in 325 to combat the Arian heresy (which in its simplest
form claimed that Jesus, although the Christ, was the Son of God, hence a created being and so
inferior to God the Father). Constantine also massively improved the city of Byzantium,
1.!David Potter, Constantine the Emperor, p. 149, declares that there was no such thing as the Edict of Milan as
commonly described; it was not the work of Constantine but of Licinius, who was still a pagan but promoted
toleration based on a formula used by Constantine. This may well be formally correct, but the church understood
the publication to be a universal declaration of toleration and acceptance.

renaming it Constantinople and establishing it as the new Imperial capitol. It would endure as
the seat of the Christian Byzantine Empire for more than a millennium.
Other than this, Constantine’s reign was troubled. He himself was questionably legitimate;1
he spent most of his reign fighting civil wars. He actually went so far as to execute one of his own
sons. And there are some who believe that his religious reforms were the result of political
expediency, for he was not baptized until he was on his deathbed. But if he did little to strengthen
a troubled empire, and even if his motives were impure, his legacy is surely the greatest of any
Roman emperor since Augustus.
T he Con s tan tide Dyn as ty
Diocletian Prisca
abdicated 305 d. 313†
d. 316
( ) Claudius II
d. 270†
( ) Galerius Valeria
d. 311 d. 313†
Maximian
d. 309?† Maximin Daia
Eutropius ( ) d. 313
1 2
Flavia Helena Constantius Theodora Maxentius ( )
“Chlorus” d. 312†
d. 306
2 1
Licinius Constantia Fausta Constantine I ( )
d. 323† Dalmatius Julius Constantius d. 326?† 278?–337
Dalmatius Hannibalianus Gallus Julian Helena Constantius II Constans Constantine II Crispus

d. 337† d. 337† d. 354† 331?–363† 316–361 d. 350† d. 340† d. c. 325†
d. 360
Constantia Gratian
Figure 26: The Constantide Dynasty

After Constantine’s death, Rome’s decline was swift. He himself divided his Empire among
his sons Constans, Constantius (II), and Constantine (II). The three sons did not get along
well; a civil war in 340 resulted in the death of Constantine II at the hands of Constans.
Constans followed him into the grave in 350 as the result of an insurrection by Magnentius (350–
353). Magnentius was suppressed at the Battle of Mursa in 353, but far too many of the Empire’s
best troops died with him. Constantius was left as sole Emperor, but his incessant wars with the
Parthians found no great success. Had not the Parthian Emperor Shapur wasted a great deal of
energy trying to conquer the stoutly defended city of Nisibis, it is likely that Mesopotamia would
have been entirely lost to Rome. Constantius also made his nephew Gallus Cæsar (351–354), but
he proved an inept despot and had to be suppressed. Worse still, Constantius fell under the
influence of the Arian bishop of Mursa, Valens. The resentment this generated caused
1.!When Constantius I became Cæsar, he had been forced to divorce his wife Flavia Helena so as to marry
Maximian’s daughter Theodora. This would have mattered little in the Roman Republic, but in an increasingly
Christian Empire it obviously clouded Constantine’s position. Helena was to prove a very determined woman;
her support probably influenced Constantine’s attitudes and strengthened his obviously-firm will.

Constantius to become more and more paranoid. When his nephew Julian, who was guarding
the west against the barbarians, proved too popular, Constantius tried to destroy him. Julian had
little choice but to rebel. War was averted only by Constantius’s death in 361. Julian then became
Emperor (361–363), but hurt his nation’s unity by rejecting Christianity (hence his nickname
“Julian ‘the Apostate’”). His death in 363 brought an end to Constantine’s dynasty.1 In 364
Valentinian and Valens came rule west and east. Among his other mistakes (which included
exiling the orthodox propagandist Athanasius for the fifth time), it was Valens who first allowed
the Visigoths to enter Imperial territory in 376. They killed him in 378.2
56. Theodosius I. Reigned 379–395. He prohibited all pagan practices from Rome, and
managed to get the Goths under control. But as an Emperor he had no long-term policy, and
after his death the Empire was permanently divided into Eastern (Byzantine) and Western
portions. The West was ruled from Rome by Theodosius’s son Honorius (393–423), but that
city was sacked in 410 by Gauls under Alaric — an event which prompted Saint Augustine of
Hippo to write his The City of God. The Western Empire fell in 476.
In the East, the Byzantine Empire — ruled at first by Honorius’s brother Arcadius (383–
408) — was to last for another thousand years. The most important Byzantine Emperor was
Justinian I, who ruled from 527 until 565 and established a famous set of laws.
The Byzantines ruled Jerusalem until 614, and other portions of Holy Land for more than
half a millennium, until the Turks routed the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The
defeat of the Empire led to the Crusades, which in turn helped to bring about the fall of
1.!Julian’s last campaign was a huge attack on Parthia. With the Empire reunited and a vigorous Emperor at its head
(Julian, despite a purely philosophical education, had led armies against the Goths with great success), prospects
for the attack seemed good. But at the first great battle of the war, Julian was killed (some say by a Christian in his
army; others claim Julian blamed his death on Christ, quoting as his last words “Galilean, you have conquered”).
The army, leaderless and in foreign territory, elected Jovian Emperor; he made major concessions to the
Parthians in exchange for safety for his retreating army. The death of Julian meant the effective end of the
Roman union — but it also prevented a likely civil war between Christians and pagans. Jovian himself (363-364)
was a fervent Christian, but died within moths. After some debate, the crown was offered to Valentinian
(364-375), who took his brother Valens as his associate (364-378). Valentinian himself seems to have been
another Marcus Aurelius: capable enough in himself but no judge of his colleagues. It was Valens’s ineptness that
led to the unsuccessful revolt of Procopius (365-366). Valens also heightened religious tensions by actively
espousing Arianism (Valentinian, by contrast, enforced toleration). As his assistant Valentinian took his son
Gratian (366-383); he and Valens were left to face the full force of the Gothic storm after Valentinian died of a
stroke.
2.!March 5, 378 at the Battle of Adrianople (Hadrianople). This left the Empire in the hands of Gratian, who
awarded the eastern provinces to Theodosius. Gratian himself perished at the hands of one (Magnus)
Maximus, whom Theodosius was compelled to accept as a temporary colleague, while specifying Gratian’s
brother Valentinian II (375-392) as the usurper’s associate. Maximus soon expelled Valentinian from his
territories, but the only result was to bring a counterattack from Theodosius that killed the usurper. Theodosius
that killed the usurper. Theodosius now controlled the whole Empire, but chose to return Valentinian to the
Western throne — only to see him murdered by a courtier. This brought another usurper, Eugenius (392-394)
to the throne. Once again Theodosius had to reconquer the west, so becoming the last prince of a united
Empire. But he died within months.

Byzantium. The Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople in 1204;1 the city finally fell to the Turks
in 1453. After over two thousand years, the Roman state had at last fallen.
Although Jesus lived and died during the time of the Roman Empire, and the Jewish Revolts
were directed against the Empire, it was the Roman Republic that conquered Judah, and many
of the Republic’s major figures had no part in the history of the Empire. Indeed, Pompey the
conqueror of Judah died trying to prevent the formation of an Empire. So it is only fair that we
include biographies of selected Republican leaders, in the order in which they lived. I admit that
I have almost totally neglected the period before the Second Punic War; this is partly due to my
own ignorance and partly due to the fact that Rome had little international significance prior to
that time. As far as I have been able, I have indicated the years in which these men have held
office.
Lucius Junius Brutus, floriut 510 B.C.E. consul 510 B.C.E. A senator in the time of the Roman
king Tarquinius Superbus. That king had killed Brutus’s father and brother, and Brutus had had
to behave as if mad or retarded in order to escape execution himself. (This may have something
to do with the origin of the name Brutus, which means “stupid.”) When opportunity struck,
therefore (following the rape of Lucretia), Brutus raised the standard of revolt and helped to
overthrow Tarquin and the Roman Kingship. In its place Brutus and others raised the Roman
Republic. He died in battle with the Etruscans.
Q. Fabius Maximus, c. 275–203 B.C.E. He was consul five times (including 215, 214, and
209, key years in the Second Punic War), and a successful Roman general during the Second
Punic War. After the consul Flaminius had been ambushed, defeated, and killed by Hannibal at
Lake Trasimene in 217,2 the Roman people made Fabius dictator (absolute ruler for six months)
so that he might save them. And save them he did, although in a manner not very much to their
liking (they gave him the title “Cunctator,” “Delayer”). His tactics were strictly defensive; he
sought to avoid pitched battles and instead gain advantages through maneuver and skirmishing.
(This approach to battle is still called “Fabian Tactics.”) A hawkish party elected Terentius Varro
consul for 216 to stir up some action — which he did: his army was demolished by Hannibal at
Cannae in 216.3 Fabius had been right to avoid butting horns with Hannibal, and once again his
supporters hung on and refused open battle. It was not until about ten years later that the
Romans again turned to offensive warfare under Scipio, and at last were victorious.
1.!The Crusaders proceeded to establish a Latin “Empire,” but Michael Paleologos recaptured the city for the
Greeks in 1261.
2.!It is estimated that Hannibal caught thirty thousand Romans on the narrow path between Lake Trasimene and
the hills to the south. Almost all of the Romans were destroyed; Hannibal’s losses were negligible.
Hannibal’s first great battle had been fought at the Trebia River (near the northern border of Italy) in 218.
Although not as decisive as Trasimene or Cannae, Hannibal clearly had the better of it; the win opened the road
into Italy for him.
3.!Cannae is justly considered the most perfect battle ever fought. Hannibal was probably outnumbered by three to
two, and the quality of his soldiers was mixed, but he managed to turn an open field into a death-trap on which
he encircled and massacred some seventy thousand Romans. Roman casualties numbered close to ninety percent;
Hannibal lost perhaps a quarter of his smaller army — and had even arranged things so that most of the troops
he lost were his worst and most easily replaceable.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, c. 234–183 B.C.E. consul 205, 194 B.C.E.; censor 199. The
hero of the Second Punic War. Even though his father 1and uncle had both been slain in Spain in
211 (Appian, Spanish Wars II.16), he was an aggressive proponent of the war with Carthage. He
first distinguished himself in the battles against Hannibal in the 210s while serving under his
father before Trebia. As a result, he was appointed to his father’s post in Spain in 210 (despite
never having been a consul or even a praetor) after his father’s death. In 209 he captured the
Carthaginian center in Spain, Nova Carthago. His success at the battle of Baecula (208 B.C.E.),
followed by his brilliant victory at Ilapa in 206, effectively drove the Carthaginians from Spain.
Scipio then returned to Italy to become consul for 205. He campaigned for the right to take the
war to Carthage — even though Hannibal still had his army in Italy! This was granted, and in
204 Scipio and his army set off for Africa. In 203 he won two major victories, and Hannibal was
forced to return to Africa. In 202 the armies of Scipio and Hannibal met at Zama, and Hannibal
— for the only time in his career — was defeated. Carthage was forced to surrender, and Scipio
was rewarded by being granted the title “Africanus.” Scipio was also the first Roman to be called
“Imperator” (the title used by Augustus, which we translate “Emperor”). But in his case he used it
to lower his station: some of the Spanish peoples were calling him “King,” and Scipio offered
them this title (equivalent to our “General” or “field Marshal”) instead. This was characteristic of
this first great Roman conqueror: after the war, rather than use his popularity to increase his
power, he retired. Although accused (probably falsely) of treason around 187, his popularity kept
him from being convicted. The rest of his life was spent in scholarly pursuits. His daughter
Cornelia was the mother of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus.
Excursus: Chronology of the Second Punic War

219: Hannibal Barca, Carthaginian Governor of Spain, declares war by attacking the
Roman ally Saguntum.
218: P. Cornelius Scipio and Sempronius Longus consuls. Saguntum falls. Rome presents
Carthage with an ultimatum. War declared. Scipio is given command of a Spanish relief army.
Hannibal perhaps hopes to defeat this army in Spain, but it is late in coming. A revolt in northern
Italy forces Rome to send both of Scipio’s legions there. It is not long before the army of Longus,
which had been intended to attack Africa, is also sent north. Scipio has to recruit new legions. As
a result, he does not set out for Spain until after Hannibal decides to invade Italy by crossing the
Alps. Scipio discovers Hannibal’s army crossing the Rhône, but cannot give battle. Scipio sends
his army to Spain under the command of his brother Gnaeus but himself heads for Italy to
1.!Publius Cornelius Scipio, consul 218, the father of Africanus, had been the first Roman to encounter Hannibal.
When Hannibal attacked Saguntum, Rome’s chief ally in Spain, Scipio had been entrusted with the relief army
(which, however, had sailed far too late to save the town). En route to Spain in 218, he discovered that Hannibal’s
army was crossing the Alps. Scipio, who was not in position to pursue, made a bold decision that eventually won
the war: he sent his army off to Spain under is brother Gnaeus while himself heading back to Spain to oppose
Hannibal. Badly wounded in a cavalry skirmish, Scipio had no part in the defeat at the Trebia. After he
recovered, he was sent to Spain to take over the armies he had earlier dispatched there. For the next six years the
Scipios were generally successful in keeping the Carthaginians from sending Hannibal reinforcements from
Spain. The two brothers, however, were slain in two separate battles in 211, briefly giving the Carthaginians the
upper hand in Spain.

oppose Hannibal. Hannibal arrives in Italy and wounds Scipio at the crossing of the Ticinus.
Sempronius and his troops arrive in the north in December, and the consul — eager to gain some
glory before his term of office expires — quickly gives battle. Hannibal encircles the tired Roman
army and destroys most of it at the battle of the Trebia River.
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Figure 27: The Second Punic War
217: Servilius Geminus and Gaius Flaminius consuls. Publius Scipio sent to command in
Spain. The Romans place the consular armies so as to block Hannibal’s access to southern Italy.
Hannibal gets around both armies by sending his troops through the Arno marshes (where the
terrible conditions cost him many troops and the sight in one of his eyes), then proceeds to ravage
Etruria. This goads Flaminius out of his strong position. Hannibal, observing his careless
advance, ambushes the Roman army in the foggy heights above Lake Trasimene and destroys it
utterly. Soon after, he gobbles up the cavalry vanguard of the other consular army. The Roman
reaction is panic. In a move of dubious constitutionality, the people choose Fabius Maximus
dictator (usually a dictator had to be nominated by a consul, but no consul was available) —
though they rather spoiled the effect by appointing the firebrand Minucius Rufus as Master of
Horse under Fabius. Fabius follows a “Fabian” policy — avoiding battle at all costs while
destroying any food or supplies that might fall into Hannibal’s hands. The Romans don’t like this
much — but neither does Hannibal, and it gives the legions time to rebuild. For some months the
two armies circle each other, with Hannibal generally having the better of such slight
engagements as take place.
216: C. Terrentius Varro and L. Aemilius Paulus consuls. Their purpose is to attack
Hannibal, but it takes well into the summer to get the legions up to strength and into position.
The result is hardly what they hoped; Hannibal crushes the Romans at Cannae (inflicting at least
60% casualties on the Romans) and killing Paulus. Varro — who was primarily responsible for
the disaster — flees to Rome almost alone. Still Rome refuses terms; a new dictator (Junius Pera)
is appointed, Rome is put in defense, and Hannibal’s offers of peace and ransom for prisoners
are ignored. This stubbornness may have been wise; Hannibal for some reason does not move to

attack Rome. Still, the advantage is to the Carthaginians; many Roman allies desert to Carthage
— including Capua, one of Italy’s largest cities but one that felt slighted by Rome’s policies
(Capua still spoke Oscan, and no doubt faced prejudice from the Latins.) The year ends on
another sour note for Rome when the Gauls massacre an army led by the praetor/consul-elect
Albinus.
215: Hannibal concludes an alliance with Philip V of Macedon, but this has no immediate
effect. Carthage sends a fleet to Sardinia, but bad weather and poor commanders doom it. Hiero
of Syracuse, Rome’s chief ally in Sicily, dies. Syracuse as a result begins to move out of the
Roman camp. In Spain, the first major battle (between Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal and the
Scipios) seems to have resulted in a major Roman victory. The result is to cut off Hannibal from
all hope of reinforcement for four years. In Italy, Fabius Maximus is consul and steadfastly waits
Hannibal out.
214: Hiero’s grandson Hieronymus, the new ruler of Syracuse, concludes an agreement with
Carthage. He is soon assassinated, leaving Syracuse in sufficient disorder that it cannot effectively
prepare for Roman attack. Philip of Macedon starts to take an active part in the war by attacking
Roman client-states in Illyria. A small Roman fleet, however, forces him to retreat.
213: Marcellus (the only general to have achieved any success against Hannibal; he had held
Nola against the Carthaginian) moves to take Syracuse.
212: Hannibal captures Tarentum (modern Taranto), the greatest city in southern Italy; a
few troops hold out in the citadel. The Romans react by attacking Capua. Hannibal comes to the
city’s rescue; despite several small victories and a severe mauling of a consular army, he does not
achieve the decisive victory he had hoped for. Several small detachments of his army are
captured, and the territory he controls is reduced. The Ætolians ally with Rome against Philip,
largely neutralizing the armies of Macedon. Marcellus closes a successful year by capturing
Syracuse (the Carthaginians had sent a large fleet under Bomilcar to relieve the city, but he
refused to fight the Romans). This effectively ends Carthage’s influence in Sicily. It also results in
the death of Archimedes, the greatest mathematical mind of antiquity.
211: Hannibal tries to save Capua by feinting at Rome. The Romans ignore him. Capua
eventually surrenders and is severely punished. In Spain, however, Rome faces disaster; the
reinforced Carthaginian armies separate the forces of the brothers Scipio, killing both
commanders and badly mauling their armies. The Carthaginians do not follow up their success,
however, and the Romans retain a foothold in the north of Spain.
210: Another Publius Scipio (the son of the general killed in 211) is appointed to command
in Spain (probably because no better candidate can be found. Scipio is considered too young, and
has never been consul or even praetor, but few ex-consuls are available). Marcellus is consul, and
takes command of the army facing Hannibal, with some success. Hannibal does manage to
slaughter the force of the proconsul Fulvius.
209: Scipio, by a surprise attack, captures Nova Carthago, the center of Punic power in
Spain. He also pardons the inhabitants of the city — a rare act in the brutal history of Rome.
The Romans move to recapture Tarentum, and Marcellus — though defeated by Hannibal —
delays the relief army long enough that the city falls.

208: Scipio defeats Hasdrubal (who now commands one of three Punic armies in Spain) at
the battle of Baecula. The defeated Hasdrubal sets out to join Hannibal in Italy. This may have
been his plan all along, with the idea being to concentrate the Carthaginian forces and win a
decisive victory near Rome. Marcellus, who is again consul, is killed in a skirmish with Hannibal.
207: Hasdrubal arrives in Italy. His position, however, is unknown to Hannibal, and before
the brothers can move to concert their plans, the consul Claudius Nero leads his army (which had
been watching Hannibal) north. Gathering the forces there, Nero defeats and kills Hasdrubal at
the Battle of the Metaurus River — a smaller battle than Trasimene or Cannae, but one with far-
reaching effects. Hannibal does not learn of the defeat until his brother’s head is thrown into his
camp. In the same year, peace is made in Greece. Philip has defeated the Ætolians and annexed
some land, but Macedon is too tired to turn against Rome.
206: The Carthaginians in Spain gather all their forces to try to defeat Scipio. Outnumbered
by perhaps three to two, Scipio wins a decisive victory at Ilapa. Scipio is now in position to invade
Africa, and so opens negotiations with Carthage’s neighbour and ally Numidia.
205: Scipio becomes consul and talks the Senate into invading Africa (although the invasion
cannot be mounted until 204).
204: Scipio lands in Africa near Utica. Hannibal wins a last small victory at Croton.
204-203: A series of small but crafty victories by Scipio raise tensions in Carthage. Peace
offers are exchanged. Hannibal and his army, undefeated but unable to force an advantage
against Rome, are called back to defend Africa from Scipio. Scipio is able to push through a
relatively mild peace treaty — only to have Carthage reject it by attacking a merchant convoy!
202: The final confrontation. Scipio and Hannibal face each other at Zama. By this time,
Scipio has a highly professional army, while Hannibal’s is a mix of inexperienced soldiers he did
not train and veterans who are weary after more than a decade and a half of campaigning. Our
reports of Zama are limited, but we know that Scipio wins a decisive victory over Hannibal.
Hannibal, after his defeat, returns to Carthage and tells the leaders that they must surrender.
Scipio’s terms are relatively lenient: Carthage is to pay a large indemnity and see its territory
reduced to a limited area in Africa. Even so, some of the Carthaginians — who for long had
refused to support Hannibal when it might have done some good — now want to fight. Hannibal
is said to have hauled one of them off the speaker’s platform, so foolish were their arguments.
The Romans also are divided over whether to accept Scipio’s peace — but the popular majorities
back Scipio, and the Scipionic peace goes into force in 201.
When the peace is broken, half a century later, it will be the Romans who will break it — and
who will destroy a by-then peaceful Carthage.
Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus, floriut 190 B.C.E. The general placed in charge of the
campaign against the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III. He defeated that king at Magnesia in
Greece in 1901 (although the campaign seems to have been planned by Scipio Africanus, and one
Cnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus may have held field command). Scipio then forced Antiochus to
1.!Scipio Asiaticus is thus the only Roman to be mentioned in the Hebrew Old Testament; he is the “commander”
of Dan. 11:18. A second Roman, Popilius Laenas, lies behind Dan. 11:30, but there is no reference to an
individual there, only to “ships of Kittim” = Romans.

sign the peace of Apamea in 188 which made the Seleucid Empire a Roman tributary (and thus
led indirectly to the Maccabean Revolt). When his brother was accused of treason around 187,
Asiaticus was accused of embezzlement (apparently the brothers hadn’t kept very good track of
the funds spent in the campaigns against Antiochus), but they were acquitted.
Cornelius Scipio L. Aemilius Paulus
Gnaeus Scipio Publius Scipio Amelia

d. 211† d. 211†
Publius Cornelius Lucius

Publius Cornelius Lucius Cornelius Aemilius
Scipio Nasica
Scipio Africanus Scipio Asiaticus Paullus
c. 234–183 d. 216†
Tiberius
Scipio Nasica Cornelia I Cornelia II Publius Lucius
Sempronius
d. c. 132† Cornelius Aemilius
Gracchus
d. c. 150 Scipio Paullus
d. 167
Appius Claudius adopts
Tiberius Gaius Sempronius Sempronia Scipio Aemilianus
Claudia Sempronius Gracchus Gracchus 185–129
163–133† 153–121†
Figure 28: The Scipios and the Gracchi
Titus Quinctius Flaminius, floriut 200 B.C.E. consul 198 B.C.E. The Roman general who
conducted the Second Macedonian War (200–196) against the Antigonid monarch Philip V.1
(Prior to this he had never been consul, praetor, or even aedile, but his part in a land reform had
gained him popular election.) Flaminius took command of Macedonia in 198, and captured
enough territory that Philip’s army began to erode. A peace conference later in that year merely
demonstrated Roman refusal to compromise. Philip attacked the Romans at Cynoscephalæ, and
was defeated in 197 (1 Macc. 8:5). In 196 a peace was patched up that allowed Philip to keep his
Macedonian kingdom but deprived him of most of his Greek territory. Flaminius proceeded to
garrison the most important of the captured cities — the first real Roman occupation of Greece.
Then in 195 Flaminius led a mixed Greek and Roman army against Sparta. At this point Rome
could have taken over Greece, but Flaminius granted the Greek cities their liberty in 196 and
withdrew his forces in 194 (potentially a bad mistake, since Flaminius had been blustering at the
Seleucid Antiochus III but now withdrew the troops needed to back up his demands. The result
was Antiochus’s invasion of Greece). Soon after — probably while still alive! — Flaminius was
deified by the Greek city of Chalcis.
1.!The First Macedonian War had taken place from 215-205, when Philip V had tried to increase his power by
attacking Roman allies while the Latins were occupied with Hannibal and Carthage. But Philip had continued to
look for trouble after 205, and after the Second Punic War Rome was free to deal with him. In 200 Philip was
ordered to pay reparations to Pergamum and avoid further aggression. Philip responded by going to war.

Marcus Acilius Glabrio, floriut 191 B.C.E. consul 191. As consul in the year 191, he was
appointed to command the Roman forces in Greece, and specifically charged with expelling the
Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III. Glabrio quickly defeated Antiochus’s Ætolian allies, allowing
him to outflank and destroy the Seleucid armies at Thermopylæ. Antiochus, his armies destroyed,
was forced to flee to Asia; Acilius’s forces were sent to Asia to finish the campaign, although the
consul seems to have stayed in Greece and then faded from sight.
Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, 234–149 B.C.E. consul 195, censor 184. Also known as“Cato
the Censor.” A rigidly honest man and a successful general. He served his country well in Spain,
where he worked in 195 to put down a series of revolts. He was probably the most conservative
man of his generation, and disliked the growing Greek influence on Rome. He even wrote books
on farming and the old way of life. But he is widely remembered for only one thing: the
assertion, made at the end of all of his speeches, that Ceterum censeo, delenda est Carthago (“In my
opinion, Carthage must be destroyed”). Despite the opposition of Scipio Nasica (who always
answered that Carthage should be preserved), Cato eventually had his way, and the Third Punic
War was begun in the year he died.
Lucius Aemilius Paullus, died c. 167 B.C.E. consul 182, 168. The son of the consul (also L.
Aemilius Paulus) killed at Cannae. The younger Paullus was elected aedile in 193, then made
praetor in 191 and given command of further Spain (Livy, Histories XXXV.11, XXXVI.2). In 191
he was appointed to the commission that administered Greece after the expulsion of the Seleucid
Antiochus III. In 168 he was sent to Macedonia to deal with the Antigonid king Perseus, who had
rejected the impossible demands that Rome had made of him. It was Paullus who caused the
“Third Macedonian War” (which had begun in 171) to turn serious (until then the two
combatants had seemed almost afraid of one another). But Paullus in 168 gained control of a
large part of Macedonia, and Perseus had to come out and fight. The Battle of Pydna, which
began as a skirmish between scouts, ended up with the Greek army charging full-tilt at the
Romans — and failing to break their line. The Romans could then mop up the defeated
remnants. With the Macedonian army destroyed, the Romans were free to dethrone Perseus (he
was exiled to Rome) and partition the Antigonid kingdom (cf. 1 Macc. 8:5). But Paullus did not
use this as an opportunity to pillage; he did not abuse or loot Macedonian noncombatants.1 He
returned to Rome for a triumph, and died soon after.
Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus, 185–129 B.C.E. consul 147, 134. Called
“Scipio the Younger” or “Scipio Aemilianus.” The son of Aemilius Paullus, he was adopted by
the son of Scipio Africanus, and thus gained his name. As a result of his ancestry, he was
appointed a junior officer during the Third Punic War. He proved such a success (despite the
obvious ineptitude of his superiors) that the people insisted on making him consul for 147 even
though he was underage and had never been praetor.2 As a result, it was he who destroyed
Carthage in 146.3 He also held a successful command in Spain in the 130s, destroying the city of
1.!In Epirus, by contrast, he carried off tens of thousands tot he Roman slave markets.
2.!It is curious that Aemilianus, a conservative at heart, thus became the pioneer of the populist techniques of the
Gracchi, which eventually completely split the Republic.
3.!The story goes that Scipio — who believed firmly in discipline — disliked demolishing Carthage, but would only
allow himself to cry after he had obeyed his orders.

Numantia in 134 after that city had fairly defeated an army led by the consul Mancinus earlier in
the year. Unlike most aristocrats of this and following generations, he was honest, even generous
(Polybius — Histories XXXI.28 — reports that he refused a sixty talent inheritance from his
natural father because his brother needed the money more, and also — Histories XVIII.35 — that
he refused to profit from the sack of Carthage). His exploits made him so noteworthy that Cicero
made him the hero of his dream in The Republic (in which Cicero made the case, through Scipio,
for a restoration of aristocratic government). But in the end he almost nullified his
accomplishments by his tacit endorsement of the murder of his brother-in-law Tiberius
Gracchus (a murder brought about by Scipio Aemilianus’s relative Publius Cornelius Scipio
Nasica, consul 138, who was also Tiberius’s cousin and uncle by marriage).1 Aemilianus himself
was in Spain at the time, and had no part in the murder, but refused to help the populist cause in
any way. He was found dead in 129, and many suspected murder by Gracchan partisans (there
were reports of the marks of blows on his body).
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, 163–133 B.C.E. tribune 133. He was the grandson of
Scipio Africanus by his daughter Cornelia.2 His first public service was in Spain, where he
attempted to work out a peace settlement with the city of Numantia (a document which the
Senate later rejected) after the Spaniards had badly defeated a Roman army. Tiberius set a major
land reform in motion upon being elected tribune in 133.3 The legacy of Pergamum, which the
Senate wanted for itself, he proposed to give to the people. He followed this with proposals for
increased democracy and justice, using popular votes in place of Senatorial debate to pass his
proposals — and even having one of the other tribunes recalled! The Senate was bitterly
offended by these populist measures, and tension grew. Eventually both sides were prodded into
illegal measures, and Tiberius was murdered while (illegally, or at least uncustomarily) running
for re-election.
Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, 153–121 B.C.E. tribune 123, 122. Seldom have two brothers
been as alike as Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. After Tiberius’s murder Gaius devoted several
years to military service and built a name for himself. He then returned to Rome, and ran for the
office of tribune of the people in 123 in order to finish his brother’s reforms. He was elected, and
managed to institute a few changes,4 but was soon murdered by the Senatorial party, as his
1.!In fairness to Nasica, it should be noted that he was not a simple villain; he had argued strongly against the
destruction of Carthage.
2.!The reputation that Cornelia obtained is shown by the fact that after she was widowed, a king of Egypt (either
Ptolemy VI or Ptolemy VIII) sought to marry her to bolster his throne. Honourable Roman matron that she was,
however, she refused to marry a foreigner, but stayed in Rome to raise her children. The Roman people later
raised statues for her — a very rare honour for a woman.
3.!At this time, most Italian land was in the hands of a few magnates. This had been officially illegal since 367 B.C.E.,
but the law was widely ignored. Gracchus’s remark on the situation is curiously similar to a later comment of
Jesus’s: “The wild beasts that roam Italy have their dens... but the men who fight and die for Italy enjoy nothing
but the air and light” (Plutarch, Life of Tiberius Gracchus 8; compare Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58). Gracchus, who saw
that the common people needed land to survive, did not insist that the magnates give up their ill-gotten land, but
proposed to buy it from them. The magnates nevertheless opposed him, since the compensation could not equal
their extorted profit from the land. To enforce the law, three commissioners were to be chosen. In the end, those
chosen to do the job were Tiberius, his brother Gaius, and his father-in-law Appius Claudius.
4.!In particular, her regulated the procedures by which provincials in non-Italian territories might appear against

brother had been before him.1 The reform party no longer had an effective leader, and was
doomed. But so was the Republic, for the unrest had grown too great to be contained.
Gaius Marius, 157–86 B.C.E. consul 107, 104–100, 86; tribune 117. He initially won fame as a
general; his first service was in the army of Scipio Aemilianus that destroyed Numantia in 134.
But he did not receive another major command for more than twenty years, when he led the
army which finished the Jugurthine War in North Africa (107). The war, unfortunately, had
become an issue in the class struggle that was swallowing Rome, and after waiting for years for
the Senate to finish off a war it had not wanted to start, the people elected Marius to finish off
the job. This was the first time the people had appointed a general, instead of the Senate, and
naturally it heightened the tension between the classes. When the Gauls threatened Rome (104),
the people once again turned to Marius, and once again he did not fail them (Plutarch, Life of
Marius 11ƒ.) He gained power as the head of the popular party which had whimpered along
since the death of the Gracchi. But the party remained so weak that Marius gradually faded into
the background (all the more so since Marius, more general than politician, was caught in the
middle of the class struggle of 100, which forced him to attack his populist allies — leaving him
out of favour with both sides), although he was able to carry through some useful military
reforms.2 When the Social War (in which Rome’s Latin allies sought greater freedom) broke out
in 91, Marius was given a command, but old age and ill health had significantly decreased his
effectiveness. Most of the credit for the victory went to Marius’s old protégé and current political
rival Sulla. In 88, when a commander was needed for the war against Mithridates of Pontus,
Sulla forcibly ejected Marius from Rome (in fact giving orders for his execution) — but then went
off to battle Mithridates. In his absence, Marius returned to Rome and was re-elected consul.
Unfortunately he ruined his until-then-excellent reputation by slaughtering many of his
opponents (even his colleague Cinna opposed this), which weakened the party when Sulla
returned. But Marius died early in 86, well before the final showdown.
Lucius Cornelius Cinna, died 84 B.C.E. consul 87–84. The leader, along with Marius, of the
popular party. Granted his first consulate only with Sulla’s permission (on condition, naturally,
their governors, and for the first time instituted punishments for Senatorial misconduct. He also tried to extend
full rights to Rome’s Latin allies (at this time the allies could be forced to serve in Roman armies — indeed, by
this time they provided over half of Rome’s troops — but had almost no political power), but this proposal failed.
Gracchus also increased military pay and exempted those under eighteen from conscription. As a final blow to
patrician power, he took away the Senate’s monopoly on juries, temporarily turning this task over to the knights.
1.!There were differences between the brothers’ careers, of course. Gaius was tribune for two consecutive terms,
Tiberius only one (although he ran for re-election); Gaius ran for a third term, lost, and then was murdered, while
Tiberius was murdered during his term as tribune; Tiberius was murdered by a faction led by his relative Scipio
the Younger, whereas Gaius was killed in a mini-civil war. The people, moreover, killed Scipio the Younger,
whereas Gaius’s chief opponent, Opimius, was acquitted.
2.!E.g. he eliminated the rule that members of the military had to have a certain amount of property — Plutarch,
Life of Marius 9. This had the advantage that it enlarged Rome’s thin-stretched armies and offered the poor some
hope for advancement. But it also meant that the legions, instead of being conscripts whose chief goal was to get
back to their property, would now be composed of professional soldiers who could serve as the private
mercenaries of whichever general would keep their pay coming.
Marius’s other major action involved reorganizing the legions, dividing them into the cohorts of six hundred men
commanded by a tribune — officers of this rank are known from the New Testament (e.g. Acts 10:1, 21:31ƒ.). He
also redesigned the legion’s weapons.

that he not use his power to promote populist legislation), Cinna soon turned against the future
dictator. Driven from Rome in 87 by his co-consul Octavius (an ally of Sulla), Cinna gathered an
army and expelled Octavius and his ally Pompeius Strabo (the father of Pompey the Great) in
turn. With Sulla far away making war on Mithridates, Cinna was able to have Marius recalled.
More moderate than Marius (he opposed the older man’s slaughter of his political opponents),
Cinna was still the obvious heir to the leadership of the popular party when Marius died in 86.
But he was murdered by one of his soldiers in 84 as he prepared to attack Sulla in Greece, and
control of his party passed to Carbo1 and to Marius’s son.2
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, 138–78 B.C.E. consul 88, 80. A military protégé of Marius, he
captured Jugurtha the king of North Africa in 105. He then returned to Rome and became a
leader of the Senatorial party. When war broke out with the radicals in 90 (in the aftermath of
the Social War), Sulla was at the forefront of the reactionary party. He drove Marius and the
radicals out of Rome, killing as many as he could lay hands on (thus turning the people against
him) and exacting promises from those (such as Cinna) whom he spared. But then (in an attempt
to increase his prestige) he went off to fight Mithridates of Pontus.3 The radicals returned to
Rome in his absence, and Marius and Cinna assumed power. But Marius died in 86, and Cinna
was murdered in 84. As a result, the radicals had no strong leader to oppose Sulla when he
returned in 82.4 Rome was captured at the battle of the Colline Gate (actually fought against the
last remaining Italian army left from the Social War, but since it left Sulla in control of Rome, his
opponent hardly matters); Sulla was able to appoint himself dictator as a consequence.5 He
proscribed (condemned without trial — Plutarch, Life of Sulla 31) a large number of his enemies,
sold off their property at bargain prices (thereby forcing the purchasers, such as Crassus, to
remain his allies) and imposed a set of reactionary laws.6 Had he held onto his post, Sulla might
have seriously altered the course of the Republic’s history (although his policies differed greatly,
1.!Cnaeus Papirius Carbo, consul 85, 84, 82, tribune 92. More moderate even than Cinna, he was still too populist for
the Senatorial party. Forced to flee to Africa after Sulla’s victories, he was captured and executed by Pompey in
82.
2.!Gaius Marius the Younger, consul 82, created something of a reign of terror in that year, but committed suicide
after Sulla’s victories (Plutarch, Life of Marius 46).
3.!While on the way, he looted and pillaged Greece, thereby raising the money to pay his oversized armies and bribe
his enemies’. Being utterly ruthless, he did not scruple to destroy Athens and other Greek cities.
4.!Sulla’s armies had several times defeated Mithridates, but had not advanced far enough to threaten Pontus itself,
when an agreement (the “Peace of Dardanus”) was reached in 85. Sulla had clearly blundered; he had gone to
war with Mithridates before his position in Rome was secure, and therefore had to let Pontus off the hook so that
he could deal with troubles in Rome. As it turned out, Sulla’s “peace” was a failure, and it would be almost
twenty years before Lucullus and Pompey put Mithridates down once an for all.
5.!“There had been autocratic control before — that of the Dictators —!but it was limited to short periods [six
months]; under Sulla it became for the first time unlimited, and so an absolute tyranny.” — Appian, Civil Wars
I.100.
6.!Most notably, he declared that the tribunes — the officials whose function was to block unjust laws — could not
hold any other office after the completion of their term. He also returned most jury powers to the Senate. Some
of his changes were positive, in that they reduced civil unrest. But Sulla also set a bad precedent by forcibly
seizing power — and did nothing to prevent future autocrats from doing the same. Thus Sulla is ultimately
responsible for the actions of Cæsar, Pompey, Augustus, and Antony. Sulla also imposed king Ptolemy XI
Alexander II on the Egyptians — only to have the Egyptians kill him within weeks. And Sulla retired soon after,
so this offense to Rome went unpunished.

his career in many ways anticipated that of Julius Cæsar). But he retired in 79; he died in 78 and
all his “reforms” went to pieces.
Marcus Licinius Crassus, c. 112–53 B.C.E. consul 70, 55. A wealthy businessman1 who seems
to have had no sense of tact, Crassus gained most of his money by preying on the defeated
supporters of Marius. His first major political act (like his younger colleague Pompey) was to raise
an army on behalf of Sulla in 83/2. He put down the slave revolt of Spartacus in 71, and then
went to Rome to assume the consulship along with Pompey. Despite many quarrels, the two of
them were largely responsible for eliminating the legislation of Sulla (e.g. the tribunes’ right to
propose laws was restored during their term). In 60, he, Pompey, and Cæsar (a seemingly
worthless young aristocrat whom Crassus had kept afloat) formed the “first Triumvirate” to
promote their own aims. One result was that Crassus was given a command against the Parthians
in 54, replacing the corrupt but effective Aulus Gabinius (consul 58; governor 57–54), who had
reorganized Judea and restored Ptolemy XII Auletes to the throne of Egypt (cf. BJ I.viii.2ƒ., etc.).
Crassus proceeded to plunder the Temple (as Pompey and Gabinius had refused to do; cf. BJ
I.viii.8), but paid for it when he was decisively defeated and killed by the Parthians at the battle of
Carrhae in 53.
Figure 29: Battles of the Civil War
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48 — Pharsalus: Julius Cæsar vs. Republicans (Pompey)

47 — Zela: Julius Cæsar vs. Pontus
46: Thapsus: Julius Cæsar vs. Republicans (Scipio)
45 — Munda: Julius Cæsar vs. Republicans (G. Pompey)
44/3 — Mutina: Decimus Brutus vs. Mark Antony vs. Hirtius, Pansa, Octavian
42 — Philippi: Triumvirs (Antony, Octavian) vs. Republicans (Brutus, Cassius)
36 — Mylae & Naulochus: Agrippa vs. Sextus Pompey
30 — Actium: Octavian & Agrippa vs. Antony
1.!Plutarch (Life of Crassus 2) reports that he was worth 7100 talents when he died, despite his humble origins. The
amount of gold represented by a talent varies, but the minimun value is about 66 pounds. So Crassus, if Plutarch
is right, had properties worth the equivalent of almost 500,000 pounds of gold. Put another way, this would be
enough to pay a year’s wages to roughly 80,000 daily laborers!

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (“Pompey the Great”), 106–48 B.C.E. consul 70, 55, 52. The
son of an unpopular general,1 Pompey was in trouble with both radicals and conservatives
following the Social War of 91. Having to choose a side, and choose fast, Pompey decided to
follow Sulla, raised an army (Plutarch, Life of Pompey 6), and won several small victories.2 This was
the beginning of an amazing career that probably justified the title “the Great” (he was the only
Roman to be called that prior to Constantine in the fourth century. Several provinces struck coins
in his name, others offered worship to him, and some even commemorated him in their
calendars). In 77 he led an army against the rebel Lepidus (an officer of Sulla’s who as consul for
78 tried to resurrect the Dictator’s tyranny). In 76 he was given a command against the rebel
Sertorius (the last of Marius’s supporters3) in Spain; he defeated them in 72. In 71 he wiped out
the last survivors of Spartacus’s rebellious slaves (already heavily defeated by Crassus). In 70 he
was elected consul along with Crassus,4 and the two proceeded to set aside most of Sulla’s
reactionary legislation. Pompey was then appointed to a special command in the east. He
eliminated the Mediterranean pirates (a major scourge) in three months — even though three
years had been granted for the task, and no one else had been able to do it. Pompey then finished
the job of putting down Mithridates VI of Pontus (a job which had required two full-scale wars
and even more commanders),5 annexed Palestine and Judea6 and returned to Rome in triumph in
62 — only to find that a jealous Senate wouldn’t ratify his actions or grant land for his troops to
retire on.7 Frustrated, Pompey joined with Crassus and Cæsar in the “First Triumvirate.” The
1.!His father Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo had been a leading general in the Social War, but had led the armies which
opposed Cinna on the latter’s return to Rome. Hated by the people, he was killed by lightning; his body was
abused all the way to the grave.
2.!Most notably, he captured and executed the radical leader Carbo (Plutarch, Life of Pompey 10).
3.!Quintus Sertorius was appointed governor of Hither Spain by the radicals in 83. When Sulla destroyed the radical
cause in 82, Sertorius rose in revolt with great success. Long after the defeat of all of Marius’s other forces, he
was smashing army after army sent against him. (Pompey did better than most, holding Sertorius to a near-draw
in their only encounter — Plutarch, Life of Pompey 19). But then Sertorius was assassinated by his own officers in
73, and Pompey easily mopped up his remaining supporters.
4.!Pompey became consul without ever having served as praetor or holding any elective office. Under Sulla’s laws he
was still too young to be consul. He was, in fact, the only man to become consul without having first become a
Senator — although Augustus would soon match this feat at an even younger age.
5.!Sulla had fought the first Mithridatic War (89-85), which had ended in the inconclusive Peace of Dardanus. Then
im 75 King Nicomedes III of Bithynia bequeathed his kingdom to Rome in return for past favours. Mithridates
intervened on behalf of Nicomedes’s bypassed son. As commander Rome appointed the competent and fair
Lucius Lucullus. He firmly defeated Mithridates but was unable to deliver the coup de grace because his troops
hated him. Then Pompey arrived in Asia to apply the finishing touches. Mithridates killed himself in 63, shortly
after Pompey’s arrival. Even Pompey didn’t manage to capture Mithridates (always the Roman goal, so that the
captive could be included in a Triumph, or victory procession), but he forced him to flee with his army shattered.
The Pontic king’s son Pharnaces rebelled against his father in 63 and submitted to Rome; this led the old king to
suicide.
6.!His legate, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, is apparently mentioned in the Qumran fragment 4Q324 in connection with
the siege of Jerusalem. In the aftermath of this siege, Pompey restored the deposed John Hyrcanus II to the High
Priesthood, with Antipater as his prime minister, thus setting the groundwork for the Herodian kingdom. Scaurus
served as legate of Syria 63-61 B.C.E. Pompey at this time invaded the Temple (the first Gentile since Antiochus
IV to do so), but unlike Antiochus, he did no harm. (Tacitus, Histories V.9). There also seems to be a reference to
this in the Qumran Commentary on Nahum, note to 2:11b; see the note on Demetrius II, p. 362.
7.!This despite the fact that his expedition had increased Rome’s revenue by an estimated seventy percent (Plutarch,

three managed to push Pompey’s demands through the Senate, and Pompey married Cæsar’s
daughter.1 But after she died in childbirth and Crassus was killed at Carrhae in 53, tensions arose
again. Cæsar was suspected of conspiring to become king. The Senate preferred the devil it knew,
and chose Pompey consul without colleague in 52 to prevent this. When Cæsar, who was
completing a very successful campaign in Gaul, demanded the right to run for consul in 49 and
bring his troops with him, the Senate (in effect) declared war. Cæsar crossed into Italy later in the
year, and forced the senatorial party out.2 They fled to Greece, and Pompey was defeated at the
Battle of Pharsalus in 48. He fled to Egypt, where he was murdered by royal officials who wanted
to avoid Cæsar’s attention.
Aulus Gabinius, died c. 47 B.C.E. consul 58; tribune 67. One of the chief assistants of Pompey
the Great. It was he who proposed that Pompey be given the command against the pirates (67
B.C.E.) that so enhanced his prestige. From 66–63 Gabinius served as Pompey’s lieutenant on his
Asian campaign (note that he was responsible for collecting tribute from Aristobulus II in BJ
I.vi.6). In 57 he was sent to Syria as proconsular governor (cf. Ant XIV.v.2, BJ I.viii.2). He was not
an especially pleasant sort, being greedy and brutal, but he did succeed in suppressing the revolt
of the Hasmonean pretender Alexander (1) (Ant XIV.v.2, XIV.vi.3). It was Gabinius who led the
Roman armies into Egypt to restore king Ptolemy XII Auletes (cf. Ant XIV.vi.2, BJ I.viii.7).3 He
was also the officer who put Antipater in effective charge of the former Hasmonean Kingdom (in
return for the latter’s help during the Parthian campaign). In 54 Gabinius was succeeded as
governor of Syria by Crassus; he then returned to Rome to face charges of extortion;4 he was
convicted and exiled (although he was forgiven in 49, and later given a command under Cæsar);
Life of Pompey 45). Pompey himself (according to Pliny) had remarked that he had “found Asia the remotest of the
province and made it [the] center of [the] country.” Pompey’s big mistake lay in thinking that reputation was
enough (after all, in 66, he had been given powers approaching those of a Dictator): as soon as he came home, he
demobilized his army. This obviously ended the fears that he would be another Sulla and conquer Rome — but
he also deprived himself of his political leverage. Even so, his Triumph was probably the biggest Rome had ever
seen, since he had trophies from an amazing fifteen countries (Plutarch, Life of Pompey 45). This was his third
career Triumph, and he was the first ever to triumph over Europe, Asia, and Africa.
1.!Pompey was apparently highly unusual among Roman aristocrats in that he genuinely loved and was entirely
faithful to his wife (Plutarch, Life of Pompey 53). But Pompey was moderate in most of his personal activities; it is
one of his contradictions that, although eager for power and the greatest man of his time, he served other causes
better than his own.
2.!Pompey had earlier felt certain that he could hold off any attack. He allegedly claimed that he “had only to stamp
[his] foot and there [would] rise up armies” (Plutarch, Life of Pompey 57). Unfortunately, he was wrong. When
Cæsar attacked, most of Italy simply sat. Pompey seems to have panicked and fled even though his position was
by no means lost. This tendency to panic plagued Pompey in the last war; there was a time before Pharsalus
when Pompey backed Cæsar into a corner but refused to attack him there. Cæsar remarked caustically that
Pompey simply did not know how to win a war (see, e.g., Plutarch, Life of Pompey 39).
3.!It was on this expedition that Mark Antony, Gabinius’s cavalry commander, first made a name for himself. For the
political situation that led to the intervention, see the remarks on Ptolemy XII Auletes, p. 350.
4.!Gabinius was surely guilty, but no more so than anyone else. Several proposals had earlier been made to take over
Egypt, but all had been blocked because no one in Rome trusted anyone else with the money Egypt offered (it
was said at this time that a provincial governor had to earn three fortunes on the job: one to pay for his election
expenses, one to pay the expenses of his inevitable trial, and one to live on thereafter). Eventually Gabinius
entered Egypt on his own authority — and paid for it. Cæsar would have faced the same treatment after his
tenure in Gaul — except that he came back prepared.

perhaps this is due to Cæsar’s having had, it is rumoured, an affair with his wife — Suetonius,
Cæsar 50.
Marcus Tullius Cicero, 106–43 B.C.E. consul 63. Best remembered today as an orator and
author, Cicero was also an important politician. The first member of his family to enter the
Senate, he proudly boasted that he held all the offices of state at the youngest admissible age. As
consul in 63,1 he suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline;2 this won him the title “father of his
country.” He then set out on a policy of conciliation, trying to prevent the rupture of the
Republic. Over time he proved himself an honest3 if not overly brave man. For this reason, he
refused to become a member of the First Triumvirate. The only result of this was that he spent
much of the next fifteen years in exile — self-imposed and otherwise. In the Civil Wars he
supported Pompey, but he was not a military man, so after Pharsalus he surrendered to Cæsar
and was forgiven. In 44, having seen the total defeat of his hopes, he returned to politics after the
death of Cæsar. Once again he fought to preserve the Republic — and in the process he made
himself the enemy of Mark Antony (this worsened a long-standing dislike, for Cicero had had
Antony’s father executed as one of the Catilinian conspirators). Although the orator was virtual
ruler of Rome until the formation of the Second Triumvirate (indeed, Cicero was largely
responsible for the alliance between the Senate and Octavian that defeated Antony at Mutina —
only to learn from this victory that Octavian was too strong to be used and set aside), he was
proscribed and killed by the Triumvirate at Antony’s insistence in 43 (this is usually considered
the most treacherous thing Octavian ever did).
Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger, c. 94–46 B.C.E. tribune 62; praetor 54. The great-grandson
of Cato the Censor, and hence “Cato the Younger” (later sometimes “Cato of Utica”). A Stoic
and an unbending supporter of ancient Republican traditions. An extreme example of this came
after Pharsalus, when Cato offered to turn his forces over to Cicero (since Cicero was an ex-
consul and hence his superior), even though Cato had more military experience and Cicero was
generally regarded as a coward (Plutarch, Life of Cicero 39). Cato first made his mark in 63 when,
as tribune-elect, he argued violently for the execution of the Catilinian conspirators (Sallust,
Conspiracy of Catiline 62; cf. Plutarch, Life of Cæsar 7). He vigorously opposed the requests of Cæsar,
Pompey, and even Crassus, and so eventually drove them to form the First Triumvirate. Even
then his opposition was so effective that the Triumvirs worked hard to keep him out of Rome at
crucial moments (cf., e.g., Plutarch, Life of Cæsar 21). He tried everything to avoid a popular
overthrow of Senatorial government (e.g. he authorized a distribution of cheap grain to keep the
Triumvirs from taking credit for such distributions). But he was defeated when he ran for consul
for 52, and his efforts came to nothing. When the simmering quarrel between Cæsar and Pompey
began boiling toward open war, Cato necessarily supported Pompey, promising to indict Cæsar
1.!Cicero was the first “new man” — i.e. a Senator whose father had not been Senator — to be elected consul since
before Sulla’s dictatorship thirty years earlier.
2.!L. Sergius Catalina had been a praetor in 68, but had never advanced beyond that; by 63 he had developed a
program for land reform and cancellation of debts. The rich Senators so opposed this that Cataline apparently
chose to turn to violence, but his rural army was defeated and Cataline was killed.
3.!Cicero seems — remarkably —!to have been almost the only man of his generation who did not use his term as a
provincial governor as an opportunity for self-enrichment. The last such governor prior to Cicero may have been
Scipio Aemilianus, who — despite modest wealth — refused to profit from the Sack of Carthage.

when the latter returned from Gaul (Suetonius, Cæsar 30). Indeed, it was Cato (along with his
friend Bibulus) who proposed that Pompey be made consul for 52 to oppose Cæsar (Plutarch, Life
of Pompey 54. It must have irked Cato no end that Cæsar was rumoured to have had an affair with
his sister Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus — Plutarch, Life of Brutus 5). In the Civil Wars
Cato (along with Metellus Scipio) was given charge of Africa; their troops were defeated by
Cæsar at Thapsus in 46. This left Cato penned up in the city of Utica; he committed suicide in
that year.
Gaius (or Caius) Cassius Longinus, died 42 B.C.E. tribune 49; praetor 44. A military man, he
was Crassus’s quaestor and led the surviving Roman troops away from Carrhae after Crassus’s
defeat and death in 53. As a result, he governed Syria from 53 to 51 and held off a Parthian
counter-invasion (BJ I.viii.9). Little is known of his life after this, except that he was a member of
the Senatorial party of Pompey which was defeated at Pharsalus. Cæsar pardoned him and made
him a praetor, but Cassius soon turned against the dictator. Indeed, he is usually depicted as the
ringleader of the conspiracy that killed Cæsar. (He may well have been the one who brought
Marcus Brutus into the conspiracy, since his wife was Brutus’s half-sister.) Plutarch (Life of Brutus
9) tells us that he opposed tyranny even as a schoolboy. In the division of the Republic that
followed Cæsar’s death, Cassius was given command of Bithynia, but soon proceeded to take
command of his old stomping grounds of Syria, a much richer province1 (BJ I.xi.1. He
proceeded to plunder the province mercilessly; Ant XIV.xi.2, BJ I.xi.2 say that he exacted seven
hundred talents of silver from the Jews and enslaved those who didn’t pay on time). In the
months that followed he defended his cause very successfully: when the Cæsarean Publius
Cornelius Dolabella, backed by four legions from Egypt as well as a Roman army, entered Syria,
Cassius convinced the Senate to give him Dolabella’s command, then besieged him in Laodicea,
where Dolabella killed himself.2 But then Cassius chose to join Brutus at Philippi in 42. His troops
were defeated by Antony on the first day of the battle, and Cassius (since he did not know that
Brutus had been victorious) killed himself.
Marcus Junius Brutus, 85–42 B.C.E. A member of the Senatorial party of Pompey; he was,
after all, the nephew of Cato the Younger, Cæsar’s most vigourous opponent. Plutarch (Life of
Brutus 2) reports that Brutus admired Cato — another Stoic — “more than any other Roman
alive” and married his daughter Porcia. He was pardoned by Cæsar after Pharsalus (cf. Plutarch,
Life of Cæsar 46, 62) and given a praetorship (for 44) and a governorship.3 But Brutus did not wait
1.!He turned Bithynia over to his co-conspirator Tillius Cimber

2.!Dolabella had been appointed consul in 44 to replace the assassinated Cæsar, and was made governor of Syria in
June of that year. After Antony and Lepidus, he had been the most important of Cæsar’s political supporters in
Rome after Pharsalus (he was tribune for 47), and proposed certain radical laws that had badly damaged Cæsar’s
reputation. But his loyalty was unquestionable; he had demonstrated his political intentions by killing Cæsar’s
assassin Trebonius, the conspirators’ governor of Asia, while en route to Syria.
3.!Cæsar was said to be more concerned with preserving the life of Brutus than anyone else in the Pompeian army.
Cæsar’s kindness to Brutus was apparently so unexpected that it gave rise to rumours that Cæsar was Brutus’s
father. This is hardly possible — but the legend that Cæsar later had an affair with Brutus’s mother Servilia is
fairly well-attested. (Plutarch — Life of Brutus 5 — tells of how one of her love-letter was brought to Cæsar in the
Senate in 63. Cato the Younger, Servilia’s brother and Cæsar’s enemy, was speaking when the letter was brought
in. Cato demanded that the letter be read — only to have Cæsar hand it to him to show him his contents. It must
have been a severe shock to Cato; he threw the letter back at Cæsar and shouted, “Keep it, you sot!”

long to turn against his benefactor. Perhaps inspired by Cassius (who was the husband of his half-
sister), he joined a large group of conspirators plotting against Cæsar. In 44, the conspirators
killed the dictator. They then set out to subdivide the Republic, and Brutus was given command
of Crete (later taking over Macedonia as well). When the Second Triumvirate moved against the
conspirators, Brutus joined forces with Cassius, and the two met the Triumvirs at Philippi in 42.
Brutus’s wing of the army was victorious over Octavian, but Cassius was defeated by Antony and
killed himself. In a second battle a few days later, Brutus too was defeated and took his own life.
Thus perished “the noblest Roman of them all,” who seems in fact — despite his deliberate
attempts to be fair-minded — to have been petty, power-hungry, and ungrateful.1
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, died 31 B.C.E. consul 32. The “Enobarbus” of
Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. His father Lucius had been consul in 54, and had commanded
Pompey’s left wing at Pharsalus — at which battle he was killed. The younger Domitius
continued the fight against Cæsar, and was part of the conspiracy that killed the dictator. He was
commander of the conspirators’ naval forces in Greece. Just before the second stage of the battle
of Philippi (after Cassius killed himself but before the final showdown), Ahenobarbus’s fleet badly
defeated the Triumvirs’, cutting off their supplies. But word of this failed to reach Brutus, so he
proceeded to once again attack Octavian and Antony, leading to the Republicans’ defeat in the
second land battle. Nevertheless Ahenobarbus, his fleet still intact, refused to surrender and
continued to fight for the anti-Caesarian cause. He turned pirate after all other Republican forces
were destroyed. But, like most Republicans, he preferred Antony to Octavian, and so offered him
his services in 40 (Suetonius, Nero 3). From then on he was usually with Antony (e.g. he
accompanied him on his Parthian expedition — Plutarch, Life of Antony 40). He was one of
Antony’s most politically prominent supporters, and as such was appointed consul for 32. But in
that year, when Octavian prepared to declare war on Antony, Ahenobarbus and his colleague
Gaius Sosius2 fled — along with much of the Senate — to Antony (Dio Cassius, Histories L.2ƒ.).
He thought — correctly — that Cleopatra was proving the ruin of Antony’s cause,3 and he and
Antony could never agree on this matter. (His opposition was so strong that other anti-Cleopatra
activists considered having him replace Antony as the head of the anti-Cæsarean movement.) But
just before Actium, when Antony decided — at Cleopatra’s urging — to fight a sea rather than a
land battle, Domitius deserted to Octavian (Dio Cassius, Histories L.13). Antony, in a fit of cruelty
or compassion, sent his belongings after him. Domitius died within days. His son Lucius served
Octavian well, and was allowed to marry Antonia, the daughter of Antony and of Octavian’s
sister Octavia. Their son Gnaeus married Octavian’s great-granddaughter Agrippina the
Younger, who gave birth to the Emperor Nero.
1.!Cicero, it is said, was embarrassed by Brutus’s government of Cyprus, in which he made usury part of his policy
(one town was charged loans at 48% interest!). Brutus, the quip runs, was a man of high principle but even higher
interest.
2.!Sosius had earlier been governor of Judah, and had helped Herod recapture Jerusalem from the Parthians (Ant
XIV.xvi.1-4, etc.). He commanded the left wing of the fleet at Actium while Antony had direct control of the
right.
3.!Note that the Romans never declared war on Antony; the official was was fought against Cleopatra (Dio Cassius,
Histories L.4, 6).

Marcus Antonius (“Mark Antony”), 83–30 B.C.E. consul 44, 34;1 tribune 49. The right-
hand man of Cæsar, and one of the many who tried to succeed him. Originally a military man in
Pompey’s army (he led the cavalry forces from the Roman army that restored Ptolemy XII
Auletes to the throne of Egypt, as well as commanding troops under Gabinius during the revolt
of the Hasmonean Alexander — BJ I.viii.4), he eventually allied himself with Cæsar. A violent
partisan of the dictator’s, he was instrumental in the passage of much of Cæsar’s legislation.
Antony was also one of Cæsar’s chief military assistants, and commanded the left wing at
Pharsalus (Plutarch, Life of Cæsar 44). After Pharsalus Cæsar once again sent him to Rome — this
time as Master of Horse (the chief of staff of a Dictator), meaning that Antony was all-powerful
(since civic offices ceased to function when a Dictator was appointed — Plutarch, Life of Antony 8.
This was, in fact, disastrous; Antony was not up to his task, and his lax government helped revive
factional strife in the city,2 as well as making Antony many personal enemies — Plutarch, Life of
Antony 6. As a result, Antony was set aside as Master of Horse in favour of Lepidus, although he
was reconciled to Cæsar soon after and even given the consulship for 44). But his real chance
came after Cæsar died — and he muffed it. While his oratory induced the mob to expel the
conspirators from Rome, he made Octavian his enemy by swallowing up his inheritance.3 In a
move to bolster his flagging popularity, he moved to attack the conspirator Decimus Brutus
(Shakespeare’s “Decius”). His attack stalled, and Octavian was able to bring up an army to defeat
him. (It was Antony’s bad luck that the commanders of the army, the consuls Hirtius and Pansa,
both died in the battle — which meant that Octavian not only received credit for the victory, but
also could take over the consular powers. Antony, faced with enemies on two sides, was forced to
retreat into Gaul under conditions of terrible hardship. If he had not been able to make a deal
with Lepidus — or at least with Lepidus’s troops — his career would almost certainly have been
ended.) Meanwhile, Cicero — who had arranged for Octavian’s appointment — was denouncing
Antony in Rome. Antony had only one way to rescue his situation: he made peace with Octavian.
The two, along with Lepidus, formed the “Second Triumvirate.” This allowed Antony to have
Cicero put out of the way (despite Octavian’s objections), and their combined forces were able to
defeat Cæsar’s murderers at Philippi. But then Antony made another fatal mistake: he went to
Egypt. This not only took him from Italy at a time when Octavian was active, but it led to his
nasty propaganda defeat in the “Perusine War.” But this was not the worst side-effect of the
Egyptian visit, for it was there that he met Cleopatra (Cleopatra VII, who had already had a fling
with Cæsar and had also been mixed up in Pompey’s death). Thus began a decade-long affair.
Meanwhile, Octavian was active. So, too, were the Parthians and Pompey’s son Sextus. Sextus
raised an fleet and blockaded Rome; the Parthians invaded Judah. Octavian and Antony were
able to work together to defeat those threats, but it ruined their relationship. Even a marriage
between Antony and Octavian’s sister could not keep them at peace, for Antony wanted
1.!Antony, however, resigned this second consulship without serving a single day in the post (Dio Cassius, Histories
XLIX.39).
2.!Dio Cassius, Histories XLII.32, tells of how the tribunes Trebellius and Dolabella started a gang war, while Antony
sat back and meddled.
3.!Antony had hoped to be Cæsar’s heir, but that honour of course went to Octavian. Antony was only a secondary
heir (i.e. he would gain the inheritance only if the primary heir refused it) — and even this honour he shared
with, of all people, the conspirator Decimus Brutus.

Cleopatra. And Octavian was far the abler schemer. It quickly became apparent that Antony’s
only hope was to win a major foreign war. But he couldn’t; the Parthians defeated him decisively
in 36. And then the war with Octavian came. Octavian, far better prepared, won the great naval
Battle of Actium in 31. This need not have been the end of the war — Antony’s army, under the
direct command of Publius Canidius Crassus, had not even fought, despite being larger than
Octavian’s. But Antony, unlike his army, was defeated. He chose to fall back on Egypt, and with
his army left behind, his cause was lost. He killed himself there in 30.
Excursus: The Perusine War

The forces of Antony and Octavian fought no fewer than three wars: The Mutina campaign,
the Perusine War, and the Egyptian/Actium War. The first and third of these were direct
conflicts. The Perusine War was a proxy conflict, and not one that Antony wanted. The Perusine
War began in 41 B.C.E. when Lucius Antony (Mark Antony’s younger brother, and the consul for
41, having previously been a tribune in 44) and Fulvia (Antony’s wife) rose in revolt shortly after
Octavian had returned to Italy after the Battle of Philippi. Antony had remained in the east, and
took no part in the plotting. Indeed, Plutarch (Life of Antony 30) — claims that Fulvia revolted in
order to draw him away from Egypt and Cleopatra. Most moderns, however, think her motives
political; it seems clear that Fulvia was a brutal but efficient woman who had much more fire
than Antony and knew that this was his best chance. Antony’s absence from Rome was giving
Octavian a clear shot at taking over the rapidly-failing Republic.
Lucius and Fulvia were backed in their rebellion by many landowners dispossessed by
Octavian as he sought properties for his soldiers. But Octavian made a deal with the retiring
troops (astutely allowing them to think they were taking the initiative) and raised such a large force
that the revolt failed before it even got seriously started. The conspirators were forced to flee to
Perusia, where Octavian besieged them. The rebels were starved into surrender after Agrippa cut
off their retreat, and Octavian was careful to treat the leaders kindly (even making Lucius Antony
governor of Spain) while behaving more brutally toward the lower ranks (Dio Cassius, Histories
XLVIII.14, reports that they were sacrificed to the deified Cæsar!), thus making it appear that
Antony’s friends had sold out. Fulvia fled to Antony and died; Lucius Antony was from then on a
political non-entity.
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, died 12/13 B.C.E. consul 42 B.C.E.; praetor 49 B.C.E. A minor figure
who happened to be in the right place at the right time. As praetor in 49, he had had Cæsar
proclaimed dictator (Dio Cassius, Histories XLI.36). He then served a term as governor of Spain
(48–47). As Rome’s Master of Horse (an office to which Cæsar had appointed him, replacing
Mark Antony, in about 46),1 he chanced to have an army at his back at the time of Cæsar’s
murder. As a result, he was able to exert some influence in the city in the following weeks, and
sheltered Antony after Octavian defeated him at Mutina. So Lepidus was invited to become a
member of the “Second Triumvirate” along with Antony and Octavian. Indeed, it was he who
1.!The Master of Horse, an office which existed only under Dictators, was the cavalry commander of Rome, and the
Dictator’s chief military assistant. At least, that’s how it started when Dictators were appointed to deal with
military crises. By Cæsar’s time, there were no external military crises, but there were still Masters of Horse....

arranged the truce that brought Octavian and Antony together. But somehow he never managed
to amount to much. The other two Triumvirs ignored him except when they needed him —
which wasn’t often. He was not present at Philippi, for instance.1 When Antony and Octavian
split the Republic in 40, Lepidus was given a small part of Africa while Antony and Octavian
ruled most of the world. And even such lands as he had were really controlled by Octavian. After
the fall of Sextus Pompeius, Lepidus protested the manner in which Octavian gathered powers
for himself. Octavian, not to be balked, captured and deposed Lepidus (allowing him to retain the
title of “High Priest” — an honourable but powerless office) and took over his territory (cf.
Suetonius, Augustus 16; Dio Cassius, Histories XLIX.12). The man who had once been one of the
“three pillars of the world” was now a nonentity.
Gnaeus Pompeius, died 45 B.C.E. The older son of Pompey the Great. After his father’s
defeat he and his brother Sextus Pompeius fled to Spain and tried to continue the struggle from
there. The campaign proved surprisingly difficult for Cæsar, and the Battle of Munda (45) which
concluded it nearly resulted in Cæsar’s defeat. But finally Cæsar rallied his forces, defeated his
enemies, and captured Pompey, whom he then executed. With his death, all organized opposition
to Cæsar ended.
Sextus Pompeius Magnus, 75–35 B.C.E. consul 35 B.C.E. The younger son of Pompey the
Great. Lepidus2 had him pardoned in 44 and gave him command of the fleet (Dio Cassius,
Histories XLVIII.17). But in 43 he was again indicted (by Octavian), and he started a rebellion.
He gained control of Sicily almost immediately, and his naval harassment made it difficult for the
Triumvirs to supply their scattered forces; as a result they decided to attack Brutus and Cassius at
Philippi rather then turn their attention to Sextus. Sextus used the time well, strengthening his
fleet until he could undertake a real offensive. In 40 he blockaded Rome. This blockade was so
effective that Octavian and Antony had to cut him in on their division of the Republic in 39.3 But
once he had loosened his grip, it was impossible for him to re-tighten it when the Triumvirs
backed out of their bargain. Sextus was defeated by Agrippa at the battles of Mylae and
Naulochus in 36. He fled to Antony (widely regarded as the most “Republican” of the Triumvirs,
and the one who had no direct part in Sextus’s defeat), but one of Antony’s officers killed him in
35.
1.!The excuse for this was that someone was needed to watch over Rome. Which was true enough, but logically
Octavian should have been the one to stay at home, since Antony and Lepidus both had more military
experience. But neither Antony nor Octavian was going to be left behind while the other gained military glory!
Whereas Lepidus was willing to be persuaded. He even turned certain of his troops over to his rivals to make
their positions more secure! Nor was this the first time Lepidus had been shoved aside; in 44 Antony had packed
him off to Spain to ensure that he wouldn’t interfere with Antony’s plans. Again, after Philippi, Africa was
pawned off on Lepidus, while Antony received the rich East and Octavian the turbulent (and therefore plunder-
able) West.
2.!Or someone; it is slightly unclear who procured the amnesty for Sextus. There can be little doubt, however, that
the Senate granted the amnesty during one of its cocky periods when it felt that the Republic could be restored
(e.g. after Mutina, when Antony’s position looked especially black).
3.!The formal agreement, the Treaty of Mysenum, would have given the younger Pompey official control of Sicily
(which he already had), Sardinia, Corsica, and Greece, plus money and the consulship for 33. None of the
additional lands were handed over, however, nor was he really granted consular power, and so the war soon broke
out again.

Publius Ventidius Bassus, floriut 40 B.C.E. consul suffectus1 43, 38 B.C.E. The first member of his
family to enter the Senate — and the only Roman before the Emperor Trajan to earn a triumph
against the Parthians (Plutarch, Life of Antony 34). Legend has it that Ventidius began life as a
mule trader. But under Julius Cæsar and Antony he rose in the world (he performed excellent
service in Gaul), and was given the reversion of Octavian’s consulship after the formation of the
Second Triumvirate in 43. Eventually he was given the task of expelling the Parthians from Asia
and Syria after their invasion of 40 B.C.E. He was helped by the Parthians’ temporary
abandonment of their harassing tactics, but even so his conduct of the campaign was brilliant. In
39 he drove the Roman defector Labienus out of Asia. Turning to Syria, he won a series of
battles, finally killing the Parthian prince Pacorus (BJ I.xvi.6). 2The Parthians were effectively
expelled from Roman territory, and Ventidius legitimately earned his triumph. But Ventidius was
corrupt — he extorted a fair bit of money from the Jews (BJ I.xv.2), and spared the city of
Samosata a siege in return for a bribe. So he was recalled and did not serve Rome in the field
again. (Plutarch — Life of Antony 34 — reports that he did not pursue the Parthian campaign so
as not to overshadow Antony, but money was probably a greater consideration.)
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, c. 63–12 B.C.E. consul 37, 28, 27 B.C.E. Originally a schoolmate
of Augustus/Octavian’s, he became the general who won most of the latter’s battles, including
the crucial Battle of Actium in 31. He first gained renown in the Perusine War of 41, when (as
commander of Gaul) he prevented Lucius Antony from breaking out of Italy, allowing Octavian
to trap the rebels. In 37 Octavian placed Agrippa in charge of the war against Sextus Pompeius,
which he brought to a successful conclusion at the battles of Mylae and Naulochus (36). These
successes caused Octavian to give him strategic control of the campaign against Antony, and
Agrippa exercised that control well. By a series of lightning raids and careful advances, he
completely trapped Antony and forced him to fight the Battle of Actium against very poor odds.
Octavian knew full well that it was Agrippa who had made him the master of the world, and so
made his old friend his right hand man and son-in-law. There are many examples of Augustus
sending Agrippa as his special representative to deal with various problems. Augustus also made
Agrippa his co-consul during the two years after Actium (29, 28 B.C.E.) in which Augustus
reorganized the Republic into the Principate. Agrippa was the only man Augustus trusted to help
him revise the census rolls. Eventually Augustus even gave Agrippa the same tribunician powers
that Augustus enjoyed — making him, very nearly, co-Emperor.3 Agrippa, however, died in 12
B.C.E. (the results of the strains of one of his missions for Augustus), just after receiving these
powers, and so never exercised them. Even so, two of Agrippa’s descendants (Gaius/Caligula and
Nero) would become Emperors.
Publius Canidius Crassus, died 30 B.C.E. consul suffectus 40 B.C.E. The chief general of Mark
Antony. When Antony was preparing for his great invasion of Parthia, it was Canidius whom he
dispatched to conquer Armenia (which Canidius did in 37, although he did not demand much
1.!A suffect consul was one appointed to fill out the term of a consul who had died or retired
2.!Pacorus’s father Orodes II abdicated in grief as a result, and Parthia fell into confusion for many years thereafter,
allowing Rome the leisure to engage in another civil war.
3.!In the light of this it seems nearly certain that Agrippa could have made himself Emperor had he wanted to. But
Agrippa was that highly unusual phenomenon in history, a highly capable man without real ambition.

from its king and was later disappointed by the help he provided). In 34 (as Antony tried to
mount another attack on Parthia), Canidius converted Armenia into a Roman province. In the
years preceding the Actium campaign, as Antony flitted about trying to enlist supporters, it was
Canidius who assembled Antony’s legions and led them to Asia. Unlike Ahenobarbus, he did not
at first oppose Cleopatra’s presence with the army. (Plutarch, Life of Antony 46, says Cleopatra
bribed him to support her.) As the year 31 wore on, however, and Antony was pinned down by
Octavian in Greece, he argued for a land battle on territory of Antony’s choosing. But Antony
chose a naval battle at Actium — and was defeated and put to flight, leaving Canidius to rescue
his army. Plutarch (Life of Antony 68) says that Canidius fled, leaving his army behind, but it seems
likely that this is Octavian’s propaganda and that the army sold their general out, forcing him to
flee to Egypt with only a few companions. After the capture of Alexandria, Canidius was
executed by Octavian.
Two other Roman senators are mentioned in the New Testament: Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7,
for whom cf. p. 513) and Gallio (Acts 18:12, 14, 17):
L. Junius Gallio Annæus, c. 9 B.C.E.?–66 C.E. The son of Seneca the Elder, his
brothers were Seneca (the tutor of Nero) and Mela the father of the poet Lucan. Born M.
Annæus Novatus, he gained the name Gallio when he was adopted by the rhetoretician L. Junius
Gallio after the younger man came to Rome with his father during the reign of Tiberius. He was
said to be a witty and engaging man. An inscription makes him proconsul of Achaea in 52 C.E.; it
appears he was appointed by Claudius in early 51 and resigned in late 52 because of ill health
(the climate of Greece, it is said, did not agree with him). Returning to Rome, he was suffect
consul for 55. Implicated in Seneca’s plot against Nero (65 C.E.), he was briefly pardoned but then
forced to commit suicide.
We see several Romans mentioned in the books of Maccabees:

Lucius (1 Macc. 15:16) — based on the date, perhaps Lucius Caecillius Metellus, consul 142
B.C.E., or Lucius Cornelius Piso, consul 140 B.C.E.
Titus Manius (2 Macc. 11:34) — possibly a corrupt version of Titus Manlius Torquatus,
consul 164 B.C.E.
Quintus Memmius (2 Macc. 11:34) — unknown

The History of Parthia
The Parthian Empire

The Parthian Empire was the only nation to seriously threaten the early Roman Empire. As
early as 53 B.C.E. the Parthians had slaughtered the Roman army of Crassus at Carrhae (ancient
Haran). And despite many attempts, this defeat was not fully avenged until the reign of the
Emperor Trajan in 117 C.E.
But the power of Parthia was really rather transitory. Founded in 247 B.C.E. by a rebellious
Seleucid vassal, it did not become a strong kingdom until the time of Mithridates I a century
later, and then began to fade after Augustus formed the Roman principate. Then in 227 C.E. the
Parthian dynasty (technically called the Arsacids, after Arsaces, the founder of the dynasty) was
overthrown by the Sassanids. But in the meantime the Parthians and the Romans fought many
small wars, and more than a few big ones. To make matters worse, the advantage generally lay
with the Parthians (since their cavalry and mounted archers could easily outmaneuver the Roman
infantry). As a result, Rome’s eastern provinces — including Palestine and Syria — were under
constant threat of Parthian invasion.
Parthia, unlike Rome, was not a centralized state, but rather a federation of small kingdoms.
This probably meant that conditions for the subject peoples were relatively good — but it makes
life miserable for the historian. Like its predecessor the Persian Empire, it had no historians of its
own that we know of — and unlike Persia, it had no Herodotus to preserve its early history. Our
literary evidence is confined to the incomplete and tangential references made in Greek and
Roman chronicles. So all history of Parthia is vague. Almost none of the dates given in the
narrative below are firm. Indeed, the names and relationships of the Parthian kings themselves
are often vague; being of Scythian (nomadic) ancestry, they saw no reason to keep historical
records. What follows is only a sketch, concerned mostly with the relations between the Parthians
and their Greek, Roman, and Jewish neighbours. I wish it could be fuller.
In the list below, the names of the Parthian monarchs are given in Small Caps; I give dates of
reign when I can — which isn’t all that often.
Date Event
c. 247 B.C.E. ARSACES (I), born c. 280 B.C.E., drives the Seleucid governor Andragoras from the
region of Astavene, establishing the Parthian dynasty. At the same time the region
of Bactria gains independence under Diodotus.1 The Seleucid Emperors Antiochus
II and Seleucus II, faced with civil wars and the ongoing conflict with Egypt, are
unable to suppress either revolt.
c. 235 TIRIDATES I brother of ARSACES I2 conquers all of Parthia and Hyrcania, founding
a true Parthian kingdom.
209 The Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III sets out on a campaign (until 204) to
reconquer the east. He is so successful that he earns the title “the Great”. In 209 he
defeats PRIAPATIUS the successor of TIRIDATES, making Parthia once again a client-
1.!It is possible that Diodotus did not really intend revolt. The son of another Diodotus, he had just become satrap
of Bactria when the Parthian rebellion cut Bactria off from the Seleucid domains. Out of contact with Antioch,
Diodotus probably had only two choices: To declare independence or be overrun by the Parthians.
2.!Some think that TIRIDATES was not truly the brother of ARSACES, but that this is a throne-name of this first true
Parthian king.

state of the Seleucid Empire. But Antiochus does not have enough Greek servants
to be able to garrison the eastern provinces; the oriental kingdoms — including
Parthia — remain in the hands of their native chieftains, and are able to break
away after Antiochus’s defeat by the Romans at Magnesia in 190.
171–138 MITHRIDATES I.
c. 160 MITHRIDATES I firmly establishes the Parthian Empire by capturing Media from the
Seleucids (now occupied by the civil wars between Antiochus V and Demetrius I).
before 141 MITHRIDATES I captures Babylonia from the Seleucids due to their weakness
resulting from the civil wars of Demetrius I, Alexander Balas, and Demetrius II.
140/139 The Seleucid Demetrius II sets out to reconquer Babylonia (1 Macc. 14:1) —
despite the fact that the courtier Trypho has made himself king and is in control of
Antioch. MITHRIDATES I (called ARSACES [VI] in 1 Macc. 14:2–3) captures the
Seleucid and keeps him as prisoner for some ten years. The imprisonment is not
burdensome — in fact Demetrius is allowed to marry the Parthian’s daughter —
but it clearly established that the balance of power had shifted from the Seleucids to
the Parthians.
138–124? PHRAATES I son of MITHRIDATES I.
130/129 The Seleucid Antiochus VII Sidetes recaptures Babylonia from PHRAATES I.
PHRAATES is frightened enough to negotiate, but Antiochus makes exorbitant
demands — equivalent to those made by Antiochus III in the previous century —
and PHRAATES continues the war, releasing Demetrius II to further weaken the
Seleucid cause. Antiochus is not distracted, but eventually is outmaneuvered. His
army is decimated, he himself is killed, and the Seleucids are driven from Babylonia
forever.
124–87 MITHRIDATES II.
c. 100 The armies of MITHRIDATES II reach the Euphrates, which will form the basic
border with the Seleucid and Roman Empires for the rest of those nations’
histories.
88 The armies of MITHRIDATES II capture Demetrius III, one of three Seleucid
pretenders at the time.
57 Overthrow of PHRAATES III. PHRAATES had made an agreement with the Romans
under Pompey, and the Romans were slow to fulfill their promises. An irritated
Parthian populus gradually turned rebellious, and PHRAATES is murdered by his
son, who takes the throne as MITHRIDATES III.
54 ORODES II (Hyrodes), the brother of MITHRIDATES III, murders his brother and
seizes the throne.
53 The Roman Triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus leads an army against Parthia. The
army of ORODES II routs the army and kills its commander at Carrhae in what is
arguably the worst defeat for Roman forces since the battle of Cannae in 216.
41–40 Parthian armies led by the Roman defector Quintius Labienus (who had been sent
to the Parthians as a Republican ambassador and decided to remain in the east
after his cause was destroyed at Philippi) and the Parthian prince Pacorus (son of

ORODES II) attack the Roman frontier. All of Syria and Asia Minor are captured.
(The Judean prince Phasael is killed and his brother Herod is forced to flee to
Rome. The Hasmonean Antigonus Mattathias becomes puppet king of Judea.)
39 The Roman Publius Ventidius Bassus attacks Labienus. He quickly drives the
Parthians out of Asia Minor.
38 Ventidius moves his armies into Syria to attack Pacorus. The Parthians are defeated
in three battles, and Pacorus is killed in the final battle (Mount Gindarus, June 9, 38
B.C.E.). The Parthians are driven from Roman lands. Orodes II abdicates from grief
over the defeat and loss of his son.
c. 38–2 PHRAATES IV (second son of ORODES II)
38 PHRAATES IV, to secure his throne, kills some thirty relatives (including his father!)
36 Mark Antony leads a Roman army into Parthia. Like Crassus before him, he is
heavily defeated — largely due to his own stupidity, since he started his campaign
late in the season and deliberately left his slow-moving siege train behind for the
Parthians to destroy. Although Antony did not lose any pitched battles (since none
were fought), and unlike Crassus he survived his debácle, he took no territory and lost
many troops to desertion, harsh terrain and weather, and enemy harassment.
c. 31 A rebellion forces PHRAATES IV into exile and briefly brings TIRIDATES II to the
throne.
c. 25 PHRAATES IV returns from exile and again seizes power. TIRIDATES II spends the
rest of his life in Roman exile.
c. 2 B.C.E. PHRAATES IV is murdered by his wife to secure the succession of PHRAATES V.
c. 6–7 C.E. ORODES III.
c. 8–11 VONONES I. He was the oldest son of PHRAATES IV, and had been sent to Rome as
an ambassador/guest/hostage (Tacitus, Annals II.1ƒ.) When his father and close
relatives had destroyed each other, VONONES was called back (with Roman
approval) to take the throne. But he proved so un-Parthian (for instance, he was not
a horse-lover) that a new resistance movement soon arose. Vonones fled to Armenia
(to be briefly acclaimed its king!) and was replaced by
11–38 ARTABANUS III.
35 A group of disgruntled Parthian noblemen, abetted by Rome, attempt to place
PHRAATES VI, the Roman-educated son of PHRAATES IV, on the throne. But
PHRAATES dies before civil war becomes widespread. Another Roman pretender,
TIRIDATES III (35–36) is then dispatched.
38–40 GOTARZES II. Son of ARTABANUS III. Soon after his accession, he murders his
brother Artabanus. In consequence, his brother Vardanes rises in rebellion. The
two brothers (according to Tacitus, Annals XI.8) are reconciled when Gotarzes foils
a conspiracy against Vardanes (!). But it is agreed that GOTARZES will abdicate and
accept a lesser post, while Vardanes became…
40–46 VARDANES I. After a fairly successful military career, he turns overbearing and is
assassinated. So Gotarzes returns to the throne.

46–51 GOTARZES II restored. On his restoration, he proves as arrogant as his brother, and
engaged in the common Parthian occupation of kin-murder. As a result, yet
another delegation goes to Rome to look far a replacement — in this case,
Meherdates son of VONONES I. Gotarzes fights off the usurper, but dies soon after,
and is succeeded by the king of Media Atropatene, who becomes…
51 VONONES II. He is succeeded by his illegitimate son…
51–77 VOLOGESES I.
114 The Roman Emperor Trajan invades and conquers western Parthia.
118 The Roman Emperor Hadrian, considering Trajan’s conquests to be too hard to
control due to their distance from Rome, concludes a treaty with the Parthians and
restoring the conquered territories.
194 The Parthians support the Roman pretender Pescennius Niger against Septimius
Severus. Severus defeats his opponent in that year and turns against Parthia. By
early 196 Severus has gained control of much of Mesopotamia and fortified Nisibis.
Severus then turns west to deal with other pretenders. The Parthians attempt a
counterattack, and Severus replies by annexing Mesopotamia and attacking the
imperial strongholds of Seleucia and Ctesiphon in 198. The Arsacid dynasty is
seriously weakened.
c. 227 The Arsacid dynasty of Parthia comes to an end when ARTABANUS V is defeated
and displaced by the Sassanid Ardashir (227–241).
Armenia
Roman (debatable)
Empire
Parthian
Empire
Captured by Trajan 115
Ceded to Parthia 118
Recaptured by Severus 198
Figure 30: Parthia and Rome

Herods and Maccabees
The Maccabean and

Herodian Families

The Rise of the Maccabean and

Herodian Families
When Antiochus IV Epiphanes became Seleucid Emperor in 175 B.C.E., Judah had been
under foreign domination for more than four hundred years. The Jews had come to accept
foreign kings. But no foreigner treated them like Antiochus did! He bought and sold the High
Priesthood, and when the people ventured to object, he set out to destroy the Jewish faith and
defile the Temple. Many devout Jews accepted martyrdom rather than have their faith polluted.
But one pious family, the Hasmoneans (popularly called “Maccabees” after Judas Maccabeus), set
out to resist. In 168 the patriarch of the clan, the priest Mattathias (1), slaughtered a Seleucid
officer and took to the hills. Although he died soon after, his sons, led by Judas Maccabeus,
carried on the resistance and soon began to win noteworthy victories. In 165/4 Judas was able to
cleanse and restore the Temple. But he was killed in 160. His brother Jonathan then took charge
of the revolt, and was made High Priest in 152. When Jonathan was taken hostage and killed in
142, a third Hasmonean brother, Simon, took charge of the Jewish revolt. It was he who won
formal independence for Judah and established the Hasmonean Dynasty.
But the Hasmoneans did not retain their lofty ideals for long. Simon’s grandson Alexander
Janneus was a cruel despot who was as much Greek as Jewish. After his death in 76 B.C.E. and his
wife’s death in 67, his sons John Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II went to war. The war was not
settled until Romans under Pompey conquered Judah in 63. They officially made John Hyrcanus
king, but kept him under a close watch.
Prominent among Hyrcanus’s partisans was an Idumean, Antipater. It was he who had
engineered the Roman intervention in the first place, and the Romans made sure that he had
effective control of Judea.
Then in 43 Antipater was assassinated. His sons Phasael and Herod tried to keep the nation
under control, but Antigonus Mattathias (the son of Aristobulus II) was determined to retrieve his
family’s fortunes, and called in the Parthian Empire to help him do it. Phasael was killed in 40,
and the Romans were expelled from Judea.
Herod fled to Rome, and eventually was made king of Judea in place of Hyrcanus (whose
granddaughter he married around this time). In 37 the Romans expelled the Parthians from
Judea, and Herod became King in fact. The Hasmonean dynasty was at an end. Herod himself
would rule until 4 B.C.E., and Herodian rulers remained in power until around 100 C.E. It was his
family that ruled Palestine during most of the New Testament period; Herod himself died shortly
after Jesus’s birth, and his son Herod Antipas still ruled Galilee at the time Jesus conducted his
ministry. In the list below, entries marked * describe persons mentioned in the New Testament.

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Absalom: “The uncle and… father-in-law of Aristobulus [II]” (Ant XIV.iv.4). We are told
that he was taken prisoner when Pompey’s Roman army captured Jerusalem (BJ I.vii.6). He may
have been the brother “held in honour” by ALEXANDER JANNEUS for avoiding politics (BJ I.iv.1).
It is also possible that his family is condemned in the Qumran Commentary on Habbakuk (note
on 1:13b) for refusing to aid the Teacher of Righteousness. (This is probable only if Alexander
Janneus is the Wicked Priest; see below.)
Excursus: The Wicked Priest

Several Qumran fragments include references to a “Wicked Priest” (e.g. the Commentary on
Habakkuk in the remarks on 2:5–6ƒ.– §8ƒ.) While we cannot be sure who this is, the candidates fall
into three groups: the later Oniads (Onias III, Jason, Menelaus); Alcimus; or the Maccabeans
(Jonathan, Simon, John Hyrcanus I, Alexander Janneus, Hyrcanus II). Most would consider the
Oniads too early. Alcimus is also rather early, although his slaughter of the proto-Pharisees
(1!Macc. 7:12–18) fits in with the Qumran account (Commentary on Psalm 37, verses 32–33, etc.) of
the Wicked Priest’s attack on the Teacher of Righteousness. Even so, most commentators look for
the “Wicked Priest” among the Maccabeans. Some consider Jonathan and/or Simon to be the
“Wicked Priest.” After all, their ambitions did arouse intense opposition. Simon’s son John
Hyrcanus I must also have aroused suspicions, since he was less conservative (and even more
expansionist) than his predecessors. But there can be no doubt that Janneus was the most anti-
traditional of the Maccabean rulers. Admittedly most scholars date the settlement at Qumran
well before his time — but the main influx of pilgrims may have occurred during his reign
(Qumran seems to have been sparsely settled during its early years), and his character certainly
fits the description “Wicked Priest.”
Making things even more interesting is the fact that a recently published Qumran scroll
(4Q448) is a hymn in praise of King Jonathan. It has been argued that this must be Janneus since
the Jews had no other King named Jonathan. (I consider this conclusion unjustified. Admittedly
Jonathan Maccabee’s Judea was not officially independent, and — according to 1!Maccabees,
followed by Josephus — he never called himself king. But even Janneus tended to avoid the title
“king” as offensive. Jonathan ruled an effectively independent Judea, and his followers could well
have addressed him as king. And Jonathan, unlike Janneus, was at least occasionally worthy of
praise. Besides, if Jonathan were the “Wicked Priest,” would the Qumran community have sung
a hymn in honour of his grand-nephew Janneus? For that matter, the community of the scrolls
demanded strict obedience to the “sons of Zadok,” and the Maccabees were not descendants of
Zadok. Also, in the third century the Zadokite High Priests were effective rulers of Judah, and
the list of priests in Josephus — the only information we have for this period — is almost
certainly defective. Jaddua very possibly might have had a son Jonathan, named for his
grandfather, who could be the “King Jonathan” of the hymn).
(As another aside, Aristobulus III was apparently called “Jonathan.” He could hardly be the
Wicked Priest. Could he be the “King Jonathan” who was praised? He was never king, and he
lived awfully late; it seems unlikely.)

The solution to this riddle depends very much on the date and source of the scrolls. Were the
authors Essenes, Sadducees, Zealots, or something else? The Damascus Document (ch. 1) dates the
founding of the sect to “390 years after God gave [the Jews] into the hands of
Nebuchadnezzar” (i.e. probably 197/6 B.C.E. but perhaps as early as 215), and dates the
“Teacher of Righteousness” twenty years later. But even if this dating is exact — and there is
clear evidence that contemporary Jews did not know how long the Second Temple period lasted! — that
does not date the Qumran texts themselves. There is no longer a scholarly consensus; we must
await developments.
Abubus: The father of PTOLEMY. Ptolemy was the son-in-law of SIMON the son of
MATTATHIAS (1); he killed his father-in-law and brothers-in-law JUDAS (2) and MATTATHIAS (2)
and unsuccessfully sought to assume their titles. 1 Macc. 16:11.
*Agrippa I: NT f!g9;#; Josephus h6!1""-#. The son of ARISTOBULUS (#4) the son of
Mariamme and Herod. Properly named Herod Agrippa I. Although he was a descendent of
Herod and of Herod’s sister SALOME (1), he was also a descendent of the Maccabees. This meant
that both Romans and Jews considered him an acceptable ruler. Being too young to succeed his
grandfather Herod when that king died, Agrippa was sent to Rome for an education. While there
he found himself deep in debt, for he was generous and profligate (Ant XVIII.vi.1). For a time he
turned to wandering (Ant XVIII.vi.2ƒ.) and even considered suicide. Finally he returned to the
Capital to try to rebuild his career (Ant XVIII.vi.3). While there, he became a friend of the future
emperors Gaius (Caligula) and Claudius (Ant XVIII.vi.4 says he was brought up with Claudius).
Toward the end of the reign of Tiberius, deep in debt, he was accused of treason (Ant
XVIII.vi.6). But when Gaius came to the throne, he freed Agrippa and gave him the kingdom of
his half-uncle Philip “the Tetrarch” (in 37 — Ant XVIII.vi.10, BJ II.ix.6). Soon after, the
Emperor went mad and tried to desecrate the Jerusalem Temple. Agrippa, then living in Rome,
protested, and (at great risk to himself) convinced Gaius to rescind the order (Ant XVIII.viii.8).
Still, Gaius brooked no opposition and bitterly condemned the Roman commander who
hesitated to follow his orders. Agrippa could well have been his next victim. But Gaius was
assassinated, and Claudius succeeded him. Agrippa, moreover, supported his accession (indeed,
according to BJ II.xi.2, he was Claudius’s emissary to the Senate). The new Emperor soon (in 41
C.E.) promoted Agrippa to rule a kingdom that almost equalled his grandfather Herod’s (Ant
XIX.v.1). Greek sources report that Claudius even made Agrippa a senator and consul. Some
time after this, Agrippa killed James the son of Zebedee and imprisoned Peter (Acts 12:1–5). But
generally he was kind to all parties and observed Jewish customs carefully (Ant XIX.vii.3ƒ.). It is
possible that if Agrippa had lived, he would have prevented the Jewish revolt of 66 C.E. — which
might have meant the end of Christianity. But Agrippa died in 44 at the age of 54 (as the people
proclaimed him a God, or at least a true Jew — Acts 12:20–23, Ant XIX.viii.2, BJ II.xi.6. The
Mishnah also calls him a true Jew, despite his Edomite ancestry).
Agrippa left a son, AGRIPPA II (another son, Drusus, died young) and three daughters,
BERNICE, DRUSILLA, and MARIAMME (3). He is called Herod in the New Testament, while
Josephus prefers Agrippa, but both names are correct. Acts 12:1–23.

*Agrippa II: NT h6!1""-#. The son of HEROD AGRIPPA I. When his father died, Agrippa
II was too young to succeed him (he was then seventeen — Ant XIX.ix.1). But he was later given
the kingdom of Chalcis in the region of Syria north of Judea (previously ruled by his uncle
HEROD — BJ II.xii.1). It was he, along with his sister BERNICE with whom he was rumoured to
have an incestuous relationship, before whom Paul was tried in 60 C.E. (Acts 25:13–26:32 —
Agrippa declared Paul innocent). Agrippa opposed the revolt of the Jews in 66, but was unable to
prevent it. He nonetheless kept his throne until he died around 100, though he and Berenice may
have moved to Rome in 75. He never married, and so left no heir. Although he was as much an
Idumean as a Judean by ancestry and not an observant Jew, he seems to have been the Romans’
chief expert on Judaism. Like his father, his proper name was Herod Agrippa. But he is called
“Agrippa” in the New Testament, whereas his father was “Herod.” Acts 25:13–26:32.
Alexander (1): The older son of Aristobulus II, who was the younger son of Alexander
Janneus. When his father rebelled against John Hyrcanus II, and was defeated and taken to
Rome, Alexander was to have come with him. But the boy escaped and raised a rebellion which
was easily put down by the Roman Aulus Gabinius (BJ I.viii.2ƒ.). In 52 he took as a wife his first
cousin ALEXANDRA (2), the daughter of Hyrcanus. They had one son, ARISTOBULUS III, and at
least two daughters, the older of whom was Herod’s wife MARIAMME, while the younger
daughter became the wife of Herod’s brother PHERORAS. In 49 B.C.E., Alexander and his father
Aristobulus again rebelled against the rule of Hyrcanus, Antipater, and Rome. They were
defeated and executed.
Alexander (2): The second son of HEROD the Great. He was Herod’s oldest child by his
beloved second wife, the Maccabean MARIAMME. Alexander’s wife was GLAPHYRA, the daughter of
Archelaus king of Cappadocia. Their sons were Tigranes1 (who briefly became king of Armenia)
and Alexander. Alexander Senior received a Roman education, along with his brother
ARISTOBULUS (4). He spent most of his later years under the watchful eye of his father, who
suspected him of treason. As early as 12 B.C.E. Herod accused him of attempted assassination (BJ
I.xxiii.3), although Augustus Cæsar managed to patch the rift temporarily. Eventually, as a result
of the machinations of Herod’s oldest but less-favoured son ANTIPATER (2), Alexander and his full
brother ARISTOBULUS (4) were executed after a kangaroo trial in 7 or 6 B.C.E. (Ant XVI.xi.7, BJ
I.xxvii.6). According to Ant XVII.xii.1, BJ II.xii.1, after Herod’s death a Palestinian double of
Alexander tried to claim the throne, announcing that the prince’s death had been faked.
Although many believed him and supported his cause, the emperor Augustus exposed him and
sent him to the galleys (Ant XVII.xii.2).
1.!Josephus in Ant XVIII.v.4 (§140) seems to report that Alexander had two sons named Tigranes, both of whom
became King of Armenia! On the other hand, in BJ I.vvviii.1 we find only one son named Tigranes and another
named Alexander (so also §139 of Ant XVIII.v.4). The most logical supposition is that the first Tigranes was the
son of Herod’s son Alexander and the second the nephew of the first, Tigranes son of Alexander son of
Alexander. This hypothesis has some support from Tacitus, who reports the prosecution of the elder Tigranes
(Tigranes IV) by Tiberius in 36 (Tacitus, Annals VI.40; compare Ant XVIII.v.4). In Annals XIV.26 Tacitus notes
the appointment of Tigranes (V) as king of Armenia, nominated by Nero, in about 60 C.E. This king is called the
great-grandson of Archelaus of Cappadocia by Tacitus, which would only be true if the second Tigranes were a
generation after the first.
The second Tigranes, as noted, was given the Armenian throne by the Romans c. 60. In 61 the Parthians made
an attempt to unseat him (Tacitus, Annals XV.1-30), but he was apparently able to hold his throne.

Alexander Janneus: The third son of John Hyrcanus I. His father had originally named
him Jonathan (or Jannai), but this was Hellenized to become Janneus, and he added the name
Alexander. When his older brother Aristobulus I died in 103 B.C.E. (having previously executed
the second brother, ANTIGONUS), Janneus married his widow, ALEXANDRA (1), and assumed power.
Curiously, he seems to have been neither a Pharisee nor a Hellenist. This failure to align himself
with either major faction of the period led to bitter opposition to his policies, which he stamped
out brutally. A very ambitious man, few were able to stand against him. Some think that the
militant Psalm 2 describes him. He was constantly fighting wars with his neighbours — and
generally losing the battles but somehow coming out ahead anyway. For instance, he attacked
Ptolemais and the Egyptian Ptolemy IX Lathyrus. Lathyrus had been driven from Egypt by his
mother Cleopatra III and his younger brother Ptolemy X Alexander. Lathyrus tried to recoup his
losses by conquering Judea in 102, and heavily defeated Janneus. But Cleopatra’s army drove
Lathyrus out of Palestine. And Egypt did not annex Palestine because the Egyptian general,
Ananias (son of the “High Priest” Onias IV) was Jewish. So Janneus lost nothing in his disastrous
war. When he died, Judea ruled a region almost as large as the empire of David. But his reign
was not always peaceful for the Jews at home. A failed attack on the Arabs (BJ I.iv.4) led to a
revolt against him in 94. Helped by the Seleucid Emperor Demetrius III, the opposition all but
destroyed Janneus’s armies in 88. This left the people with two bad choices: to be ruled by the
Seleucids or by Janneus. They hesitated long enough that the king was able to regroup and crush
the rebellion, crucifying the leaders and murdering their families before their dying eyes (Ant
XIII.xiv.2). But ultimately his cruelty and lavish life-style took their toll, for he died in 76 at the
age of forty-nine after some years of sickness (Ant XIII.xv.4). He had two sons, John Hyrcanus II
and Aristobulus II. But he did not trust either one, and left the rule of Judea in the hands of his
wife Alexandra when he died.
It seems a near-certainty that Janneus is mentioned in the Qumran fragments, but the role he
plays is uncertain; see the excursus on the “Wicked Priest” above.
Alexandra (1): Called Salome in Hebrew. The wife of ARISTOBULUS I and then of
ALEXANDER JANNEUS. When Aristobulus died, it was apparently Alexandra who placed Janneus
on the throne (BJ I.iv.1). Despite being apparently older than her husbands (Ant XIII.xvi.6), she
managed to outlive both. Her children (both by Janneus) were JOHN HYRCANUS II and
ARISTOBULUS II. When Janneus died, she became the ruler of Judea until her death in 67 B.C.E.
Janneus’s decision to make her his successor seems to have been wise, since she was a gentle and
law-abiding ruler (BJ I.v.1) whereas her sons began a civil war immediately after she died. She
had sought to follow a policy of moderation, after a brief time of pro-Pharisaism,1 but the only
result was that her younger son Aristobulus rebelled.
Alexandra (2): The daughter of JOHN HYRCANUS II. She married her first cousin
ALEXANDER (1); they had a son, ARISTOBULUS III, and two daughters. HEROD, as part of his
campaign to exterminate the Maccabees, had killed Aristobulus in 35 and Hyrcanus in 30; he
killed Alexandra in 28. Her husband had been killed by the Romans in 49.
1.!In BJ I.v.2 Josephus says the Pharisaic party “grew as she grew.”

Antigonus: The second son of JOHN HYRCANUS I. When ARISTOBULUS I came to the throne,
he gave Antigonus high honours (although he imprisoned his other brothers). But Aristobulus
later was tricked into having Antigonus executed on a false charge of treason (Ant XIII.xi.2).
Antigonus Mattathias: The younger son of ARISTOBULUS II. In 40 B.C.E. he rebelled
against his uncle JOHN HYRCANUS II. He even has Hyrcanus mutilated, so that the latter could no
longer serve as High Priest. With the support of the Parthians (whom he offered a large bribe; Ant
XIV.xiii.3; compare BJ I.xiii.1, where another offered the bribe on his behalf), he set himself up
as High Priest and King of Judea.1 But HEROD, though he was pushed out of the country for two
years, was able to regain his throne — with support from the Roman Mark Antony — after
Ventidius defeated the Parthians. After troops led by Herod and the Roman Gaius Sosius
recaptured Jerusalem in 37 (or possibly 36), Antigonus was sent to Mark Antony as a prisoner.
Herod then persuaded (bribed?) Antony into executing him (Ant XIV.xvi.4, BJ I.xviii.3; cf. Dio
Cassius, Histories XLIX.22) rather than allowing him to present his case to the Senate (Ant
XIV.xvi.4).
Antipas: see Herod Antipas.
Antipater (1): A man of Idumea (Edom). He was a strong supporter of JOHN HYRCANUS II
in the latter’s civil war with ARISTOBULUS II. His first major act was to convince the Nabatean
Arabs to take up arms against Aristobulus (Ant XIV.ii.1). But the Romans were arriving in the
area (Ant XIV.ii.3), and when the Arabs were defeated (BJ I.vi.3), Antipater turned to them (BJ
I.vi.4). It was Antipater who engineered the Roman intervention that resulted in the capture of
Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 B.C.E. Hyrcanus was restored to his throne, but Rome saw to it that
Antipater was the real ruler of Judea. And he ruled well. His powers were originally small, for the
Maccabean Empire was divided into five small provinces (centered around Jerusalem, Jericho,
Sepphoris in Galilee, Amathus in the Trans-Jordan, and Gazara/Gezer). But Antipater
supported first Aulus Gabinius (Ant XIV.vi.2) and then Julius Cæsar so effectively during their
Egyptian campaigns that Caesar reunited the Jewish realm and placed it under Hyrcanus II — in
effect, making Antipater the king (BJ I.x.3). But the Idumean was assassinated in 43 (by poison
inflicted by a man who thought him too pro-Roman — Ant XIV.xi.4, BJ I.xi.4). The result was six
years of chaos that did not end until Antipater’s son HEROD became king of Judea. Antipater had
a brother, Phallion, who was killed in 65. He had a daughter SALOME (1) by his wife CYPROS (1),
and four sons: PHASAEL (#1), Herod, JOSEPH, and PHERORAS.
Antipater (2): The grandson of #1, he was the oldest son of HEROD the Great (by his first
wife DORIS — BJ I.xxviii.4). When Herod married MARIAMME (1), Antipater and Doris were all
but disinherited. But Antipater wormed his way back into favour after his stepmother’s death (in
this he received a good deal of help from courtiers who slandered his younger brothers — BJ
I.xxiii.1). He was able to arouse Herod’s suspicions against the king’s sons by Mariamme,
Aristobulus (4) and ALEXANDER (2), to such an extent that Herod had them executed in 7 or 6
B.C.E. Antipater then briefly became Herod’s heir. But Herod eventually realized the treachery of
Antipater, and had him executed in 4 B.C.E. (Ant XVII.vii.1). Herod himself died just five days
later (Ant XVII.viii.1, BJ I.xxxiii.8).
1.!This account is corroborated in Dio Cassius’s secular account (Histories XLVIII.41, XLIX.22; XLVIII.26 gives
more detail but lists the by-then-dead Aristobulus rather than his son as ruler of Judah)

Antonius Felix: See Marcus Antonius FELIX.

*Archelaus: Greek h!Ni%-8#. The elder son of HEROD the Great by his Samaritan wife
MALTHACE (Ant XVII.i.3, BJ I.xxviii.4). Along with his younger full brother HEROD ANTIPAS, he
was brought up in Rome by a Jew. Herod seems to have ignored Archelaus until just before his
death. But when the old king lay dying, he executed his oldest son ANTIPATER (2) on a (justified)
charge of treason. This forced Herod to alter his will. The major beneficiary of this was
Archelaus, who was given control of Judea and Samaria. (Actually, Herod had designated
Archelaus as his sole heir, but an appeal by Herod Antipas to Augustus Cæsar led to Antipas and
PHILIP “THE TETRARCH” being granted small portions of Herod’s territories — Ant XVII.xi.4, BJ
II.vi.3; the division is also briefly mentioned in Tacitus, Histories V.9. Some see a parallel to Luke
19:12ƒ. — the parable of the pounds/minas — in which a nobleman goes to another country to
receive a kingdom.) In his ten years’ rule Archelaus did the impossible: He caused the Jews and
Samaritans to agree on something: hating him (cf. BJ II.vii.3). They protested his misdeeds so
loudly that Rome was forced to depose him.1 Archelaus was exiled to Gaul in 6 C.E. (Ant
XVII.xiii.2, XVIII.ii.1), where he died about twelve years after his deposition. Matt. 2:22.
Aristobulus I: The oldest son of JOHN HYRCANUS I. He was also called Judas (Ant XX.x.4);
this was probably his Hebrew name and Aristobulus the Greek name. He was the first of the
Maccabees to officially be called king as well as High Priest (Ant XIII.xi.1, XX.x.4, BJ I.iii.1) — a
fact which did not endear him to the Pharisees, for they felt that the king must be a descendent of
David. (The Maccabees were Levites.) When he came to the throne, he gave his brother
ANTIGONUS great honours, but threw his other brothers into prison and starved his mother to
death (BJ I.iii.1). Even Antigonus was executed soon afterward on a false charge of treason (Ant
XIII.xi.2, BJ I.iii.2). Aristobulus died of disease after only about a year of rule, in 103 B.C.E. Both
his crown and his wife ALEXANDRA (1) passed to his brother ALEXANDER JANNEUS, for Aristobulus
died childless. Even so, his reign could be regarded as a success by Jewish patriots, for he captured
and organized Galilee as a Jewish province. Legend has it that he was known as
“Philhellene” (“Lover of the Greek” — Ant XIII.xi.3) for his hellenizing tendencies.
Aristobulus II: The younger son of ALEXANDER JANNEUS. The older son was JOHN
HYRCANUS II, who received the High Priesthood after Janneus’s death in 76 B.C.E. But it was
Janneus’s widow ALEXANDRA (1) who ruled the country. Alexandra’s moderate, pro-Pharisaic
policy caused Aristobulus (whom Josephus in BJ I.v.1 calls a “hot-head”) to turn against her, so
that when she died, Aristobulus and Hyrcanus both claimed the throne. Indeed, Aristobulus
rebelled even before his mother died (BJ I.v.4) He was much more forceful than his older brother,
and gained both the throne and the High Priesthood. Hyrcanus’s follower ANTIPATER (1)
responded by calling in Roman help (c. 65; Ant XIV.ii.3; the Roman general Pompey had already
taken Syria in 64 and was working his way toward Palestine), but Aristobulus was able to gain the
1.!Archelaus’s bad character is shown by the one New Testament reference to him. When Joseph was returning to
Palestine from Egypt, he was unwilling to live in Judea because it was ruled by Archelaus — Matt. 2:22. Joseph’s
attitude is understandable, since Archelaus’s first act upon assuming power was to massacre a crowd of
demonstrators (BJ II.i.3). In addition, Archelaus illegally married Glaphyra, the widow of his half-brother
Alexander; Ant XVII.xiii.1. BJ II.ii.3 gives the impression that he was disliked by most of his courtiers as well.

favour of Pompey’s legate Marcus Aemilius Scaurus.1 If Aristobulus had been patient, he
probably would have kept his ill-gained post, since he had both the resources and the willingness
to offer a large bribe (BJ I.vi.3, but cf. I.vi.6, where the people refuse to pay the bribe). But he
would not wait while the Roman weighed the claims of the two princes against the Pharisaic wish
to end Maccabean rule, and took refuge in Alexandrium. Then he began to waffle, alternating
between trying to win Pompey over and trying to entrench himself more firmly. At last Pompey
decided to act and attacked Aristobulus in Jerusalem. Though the citizens gave up the city and its
master, the core of Aristobulus’s supporters holed up in the Temple (BJ I.vii.2) and had to be
besieged. Pompey took Aristobulus to Rome on his return (Ant XIV.iv.5, BJ I.vii.7), but his son
ALEXANDER (1) escaped and revolted again (with no greater success — BJ I.xiii.2. Josephus claims
that Julius Cæsar had freed and supported Aristobulus in hope that he would free Syria from
Pompey’s supporters, but the Pompeians poisoned him — Ant XIV.vii.4, BJ I.ix.1; cf. Dio Cassius,
Histories XLI.18). Aristobulus escaped in 56 (BJ I.viii.6), and he and his son raised their standard
together in 49, but were defeated and executed.
Aristobulus III: The son of ALEXANDER (1) and ALEXANDRA (2), he united the claims of the
Aristobulean and Hyrcanean branches of the Maccabees. He was also the last heir male of the
Maccabean family. Called “Jonathan” in BJ I.xxii.2. After the mutilation of JOHN HYRCANUS II
in 40 B.C.E. and the death of ANTIGONUS MATTATHIAS in 37, Aristobulus — said to have been a
very handsome and engaging young man — was made High Priest. But HEROD, who was
exterminating the Maccabees, had the teenager executed in 35 as a threat to the Herodian
kingdom (the report is that Herod caused him to be drowned in what appeared to be an accident
while playing in a swimming pool — Ant XV.iii.3).
Aristobulus (4): The second son of HEROD the Great by his Maccabean wife MARIAMME (1).
He married BERNICE (2) the daughter of SALOME (1), Herod’s sister (Ant XVI.i.2). Their children
were HEROD AGRIPPA I, HEROD of Chalcis, and HERODIAS. Aristobulus was expected to be one
of Herod’s heirs, and hence received a Roman education. But ANTIPATER (2) so poisoned Herod’s
opinion of his sons that Herod had Aristobulus executed, along with his brother ALEXANDER (2),
after a kangaroo trial in 7 or 6 B.C.E. (BJ I.xxvii.2–6, etc.)
Aristobulus (5): the son of HEROD of Chalcis. He was the second husband of SALOME (2)
the daughter of Herodias; their children were Herod, Agrippa, and Aristobulus (Ant XVIII.v.4).
In 54 C.E. the Emperor Nero made him King of Armenia Minor (Ant XX.viii.4).
Azariah: A possible son of Mattathias (1), mentioned only in some texts of 2 Macc. 8:23.
But this is probably an error for ELEAZAR (which see), the name used in the Greek manuscripts.
Berenice: See BERNICE.
1.!Scaurus is apparently mentioned in the Qumran fragment 4Q324, under the title “Aemilius,” as a killer of Jews.
Scaurus was the first Roman governor of Syria (63-61 B.C.E., followed by Marcius Philippus (61-60), Lentullus
Marcellinus (59-58), and Aulus Gabinius (57-54; it was Gabinius who suppressed the revolt of Aristobulus’s son
Alexander and led the Roman intervention in 55. For his career see p. 418). After that, the triumvir Marcus
Crassus, who was killed at the battle of Carrhae, was in charge 54-53 (see p. 416).

*Bernice (1): Often called Berenice.1 The sister of HEROD AGRIPPA II. She always travelled
with him, and was so often seen with him that it was said that she had an incestuous relationship
with him. And it is true enough that she did not remarry for a long time after her husband died
(Ant XX.vii.3). But such gossip surrounded her, and not too surprisingly; her life was full of
scandal for other reasons. She was, for instance, married for a time to her uncle HEROD of
Chalcis (Ant XIX.v.1). In 69 C.E., while Titus was conducting the siege of Jerusalem, Bernice was
said to have had an affair with him. (So, e.g., Tacitus, Histories II.2; Suetonius, Titus 7.) This seems
unlikely — Titus was the son of the new Emperor Vespasian, and about a dozen years younger
than Bernice. But she came from a family of very beautiful women. In the New Testament, she
appears along with Agrippa II at the trial of Paul. She is said to have moved to Rome along with
Agrippa in 75 (to be with Titus?). Acts 25:13, 23, 26:30.
Bernice/Berenice (2): The daughter of ANTIPATER (1)’s daughter SALOME (1) and
Costabaros (meaning that she lived before Bernice (1), but she is not as historically noteworthy.
She became the wife of ARISTOBULUS (4), and bore him HEROD AGRIPPA I, HEROD of Chalcis,
and HERODIAS.
Cleopatra: The seventh wife taken by HEROD the Great. She was the mother of two sons,
PHILIP “THE TETRARCH” and another HEROD. It is interesting to see that Herod married a
woman with the same name as his enemy Cleopatra VII.
Cypros (1): Called Cypris2 in some manuscripts. The wife of ANTIPATER (1), and the mother
of PHASAEL (1), HEROD the Great, JOSEPH (1), PHERORAS, and SALOME (1) (Ant XIV.vii.3; BJ
I.viii.9).
Cypros (2): The daughter of PHASAEL (2), who was the son of PHASAEL (1). She was the wife
of HEROD AGRIPPA I, and the mother of HEROD AGRIPPA II, BERNICE, and DRUSILLA.
Doris: The first wife of HEROD the Great, and a commoner. She was the mother of Herod’s
oldest son ANTIPATER (2). Although Herod discarded her when he married MARIAMME (1), he took
her — and her son — back after he killed the Maccabean princess.
*Drusilla: Greek M!8E41%%j, Drousilla. The sister of HEROD AGRIPPA II and BERNICE. She
was briefly married to the Arabian prince Azizus (Ant XX.vii.1), but this marriage was dissolved
when the procurator ANTONIUS FELIX (who governed from around C.E. 52 to 59) became
enamoured of her (Ant XX.vii.2. Drusilla, we are told, went along with this to escape from the
abuse of Bernice). Their son Agrippa died in the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 C.E. (Ant XX.vii.3).
1.!There is significant variation in the spelling of her name. In Acts 25:13, \*!51,;=Bernice is the spelling of ! A
B D 33 1739 Byz, and most Vulgate manuscripts give “Bernice,” but 1175 has \*!*5&,; and C* reads
\*!;5&,;, both of which we would spell “Berenice”; the Armenian appears to have a similar reading. A few
Latin manuscripts have “Beronice.” The Loeb edition of Josephus, BJ II.xi.5, etc also spells it \*!51,;=Bernice,
but in Ant XVIII.v.4 the Loeb edition has \*!*5&,;/Berenice in the text on the basis of MS. A (century xi), with
\*!5&,;/Bernike in the margin on the basis of M (century xv) W (1354 C.E.) and an epitome probably made
around century x. Checking the translations of Acts 25:13, every edition I checked — KJV RV MOFFATT
GOODSPEED RSV PHILLIPS CCD1941 NEB NAB AB JB NJB NASB NKJV NIV REB NLT — has Bernice.
2.!Ak#!8#=Cypros is the reading of the Loeb text of Ant XIV.vii.3, but the important MSS. A (century xi) F (xiv) L
(xi/xii) M (xiv) and the Latin read Ak#!&#=Cypris. In BJ I.viii.9 all MSS. seem to read Ak#!&#=Cypris although
the Loeb text emends this to Ak#!8#=Cypros.

While nothing is known of her character, it seems likely that she was either a lazy, a weak, or a
cruel person, for she allowed her husband to commit great atrocities against her people
(admittedly she was very young at the time; Ant XIX.ix.1 gives her age at six when her father
died; this makes her only fourteen when Felix became procurator, and about twenty when Paul
was tried). Some manuscripts say that Felix left Paul in prison to gratify her (Acts 24:27)1. Her
only other mention in the New Testament is when she and her husband came to hear Paul: Acts
24:24.
Eleazar: Greek Q%*-'-! or Q%*-'-!8#. Surnamed KE-!-5, rendered “Avaran” by NRSV
REB NJB but “Auaran” by AB NETS (1 Macc. 2:5; Josephus Ant XII.vi.1 has Kl!m5, “Avran/
Auran”). The fourth of the Maccabean brothers in terms of age, and the first to die. Around 161
B.C.E., the Seleucids sent an army containing elephants against JUDAS MACCABEUS. Eleazar saw
the beast which seemed to be carrying the Seleucid Emperor (it wasn’t), fought his way to it, and
killed it. But it fell on Eleazar, and he died (1 Macc. 6:43–46). This is an interesting story, because
it is one of the few tales we have of one of the Maccabean brothers as an individual champion as
opposed to a commander: Eleazar must have been a very gifted soldier if he could fight his way
through the phalanx to reach the elephant. But there is no sign of him ever being a troop
commander. His only other known role is to read the scriptures in 2!Macc. 8:23 (although AB JB
NJB here read Ezra/Azariah, based on the Vulgate Latin and Armenian versions; NAB reads
“Eleazar” but emends the rest of the verse heavily; NJB has “Esdrias”).
Ezra: A possible son of MATTATHIAS (1), mentioned only in some texts of 2 Macc. 8:23. But
this is probably an error for ELEAZAR (which see), the name used in the Greek manuscripts.
*Marcus Antonius Felix: The procurator of Judea from C.E. 52 to c. 59.2 He succeeded
Ventidius Cumanus, and was succeeded by Porcius Festus (so Josephus, Ant XX.vii.1; Tacitus tells
us that he governed Samaria while Cumanus administered Galilee). In the New Testament he is
called simply “Felix” (Greek _n%&]/_o%&,8#); Josephus calls him “Claudius Felix” (Ant
XX.vii.1); his correct name is known from Tacitus (Histories V.9; Annals XII.53) and inscriptions.
Little else is known of his history. One of his wives (he had three in the course of his life,
according to Suetonius, Claudius 28, who reports that all three were queens) was DRUSILLA the
sister of HEROD AGRIPPA II; they had a son Agrippa. (Curiously, Felix’s previous wife had also
been named Drusilla — Tacitus, Histories V.9; she was the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra’s
daughter Cleopatra Selene.) Since he had a Jewess for a wife, Felix should have been better than
most of the procurators. But Drusilla, a typical Herodian, cared little for her people and did not
1.!For “Felix, wishing to do the Jews a favor,” 614 2147 harkmarg read something like “but Felix allowed Paul to be
kept in prison by the Jews for the sake of Drusilla.” The reading which does not mention Drusilla is
overwhelmingly supported (ന74 ! A B C 33 81 1175 1739 Byz and all known translations except harkmarg), but a
number of commentators have argued for the reading of 614 on the grounds that it is hard to imagine such a
reading arising on its own. They argue that this is the “Western” reading, although it is difficult to be certain
because D is defective here. However, I doubt this, since the Latin versions do not have the reading. But it is
barely possible that it derives from a legitimate tradition.
2.!This is Josephus’s date; a note in Eusebius’s Chronicles says that he was deposed in Nero’s second year (55). Coinage
seems to support the Josephan date; a new series was issued in 58/59, probably due to the change in procurators.
On the other hand, Eusebius’s date would make sense if we assume Nero wanted to choose his own officials.
Moderns have argued both ways; I incline toward Josephus because he was closer in time to the events.

interfere when her husband suppressed riots by killing all the participants, nor did she object
when Felix left Paul in prison for two years without bringing charges against him (Acts 24:27. In
fact, a few manuscripts of Acts say that Felix left Paul in prison to gratify DRUSILLA; for details,
see her entry on p. 442). Even Tacitus — Histories V.9 — knows enough about his behavior to
declare that Felix “played the tyrant with the spirit of a slave, plunging into all manner of cruelty
and lust” and “believed himself free to commit any crime” (Annals XII.53). Felix was a freedman
who obtained his influence by being the brother of the Emperor Claudius’s beloved freedman
Pallas (Ant XX.vii.1, Annals XII.53). After Claudius’s death his position was insecure; he was
eventually recalled and had to face well-deserved charges. Pallas was able to have him acquitted,1
but Felix seems to have sunk into oblivion thereafter. (Pallas, it should be noted, was executed by
Nero in 62.) Acts 23:25–24:27, 25:14.
Glaphyra: The daughter of King Archelaus of Cappadocia, she married ALEXANDER (2) the
son of HEROD the Great. Her ancestry was exalted; on her father’s side she was said to be
descended from Hercules, and her mother counted Darius I of Persia as a forefather (BJ I.xxiv.2).
Their sons were Tigranes (briefly king of Armenia; see the note on ALEXANDER (2) on p. 437)
and Alexander. Herod had her husband killed in 7/6 B.C.E. She was then married for a time to
Juba king of Libya (Ant XVII.xiii.4). After this she was illegally married to her brother-in-law,
Herod’s heir ARCHELAUS. She died around the time Archelaus was deposed (BJ II.vii.4).
*Herod the Great: Greek f!g9;#. The second son of ANTIPATER (1) of Idumea. Born
around 73 B.C.E. (so Ant XVII.vi.1, BJ I.xxxiii.1; Ant XIV.ix.2 implies a date around 63), he was
an extremely able man, and became his father’s chief general while still a youth. In this role he
ruled Galilee under his father. After the assassination of Antipater and the deposition of JOHN
HYRCANUS II by the Parthians, he sailed to Rome to gain help against Parthia. Although he may
have intended to restore the Hasmoneans to the throne (Ant XIV.xiv.5; compare BJ I.xiv.4), he
was instead granted the kingdom himself in 40 on the initiative of Mark Antony.2 After the death
of the Parthian puppet ANTIGONUS MATTATHIAS and the recapture of Jerusalem after a five
month siege in 37 (or perhaps 36), Herod became king of Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Peraea, and
Trachonitis. After Antony’s defeat at Actium (31 B.C.E.), Herod made peace with Octavian
(Augustus Cæsar), and was able to continue on his throne. But Herod’s life was never orderly.
Very early in his career he used intimidation to secure his acquittal from a false charge of
rebellion (Ant XIV.ix.3. Herod responded to the accusation by rebelling in fact — Ant XIV.ix.5).
He also had a habit of picking losers: prior to turning to Antony he had been a friend of Cæsar’s
murderer Cassius (Ant XIV.xi.2).3 And his career took a turn for the worse after he became king.
In 29, he strangled his beloved wife MARIAMME (the last Hasmonean princess) in a fit of jealousy.
After that, he grew more and more unstable and paranoid. No threat to his throne — even from
his own sons — could be tolerated. All the Maccabees were suspect. In 6 or 7, he had his sons by
1.!This is a minor point in favor of Eusebius’s date of 55 for the dismissal of Felix, since Pallas lost his post as
treasurer in 55.
2.!This award is confirmed by mentions in Tacitus (Histories V.9) and Dio Cassius (Histories XLIX.22). Antony had
earlier made Herod and his brother PHASAEL tetrarchs (BJ I.xii.5).
3.!Interestingly, Cassius, as governor of Syria, had offered to make Herod King of Judea, just as Antony did (BJ
I.xi.4), although Cassius’s defeat at Philippi obviously brought this to nothing.

Mariamme, ARISTOBULUS (4) and ALEXANDER (2), executed on (false) suspicion of treason. And in
4, just before he died, he executed his oldest son ANTIPATER (2) on the same charge (it was true
this time). Herod’s actions kept the Jews from being destroyed by the Romans, but he was hated
by his people, for many reasons. To begin with, he was a foreigner, an Idumean (Edomite) ruling
the extremely nationalistic Jews. Also, he had executed all the members of the Maccabean family
— the rulers of Judea for the last century — that he could lay his hands on: Mariamme, her
brother ARISTOBULUS III, her mother ALEXANDRA (2), her grandfather John Hyrcanus II, and her
two sons. Nor was his cruelty confined to family. The massacre of the innocents of Matt. 2:16 is
not otherwise attested (and sounds suspiciously like an echo of a legend Josephus tells about
Moses in Ant II.ix.2), but it has something of a ring of truth. According to Ant XVII.vi.5, when
Herod realized he was dying, he ordered all the heads of the households of Judea to be gathered
and slaughtered after he died, so that the people of Judea would have to go into mourning when
he was dead. (It didn’t happen — Herod’s sister SALOME (1) set the people free; Ant XVII.viii.2, BJ
I.xxxiii.6). Herod is mentioned in the New Testament as the King of Judea at the time of Christ’s
birth; he is reported to have tried to kill Jesus. He was called “Herod the King” in these passages.
He died in 4 B.C.E. (this is proved by Ant XVII.vi.4, which reports an eclipse — dated to March
13, 4 B.C.E. — shortly before Herod’s death, thus proving that Jesus was born in 4 B.C.E. or
earlier) of assorted foul and disgusting diseases (BJ I.xxxiii.5ƒ.), perhaps brought on by his vile
personal habits. He had in excess of a dozen children by his ten wives (two of whom are
unknown and three others are minor; cf. Ant XVII.i.3), but fewer than half a dozen of these
offspring seem to have survived him.1 He himself killed at least three of them.2 A rabbinic legend
has it that a Jewish holiday was instituted to commemorate his death. After some uncertainty and
an appeal to Rome, his kingdom was divided between his sons ARCHELAUS, HEROD ANTIPAS, and
PHILIP “THE TETRARCH” (Ant XVII.xi.4).3 Matt. 2:1–22; Luke 1:5.
Herod (2): The older son of HEROD the Great by his wife CLEOPATRA (Ant XVII.i.3, BJ
I.xxviii.4). He was the full brother of PHILIP “THE TETRARCH”. He does not seem to have
amounted to much.
(Another) Herod: Josephus’s name (e.g. in BJ I.xxviii.4) for PHILIP (not the Tetrarch).
Herod Agrippa I: see AGRIPPA I.
Herod Agrippa II: see AGRIPPA II.
*Herod Antipas: The younger son of HEROD the Great by his Samaritan wife MALTHACE
(Ant XVII.i.3, BJ I.xxviii.4). He was thus the full brother of ARCHELAUS. Along with Archelaus,
1.!We can sum up Herod’s children as follows: by DORIS Herod had ANTIPATER (2); by Mariamme, ALEXANDER (2)
and ARISTOBULUS (4), plus daughters SALAMPSIO and Cypros; by MALTHACE, ARCHELAUS and HEROD ANTIPAS as
well as a daughter Olympia; by CLEOPATRA, HEROD and PHILIP “THE TETRARCH.” Herod’s lesser wives were
Pallas (who bore a son Phasael), Phaedra (who bore a daughter Roxane), and Elpis (who bore a daughter
Salome). Two other wives, whose names are unknown, left no children. For Josephus’s (slightly less well-
organized) summary of this, see BJ I.xxviii.4. It is perhaps worth pointing out that, other than the name Herod
itself, almost all of these children have Greek names, not Jewish/Hebrew/Aramaic.
2.!No less an authority than the Emperor Augustus, remarking sarcastically on Herod’s Judaism and brutal habits,
commented that it was safer to be Herod’s pig (Greek E#, hys) than Herod’s son (Greek E&8#, hyios); the story is
from Macrobius, Saturnalia II.iv.11.
3.!For details on the division of Herod’s territories, see the entry on Archelaus, p. 440.

he was brought up in Rome. In Herod’s next-to-last will, Antipas had stood to inherit Judea and
Samaria (BJ I.xxxii.7). But Herod’s last will gave these regions to Archelaus. Antipas contested
the will, but could not break it. Augustus Cæsar compromised, however, and made Antipas
tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea (Ant XVII.xi.4),1 regions which he still ruled at the time of Jesus. In
the New Testament he is called “Herod” or “Herod the Tetrarch.” He took as his second wife
HERODIAS, who was the sister of HEROD AGRIPPA I and who had been the wife of Antipas’s half-
brother PHILIP (their daughter was SALOME (2)). This act was condemned by John the Baptist.2 So
Antipas had John imprisoned. (Antipas’s remarriage caused him other problems, too: his first wife
had been a Nabatean princess, and her father declared war when Antipas put her away. And
Antipas was thoroughly defeated — Ant XVIII.v.1. Josephus blames the rout on Antipas’s
treatment of the Baptist — Ant XVIII.v.2.) Later, Salome (2) (the “daughter of Herodias” of
Matt. 14:6–11)3 danced before Antipas and convinced him to have John executed. Antipas did
this with a heavy heart. According to Luke, he would also refuse to find Jesus guilty of any crime
(Luke 23:7–12. Although few scholars accept this, the legend of Jesus before Antipas is taken
even further in the fragmentary Gospel of Peter, where Herod, not Pilate, is responsible for
condemning Jesus to death). In about 39 C.E., Antipas — egged on by Herodias — began a
dispute with Agrippa I. The elder Herod lost, and was exiled to Lyons (Ant XVIII.vii.2); Agrippa
received his territory. Antipas died soon after. Despite the troubles of his reign, Antipas seems to
have been generally a decent king — certainly better than Archelaus. Like all the Herods, he was
cruel and rather repulsive in his habits, but he also sought to be just and a good ruler. Matt. 14:1–
12; Mark 6:14–29; Luke 3:1, 19, 8:3, 9:7–9, 13:31, 23:7–12; Acts 4:27, 13:1.
Herod of Chalcis: The second son of ARISTOBULUS (4), and the younger brother of
HEROD AGRIPPA I. His son was another ARISTOBULUS (5). In the early 40s C.E., prompted by
Agrippa (Ant XIX.v.1), the Romans made Herod king of the client-state of Chalcis, which he
ruled until his death in “the eighth year of Claudius Cæsar” (48/9 C.E. — Ant XX.v.2). He
married his niece BERNICE (1) at about this time (Ant XIX.v.1); they had two children,
Berenicianus and Hyrcanus. His son by a previous wife, Aristobulus, would later marry SALOME
(2). After the death of Agrippa, he was given the right to appoint the High Priest which had been
his brother’s.
*Herodias: Greek f!D9&B#. The daughter of ARISTOBULUS (4) and the sister of HEROD
AGRIPPA I. She was married twice. Her first marriage was to PHILIP (at least that’s what Mark
6:17 calls him; Ant XVIII.v.1 uses the name “Herod”), her half-uncle, the son of HEROD the
Great by his wife MARIAMME II. But her second husband was HEROD ANTIPAS. (In typical
Herodian fashion, Antipas courted her in her husband’s own home.) Under Jewish law, the
marriage of Antipas and Herodias marriage was illegal — she had married Antipas’s brother and
1.!For details on the division of Antipas’s kingdom, see the entry on Archelaus, p. 440.
2.!Herodias was, of course, Antipas’s brother’s wife, and it was explicitly illegal to marry one’s brother’s wife after she
had borne him children (if Philip and Herodias had had no children, Antipas might have been required to marry
Herodias. But Herodias and Philip had a daughter, Salome (2). In addition, Herodias was Antipas’s niece. And
while the law did not forbid niece-marriage, other marriages of this degree of consanguinity were unacceptable.
Several Qumran texts blisteringly condemn niece-marriage, although it was commonly practiced by the Herods.
3.!Also called the “Daughter of Herodias” in Mark 6:22-28 in the Received Text and KJV, but in the earliest
manuscripts, the girl is Antipas’s own daughter. See the entry on Salome (2), p. 454.

had a child by him.1 When John the Baptist had the courage to denounce the match, Antipas
threw him in prison. What happened next is confused: some girl danced before Antipas and,
prompted by her mother, convinced him to have John executed. But whether this was SALOME (2),
daughter of Philip and Herodias (so Matt. 14:6) or a daughter of Antipas himself (so Mark 6:22)
is unknown; see the note on SALOME (2), p. 454. Whoever she was, at Herodias’s urging, she asked
Antipas to execute John. (One legend says this is because Herodias was in love with John, but
neither the Bible nor Josephus hints at this.) To Herodias’s credit, it can be said that when
Antipas was deposed and exiled to Lyons in 39, she chose to go with him (of course, it was
Herodias’s jealousy that had induced Antipas to get in trouble in the first place — Ant
XVIII.vii.1ƒ.). Matt. 14:3, 6, (8), (11); Mark 6:17, 19, (24), (28); Luke 3:19.
Herodias, daughter of: see SALOME (2).
Hyrcanus I: see JOHN HYRCANUS I.
Hyrcanus II: see JOHN HYRCANUS II.
Johanan: Or “John.” Surnamed “Gaddi/Gaddis” (1 Macc. 2:2). The oldest son of
MATTATHIAS (1), but perhaps the least significant of the five brothers. After the death of JUDAS
MACCABEUS in 160 B.C.E., he was sent on an embassy to the Arabs of Nabatea. While he was on
his way he was ambushed and killed by the “Sons of Jambri/Yambri” (Josephus reads “Sons of
Amarious” in Ant XIII.i.5 but says simply “partisans of Antiochus [V]” in BJ I.i.5 — which is
difficult, since Antiochus was dead by then). His brothers JONATHAN and SIMON avenged his
death soon after (1 Macc. 9:37–42).
John Hyrcanus I: The second son of SIMON. When Simon was killed along with
Hyrcanus’s brothers JUDAS and MATTATHIAS (2) in 134 B.C.E., Hyrcanus became High Priest and
ruler of Judea (1 Macc. 16:21–24). His reign started badly; faced by PTOLEMY’S revolt and a
Syrian army outside Jerusalem, he was forced to pay tribute to the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus
VII Sidetes (Josephus reports that he scraped up the tribute by breaking into David’s tomb — Ant
VII.xv.3, XIII.viii.4, BJ I.ii.5. Thereafter, however, the two got along well; Hyrcanus even
participated in Antiochus’s Parthian expedition — Ant XIII.viii.4, but cf. BJ I.ii.6). But Antiochus
was the last effective Seleucid; when he died in 129, Hyrcanus was able to extend the Maccabean
kingdom to include Samaria, Idumea/Edom, and parts of what had once been Philistia and
Moab. In 109 he destroyed the schismatic Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim. He was also the
first Maccabean to shift from the (proto-)Pharisaic to the Hellenistic and Saduceean parties (Ant
XIII.x.7) — going so far as to give his sons new Greek names. Even so, Josephus considered him
a great prince, even possessed of the gift of prophecy (Ant XIII.x.7, BJ I.ii.8) and implying that
the Urim and Thummim ceased to function after his time (Ant III.viii.9, although the rabbis
dated the failure centuries earlier). He died in 104. It has been suggested by some that he was the
Wicked Priest (for which see p. 435) of the Qumran community, but this seems unlikely.
John Hyrcanus II: The older son of ALEXANDER JANNEUS. When Janneus died in 76 B.C.E.,
Hyrcanus became high priest. When Janneus’s widow ALEXANDRA (1) died in 67, Hyrcanus should
have become king also. But his younger brother ARISTOBULUS II had other ideas. He managed to
make himself both King and High Priest. Hyrcanus, who seems to have been a rather weak and
1.!For a fuller discussion of this, see the entry on Herod Antipas, p. 445.

indolent man, did not really fight the usurpation; he gave up after one brief battle (Ant XIV.i.2,
BJ I.vi.1). But the Idumean ANTIPATER (1) convinced Hyrcanus that he was in danger, and caused
him to continue the war with Aristobulus. He turned first to the Nabatean Arabs (Ant XIV.ii.1, BJ
I.vi.2), then to the Romans after they entered Judea. Antipater, with the help of Rome, had
Aristobulus deposed in 63. But Hyrcanus, although again made high priest by Pompey, was not
allowed to rule Judea except in name. That honour went to Antipater (and for the moment the
Jewish kingdom was divided into five small pieces. It was not until 55, when the Jewish state
proved its loyalty by supported the Roman intervention on behalf of Ptolemy XII Auletes of
Egypt, that the Maccabean nation was reunited). Somewhat later, when ANTIGONUS MATTATHIAS
rebelled in 40, one of his first acts was to cut of Hyrcanus’s ears (Ant XIV.xiii.10. In BJ I.xiii.9
Josephus says that Antigonus personally bit Hyrcanus’s ears off !) Hyrcanus was thus disqualified
for the High Priesthood — though he may have exercised some of the functions of the post
during the minority of ARISTOBULUS III. In any case, HEROD the Great — by then the king of
Judah — considered him to be enough of a threat to have him executed in 30. (Josephus
considers this a consequence of the Battle of Actium: since Herod was a friend of the defeated
Antony, Octavian would naturally want to replace him. By removing Hyrcanus, Herod
eliminated his only true rival for the throne — Ant XV.vi.1–3.) It has been suggested by some that
he was the Wicked Priest (for which see p. 435) of the Qumran community, but this seems even
less likely than the possibility that JOHN HYRCANUS I was the Wicked Priest.
Jonathan: Surnamed “Apphus” (1 Macc. 2:6; the name is spelled K"P8E#, which might
best be transliterated “Apfous”). The youngest son of MATTATHIAS (1). After the death of JUDAS
MACCABEUS, he was appointed the leader of the Maccabean revolt (160 B.C.E. — 1 Macc. 9:28–
31). He fought several successful battles,1 and in the course of his career helped to seat several
Seleucid emperors. His career is curious, in that he almost seems to disappear from around 159
to 152. Presumably he was quietly maintaining a resistance movement in this time while the
Seleucid princes devoured each other. When the time came for him to re-emerge, he did it in a
way that gave him power far beyond anything his brother Judas had done. A deal he struck made
him high priest (152 B.C.E. — 1 Macc. 10:20). He gained this concession from both Alexander
Balas (1 Macc. 10:20) and Demetrius I (1 Macc. 10:32, where the promise is combined with an
offer to reduce Jewish tribute); he later won effective independence for Judea (1!Macc. 10:29–33),
and was treated as a near-equal by the Seleucid and Egyptian monarchs (1 Macc. 10:59ƒ.).
Eventually the Seleucids even considered him the chief support of their throne (1 Macc. 10:87ƒ.)
But in 142 B.C.E. he finally fell into a trap set by the general Trypho (who was trying to make
himself Seleucid Emperor, and so was eliminating all supporters of the infant monarch
Antiochus VI — 1 Macc. 12:46–48) and was killed (1 Macc. 13:23). At least two of his sons, who
were hostages for his brother SIMON’S good behavior, died with him. He apparently had other
1.!Jonathan’s battles were as follows:
160 B.C.E. — Nadabath. Fought against the Jambrites. 1 Macc. 9:37ƒ.
160 B.C.E. — Jordan’s Banks. Fought against Bacchides. 1 Macc. 9:43ƒ. This may have been a Jewish defeat, since
Jonathan and his men ended up swimming across the Jordan after the battle; this sounds as if they were fleeing.
c 157 B.C.E. — Bethbasi. Fought against Bacchides. 1 Macc. 9:62ƒ.
147 B.C.E. — Azotus. Fought against Apollonius. 1 Macc. 10:77ƒ.
c. 143 B.C.E. — Hazor. Fought against Demetrius II. 1 Macc. 11:63ƒ.

children, for Josephus was descended from him, but none of them took part in later events. His
body was rescued and buried by Simon, who succeeded him.
It is possible that Jonathan is mentioned by name in the Qumran scrolls, or perhaps hidden
under one of several cryptic titles; for discussion, see the note on the Wicked Priest on p. 435.
Joseph (1): The third son of ANTIPATER (1), and the brother of HEROD the Great. He was
Herod’s chief general after the death of Phasael (1) and Antipater and the usurpation of
ANTIGONUS MATTATHIAS in 40 B.C.E. But he was killed in 38 while leading a small Roman army
against Antigonus (against Herod’s orders — Ant XIV.xv.10, BJ I.xvii.1. By this time the
Parthians had been expelled from Roman territory, and the defeat of Antigonus was only a
matter of time. But Joseph decided to rush things).
Joseph (2): The husband of SALOME (1) the sister of HEROD the Great. He may have been
Herod’s uncle (Ant XV.iii.5), but this is uncertain. He was killed — by Herod himself ! — in 34
B.C.E. (so Ant XV.iii.9) or perhaps 29 B.C.E. (so BJ I.xxii.5).
Joseph (3):1 a possible son of MATTATHIAS (1), mentioned as JUDAS MACCABEUS’S brother in
2!Macc. 8:22 (where he commands one of the four divisions in Judas’s army, along with Simon
and Jonathan and probably Judas himself) but not in the list of Mattathias’s sons in 1 Macc. 2:2ƒ.
By process of elimination, he might be the same as the eldest Maccabean brother John, but then
why is he listed after Simon in 2 Maccabees? Nothing else is known of him, unless he is the
“Joseph son of Zechariah” (which would make him no more than Judas’s half-brother) who was
decisively defeated in 1 Macc. 5:55ƒ., or if he is the Joseph of 2 Macc. 10:19, who is listed as
(apparently) second-in-command to Simon in that verse (this Joseph is thought to be the same as
the one in 1!Macc. 5:55, but we don’t have any direct data).
Figure 32: The Ancestry of Josephus
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1.!Called “Josephus” in NEB REB; NRSV AB NJB read “Joseph.”

Flavius Josephus: A Jewish nobleman (a descendent of JONATHAN; see the genealogy),

born 37/38 C.E. (Ant XX.vii.2, etc.) and died after 97. His father was a priest named Matthias.
Josephus opposed the revolt of 66 C.E. but was given a command nevertheless. He was captured
and pardoned by the Romans,1 and spent the rest of his life as a writer. Although he remained a
devout Jew, and apparently always spoke Greek with a Hebrew accent (Ant XX.xii.1) — he spent
most of his life after 70 C.E. among Gentiles.) His most important works are The Jewish War (cited
as BJ) and Antiquities of the Jews (cited as Ant). He had a high opinion of himself — perhaps higher
than his works justify — but his writings are valuable resources for historians of Judaism, the
Middle East, and the early Roman period.
Judas Maccabeus: The third son of MATTATHIAS (1). After the death of his father, he led
the revolt of the Jews against the Seleucid Empire. He was so successful that the revolt was called
the “Maccabean Revolt,” even though he was dead before it ended, and the new Jewish nation
was called the “Maccabean kingdom,” even though it was not ruled by the descendants of Judas.
His surname Maccabeus (1 Macc. 2:4) may mean “hammerer.” He was chosen to lead the
rebellion by his father (1 Macc. 2:66, 3:1). He fought dozens of successful battles and raids
(1!Macc. 3:1–4:35, 5:1–7:46; 2 Macc. 8:1–9:4, 10:10–15:39). The revolt began in 168 B.C.E.;
Judas was chosen to command it in 166 B.C.E. By 165 he had chased the Seleucids from
Jerusalem and could organize the re-purification of the desecrated Temple (1 Macc. 4:36–59; 2
Macc. 10:1–8; this seems to be the actual meaning behind Dan. 8:14, 11:34). As a result,
Josephus even refers to him as High Priest on occasion (e.g. Ant XII.x.6), although all other
sources (including Ant XX) contradict this. Still, he probably felt his cause to be a holy war. He
continued to fight battles, but was finally defeated and killed in 160 B.C.E. (1 Macc. 9:7–18). Even
so, the rebellion was successfully concluded by his brothers JONATHAN and SIMON.
This does not mean that his policies were unopposed; Hellenists and extreme Pharisees were
both against him (the former for his anti-Greek activities; the latter for his perceived “laxness”
and later the High Priestly pretensions of his family); the author of the book of Daniel may have
written his volume against Judas. But the Maccabeans proved greater than all their enemies.
Judas gained great fame in later literature, even though his exploits are not recorded in the
Protestant canon. Books and great musical works have been written about him; he was the last
Jew among the “Nine Worthies” of medieval tradition (Joshua, David, Judas, Hector, Alexander
the Great, Julius Caesar, Arthur, Charlemagne, and Godfrey of Bouillon).
1.!The pardon was due, no doubt, to his prediction that his captor Vespasian would soon become Emperor — a
prediction reported not only by Josephus (BJ III.x.9) but also by Suetonius in Vespasian 5. Josephus also curried
favor by adopting the name “Flavius,” after the family name of Vespasian.

Excursus: The Battles of Judas Maccabeus

(As listed in 1 Maccabees)
Date Site Opponents 1 Macc 2 Macc Comment
166/5 ? Apollonius† 3:10f. Josephus says Apollonius
was governor of Samaria
166/5 Beth-Horon Seron 3:13f Josephus says Seron was
strategos/general of Syria
165 Emmaus (Nicanor &) Gorgias 4:1f. 8:24f.
165/4 Beth-Zur Lysias 4:34f. 11:1f. Restoration of the Temple
follows this battle. Historical allusions
in Daniel end around this time.
164 Acrabatene (Idumeans) 5:1f. 10:14f.
164 ? Timothy 5:6f.
164 Dathema Timothy 5:28f. 10:24f.
164 Carnaim Timothy 5:37f.
163 Marisa (Philistines) 5:65f. 12:32f.? Death of Antiochus IV
reported at this time although
the exact date is uncertain.
163 Beth-Zachariah Lysias & Antiochus V 6:32f. 13:1f. Jewish Defeat
161 Caphar-Salama Nicanor 7:29f.
161 Adasa Nicanor† 7:39f. 15:6f.
160 Elasa Bacchides 9:1f. Defeat and Death of Judas
Judas (2): The oldest of the three sons of SIMON. He was captured and killed, along with his
father and younger brother MATTATHIAS (2), by his brother-in-law PTOLEMY in 134 B.C.E.
(1!Macc. 16:16).
Malthace: The sixth wife taken by HEROD the Great. A Samaritan, she was the mother of
ARCHELAUS and HEROD ANTIPAS (Ant XVII.i.3), as well as of Olympia (BJ I.xxviii.4), a daughter
who married Joseph (the son of Herod’s brother JOSEPH). Malthace died shortly after her
husband, while she was at Rome awaiting the decision as to which of her sons should succeed
their father (BJ II.iii.1).
Mariamme I: The older daughter of ALEXANDER (1) and ALEXANDRA (2). She was the sister
of ARISTOBULUS III, the last Maccabean high priest. She eventually, and not entirely to her liking,
became the wife of HEROD the Great. (They were betrothed in 40 and married in 37 B.C.E.) She
bore him two sons, ARISTOBULUS (4) and Alexander (2). They were the last two representatives of
the Maccabean family. But Herod, although he claimed to love her dearly (see e.g. Ant XV.iii.5,
BJ I.xxii.4, where he gave orders to have her killed if he died, lest she marry another), strangled
her in 29 B.C.E. because he mistrusted her (so Ant XV.vii.4, although it has a similar incident in
which Herod almost killed her in 34; BJ I.xxii.5 has only one incident, in which he killed both
her and her guardian Joseph in 34). He soon after repented, and became ever more cruel after
that.

Mariamme II: The fifth wife of HEROD the Great. She was said to be the most beautiful
woman in the world, and Herod made her father Simon son of Boethus High Priest so that he
could marry her (Ant XV.ix.3, XVIII.v.4). She became the mother of HERODIAS’S first husband
Philip. Toward the end of his life, Herod suspected her of being a part of a conspiracy against
him, and so put her away and removed her son Herod/Philip from his will (Ant XVII.iv.2).
Mariamme (3): The second daughter of HEROD AGRIPPA I. She was ten years old when her
father died (Ant XIX.ix.1), and so was born in 34 C.E. She was married first to one Archelaus (Ant
XIX.ix.1), then to the Alexandrian Jewish official Demetrius (Ant XX.vli.3). They had a son
Agrippinus, who may well have been the last living (traceable) descendent of Herod.
Mattathias (1): The original leader of the Maccabean revolt. The proper name of his
family is the “Hasmoneans” after [H]asmonai the father of Symeon father of Johanan father of
Mattathias — (Ant XII.vi.1; in BJ I.i.3 Josephus simply calls Mattathias the “son of Hasmonai”;
compare 1 Macc. 2:1, where the genealogy stops at Symeon). He was a member of the family of
Joarib (Jehoiarib — 1 Macc. 2:1), head of one of the 24 courses of Temple priests (1 Ch. 24:7).
This presumably made him a descendent of Eleazar 1 and Phinehas 1 (1 Macc. 2:26).
The Maccabean revolt began in the following way: the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV
Epiphanes — who had been exasperated by internal Jewish politics — wanted to convert the Jews
to Greek habits. So he installed an image of Zeus in the Temple, forced some of the Jews to eat
pork, demanded that they sacrifice to Greek gods, and otherwise called upon them to violate the
Laws. Mattathias, a priest from Modein, refused to perform the sacrifice. When the Seleucid
officer persisted, Mattathias killed him and fled to the hills with his sons (168 B.C.E. — 1 Macc.
2:1–28). He died two years later (166 — 1 Macc. 2:49, 69–70). His third son JUDAS MACCABEUS
then took command of the revolt. Mattathias had at least four other sons — JOHANAN/John,
SIMON, ELEAZAR, and JONATHAN (1 Macc. 2:2ƒ.), and possibly a sixth (JOSEPH (3) — 2 Macc.
8:22. Some scholars would also take 2 Macc. 8:23 to refer to yet a seventh brother, “Ezra/
Azariah,” instead of “Eleazar”). All except possibly the last were killed in the course of the Jewish
Revolt, although Jonathan and Simon lived in turn to become the revolt’s leaders and Jewish
High Priests. Simon’s dynasty would endure as rulers of Judea for four generations.
Mattathias (2): The grandson of #1. Mattathias was the youngest son of SIMON, and was
killed with his father and his older brother JUDAS by PTOLEMY in 134 B.C.E. (1 Macc. 16:16).
Mattathias (3): See ANTIGONUS MATTATHIAS.
Phasael (1): The oldest son of ANTIPATER (1). As a subordinate of his father and of JOHN
HYRCANUS II, it was his duty to supervise Jerusalem. He died, perhaps by his own hand (so Ant
XIV.xiii.10, BJ I.xiii.10, but Julius Africanus reports that he died in battle with the Parthians),
after his capture by ANTIGONUS MATTATHIAS in 40 B.C.E. His son was PHASAEL 2. Phasael was an
able man, but has been completely overshadowed by his longer-lived and more successful brother
HEROD.
Phasael (2): The son of PHASAEL (1). His wife was SALAMPSIO, the daughter of HEROD the
Great by MARIAMME I (Ant XVIII.v.4). He was the father of CYPROS (2), who became the wife of
HEROD AGRIPPA I. According to Ant XIV.xiv.1, he was seven when his father died; hence he was
born c. 47 B.C.E.

Pheroras: The youngest brother of HEROD the Great. He spent most of his life in Herod’s
service, and was so skillful that Herod rewarded him by allowing him to marry a younger sister of
MARIAMME. Herod also made him a tetrarch and gave him control of Trans-Jordan (BJ I.xxiv.5).
Later Herod allowed Pheroras’s son to marry his (Herod’s) granddaughter (BJ I.xxviii.2). But
Herod’s suspicious nature was such that he would not trust anyone. So Pheroras died in disfavour
in 6 or 5 B.C.E. Shortly before Pheroras died, Herod tried to make peace, but the wound had
gone too deep (BJ I.xxix.4) for reconciliation to be possible.
*Philip: The son of HEROD the Great by his wife MARIAMME II (BJ I.xxviii.4). Although he
may have been the oldest child of Herod to survive his father, he did not inherit anything of
significance. (He was for a time a secondary heir — Ant XVII.iii.2 — but Herod struck him from
his will when he set Mariamme aside for allegedly conspiring against him — Ant XVII.iv.2, BJ
I.xxx.7.) We aren’t even entirely sure of his name; Mark 6:17 calls him “Philip,” as do most texts
of Matt. 14:3,1 but Josephus (Ant XVIII.v.1, vi.2, BJ I.xxviii.2) calls HERODIAS’S first husband
“Herod.” Whatever his name, he was the first husband of Herodias and the father of SALOME (2).
He is referred to as Herod [Antipas’s] brother, and Herodias is referred to as Philip’s wife. Not to
be confused with his half-brother PHILIP “THE TETRARCH”. Matt. 14:3 (most manuscripts); Mark
6:17; he is the brother of Herod Antipas referred to in Luke 3:19.
*Philip “the Tetrarch”: A child of HEROD the Great by his wife CLEOPATRA (BJ I.xxviii.2).
In Augustus Cæsar’s division of Herod’s kingdom he was given the tetrarchy of Ituraea and
Trachonitis.2 Apparently a sane and just ruler (Josephus reports that he would give any of his
subjects a hearing at any time), he held his throne until he died in 34 C.E. (Ant XVIII.iv.6).
Despite several marriages, he had no children, and so his tetrarchy reverted to Roman rule after
his death until it was awarded to HEROD AGRIPPA I in 37 (BJ II.ix.6). Not to be confused with his
half-brother PHILIP listed above, who was the husband of HERODIAS and the father of SALOME
(2). (To make this confusion worse, Philip would later marry Salome, even though he was perhaps
thirty years older than she was, as well as being her half-uncle and her half-great uncle.) Luke 3:1.
Ptolemy: The son of one ABUBUS, and the son-in-law of SIMON. He was “governor of the
plain of Jericho.” He launched a bold plot in 134 to make himself king of Judea. He invited
Simon and two of his sons (JUDAS, the oldest, and MATTATHIAS, the youngest) to a banquet.
When they were drunk, Ptolemy killed them. Ptolemy also tried to kill Simon’s other son, JOHN
HYRCANUS I, and follow that up by striking a deal with the Seleucid Emperor. But he failed in
both attempts. Hyrcanus put down the rebellion and made himself High Priest and ruler
(1!Macc. 16:11–19) — in effect, converting the Maccabean nation from a community of
charismatic leaders to a monarchy. Ptolemy, outmaneuvered, returned to the fortress of Dok (the
name used in 1 Macc. 16:15) or Dagon (Ant XIII.viii.1) where he had killed Simon, then fled to
1.!in Matthew 14:3 D a c d e ff1 g1 k l vg have no name; the name is found in ! B C L W Z Y ƒ1 ƒ13 33
579 892 Byz aur (b) ff2 h q sin cur pesh sa bo arm geo. In Mark 6:17; it is possible that ന45 omits the
name, but the manuscript is too damaged for certainty. The name is found in the text of Luke 3:19 in
A C K W X / [ 33 565 579 1071 1424 pesh hark bo TR KJV, but ! B D L Y 700 892 Byz and
apparently all the other translations from RV to NRSV omit.
2.!For details on the division of Herod’s territories, see the entry on Archelaus, p. 440.

Philadelphia, i.e. Rabbath in Ammon. Josephus goes on to tell how Ptolemy tortured Hyrcanus’s
mother in her son’s sight, which presumably will tell you all you need to know about Ptolemy.
Salampsio: A daughter of HEROD the Great by MARIAMME I. She was married to her cousin
PHASAEL (2); their daughter was CYPROS the wife of HEROD AGRIPPA I (Ant XVIII.v.4).
Salome (1): The only known daughter of ANTIPATER (1), and the sister of HEROD the Great.
By her first husband JOSEPH (2), she was the mother of BERNICE (2), the wife of ARISTOBULUS (4).
She also had a son Antipater (whether by Joseph or by her second husband Costabarus is
uncertain) who married Herod’s daughter Cypros (Ant XVIII.v.4). The only one of Herod’s
siblings to outlive him, he left her several cities in his will. Herod was somewhat suspicious of her,
as he was of all his relatives. But their relationship was, by Herodian standards, cordial.
*Salome (2): This is Josephus’s name for the woman called “the daughter of HERODIAS” in
the New Testament (Ant XVIII.v.4). She was the daughter of Herodias by her first husband
(Herod) PHILIP. According to Matt. 14:6ƒ., she danced before her father-in-law HEROD ANTIPAS
in about 29 C.E. (while she was still in her teens). She pleased him so well that he offered to let her
name a gift. Prompted by her mother, Salome asked for the head of John the Baptist. And
Herod, bound by an oath, granted it to her. Soon after this, Salome went on to marry PHILIP
“THE TETRARCH” (Ant XVIII.v.4). She survived him (he was thirty or more years her senior), and
went on to marry ARISTOBULUS (5) the son of HEROD of Chalcis. Their children were Herod,
Agrippa, and Aristobulus (Ant XVIII.v.4). It should be noted, however, that the best texts of Mark
6:22ƒ. do not credit the dance before Herod Antipas to the daughter of Herodias but to Herodias the
daughter of Antipas.1 If Antipas had a daughter named Herodias, we know nothing else of her, but
this doesn’t prove much. We do not know which girl danced before Antipas. There is little hope
that this confusion can be corrected. Matt. 14:6–11; Mark 6:22–28.
Salome Alexandra: see ALEXANDRA (1).
Simon: Surnamed “Thassi” (1 Macc. 2:3; Josephus has “Thatis/Thathis/Mathis,” etc.). The
second son of MATTATHIAS (1). His father seems to have considered him the wisest of the
brothers (1 Macc. 2:65), and he was given important commands under both JUDAS MACCABEUS
and JONATHAN. After the death of Judas and Jonathan (as well as the other Maccabean brothers
JOHANAN and ELEAZAR), he was appointed High Priest and general of the revolt in 142 B.C.E.
1.!The reading in Mark 6:22, his daughter Herodias, making the girl who danced Herodias daughter of Antipas, is that of !
B D L M 565 (arm); the Received reading the daughter of Herodias is found in A C Y (ƒ1) ƒ13 33 579 892 Byz; W has
her daughter Herodias. The difference here is small — ! B D etc. read -E08E; the others read -u0;# 0;#, and we
should note that in verse 24 she is called Herodias’s daughter in every text. The UBS committee split, but the
majority preferred the reading his daughter Herodias. Among the English translations of Mark 6:22, the breakdown
is as follows:
his daughter Herodias: NRSVtxt (NLTtxt)
the daughter of Herodias: KJV RVtxt MOFFATT GOODSPEED PHILLIPS CCD1941 RSV NEB NAB NIV NASB JB NJB NKJV (REB)
SV TNIVtxt
Despite the heavy preference for the daughter of Herodias in the English versions, the weight of textual evidence
clearly favors his daughter Herodias, as in NRSVtxt, especially since the reading of Matthew is likely to have influenced
the text of Mark; this is a case where most editors have clearly been influenced by tradition to ignore the strong
contrary evidence.
We might note that, although almost all witnesses, including ! B, read the daughter of Herodias in Matt. 14:6, D has
his daughter Herodias in that gospel also.

(1!Macc. 13:7ƒ., 20ƒ.). It was during his tenure that Judea finally became formally independent
(1!Macc. 13:41–42. It might be noted, however, that this grant came from the Seleucid Demetrius
II, who was then in exile while the usurper Trypho governed the Empire). Simon, moreover,
finally expelled the Seleucid garrison from the Akra (citadel) in Jerusalem. He is reported to have
been a patron of literature and the arts. He died in 134, along with his sons JUDAS and
MATTATHIAS (2) as a result of the treachery of PTOLEMY (1 Macc. 16:16), and was succeeded by
his son JOHN HYRCANUS I.
It has been suggested that Simon Maccabee was the famous High Priest Simon “the Just.”
The characteristics of wisdom and effective leadership ascribed to Simon Maccabee certainly fit.
But Simon Maccabee lived after the composition of the Wisdom of Sirach, which refers
glowingly to Simon son of Onias (Sirach 50:1-24); it is generally assumed that Sirach is referring
to Simon the Just. Which is chronologically impossible if Simon Maccabee was the Just Simon.
Either Sirach is referring to an un-Just Simon or Simon Maccabee wasn’t the one.

The Disciples of Jesus
The First Christians


And [Jesus] called to him those whom he wanted; and they came to him. And he appointed
twelve, whom he also named apostles, to be with him, and to be sent out to proclaim the
1
message, and to have authority to cast out demons. So he appointed the twelve: Simon (to whom 2
he gave the name Peter); James son of Zebedee and John the brother of James (to whom he gave
the name Boanergeses, that is, Sons of Thunder); and Andrew, and Philip, and Bartholomew, and
Matthew, and Thomas, and James son of Alphaeus, and Thaddaeus, and Simon the Cananaean,
and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him.
— Mark 3:13–19 NRSV
The Disciples The Disciples The Disciples Disciple

as listed in as listed in as listed in mentioned in the
Matt. 10:2–4 Mark 3:16–19 Luke 6:14–16 Gospel of John
*Simon called Peter *Simon called Peter *Simon called Peter *Simon Peter
*Andrew James son of Zebedee *Andrew *Andrew
James son of Zebedee John son of Zebedee James son of Zebedee *Thomas (Didymus)
John son of Zebedee *Andrew John son of Zebedee *Philip
*Philip *Philip *Philip *Judas Iscariot
Bartholomew Bartholomew Bartholomew “The sons of Zebedee”
*Thomas *Thomas Matthew (Another) Judas
Matthew the tax collector Matthew *Thomas Nathanael (?)
James son of Alphaeus James son of Alphaeus James son of Alphaeus The Beloved Disciple
Thaddaeus (Lebbaeus) Thaddaeus Simon the Zealot
Simon the Cananaean Simon the Cananaean Judas of James
*Judas Iscariot *Judas Iscariot *Judas Iscariot†
* Indicates a disciple mentioned in all four gospels

† The parallel list in Acts 1:13ƒ. removes Judas, replacing him with Matthias (Acts 1:23–26)
1.!whom he also named apostles is the reading of ‫ א‬B C* W M Y ƒ13 28 bo (with variations in word order; GNT in [!] as
questionable); A Cc D E L L ƒ1 33 579 892 1241 Byz a b e ff2 q vg sin pesh omit
2.!so he appointed the twelve is the reading of ‫ א‬B C* M 565 579 (GNT in [!] as questionable); A D E L Y L ƒ1 33 892
1241 Byz b e ff2 q vg sin pesh omit; W ƒ13 a c e have unrelated readings.

Most people don’t realize that there are at least fourteen people listed as being among the
Twelve Apostles, nor do they realize how insignificant most of these people were. Of the Twelve,
only PETER and JAMES and JOHN have “speaking roles” in the first three Gospels or in Acts, and
only Peter actually does anything. The important figures in the tradition are not the Twelve, but
“lesser” Christians such as STEPHEN, PHILIP the Hellenist, BARNABAS, TITUS, and, of course,
PAUL.
Yet it is the Twelve who are far and away the most revered of the early Christians. Who were
these people, and what made them so great?
It’s a good question. We can’t even be sure who belongs on the list. It is perfectly possible that
no catalogue of the Twelve survived long enough for the Gospel writers to use it.1 They all knew,
of course, of Peter and James and John, and probably a few others, but from there they were on
their own. We can only guess at their thought processes. Could PHILIP the Hellenist have been so
important that “Philip” became an Apostle? One Apostle was known as “Judas Thomas”; could
he have entered the list twice — once as “THOMAS Didymus” and once as “JUDAS of James”?
Eusebius knows of a “Thaddaeus” who was one of the Seventy and important in the early
church; did he perhaps slip his way into the list? Could JAMES the brother of Jesus have become
JAMES son of Alphaeus?2 Is MATTHIAS the same as MATTHEW?
And what great figures have we forgotten? How will we ever know?
Some of these are modern speculations and some are ancient, and the Bible is of no help in
dealing with them. We must turn to tradition instead. And with that decision things get really
tricky. How does one decide what to include and what to ignore?
This was originally intended to be a simple history of the Twelve Disciples, with perhaps a
few other major church figures. But how does one decide who the Twelve really are? Where does
one draw the line?
Eventually I chose to include all New Testament Christians — insofar as I can tell who they
are. In deciding what to say about them, to a certain extent I’ve compromised. If a person is
3
credited with writing any portion of the New Testament, I have included a literary analysis of the
work. In all but three cases — those of PETER, PAUL, and JOHN — I have listed all New
Testament mentions of the person.4 (On the other hand, this can be a ticklish subject; how does
one decide which one of the half dozen or so New Testament Marys is referred to in any
1.!In this connection we might note that, although the usual text of the Synoptic Gospels implies that the Twelve
were chosen during Jesus’s initial earthly ministry, the “Western” text of Acts 1:1-2 offers a slightly different
perspective: “In my first volume, O Theophilus, I wrote about everything Jesus did and taught, up to the day he
chose the Apostles through the Holy Spirit and directed them to proclaim the Gospel” (so gig, supported in part by
D, the margin of the Harklean Syrian, the Peshitta Syriac, the Middle Egyptian and Sahidic Coptic, and
Augustine; many scholars have felt this to be the original text of the verse). Thus in this text the choosing of the
Apostles is more important than the story of the Ascension, which it replaces.
2.!This is more or less the accepted Catholic view; see the excursus Who Was James the Brother of the Lord? on p.
128.
3.!The one exception is Mary mother of Jesus. There is no conclusive Biblical proof that she was a Christian
(although Acts 1:14 is certainly strong evidence), and to list all the Church’s legends about her would be hopeless
— so in the end I just left her out. Some details about her are found in her entry in the main genealogy on p. 166
and in the excursus The Birth of Mary on p. 167.
4.!In the case of John son of Zebedee, I have included all explicit mentions, but have not tried for implicit mentions.

particular verse? What about implicit mentions? etc.) Furthermore, I have tried to list all literary
works such as Gospels, Acts, etc. associated with a person no matter how late or obscure. When I
know anything about the work, I have tried to hint at its contents as well. If I have a legend about
an Apostle’s martyrdom I have included that. But there are limits. I have glanced at many of the
stories in the Golden Legend, e.g., but omitted most of its endless lists of meaningless miracles.
What follows is not intended to replace the standard collections of saints’ lives, which are largely
based on much later tradition; as far as possible, I have worked from early sources.
Beyond that, it’s been a judgment call. For people of lesser importance, I have included every
traditional tidbit I could find. But if I had tried that in the case of PETER or PAUL, I’d still be
writing. So for major figures (particularly PETER, PAUL, and JOHN son of Zebedee, but also most
of the Apostles) I have included primarily the traditions and speculations which have some
likelihood of being true. I’m sure my omissions would cause some readers to scream, and that
which I have included would be equally offensive to others. But even PAUL couldn’t manage to be
all things to all people.
My biggest problem has been works such as the Gnostic Acts. They are almost certainly
inaccurate and often disgusting. The problem is, in many instances these heretical works are more
numerous and complete than the more orthodox sources. To be fair, I have included them — but
sometimes my distaste is obvious.
With all that said, let us briefly examine the background of the Christian church.
When Jesus was born in about 6 B.C.E., Judea had been ruled by Rome for over half a
century. The Roman Empire had been in existence for twenty years, and was fated to endure
without significant changes for almost two hundred more. For the first time, Europe and western
Asia were united under a coherent government. Culture and innovations could spread all the way
from Spain to Egypt. Never before had this been true; it has never been true since.
Jesus began his public ministry in the late 20s (29 C.E. according to Luke 3:1; perhaps 27 C.E.
according to John) and never went far into non-Jewish territory. Jesus was most likely crucified in
30 C.E.
For some time after that Christianity was confined to Judea. As best we can tell it did not even
return to its earlier home in Galilee. But after the martyrdom of STEPHEN around 31 the
Christians were scattered, and their cause gained new adherents. Saul/PAUL, who had once been
the staunchest opponent of Christianity, was probably converted around 32. In the late 30s
PETER and PHILIP the Hellenist began to open the doors to non-Jewish converts. A persecution by
Herod Agrippa I in the mid 40s resulted in the death of JAMES son of Zebedee but did little other
harm. In 46 PAUL and BARNABAS went on their first missionary voyage. In 48 or soon after the
Council of Jerusalem formally renounced the Mosaic law and admitted Gentiles to the Church.
Within a few years PAUL brought Christianity to Europe. By the late 50s the new religion had
reached Rome.
The Jewish church began to fall apart in the early 60s. The bishop of Jerusalem, JAMES the
brother of Jesus, was martyred in 62, and the church had been forced from Judea by the time of
the Jewish revolt of 66.

It was in the 60s that Rome first recognized a distinction between Christianity and Judaism,
and a brief persecution took place under Nero in 66–68. PETER and PAUL were said to have died
at this time, although we have no reliable information about the deaths of either.
In the last years of the first century, as the Apostles died, the church became more organized,
with its system of Bishops and Deacons. The Emperor Domitian — suspicious of anything that
seemed organized or that wasn’t under his thumb — instituted a persecution in the mid–90s, and
Rome’s attitude remained hostile for the next two centuries. But by now the church was too
strong to overcome. By the time John son of Zebedee, traditionally the the last of the Apostles to
die, left the earth around 100 C.E. the church was firmly established in the Empire. It was only a
matter of time before Christianity became the official religion of Rome.
In the list that follows, an asterisk (*) indicates a person listed as one of the Twelve Apostles; a
section mark (§) marks one of the seven Hellenists of Acts 6. The symbol || refers to the parallels
in the synoptic gospels.
Lifetimes of the Disciples

Date Event
63 B.C.E. Judah conquered by Romans under Pompey.
37 B.C.E. Herod the Great rules Judea.
6 B.C.E. Birth of Jesus (?).
4 B.C.E. Death of Herod. Direct Roman control of Judea following the deposition of
Archelaus in 6 C.E.
26 C.E. Pontius Pilate becomes Procurator.
29 C.E. Beginning of Jesus’ public ministry (?).
30 C.E. Death of Jesus (?).
30 C.E. Death of Judas Iscariot (?).
31 C.E. Martyrdom of Stephen in Jerusalem (?).
32 C.E. Conversion of Paul (?).
44 C.E. Martyrdom of James son of Zebedee in Palestine.
48 C.E. Council of Jerusalem legitimizes the Gentile mission.
58 C.E. Death of Barnabas (?).
62 C.E. Martyrdom of James the Brother of Jesus in Jerusalem.
64 C.E. Martyrdom of Paul in Rome (?).
66 C.E. Jewish Revolt. Nero’s persecution.
67 C.E. Martyrdom of Peter in Rome. Martyrdom of Paul in Rome (?).
69 C.E. Martyrdom of Andrew in Greece (?).
70 C.E. Fall of Jerusalem.
95 C.E. Domitian’s persecution.
100 C.E. Death of John son of Zebedee in Ephesus (?).

Biographies of the Disciples

Achaicus: ’KN-&,8#. One who was with PAUL at the time he wrote 1 Corinthians (1 Cor.
16:17). He may have been one of CHLOE’S messengers, and/or the bearer of the letter
mentioned in 7:1, but this is not certain. We are told that he and FORTUNATUS and STEPHANAS
“refreshed [Paul’s] spirit” (16:18). 1 Cor. 16:171 !.
Agabus: ’K6-)8#, perhaps from a Hebrew word meaning “locust.” A prophet of the
Apostolic age. He was apparently a citizen of Jerusalem who wandered a lot (Acts 11:27). When
we first meet him, he has just appeared in Antioch and is predicting a famine (Acts 11:28. The
narrative and Eusebius both imply that the prediction took place before the death of Tiberius in
37, although the famine took place in the time of Claudius — probably around 46–48. Suetonius
— Claudius 18 — tells us that there was a famine in Claudius’s reign caused by drought). Later,
during PAUL’S stay in Cæsarea prior to his final trip to Jerusalem, Agabus met the Apostle, bound
him with his own belt, and thus predicted his imprisonment (Acts 21:10–11). Little more can be
said of him, although Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. V.17) has a tradition that he was not an ecstatic.
Tradition makes him one of the Seventy. He is celebrated as a martyr in some of the eastern
churches. Acts 11:28, 21:10 !.
Alexander: ’K%*]-59!8#, “Defender of Men.” In 1 Tim. 1:19–20, the author of the
Pastoral Epistles (who is perhaps Paul, although it is very unlike his style) accuses him and
HYMENAEUS of having “suffered shipwreck in their faith” (NRSV) by rejecting conscience. Many
commentators interpret this to mean that Alexander was an early Gnostic. If so, nothing else is
known of this early heretic. On the other hand, a few would equate Alexander with the
coppersmith of 2 Tim. 4:14 who “did [Paul] much harm.” 1 Tim. 1:202 !.
Ampliatus: ’K?"%&-08#. Called “Amplias” (’K?"%&-#) in the Received Text.3 The name
was often given to slaves. All we know of this man is what Paul says of him in Rom. 16:8: “Greet
Ampliatus, my beloved in the Lord.” Rom. 16:8 !.
Ananias: ’K5-5&-#, Greek form of Hananiah, “Yah[weh] has been Gracious.”
ANANIAS 1. A citizen of Jerusalem, a member of the early church and apparently a man
of property. In accordance with the practice of the early Christians (cf. Acts 2:44–45), he and his
wife SAPPHIRA were to sell their holdings and give the money to the church. But the two decided
to withhold part of the payment. Separately confronted with the truth by PETER, neither was
willing to confess the crime, and so both fell dead. The time was probably in the early 30s. Acts
5:1–11 !.
ANANIAS 2. The man responsible for the conversion of Saul/PAUL. Paul had been a
persecutor of the church, and was on a mission to oppress the Christians in Damascus (Acts 9:1–
2) when a vision came to him on the Damascus road. Paul was struck blind, and once he reached
1.!Also mentioned in the KJV subscription to 1 Corinthians, following Dc L P 1175? 1739 Byz, but ‫ א‬A B C D* F G
[ 33 81 omit.
2.!Another Alexander who might have been a Christian is mentioned in Mark 15:21. A Jewish Alexander is found in
Acts 19:33, and a priest of that name in Acts 4:6. I know of no other information about the latter.
3.!Ampliatos is the reading of ന46 ! A B* C F G 6 424c 1739; Bc D L [ 33 1175 arm have the Received reading
Amplias

Damascus Jesus told him in a vision that a man named Ananias would come to restore his sight.
Jesus also appeared to Ananias, giving him his instructions (9:10–12). Ananias argued (9:13–14),
but God, not surprisingly, won the argument (9:15–16). Ananias went (9:17), and Paul was
converted. Ananias is not mentioned again, except in Paul’s account of his conversion in Acts
22:12. Tradition, by contrast, makes him one of the Seventy, a Damascene bishop, and a martyr.
Acts 9:10, 12–13, 17, 22:12 !.
Andrew: ’K59!*-#, Andreas, “Manly” (Andrew and PHILIP were the only members of the
Twelve with Greek names). Son of Jonah (Matt. 16:17) or John (John 1:42; for this difficult
question see the note on his brother PETER). According to John (1:43), the brothers were from
Bethsaida in Galilee, though Luke gives Peter’s home as Gennesaret and Matthew and Mark
simply locate Peter by the Sea of Galilee, from which place the brothers moved to Capernaum
(where they lived together in a home with Peter’s wife and her parents — Mark 1:16, 21–29).
Andrew is listed by all four evangelists as one of the twelve, and by the Synoptic writers as one of
the first (and presumably greatest) four (Matt. 10:2; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13). But unlike
his brother Peter, his importance seems to have been small. Only twice in the Synoptic gospels is
he set apart from the rest of the twelve: when he and his brother Peter (who had been Galilean
fishermen) were called to “fish for people” (Mark 1:16–17; Matt. 4:18 NRSV), and when he and
Peter and James and John were allowed to hear Jesus’s “Little Apocalypse” (Mark 13:3–37 & ||).
In the gospel of John, the story is different. Andrew was a disciple of John the Baptist who went
to follow Jesus at John’s direction (John 1:40). Impressed with what he saw, he brought Peter to see
Jesus (John 1:42).1 Later on, he and Philip questioned Jesus at the time of the feeding of the
multitude (John 6:5–9); these two were also together — they were bearing a request from Greek
proselytes — when Jesus withdrew from the world (John 12:20–26).
As with most of the disciples, tradition has been busy with him: an apocryphal Acts of Andrew
(which we possess in an epitomized form) tells many stories concerning miracles Andrew worked
in Achaea (Jerome also claims he was active there), and concludes with a tale of how a Roman
proconsul had him crucified for converting the official’s wife to Gnostic Christianity and chastity.
Andrew could have escaped, but chose instead a dramatic martyrdom. (Allegedly he was
crucified on a tilted cross, now called the “St. Andrew’s Cross”; it is the cross used on Britain’s
Union Jack.) The day was said to be Nov. 30, perhaps in 69, and November 30 is now the feast
day of St. Andrew. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. III.1) tells us that the area of his activity was Scythia. An
Egyptian story tells of his reanimating a dismembered child (a reminiscence of the story of
Osiris?), another describes his rescue of the apostle MATTHIAS, or possibly MATTHEW, from
2
cannibals (MATTHIAS was the subject of the earlier version; The Golden Legend transfers it to
MATTHEW; this account may conflate the two earlier stories). Still another Gnostic account tells
of how he and Peter argued for orthodoxy against Mary. A legend has it that some of his relics
1.!This may have been a momentous act: according to the common text of John 1:41, Andrew was the first disciple to
convert another (so !* E L W 579 Byz, although KJV does not make this clear; ന66 ന75 !c A B Y [ ƒ1 ƒ13 892 a c f ff2
q pesh sa bo arm geo NRSV? simply say that Andrew’s first act as a disciple was to convert Peter. Tradition gives
him the honour of being called “the first missionary” because of the reading of the common text.
2.!In the Egyptian legend, the god Osiris was defeated and the pieces of his body scattered; his wife Isis gathered him
back together and reanimated him.

wound up in Scotland; he is the Patron Saint of the nation, as well as of Russia (based on an
impossible tradition that he preached in Kiev). Other relics are said to be in Constantinople and
the Vatican. Matt. 4:18, 10:2; Mark 1:16, 29, 3:18, 13:3; Luke 6:14; John 1:40, 44, 6:8, 12:22;
Acts 1:13 !.
Andronicus: ’K59!85&,8#, “Conqueror of Men.” Mentioned only in Rom. 16:7, he and
Junius are described as Paul’s “relatives and fellow-captives” (AOT) and called “men of note
among the Apostles.” It is suspected that this part of Romans was actually sent to Ephesus, so
they may have been citizens of that city. Rom. 16:7 !.
Antipas: ’K50&"-#. Not to be confused with Herod Antipas, the Tetrarch of Galilee in
Jesus’s time. A citizen of Pergamum who was martyred because of his Christianity (Rev. 2:13).
Nothing else is known of him. Rev. 2:13 !.
Apelles: ’K"*%%;#. He is mentioned only in Rom. 16:10, where it is said that he “is
approved in Christ” (AOT). He is sometimes identified with Apollos,1 but this is difficult to accept
on many grounds. A second century Apelles was a famous Marcionite, and was credited by
Jerome with having written a gospel, but they cannot be the same. Rom. 16:10 !.
Apollos: ’K"8%%D#, contracted from “Apollonius,” “Of Apollo.”2 An Alexandrian Jew (Acts
18:24) whose name and actions clearly indicate a Greek background. He was originally a follower
of the sect of John the Baptist, though he may have had some knowledge of Jesus; he was
converted to proper Christianity by PRISCA and AQUILA during a preaching tour at Ephesus (Acts
18:26). He then became an elegant apologist for Christianity (Acts 18:27–28). Yet his very
eloquence brought trouble, for his preaching at Corinth (Acts 19:1)3 caused some of the unstable
Corinthian Christians to start an “Apollos” sect instead of being loyal to Jesus (1 Cor. 1:12, 3:5,
22). Paul praises Apollos’s activities (1 Cor. 3:6, 4:6) and the two may even have worked together
(Titus 3:13, but compare their differences in 1 Cor. 16:12), but it took a long correspondence and
several visits to repair the damage.
Other than the events of this short period, nothing is known of Apollos. Several scholars,
including Luther, have suggested him as the author of the Letter to the Hebrews. This suggestion
is attractive in that it fits in with Apollos’s Hellenistic Jewish background and eloquence (Hebrews
is a skillfully written book in highly polished Greek), but is beyond proof. Jerome knows of a
tradition that he became Bishop of Corinth; another tradition makes him Bishop of Cæsarea.
Acts 18:24, 19:1; 1 Cor. 1:12, 3:4, 5, 6, 22, 4:6, 16:12; Titus 3:13 !.
Apphia: ’K"P&-. A woman of Colossae, greeted by PAUL as his “sister” (read female
comrade ?) in Philem. 2. It has been speculated that she is the wife of either PHILEMON or
ARCHIPPUS and the mother (?) of the other. Philem. 2 !.
Aquila: ’K,E%-#, from the Latin word for “Eagle.” The husband of PRISCA and a
prominent Christian. In Acts 18:2 we learn that he had been born a Jew; his family came from
Pontus in Asia Minor. In the 40s he lived in Rome; perhaps he was converted there. But when
1.!e.g. !* 1175 arm geo read “Apelles” for “Apollos” in Acts 18:24, 19:1.
2.!In fact D calls him “Apollonius” in Acts 18:24; !* 1175 arm geo read “Apelles” for “Apollos” in both 18:24 and
19:1
3.!The “Western” text of Acts (ന38? D and the margin of the Harkleian Syrian) omit this mention of Apollos,
replacing it with a comment on Paul’s desire to visit Jerusalem.

Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome (c. 49 C.E. — cf. Suetonius, Claudius 25), Aquila and Prisca
went to Corinth. There they met PAUL, and the Apostle worked under Aquila as a tentmaker
(18:3). From there, the three went to Ephesus (18:18); Paul left Prisca and Aquila there when he
set out for Jerusalem (18:19). While there, they converted APOLLOS to Christianity (18:26). They
are not mentioned in Acts after that time, but Paul speaks of them several times in his letters. In
1!Cor. 16:19 they send their greetings. In Rom. 16:3 Paul greets them as his “fellow workers in
Christ… who risked their necks for my life” (perhaps at the time of the riot in Ephesus? This
comment has led many commentators to believe that Romans 16 was originally part of another
letter sent to Ephesus). Lastly, they are greeted in 2 Tim. 4:19, though this passage is not
necessarily from Paul. Later legends have them dying in Asia Minor, or martyred in Rome. Acts
18:2, 18, 26; Rom. 16:3; 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:191 !.
Archippus: ’K!N&""8#, “Chief Groom.” A citizen of Colossae to whom PAUL said “See to
the task that you were assigned by the Lord…” (Col. 4:17 AOT). He is called Paul’s “fellow
soldier” in Philem. 2. A fair amount of ink has been spilled over the question of Archippus’s
relationship to PHILEMON (his son? his father? the original recipient of the letter? a church
official?), but evidence is lacking. An Archippus is called Bishop of Laodicea in the Apostolic
Constitutions. Col. 4:17; Philem. 2 !.
Aristarchus: ’K!&40-!N8#, “Great Ruler”? “A Macedonian from Thessalonica” (Acts 27:2)
who travelled with PAUL on his journey to Rome. He had joined Paul earlier, and had been with
him at least from the time of the riot against the Apostle in Ephesus (Acts 19:29), for he was
seized by the crowds there. He is specifically mentioned as one of the companions who went with
him through Macedonia (20:4). It seems likely that he remained with Paul throughout his journey
to Rome, and stayed with him there until his trial, for he is mentioned twice in the prison letters:
Col. 4:10 (where he is called Paul’s “fellow captive”) and Philem. 24 (where he is one of Paul’s
“fellow workers”). He was probably one of those responsible for conveying the contributions of
the Greek churches to Jerusalem, but he chose to remain with Paul. Tradition says that he was
martyred during the reign of Nero. Acts 19:29, 20:4, 27:2; Col. 4:10; Philem. 24 !.
Aristobulus: ’K!&408)8E%8#. One of those whom PAUL saluted in the last chapter of
Romans. All that the letter tells of him was that he had a family (Rom. 16:10). A legend which I
cannot trace has it that he was one of the Seventy, and that he later preached in Britain. Rom.
16:10 !.
Artemas: ’K!0*?-#, short for ’K!0*?&9D!8#, “Gift of Artemis.” If the letter to Titus is
authentic (it is widely thought to be pseudepigraphal, although it seems unlikely that a Christian
would make up a character named after a pagan diety), he is one of those who was with PAUL
when he wrote the letter, and possibly the person designated to carry it. The company was
headed for Nicopolis. Titus 3:12 !.
Barnabas: \-!5-)-#, from Aramaic “Bar-Naba,” “Son of Prophecy,” but traditionally
rendered “Son of Encouragement” (Acts 4:36). “A Levite, a native of Cyprus,” whose birth-name
1.!The text of “Family 614,” which some think is “Western,” also adds the name in Acts 18:21: “But he [Paul] left
Aquila in Ephesus”; so 383? 614 2412 plus the Peshitta Syriac and the margin of the Harklean Syriac.

was Joseph1. He first gained prominence in the early 30s when he sold a property and gave the
proceeds to the church (Acts 4:34–37).2 But his greatest service to the church was probably
rendered when he convinced the church officials that Saul of Tarsus (PAUL), who formerly had
persecuted the church, had been converted (Acts 9:28–30). Sent to Antioch to check on reports
that Gentiles were being accepted into the congregation, Barnabas became a teacher there, and
eventually brought Paul back from Tarsus to join him (Acts 11:19–26). At the time of the famine
under Claudius (c. 43), Barnabas and Paul brought aid to the church in Jerusalem (Acts 11:27–
30). Returning to Antioch with his cousin (Col. 4:10) JOHN MARK and Paul, Barnabas became
one of the leaders of the church there (Acts 12:25–13:1). But it wasn’t long before Barnabas and
Paul were called to be missionaries (Acts 13:2), and they set off for Cyprus with John Mark (Acts
13:4, etc.). It was at this time that Paul began to be listed as “senior partner” in the enterprise.
Although Barnabas was probably the original leader, it sounds as though for the rest of the tour
Paul did most of the work with Barnabas in the background (Acts 13:7, 43, 46, 50, 14:12, 14, 20).
It was on this journey that Paul first began preaching to the Gentiles (Acts 13:44–47). Returning
to Palestine, Jewish Christians condemned them for loosing the restrictions of the Mosaic law
(Acts 15:1–2). From there, the two went to Jerusalem to debate the matter with church leaders
PETER, JOHN son of Zebedee, and JAMES brother of Jesus (Acts 15:6–21). In the discussion that
followed (the “Council of Jerusalem,” 48/9 C.E.— cf. Gal. 2:1?), Paul and Barnabas were
completely victorious: the Gentiles were welcomed without being placed under the Mosaic law,
and the two apostles were recognized as leaders of the church (Acts 15:22; Gal. 2:9). The two
returned to Antioch with the good news (Acts 15:30–35); soon after, they planned another
missionary voyage (Acts 15:36). But it was not to happen; Barnabas wanted to travel with John
Mark, whom Paul viewed as a deserter (Acts 15:37–383). Besides, Barnabas, though personally
ascetic (1 Cor. 9:6), was not as fervent as Paul against the Mosaic law (Gal. 2:13; an apocryphal
Acts of Barnabas describes this in detail). So Barnabas and John Mark separated from Paul and
returned to Cyprus (Acts 15:39). They are not heard of again. It has been suggested that
Barnabas died some time between the writing of 1 Cor. 9:6 (c. 54) and Col. 4:10 (c. 62), since the
former seems to refer to him as alive while the latter does not.
Tradition has a bit more to say about Barnabas. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. I.12, II.1) states that he is
one of the few members of the Seventy whose name is known. A few early sources credited the
Letter to the Hebrews to him. The Recognitions of the Pseudo-Clement, a third (?) century work,
claims that he preached in Rome (I.7). The Apostolic Constitutions claims that he helped Peter expel
SIMON MAGUS from Palestine. Luther and Calvin believed that he was the “comrade who is
praised in every church” (2 Cor. 8:18 AOT).
1.!Joseph: so Acts 4:36 in ന74 ! A B D E 1175 1739 gig p vg NRSV; P [ 33 Byz hark KJV read “Joses.”
2.!At least, this is where we first meet Barnabas in the Alexandrian and Byzantine texts; according to the “Western”
text of Acts 1:23, it was Joseph Barnabas, not Joseph Barsab(b)as, who vied with MATTHIAS to replace JUDAS
ISCARIOT in the circle of the Twelve. This reading, found in D 6supp gig p eth, obviously implies a much earlier
role for Barnabas in Jesus’s ministry.
3.!The version in the Golden Legend denies that there was a real disagreement, and that both Barnabas and Paul
obeyed the will of the Holy Spirit, but this seems unlikely given the reading of Acts.

A Letter of Barnabas has been preserved; although it is pseudepigraphal, a few churches

wished to place it in the New Testament canon — indeed, ‫ א‬includes it after the New Testament.
The letter (the author of which is not named; it is probably Alexandrian in origin, although
Clement of Alexandria and Jerome attribute it to Barnabas) argues that the Mosaic law is
meaningless except as a guide to Christ, and that Judaism has misinterpreted it and has been
condemned for this. The book illustrates this with a variety of allegorical explanations based on
sometimes distorted scripture. The law is attributed to a demon — hardly a likely attitude for a
Levite. A longer recension of the work contains a list of commandments, probably from another
work. Eusebius condemns the writing (Ecc. Hist. III.25) but with little rancor; it is uninspired but
not heretical in the way that the Gnostic “Acts” and “Gospels” were. It was clearly written after
the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 (making Barnabas’s authorship almost impossible), but
probably before the Bar-Kochba revolt of 132; a date around 125–130 (during the reign of
Hadrian, who dangerously revived Jewish nationalism by turning Jerusalem into a Roman city
with a Temple to Jupiter) seems likely. The Acts of Barnabas, which claims to be by John Mark, tells
of his martyrdom by hanging and burning (or stoning) in Salamis,1 at the instigation of Bar-Jesus
(for whom cf. Acts 13:6). Traditions of his martyrdom in Cyprus are widely known. Acts 4:36,
9:27, 11:22, 25, 30, 12:25, 13:1, 2, 7, 42, 43, 46, 50, (14:1), 14:12, 14, 20, 15:2, 12, 22, 25, 35, 36,
37, 39; 1 Cor. 9:6; Gal. 2:1, 9, 13; Col. 4:10 !.
Barsabbas: see JOSEPH Barsabbas and JUDAS Barsabbas.
*Bartholomew: \-!+8%8?-&8#, from Aramaic Bar-Talmai, “Son of Talmai.” According
to the Synoptic gospels, he was one of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14;
Acts 1:13), but nothing else is recorded of him; he is not mentioned by John. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist.
V.10) records only that he caused the Aramaic gospel of Matthew to be preserved in India, where
tradition claims he was active. He appears once in the Pseudo-Clement’s Recognitions (I.59), where
we find him and others of the Apostles arguing with the Pharisees. Catholic tradition has
identified this disciple with the “NATHANAEL” of John (apparently on the principle that
Nathanael’s father’s name is unknown, and “Bartholomew” could be a patronym), but this is
dubious. Other identifications are even less likely, as are the several apocryphal reports of his
martyrdom, which report, e.g., that he was flayed alive and crucified upside down. A different
tradition, widely accepted by Catholics, he was taken at Derbend on the Caspian Sea, flayed, and
beheaded by King Astyges; his feast day is August 24. In the Acts of Philip, a “Bartholomew” (said
to be one of the Seventy) is PHILIP’S companion and is almost martyred with the Apostle. The
Pseudo-Abdias and the Martyrdom of Bartholomew tell similar stories of his death: having baptized a
king’s brother and caused no end of trouble, the King had him beaten with rods and beheaded.
(The latter work also describes him as black-haired, slightly grey, of medium height and pale skin,
with a yellow beard.) An apocryphal gospel is attributed to Bartholomew; this third century (?)
1.!Although no tale of these events is included in the Bible, this is the Catholic account of him; he is said to have
been the founder of the Cypriot church, and to have been stoned there in 61. His feast day is June 11. The Golden
Legend account agrees with the tradition that he died in Cyprus but says that he was dragged outside the city by a
halter around his neck, then burned. Dorotheus said that he was Bishop of Milan for a time — highly unlikely,
since the episcopal hierarchy did not exist at the time. He is also said to have helped disseminate the Gospel of
Matthew, but given that that book cannot have been written until after Mark was written, and Mark was written
after 66, this again is impossible.

writing claims to record a post-resurrection conversation with Jesus. This apocalyptic discourse is
highly peculiar; the one fairly orthodox subject was the afterlife: Jesus described his descent into
Hell and subsequent re-ascension. This notion, common in Catholic circles, may be derived in
part from this work. The Book of the Resurrection of Christ by Bartholomew, a late Coptic work, tells us
that he had a son Thaddeus; it includes a series of stories similar to the Gospel. Matt. 10:3; Mark
3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13 !.
Bartimeus: \-!0&?-&8#, from Aramaic Bar-Timaeus, “Son of Timai” or perhaps “Son of
the Unclean.” The only personal information we have about him has already been stated, for
Mark tells us that he was the “son of Timaeus” (Mark 10:46). He was the famous “blind beggar
of Jericho” (cf. Matt. 20:29–34 — where there are two beggars — and Luke 18:35–43). He
begged Jesus for his sight (Mark 10:47–51), received it, and followed Jesus (10:52). (An interesting
twist on this legend is found in one of the Syriac versions, where Bartimeus asks for his sight so
that he may see [Jesus].)1 Mark 10:46 !.
The “Beloved Disciple,”: Mentioned only in the Fourth Gospel, but referred to
extensively there, and even credited as the source of the work — or at least of the appendix
which forms chapter 21 (John 21:24; cf. the “eyewitness” testimony of 19:35). The “Disciple
whom Jesus loved” (?-+;0;5 8E ;6-"- 8 ’C;48E#) is mentioned in the following situations:
1) At the Last Supper, he lay close to the breast of Jesus (John 13:23), and PETER asked
questions through him (13:24–25).
2) He was with Mary at the foot of the cross (John 19:26) where Jesus told them to behave as
mother and son.
3) He was with Peter when MARY MAGDALENE came to describe the empty tomb (John 20:1–
2). He then raced with Peter to the tomb, but did not enter until after Peter did. Seeing no body,
both were amazed (20:3–10). Oddly enough, instead of being called “the disciple Jesus
loved” (verb -6-"-D) in this passage, here he is the disciple Jesus “lovingly befriended” (my
attempt to render the verb P&%*D).
4) He was in the boat with Peter when Jesus had them haul in a great catch, and was the first
to recognize Jesus (John 21:6–7).
5) He was nearby when Jesus told Peter to shepherd the flock (John 21:20). Peter in this
scene seems to be slightly jealous, and the beloved disciple seems indeed to have been called to
another fate — long life (21:21–24) instead of Peter’s martyrdom (21:18).
Many have suspected — admittedly on rather slender grounds — that the Beloved Disciple
was the disciple “who was known to the High Priest” and who attended Jesus’s trial and gained
admittance for Peter (18:15–18).
Who, then, was this man, to whom Jesus was so attached? Some writers reject the Beloved
Disciple as symbolic. But since he was credited as the source of the Fourth Gospel, I and the
majority of commentators incline to the belief that someone is indeed behind the tradition.
Among the personages proposed for the role are the following:
Lazarus. LAZARUS is the only person whom Jesus is described as “loving” in the Fourth
Gospel. (The only person Jesus loved in the Synoptic Gospels was the Rich Young Man of Mark
1.!So, with variations, the Curetonian Syriac translation of Matt. 20:33, Luke 18:41 (this manuscript does not exist
for the passage in Mark). The reading is not found in the related Sinaitic Syriac version, nor in any Greek texts.

10:17, etc., who was not a disciple.) Moreover, the Beloved Disciple’s appearances all occur after
the resurrection of Lazarus. (Leading some to suggest — my source speculates that this is
facetious — that the Beloved Disciple recognized the resurrected Jesus because he himself had
been resurrected.) Against this theory we advance the following arguments:
1. There is no evidence that Lazarus was one of the Twelve, and the Beloved Disciple must
have been one, since he was present at the Last Supper.
2. While Jesus “loved” Lazarus, in only one instance is the verb used -6-"-D (John 11:5); in
the other three cases the verb is P&%*D (11:3, 11, 36), which does not match the usage for the
Beloved Disciple (of course, many scholars think John used -6-"-D and P&%*D interchangeably
— but we aren’t sure. I personally think that the two have distinct uses — at least in chapter 21).
3. Lazarus, from Bethany, could hardly have been a fisherman, as the Beloved Disciple
apparently is (John 21:3ƒ.).
4. The name of the Beloved Disciple is never given, but Lazarus is named repeatedly.
5. Could Lazarus — a figure so obscure that he is not mentioned outside the Fourth Gospel
— have been either literate enough or authoritative enough to write this gospel?
John Mark. Ancient evidence consistently gives the name of the Beloved Disciple as
“John.” If the Beloved Disciple is not the son of Zebedee (in this line of argument, Mark 10:39 is
interpreted to mean that both JOHN and JAMES were martyred young, as a few authorities state),
then the most prominent John among the New Testament Christians was JOHN MARK. In
addition, John Mark was a Levite, which might have given him access to the High Priest.
Counterarguments are:
1. There is no evidence that John Mark ever knew Jesus, let alone was intimate with him.
2. John Mark is credited with writing the Second Gospel, not the Fourth.
3. Mark’s Roman situation and relation to Peter makes him an unlikely author for the
Johanine corpus.
4. How could as minor a figure as John Mark challenge the authority of Peter as represented
by what we call the gospel of Mark?
John son of Zebedee. The most ancient and strongest theory. In support of it we advance
the following:
1. John was identified as the Beloved Disciple since the second century (Ecc. Hist. III.23,
etc.).
2. He was, according to the Synoptic Gospels, a fisherman, which fits in with John 21:3ƒ.
3. Again according to the Synoptics, he was (along with his brother James and Peter) one of
Jesus’s inner circle, which would presumably include the Beloved Disciple. And since James was
martyred early (Acts 12:1–2) and Peter is separately identified, neither of them can be the one.
4. John is credited as living at Ephesus until the reign of Trajan (98–117 C.E. — Ecc. Hist.
III.23), and was the only Apostle not credited with an early martyrdom, which accords with John
21:22.
5. Neither John nor his brother James is mentioned anywhere in the Fourth Gospel (except
for a probable gloss in 21:2, referring to “the sons of Zebedee”), which fits with the anonymity of
the Beloved Disciple.

6. Of all the Apostles, John is the one most strongly associated with Peter (Luke 22:8; Acts
3:1ƒ.,1 8:14; Gal. 2:9).
Of course, many counter-arguments can be offered. Some of them are formidable, such as
the question of how John could have known the High Priest. (It has been suggested that John was
the official fish supplier of the High Priest! On the other hand, a quote in Eusebius — Ecc. Hist.
V.24 — makes him an actual priest.) But on the whole, it seems easiest to believe that the author
of the Fourth Gospel is at least claiming to be John son of Zebedee.
Cephas: A;P-#, Kephas, Aramaic for “Rock.” Another name for Peter, used in John 1:42; 1
Cor. 1:12, 3:22, 9:5, 15:5; Gal. 1:18, 2:9, 11, 2:14 NRSV (for the KJV readings see the entry on
Peter).
Chloe: ^%8;, “Verdant.” A woman of Corinth who sent a message to Paul about the
dissensions there (1!Cor. 1:11). It is possible — though not there is no real evidence either way —
that STEPHANAS, FORTUNATUS, and ACHAICUS were her messengers (1!Cor. 16:17). 1 Cor. 1:11 !.
Claudia: A%-E9&-. One who sends greetings to “Timothy” in 2 Tim. 4:21. Tradition has it
that she was the mother (or wife?) of LINUS the first post-Petrine bishop of Rome. Another
tradition makes her the wife of PUDENS. 2 Tim. 4:21 !.
Clement: A%;?*508#. One of Paul’s companions at the time when he was working with the
women EUODIA and SYNTYCHE (Phil. 4:3). Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. III.4, III.15, following Origen) tells
us that Clement of Rome, whom he identifies with the Clement mentioned in Philippians
(though this is often doubted; the name is common), was the third Bishop of Rome. In any case,
Clement of Rome became bishop in the twelfth year of Domitian (93 C.E. — Ecc. Hist. III.15).2
He is said to have met certain of the apostles (Ecc. Hist. V.6). But the most important fact we have
about Clement is his purported authorship of two letters (Ecc. Hist. III.16) which have survived to
the present day. The second of these letters is universally rejected by modern scholarship (it
seems to be a sermon from the mid-second century), but the first may well have been by Clement
of Rome. It should be dated around 96 C.E. (shortly after the assassination of Domitian brought
an end to that Emperor’s persecution of Christians). The letter is from the Roman church to the
Corinthian, and deals with the persecutions, with the old problem of dissensions in the
Corinthian church, and with the basic goals of Christianity. The letter, though somewhat
disjointed, was deeply respected by the early church; it is actually included in a several lists of the
New Testament books.
Many stories, mostly apocryphal, have been told about Clement. As one might expect, late
sources credit him with martyrdom3 — a fate reserved for all of the early Bishops of Rome. He
has been identified with the Roman nobleman T. Flavius Clemens, a relative of Domitian whom
that Emperor had executed in 95 for “atheism” (Christianity?). This does not fit the facts in
1.!Since in all instances in Acts where Peter and John appear together (Acts 3:1, 3, 4, 11, [4:1], 4:13, 19, 8:14, [17],
[25]) it is Peter who does all the talking, it has been suggested that it is not John son of Zebedee but John Mark
who is Peter’s companion (cf. 1 Pet. 5:13). But at this point in Acts we have not even heard of John Mark, and he
is in any case a minor figure. This hypothesis strikes me as unneeded.
2.!The official order of the bishops is PETER, 62-67, LINUS, 67-78, [Anen]Cletus 78-90, Clement 90-100, although
this conflicts with Ecc. Hist III.15, as well as with III.34, which credits Clement with a nine year reign ending in
the third year of Trajan (100 C.E.)
3.!In this case, by drowning after being sent to the mines and working miracles there

Eusebius or the style of Clement’s letter (though the letter does not name its author). It is perhaps
more likely that Clement was one of Flavius Clemens’s freemen. But this is beyond proof, for our
histories of Clement — though they date from the second century — show all the signs of pious
falsehood. The (6th century?) Apostolic Constitutions claims that he had brothers Nicetas and
Aquila. Our best information is what we derive from 1 Clement itself: that he was apparently a
native speaker of Greek rather than Aramaic, and that he knew Paul’s letters to Rome, Corinth
and Ephesus, as well as Hebrews. (Origen hypothesized — Ecc. Hist. III.38, VI.26 — that
Clement translated Hebrews from Paul’s original Aramaic into Greek — highly unlikely, however,
given the smooth style of Hebrews. It was clearly written in Greek.)
Another Clement, Clement of Alexandria, was an important early Christian writer (which
led to the need to designate the two Clements as “Clement of Rome” and “Clement of
Alexandria”), but this Clement was later and cannot be identified with any Biblical character. A
third writer, following Clement of Alexandria, is now referred to as the “Pseudo-Clement.” Phil.
4:3 !.
Cleopas: A%*8"-#, a shortened form of A%*8"-0!8#, Kleopatros (the masculine equivalent
of “Cleopatra”). One of the two disciples who met Jesus on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13–
35). All that is told of him is his name and that, although he was a follower of Jesus, he did not
recognize his master at first. It was only when they shared bread (generally believed to be a
sacramental meal) that they knew Jesus. They then reported to the eleven. He has sometimes
been identified with the Cleophas/CLOPAS of John 19:25 — who has in turn been identified with
Alphaeus the father of the LEVI and of the “other” Apostle James, an untenable conclusion —
but this is not particularly likely (Clopas is a Semitic name while Cleophas is Greek). Tradition
also makes him one of the Seventy of Luke 10:1–24, but this is beyond proof. Luke 24:18 !.
Cleophas: Name used in the King James version for CLOPAS (which see).
Clopas: A%D"-#.1 Mentioned in the gospels only in John 19:25, where he is the husband (or
son, or father) of MARY, one of the women at the foot of the cross. Tradition has been busy with
this peripheral figure. Some would identify him with CLEOPAS, although this is not especially
likely. Still less likely is his identification with Alphaeus the father of LEVI and the “other” apostle
JAMES. But others have taken this idea even further, interpreting the passage to mean that his wife
was the sister of Jesus’s mother, and so arguing that his children or stepchildren, the brothers
JAMES and JOHN (usually called the sons of Zebedee) were Jesus’s first cousins. (No wonder they
were in his inner circle!) Eusebius offers some support for this theory (Ecc. Hist. III.10) by
identifying this “Clopas” as Joseph’s brother. He also reports that Clopas’s son Symeon succeeded
JAMES the brother of Jesus as head of the head of the Jerusalem church (62 C.E. — Ecc. Hist.
III.11). Symeon was martyred in 106/7 (Ecc. Hist. III.32). John 19:25 !.
1.!Clopas is the reading of all Greek manuscripts known to me (except that a few including H and 69 spell it A%8#-#
rather than A%D#-#); KJV reads Cleophas (Cleophae=of Cleophas) on the basis of late Vulgate Latin texts including
the official Clementine Vulgate; the original Vulgate, as found e.g. in amiatinus and fuldensis, read Cleopae=of
Cleopas. The Old Latin c adds the interesting reading “and Mary of James.”

Cornelius: A8!5;%&8#. A Roman centurion1 assigned to the “Italian Cohort” which was
stationed in Cæsarea in the 30s (Acts 10:1). He was apparently a Jewish sympathizer, though he
did not accept the food laws, etc. (10:2). One afternoon he had a vision (10:3) which directed him
to visit PETER (10:4–5), who was in nearby Joppa at the time (10:6). Cornelius called for the
Apostle (10:7–8); Peter came — despite his evident reluctance to meet with a Gentile — because
God had spoken with him also (10:17–23). Cornelius would have offered Peter divine honours
(10:24–25), but as a good Christian Peter would have none of that (10:26). Instead he took the
opportunity to tell the bystanders that “God has shown me that I should not call any man
common or unclean” (10:27–29). Cornelius explained how God had called him (10:30–33), Peter
preached a short sermon (10:34–43), the Spirit descended on the listeners (10:44–47), and
Cornelius and others were baptized (10:48). Cornelius is not heard of again (although the
Recognitions of the Pseudo-Clement — X.55 — tells of his role in driving SIMON MAGUS from
Palestine, and the Apostolic Constitutions list a “Cornelius” as second bishop of Cæsarea), but an
important principle had been established: that Gentiles also had a role in Christianity. Acts 10:1,
3, 17, 22, 24, 25, 30, 312 !.
Crescens: A!;4,;#. Mentioned only in 2 Tim. 4:10, he was one of “PAUL’S” companions
who had set out for Galatia/Gaul. The Apostolic Constitutions make him Bishop of Galatia. 2 Tim.
4:10 !.
Crispus: A!&4"8#, Krispos, from Latin “Crispus,” “Curly.” The ruler of a synagogue in
Corinth (Acts 18:8) who was converted by PAUL along with his household and many of his fellow
citizens. Paul explicitly mentions him as one that he baptized in 1 Cor. 1:14 — one of the very
few Corinthians that received this attention from the apostle. Some think that he was the same as
SOSTHENES — assuming in turn that the two men by that name were the same. The Apostolic
Constitutions make a Crispus bishop of Æginæ. Acts 18:8; 1 Cor. 1:14 !.
Damaris: M-?-!&#. A woman of Athens, one of the few who was converted by Paul’s
preaching there. A tradition reported by Chrysostom makes her the wife of DIONYSIUS the
Areopagite. Acts 17:343 !.
Demas: M;?-#. A co-worker of Paul’s who sent greetings to the Colossians (Col. 4:14) and
to Philemon (Philem. 24). This probably means that he was one of Paul’s companions in Rome.
It may be that this is his home city, for he is not mentioned in Acts. On the other hand, 2 Tim.
4:10 describes him as “in love with this present world… and gone to Thessalonica” (NRSV); if this
is genuine (Paul’s authorship of 2 Timothy is in grave doubt, though it probably contains
authentic passages), it might mean that Demas was one of the representatives of the Greek cities
who went to Jerusalem with Paul and then went on to Rome. Some would argue that he was not
mentioned in Acts because he wrote the book — which is possible but unprovable. The Bible tells
1.!A centurion nominally commanded one hundred men (hence the title) and was typically the highest rank to which
a common person could rise. Centurions, however, were roughly equivalent to modern sergeants: There were
many gradations, from the lowest who commanded only a few dozen men to the senior centurion of the legion
who had special duties with respect to the entire six thousand man force. The account in Acts does not make
Cornelius’s precise rank clear.
2.!The King James Bible also adds the name in Acts 10:7 (following [ 33 Byz hark; ! A B C 1739 omit) and 10:21
(following H 1505; ന45vid ! A B C 33 1739 Byz omit)
3.!D, however, omits any reference to Damaris; this may perhaps be due to anti-feminine bias

us nothing else of him (unless, as some believe, he is identical to DEMETRIUS), but he does play a
role in the apocryphal Acts of Paul, where he is called a hypocrite from the start. Later he and
HERMOGENES betray Paul and Thecla (the heroine of the Acts of Paul and an early female priest)
to the authorities, who unsuccessfully attempt to kill them. Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:10; Philem. 24 !.
Demetrius: M;?;0!&D#. An associate of the author of 3 John (3 John 12) whom the author
commends. Perhaps he was the bearer of the letter? On the other hand, some would identify him
with the hostile coppersmith of Ephesus (! — Acts 19:24ƒ.), or with DEMAS. The Apostolic
Constitutions make a Demetrius the first Bishop of Philadelphia. 3 John 12 !.
Dionysius: M&85E4&8#, named after the Roman god of Wine. Called “the Areopagite.” A
citizen of Athens (Acts 17:34), one of the few who was converted by Paul’s speech there. From his
title it would seem that he was a member of the Areopagus or Athenian law-court (the
Areopagus, or “hill of Ares” = Mars, was the place upon which the council met). Eusebius (Ecc.
Hist. III.4, IV.23) records that he was the first bishop of Athens. Another tradition records that he
was burned alive during the reign of Domitian. Chrysostom reports a tradition that DAMARIS
was his wife. Some claim that he is the martyred Saint Denis of France (sent there by Pope
Clement I), but as far as I know no one today takes this seriously. Around 400 C.E. a philosopher
wrote treatises under his name, which influenced a number of medieval scholars but are now
universally acknowledged as spurious. Acts 17:34 !.
Dorcas: Greek name of TABITHA.
Epaenetus: ’Q"-&5*08#, “Praised.” Called PAUL’S “beloved” in Rom. 16:5, and “the first
convert in Asia for Christ.” This suggests that he was a citizen of Pamphylia (cf. Acts 13:13).
Rom. 16:5 !.
Epaphras: ’Q"-P!-#, familiar form of “’Q"-P!89&08#,” “Charming” (for which see the
next entry). A companion of PAUL who had lived in Colossae (Col. 4:12) and been a missionary
there (Col. 1:5–8). In another letter, he is called Paul’s “fellow captive” (Philem. 23) whereas
others are simply the Apostle’s “fellow workers” (Philem. 24). Col. 1:7, 4:12; Philem. 23 !.
Epaphroditus: ’Q"-P!89&08#, “Charming,” “Handsome.” A citizen of Philippi who
brought gifts and encouragement to Paul during his imprisonment in Rome/Ephesus (Phil. 4:18).
While with the Apostle he grew ill (2:27), and then homesick, and his fellow citizens grew
concerned for him (2:26), which caused Paul to send him home (2:25). Phil. 2:25, 4:181 !.
Erastus: ’Q!-408#, “Beloved.” A messenger of PAUL’S. He and TIMOTHY were sent to
Macedonia while Paul stayed in Ephesus (Acts 19:22). Paul probably rejoined them in Macedonia
after the riot in Ephesus (20:1). This is all we know for certain of this man. A city official of
Corinth named Erastus is mentioned in Rom. 16:23; another Erastus is referred to in 2 Tim. 4:20
(a non-Pauline passage?), but their relationships cannot be determined. Acts 19:22; Rom. 16:23;
2 Tim. 4:20? !.
Ethiopian Eunuch: Mentioned only in Acts 8:27–39. He was the treasurer of Kandake
(the title of the Ethiopian queen, often mis-transliterated “Candace”) who was converted from
some sort of Judaism to Christianity by Philip the Hellenist. Philip then baptized him — a
1.!also mentioned in the KJV subscription to Philippians, following K L 1175? 1739? Byz; ന46 ! A B D F G [ 33
omit

significant act, since a eunuch, being physically imperfect, was ritually unacceptable to Judaism.
Tradition has it that the eunuch was the founder of the Abyssinian church — even though
Kandake’s people were not Abyssinians.1 Acts 8:27–392 !.
Eubulus: ’QE)8E%8#, “Well Advised.” One of those who sends greetings to “Timothy” in
2!Tim. 4:21 (not necessarily by PAUL). 2 Tim. 4:21 !.
Eunice: ’QE5&,;, Eunike, “Good Victory.” The mother of TIMOTHY (2 Tim. 1:5). She was “a
Jewish woman who had become a Christian”; her husband was a Greek (Acts 16:1. This was
technically an illegal marriage for a Jew; this may be why her son Timothy was considered Jewish
rather than a Gentile: he was officially illegitimate!). She was probably a citizen of Derbe (Acts
20:4?) or Lystra. “Paul” commends her faith to “Timothy” in 2 Tim. 1:5, as well as the faith of
her mother LOIS. (It might be noted that those who are most fervent in their rejection of Paul’s
authorship of the “Pastoral Epistles” regard her as nothing more than a symbol of the second
Christian generation.) 2 Tim. 1:5 !.
Euodia: ’QE89&-, “Good Road/Journey.” A woman of Philippi who was involved in some
sort of argument with the equally unknown SYNTYCHE (Phil. 4:2). Earlier they had been co-
workers with Paul and CLEMENT; they are now associates of Paul’s “loyal co-worker”3 (Phil 4:3
AOT). Phil. 4:2 !.
Fortunatus: _8E!08E5-08#, Greek form of Latin “Fortunatus.” One who was with PAUL
at the time he wrote 1 Corinthians (1 Cor. 16:17). He may have been one of CHLOE’S
messengers, and/or the bearer of the letter mentioned in 7:1, but this is not certain. We are told
that he and ACHAICUS and STEPHANAS “refreshed [Paul’s] spirit.” A Roman Fortunatus is
mentioned in 1 Clement 65:1, but they are generally regarded as distinct. 1 Cor. 16:17 !.
Gaius: J-&8#, the Greek form of the very common Roman name Gaius (this was the proper
name of the third Roman Emperor — better known as Caligula — for instance). The name of
several minor characters in the New Testament. Except for the first bishop of Pergamum, named
Gaius in the Apostolic Constitutions, none of them has any particular place in the tradition, and
several of them are probably identical, but here is a complete list (in order of appearance in the
New Testament) for whatever it’s worth:
GAIUS 1. Acts 19:29. A Macedonian who was with PAUL at the time of the riot in Ephesus.
He and ARISTARCHUS bore the brunt of the crowd’s wrath. Probably identical with #2.
1.!It is also noteworthy that the Ethiopic version of the Bible appears to have been translated from the Coptic, on
several different occasions, but there is no sign of any translation earlier than the fourth century. This implies that
the Ethiopic church dates from long after the first century.
2.!Note that what the King James Bible labels Acts 8:37, the eunuch’s confession of faith, is found in only a few
sources —!E 1739 gig p arm geo KJV plus the Middle Egyptian Coptic and the margin of the Harklean Syriac;
ന45 ന74 ! A B C P [ 33? 81 614 1175 Byz omit (D is defective for this passage, although it seems likely based on
the readings of the Latin versions that it would have included the verse)
3.!“loyal co-worker”: or traditionally and literally “genuine yokefellow.” Others read this as a proper name,
“trustworthy Syzygus.”

GAIUS 2. Acts 20:4. A resident of Derbe who accompanied PAUL from Ephesus through
Macedonia to Syria. Probably the same as #1, although Derbe is not a Macedonian but an Asian
city.1
GAIUS 3. Rom. 16:23. A man who hosted PAUL and the whole church at Corinth. He is one
of those who greeted the recipients of Romans 16. If this chapter has been displaced (and it
probably has; the only question is how severely), it is possible that he is identical with #1 or #2. It
is very likely that he is identical with #4. Some scholars regard him as identical to TITIUS JUSTUS.
GAIUS 4. 1 Cor. 1:14. One of the few Corinthian Christians whom PAUL baptized. He is
probably the same as #3.
GAIUS 5. 3 John 1. The recipient of 3 John, whom the author “love[d] in truth.” The letter
tells us little about him, since the writer hopes to come see him. The writing is full of platitudes,
but this is typical of the Johanine corpus. It is highly unlikely that this Gaius should be identified
with any of the others; they were probably dead by the time the letter was written.
Hermas: ‘Q!?-#, form of the name of the god Hermes. Mentioned only in Rom. 16:14, he
is one whom PAUL greets without giving us any biographical information. Most other Christian
sources totally ignore him. But Origen identifies Hermas with the author of The Shepherd of
Hermas, the longest of the important Patristic writings. (cf. Ecc. Hist. III.3. On the other hand, the
Muratorian Fragment credits it to Hermas the brother of the mid-second century bishop Pius of
Rome. Neither theory seems likely; the work appears to be early, and a few churches accepted it
as canonical, as did authorities such as Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria. Tertullian rejects it
as Montanist, but mentions the respect others had for it.) The writing, apparently designed to
rekindle the passions of Christians flagging in zeal, is an apocalypse divided into Visions,
Parables, and Mandates, and clarifies the fact that post-baptismal sin is forgivable. Internal
evidence leads us to believe that the author was a former slave, now living in Rome with his wife
and children. Rom. 16:14 !.
Hermes: ‘Q!?;#, named for the messenger of the Gods. Mentioned only in Rom. 16:14, he
is one of those whom PAUL greets without giving any information about him. Rom. 16:14 !.
Hermogenes: ‘Q!?86*5;#, “Born of Hermes.” A companion of “PAUL,” who “turned
away from [him]” (2 Tim. 1:15). The Bible tells us nothing else of him. In the Acts of Paul,
however, he and DEMAS play particularly villainous roles, for they betrayed Paul and the priestess
Thecla to the authorities — allegedly out of pure hypocrisy and spite. Certain early writings
accuse Hermogenes of calling God the shaper of an existing universe, rather than its creator.
The Apostolic History of Abdias, quoting a lost and schismatic Acts of James (son of Zebedee) makes
a “Hermogenes” and his disciple PHILETUS magicians and enemies of James. 2 Tim. 1:15 !.
Hymenaeus: ‘p?*5-&8#. Mentioned only in the Pastoral Epistles (which are generally
thought to be by someone other than PAUL, though they probably contain Pauline material). Both
mentions describe him as a heretic (the common conclusion is that he was an early Gnostic). In
1!Tim. 1:19–20 we learn that he and ALEXANDER had “made shipwrecks of their faith” by
1.!This contradiction so concerned the editors of NEB that they made Gaius a resident of “Doberius” on the
evidence of D* gig (“Derbe” is the reading of ന74 ! A? B Dc E [ 33? 614 1175 1739 Byz vg sy). REB however
reads “Derbe” in Acts 20:4, as does every other translation I checked.

“rejecting conscience.” According to 2 Tim. 2:17–18, he and PHILETUS held that “the
resurrection [was] already past.” 1 Tim. 1:20; 2 Tim. 2:17 !.
James brother of Jesus: C-,D)85 085 -9*%P85 08E ,E0&8E, “James the Brother of the
Lord.” The family of Jesus is mentioned several times in the Gospels — see the excursus Who
Was James the Brother of the Lord? on p. 128 — though it is usually stated that they did not
believe in his message (Mark 3:21, 31–35 & ||, John 7:5). Jesus’s brothers are listed in two places
(Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3); James heads both lists. While some have tried to explain away the
references to Jesus’s brothers by saying that these were Jesus’s cousins, or children of Joseph by a
previous marriage (all this to preserve the non-canonical theory of the perpetual virginity of
Mary!),1 it seems most likely that James was the second child born of the marriage of Mary and
Joseph. If so, then James was probably born around 4 or 3 B.C.E.
As noted, James apparently did not believe in Jesus before the latter’s death. But one of Jesus’s
post-resurrection appearances was to James (1 Cor. 15:7; the Gospel of the Hebrews reports that the
first post-resurrection appearance was to James), who then became a believer (cf. Acts 1:14). Soon
after, he was appointed the first Bishop of Jerusalem (Eusebius — Ecc. Hist. II.1 — quotes the
following: “PETER, JAMES [son of Zebedee], and JOHN… did not claim preeminence… but chose
James the Righteous as Bishop…”). He and Peter and John son of Zebedee were the early
leaders of Christianity (Gal. 2:9); it was to James that Peter sent his first message after his escape
from prison (Acts 12:17). He was one of the leaders of the Council of Jerusalem that legitimated
the concept that Gentile Christians were free of the Jewish law (Acts 15:13, etc.), but he was
himself a stubborn follower of the Mosaic law (Gal. 2:12). For this reason he gained a reputation
for piety, and came to be called “the Righteous” or “the Just.” (To again quote Eusebius — Ecc.
Hist. II.23 — he “was holy from his birth; he drank no wine… and ate no animal food… and was
often found on his knees beseeching forgiveness for the people, so that his knees grew as hard as a
camel’s....”2 This passage, quoted from Hegesippus, implies that James was so law-abiding that
even many of the Jews regretted his death.)
Despite their different attitudes, James and PAUL seem to have gotten along well. At least,
Paul stayed with James on one of his early visits to Jerusalem (Gal. 1:19), when the only other
Apostle Paul visited was Peter. Moreover, James and his party apparently approved of Paul’s
missionary exploits (Acts 21:17–20), and sought to save the Apostle from Zealot extremists.
James is one of the few apostles whose fate we reliably know. Both Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. II.23)
and Josephus (Ant XX.ix.1) describe his martyrdom. Josephus, in his only clearly genuine
reference to Christianity, tells us that the High Priest Annas had him executed in the interval
between the death of the procurator Festus and the arrival of his successor Albinus. (This event
had its part in the increase of tension which led to the revolt of 66.) With the Twelve now dead
or departed from Jerusalem, James was succeeded by Symeon son of CLOPAS. Soon after James’s
death, the Judean church moved from Jerusalem to Pella in the Trans-Jordan (Ecc. Hist. III.5), and
thus lost most of its influence on Christianity as a whole.
1.!For more on this unlikely hypothesis, see the excursus The Birth of Mary on p. 167 as well as, again, the excursus
Who Was James the Brother of the Lord? on p. 128.
2.!The passage also says that James “took no baths,” but standards were different then....

Catholic tradition equates James with the Apostle JAMES son of Alphaeus, but since James the
Righteous was not a disciple during Jesus’s life, this is hardly possible.
Many works have been attributed to James. The most important of these is the canonical
Epistle of James. It is certainly a work such as James might have written, with its close ties to
Jewish wisdom literature and few references to Christ, as well as its warning to those who would
rely on faith rather than deeds (faith was the key idea of Paul’s anti-Mosaic theology). Against
this must be set the polished Greek and late theological concepts of the letter. On the whole, it
seems unlikely that James wrote it.
James’s name is also attached to a variety of apocryphal works: a Gnostic Apocryphon of James
telling tales of Jesus, a Protevangelium [Infancy Gospel] of James,1 an Ascents of James (all I know
about this is that it contains a slander about Paul’s birth and conversion to Judaism), and perhaps
others. In addition, an early edition of the Preaching of Peter came with a “cover letter,” addressed
by “Peter” to “James,” telling the latter not to let Gentiles or even ignorant Jews into the church.
James is, after Peter, perhaps the most important figure in the writings of the Pseudo-Clement —
probably because he was recognized as the chief of the Jewish Christian party. But it need hardly
be pointed out that these accounts are valueless as history. Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17,
15:13, 21:18; 1 Cor. (9:5), 15:7; Gal. 1:19, 2:9, 12; James 1:1?; Jude 1? !.
*James son of Alphaeus: ’C-,D)8# (Greek form of “Jacob”) son of ’K%P-&8E#.2 In the
Synoptic tradition, he is one of the Twelve. He is mentioned only in the four Synoptic lists of
Disciples (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13). Sometimes identified with the James the
Little (James the Younger) of Mark 15:40, Luke 24:10, but this is probably another of the
traditional attempts to “clean up” the Gospels. James has also been equated to JAMES the Brother
of Jesus, but this is hardly possible, since Jesus’s brother is reported as not believing in his ministry
while Jesus was alive. The Recognitions of the Pseudo-Clement (I.59) tells how James and other
Apostles succeeded in an argument with the Pharisees. One story has it that he was the first
Bishop of Jerusalem, and was killed by being tossed from the Temple wall, whereupon the crowd
beat him to death with a fuller’s club. This presumably arises from confusion with James the
Brother of Jesus. Mark 10:3; Mark 3:18, (15:40?, 16:1?); Luke 6:15, (24:10?); Acts 1:13 !.
*James son of Zebedee: ’C-,D)8# son of W*)-9-&8#. His mother’s name may have been
SALOME.3 According to the Synoptic gospels, James was one of the first and greatest of the
Twelve (James is among the first three of the Twelve in all four Synoptic lists: Matt 10:2, Mark
3:17, Luke 6:14, and Acts 1:13). All three gospels list him as a Galilean fisherman, though
Matthew and Mark describe him as working with his brother JOHN and their father (Matt. 4:21;
Mark 1:19) while Luke makes the brothers the partners of Simon PETER (Luke 5:10–11). All the
sources agree that the brothers followed Jesus without hesitation, as soon as he called them to
“fish for people” (Mark 1:19–20 & ||. Some believe that this is because James and John were
1.!For a summary of this,, see the excursus The Birth of Mary on p. 167.
2.!All Biblical references are actually to “James of Alphaeus”; in Biblical Greek this usually means “son of
Alphaeus”; however, it could mean something else if James were somehow associated with a once-famous but
now-forgotten Alphaeus.
3.!The reasoning behind this is as follows: Matt. 27:56 and Mark 15:40 each list three women at the foot of the cros.
The third is called “Salome” in Mark; Matthew speaks of “the mother of the sons of Zebedee.”

Jesus’s cousins1). In any case, the two brothers and Peter quickly came to be Jesus’s inner circle,
and as such were privileged to see many of Jesus’s greatest acts — the healing of Peter’s mother-
in-law (Mark 1:29–31), the healing of the ruler’s daughter (Mark 5:37–41; Luke 8:51), the
Transfiguration (Matt. 17:1, Mark 9:2, Luke 9:28), the discourse on the end of things (Mark
13:3ƒ. & ||), the agony in Gethsemane (Matt. 26:37; Mark 14:33). After Peter, James and John
were the most commonly mentioned and most important of Jesus’s disciples. Yet even they have
little personality in the Bible. They were perhaps rather temperamental, for Jesus surnamed them
“sons of Thunder” (Mark 3:17), and they once wanted to call down thunder on a group of
unfriendly Samaritans (Luke 9:54). Moreover, they were prideful, for they (or their mother on
their behalf) sought to gain places of power in the Kingdom of God (Matt. 20:20–24; Mark
10:35–41), a request which caused the other disciples to grow angry at the two brothers. But the
request also permitted Jesus to make a prophecy about their future: that they would “share his
cup” (taken to mean a martyr’s death) for his sake. It is not clear that this ever happened to John.
But James was most definitely martyred; he was perhaps the first of the Apostles to die. Herod
Agrippa I had him executed in 44 (Acts 12:2), at which time Agrippa also put Peter in prison.
Although James, like Peter and John, is called one of the pillars of the early church (Ecc. Hist.
II.1), he seems to have exerted singularly little influence. Peter and John appear regularly in the
Book of Acts, but with James the brother of Jesus rather than James son of Zebedee. Eusebius
has little to say of him, except for a little story about his trial in which his demeanor was so
impressive that it caused the arresting officer to confess his Christianity and be executed
alongside the apostle, who forgave the Roman for his crime (Ecc. Hist. II.9). James and John are
not mentioned in the Gospel of John (except for a probable gloss in chapter 21 which refers to
the “sons of Zebedee”); this is thought to be part of the “modesty” of the author of that Gospel,
who did not wish to reveal that he (John) was the BELOVED DISCIPLE, and so eliminated all
references to himself and his family. (For further details on these questions and the question of
the brothers’s ancestry, see the entries on John and on the Beloved Disciple.) An Acts of St. James in
India tells of a missionary voyage he and Peter made to (you guessed it) India, but this can hardly
be reconciled with the events in Acts. He is the Patron Saint of Spain; a choice apparently made
at the time of the expulsion of the Moors, because he was the most warlike of the Apostles. He
was also rumoured to have started a church in Spain (!) before returning to Judea for his
martyrdom; he is thus commemorated as “Saint James (Santiago) of Compostella.” A Greek Acts
of James exists, but dates from the eight century. Matt. 4:21, 10:2, 17:1, (27:56?); Mark 1:19, 29,
3:17, 5:37, 9:2, 10:35, 41, 13:3, 14:33; Luke 5:10, 6:14, 8:51, 9:28, 54; Acts 1:13, 12:2 !.
Jason: (for spelling see note below), a Greek name used as a form of “Joshua.” A citizen of
Thessalonica. PAUL and SILAS stayed in his home during their missionary activity in that city. The
Jews attacked his house in their attempts to arrest the apostles, but could not find the two. They
therefore seized Jason and took him to court; he was forced to pay bail to be released (Acts 17:5–
9). This may have caused Jason to leave his home, or even to travel with Paul, for a Jason was
with the Apostle when Romans was written (and is even described as Paul’s kinsman — Rom.
1.!Based this time on the list of those at the foot of the cross in John 19:25, where the second woman is Jesus’s
mother’s sister. If she is also the mother of the sons of Zebedee, well, there you go.

16:21). But we cannot be sure that these two are the same; the name was common.1 The Syrians
credit him with being martyred by lions. Acts 17:5–7, 9; Rom. 16:21? !.
Jesus: ’C;48E#, Greek form of “Jeshua,” a debased form of “Jehoshua,” “Yah[weh] is
Salvation.” Called “Justus.” One of PAUL’S Jewish comrades in Rome at the time that Colossians
was written. Col. 4:11 !.
Joanna: ’CD-55-, a feminine Greek form of “Johanan.” “The wife of Chuza, Herod
[Antipas’s] steward” (Luke 8:3). She was one of the women who supported the church toward the
end of the Galilean ministry. She was one of the women at the Empty Tomb (24:10), who
reported the resurrection to the Apostles but was not believed (24:11). Luke 8:3, 24:10 !.
John Mark: ’CD-55;# I-!,8#, from the Hebrew name “Johanan” and the Roman name
Marcus. Mark is the surname; John was his home-name — indicating the Hebrew origin which
may have also resulted in the abominable Greek of the second Gospel.
Mark was the son of an otherwise unknown Mary (Acts 12:12), and generally linked to the
“cousin of BARNABAS” of Col. 4:10. His family, despite being Christian, seems to have been
wealthy, for they owned a large house and kept a maidservant. (They were apparently Levites,
and enjoyed the privileges of office — Acts 4:36. It has been suggested — without evidence —
that the Last Supper took place in Mary’s house.) Mark and his family first appear at the time
when Peter escaped from prison (44 C.E. — Acts 12:1–17); soon afterward he went to Antioch
with Barnabas and PAUL (Acts 12:25) and accompanied them on a missionary voyage (Acts 13:6).
But the young man apparently abandoned his cause in Pamphylia (Acts 15:37–38). So Paul
refused to accompany Barnabas and Mark on another missionary voyage, and went off on his
own with SILAS (Acts 15:36–41). But apparently they were eventually reconciled (Col. 4:10;
perhaps Philem. 24; 2 Tim. 4:11 may well refer to him but is probably pseudepigraphal).
John Mark is often identified with the “Mark” of 1 Pet. 5:13 (after all, Peter went to John
Mark’s house after his escape from prison; the two were probably close), who is in turn
traditionally credited with the authorship of the second gospel (Ecc. Hist. II.15, etc.). If this is the
case, Mark should perhaps be identified with the mysterious “young man in a linen cloth” of
Mark 14:51–52. Beyond this, he is not mentioned in the New Testament. Eusebius, however,
credits him with being the first to bring Christianity to Egypt, and makes him the first Bishop of
Alexandria (Ecc. Hist. II.16; II.24 states that Mark died — or at least left Alexandria; he is said to
have been martyred in the streets — in 62, and was succeeded by Ananaias). It is also reported
that he transformed his conversations with Peter in Rome into a (disorderly) gospel (Ecc. Hist.
III.39, VI.14, VI.25). But Eusebius did not clearly identify this writer with the traveller of the
book of Acts; indeed, the Ecclesiastical History speculates that John Mark may have written the
Apocalypse (! — Ecc. Hist. VII.25). A few modern scholars think that John Mark was the author
of the Gospel of John, not that of Mark. In any case, the authorship of both gospels remains in
question. While most scholars entertain doubts that the Mark of 1 Peter wrote the Gospel of
Mark, no other convincing suggestion has been offered. The apocryphal but relatively sober Acts
1.!In fact, the versions of the name in Acts and Romans appear to be spelled differently; Acts has the inflected form
C-48[E]58# (Iason[os]; so ‫ א‬B; A 1739 Byz sometimes use C-4D58#) while in Romans all texts use the
indeclinable C-4D5. This could be merely the result of different spelling conventions among the authors,
however.

of Barnabas claims to be by “John” (who was later renamed “Mark.” If this account is to be
believed, John Mark was originally a pagan priest converted by Barnabas and Paul). This
narrative ends with the writer in Alexandria.
Some of this confusion may stem from the fact that there were perhaps two “Marks.” At
least, the Apostolic Constitutions refer to the “genuine Mark,” implying the existence of a false one.
Various apocryphal works about Mark exist. He is sometimes credited with a martyr’s death.
An introduction to his Gospel calls him “stumpy-fingered,” but this is sometimes blamed on a
mistranslation of his Latin surname. A longer version of the second gospel, quoted by a second
century writer, adds a few paragraphs to the tenth chapter of the book, telling a story which
appears to be a primitive version of the raising of Lazarus found in the Gospel of John. His feast
day is April 25. (Mark 14:51ƒ.?); Acts 12:12, 25, 13:5, 13, 15:37, 39; Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11 (?);
Philem. 24; 1 Pet. 5:13 (?) !.
*John son of Zebedee: ’CD-55;#, Greek form of “Johanan.” Other than PETER, the most
often-mentioned member of the Twelve, and the one about whom the most traditions have been
hung. Epiphanus says that he was 94 years old when he died in 100 C.E.; he was said to have been
the youngest of the Apostles. He, along with his brother JAMES, was originally a Galilean
fisherman. Their partners may have included their father (Matt. 4:21; Mark 1:19–20) or Peter
(Luke 5:10). The family business was apparently modestly successful, since the family could afford
hired help (Mark 1:20). But the brothers were called away from it to “fish for people,” and
formed an inner circle of Jesus’s along with Peter. It has been speculated that the reason for this
was the fact that the brothers were Jesus’s first cousins. This is based on some rather imaginative
interpretation based on the names of the women at the foot of the cross. Comparing Mark 15:40
to Matt. 27:56 inclines us to believe that John’s mother’s name was SALOME. Comparing this in
turn with the list in John 19:25 might incline us to believe that Salome was the same as “[Jesus’s]
mother’s sister,” MARY WIFE OF CLOPAS. This reading is possible, but it seems unlikely; John
probably knew of four women at the foot of the cross, while Mark had heard of only three; there
is no reason to equate the lists. But in support of the equation we can quote a third century work
which — in addition to identifying John as the bridegroom at the wedding at Cana (John 2:1ƒ.)
— makes him the nephew of Jesus’s mother.
As one of Jesus’s intimates, John saw many sights not disclosed to the other disciples: the
healing of Peter’s mother-in-law (Mark 1:29–31), the healing of Jairus’s daughter (Mark 5:37 etc.;
Luke 8:51 etc.), the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:1ƒ.; Mark 9:2ƒ.; Luke 9:28ƒ.), the discourse on the
end of things (Mark 13:3ƒ. and ||), and the agony in Gethsemane (Matt. 26:37; Mark 14:33). It
is perhaps for this reason that John was bold enough to question Jesus about other miracle-
workers (Mark 9:38ƒ.; Luke 9:49ƒ.; cf. Luke 9:54ƒ.; this boldness and ferocity may be why Jesus
named the brothers “Boanergeses;” i.e. “sons of thunder” — Mark 3:17). Moreover, James and
John thought enough of their relationship to Jesus to claim first place in heaven (Matt. 20:20–24;
Mark 10:35–41). On a more earthly plane, it was John and Peter who were sent to prepare for
the Last Supper (Luke 22:8) — the first indication of an unusually strong association between
these most important of Apostles.
After Peter, James and John were clearly the most important members of the Twelve, and this
is showed by their positions near the top of all four lists of disciples (Matt 10:2, Mark 3:17, Luke

6:14, Acts 1:13. Curiously, however, neither Apostle is mentioned in the fourth gospel, except for
a likely gloss referring to the “sons of Zebedee” in John 21:2 (which is generally though to be an
appendix to the gospel anyway). How can this be explained?
The usual theory — which is fairly consistent and which has strong traditional support since
the second century — is that John is the BELOVED DISCIPLE who plays such an important role in
the fourth gospel and is even credited as its source (John 21:24).
Perhaps the strongest evidence for this theory comes from the other books of the New
Testament. Gal. 2:9 makes him one of the “pillars of the church,” along with Peter and James
the brother of Jesus. This group ought to have included the Beloved Disciple, and since the B.D.
cannot be Peter (for they appear together many times) nor James (who was not even a believer
during Jesus’s life), that leaves John. Moreover, it would make easily understandable John’s request
for preferment (Matt. 20:20–24; Mark 10:35–41).
As a final bit of evidence, we should note that, when John appears in Acts, it is always in
company with Peter: when they went to the Temple and healed the lame man (Acts 3:1–10, with
interpretation in 3:11ƒ.); when they were put on trial as a result (Acts 4:1–22, with Peter and John
speaking in 4:13–20); when they went to Samaria to bring the Holy Spirit to the converts gained
by Philip the Hellenist (Acts 8:14ƒ.). The Beloved Disciple, too, was almost always found in the
company of Peter.
This, even with the traditional support, hardly constitutes proof; many consider LAZARUS to
be the Beloved Disciple (and a few have even equated Lazarus and John, or introduced someone
else). And yet, every reference to John we have studied so far (and we have listed every mention
of him except a brief notice concerning his brother James’s martyrdom in Acts 12:2) fits the
theory that John was the Beloved Disciple; most not only fit it but strengthen it. Extra-biblical
evidence which directly conflicts with this theory is relatively weak, relying mostly on one late
reference who claims that John was martyred young (thus fulfilling Mark 10:39 but violating the
situation of the Beloved Disiple in John 21:22–23), and is summarized in the entry on the
Beloved Disciple. For now, let us assume that — as tradition widely holds — John was the
Beloved Disciple, and see where this leads us.
The first thing we encounter is, of course, the fourth gospel and its related writings. Five
works in the New Testament are said to be by John son of Zebedee: the fourth gospel, three
letters, and the Apocalypse. Of these, only the last gives the name of its author (which is, of
course, John; Rev. 1:1, 4). All of them are relatively late; it is possible that none of them were
accepted as scripture until the mid-second century, and even in Eusebius’s time (early fourth
century) only the gospel and the first Epistle were universally acknowledged as sacred (Ecc. Hist.
III.25). There are eight combinations of ways in which the other three books can be accepted or
rejected, and I believe that five of them have been subscribed to by one authority or another.
Moreover, the Apocalypse is manifestly not by the same author as the other writings. Its
Greek is crude and ungrammatical; its style repetitious; its visions, while grandiose, are not very
spiritual (all of which might be signs of authorship by a Palestinian Christian).
The other Johannine writings are more polished (although they employ a very simple,
stereotyped vocabulary), and there is less consensus about them. 1!John and the fourth gospel use
similarly exalted imagery and have a large common vocabulary, but picture things slightly

differently. 2 and 3 John are less spiritual. 2 John, moreover, is somewhat lacking in force. Yet they
do show a similarity in vocabulary to 1!John.
Scholarly arguments about this are endless, and also rather pointless. Only one suggestion has
found significant support: that some or all of the Johannine writings were actually composed by
the “John the Presbyter” mentioned briefly by Papias (Ecc. Hist. III.39).1 In any case, all the
writings seem to date from around the turn of the first century or perhaps slightly earlier (the
oldest known manuscript the New Testament is a fragment of the fourth gospel from about 130
C.E., for which see the excursus “The Truth Hidden in the Sand” below) — late enough that
memories of Jesus were fading. Reluctantly we turn from the Johannine writing to try to find
information from other sources. (If anyone cares about my personal opinion, I will give it, while
acknowledging that it is subject to dispute and highly tentative: that the gospel and the three
letters come from a common school — though perhaps from different hands — and that that
school goes back to one major figure, who was perhaps John son of Zebedee, the Beloved
Disciple.)
Excursus: The Truth Hidden in the Sand

It used to be claimed by radical critics that the Gospel of John was written late in the second
century. This hypothesis has now been exploded by a manuscript, which is pretty clearly not the
original, that is believed to date from c. 125 C.E. Known as ന52, it is now in the John Rylands
library in Manchester, England. It was originally found in Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. It is possible that
this manuscript was actually copied directly from the original manuscript of John, and it is
unlikely to be more than four or five generations away. Unfortunately it is terribly damaged,
containing fragments of a mere five verses — 18:31-33, 37-38. In the interest of completeness
and having lots of illustrations, I give a recreation of its text (in Greek and English) below:
Figure 33: The Text of ന52
...!"!#$%"!" &'"... 31
The Jews [said], “for u[s]” ...#(!)*)*++&'%"... 37
[t]his I was born
.....!#$*+% "+%!,... anyone” 32 so that the w[ord] ...C'!+ "+%'%-(#... [w]orld, so [I might] testi[fy]
......*+ C&'%"+/... [Jesus sa]id to signify ......*0(&C%,&1*..... of the tru[th]
.....1+&C0*"+"C... to die. 33 En[tering] ........,*)*"%#(/... 38
[Pilate] says to him
.......-"!+!..... [the præto]rium P[ilate] ...........%"(!#(.... [a]nd [having said] thi[s]
.......0%" *"..... [Jesus] and sa[id to him] .............(!#C".... [went out] to the J[ews]
..........%"/... [king of the J]ew[s] ...............*'".. [I find no]thi[ng criminal]
As a witness to the text of John’s gospel, its brevity makes it almost useless. But as a witness to
the age of John’s gospel, it is of immense importance.
1.!If anything proves that moderns are no more immune than the ancients to make suppositions in the absence of
facts, it is the history of John the Presbyter. All we know of this fellow is what Eusebius quotes Papias as saying
about him: “[Papias] enquired into the words of the presbyters, what Andrew or Peter had said, or Philip or
Thomas or James or John or Matthew, or any other disciple of the Lord, had said, and what Aristion and the
presbyter John, disciples of the Lord, were still saying.” On this slender threat (which to me does not even quite
prove that John the Apostle and John the Presbyter are distinct) one school has hypothesized that John the
Presbyter wrote the Gospels and letters of John (note that both 2 John 1 and 3 John 1 call the author “the Elder/
Presbyter”) while others give him credit for the Apocalypse (where the author is a “slave” rather than an elder,
but at least openly bears the name “John” — Rev. 1:1-4, 9). All I can say is that this is an awfully long chain of
suppositions..

If we were to summarize the remaining traditions about John in two words, the two would
probably be “long-lived” and “Ephesus.”
There is almost universal agreement that John lived to be very old, and died a peaceful death.
To be sure, the ninth century author George the Sinner quotes a fifth century document which
quotes Papias to the effect that he was a martyr, but this is generally thought to be based on an
overinterpretation of Mark 10:39. Eusebius quotes Irenaeus (Ecc. Hist. III.23) to the effect that
John lived into the reign of Trajan (98–117 C.E.). Clement of Alexandria gives a similar account.
Tertullian tells us that he was taken to Rome and cast into boiling oil, but miraculously survived
and returned home. A letter of Polycrates (written around 190 C.E.? and quoted in Ecc. Hist.
III.31 and V.24) calls him a priest and reports that he was buried in Ephesus. Justin Martyr (c.
135) spoke of his work in Ephesus. Ecc. Hist. V.18 tells of his raising a man from the dead there.
Clement of Alexandria, too, refers to the Ephesian residence (Ecc. Hist. III.23), as do the Gnostic
Acts of John (chapter 18). His province of activity is said to have been Asia [Minor] (Ecc. Hist.
III.1). Yet here, too, counter-evidence exists. Ignatius’s letter to the Ephesians (c. 107) mentions
Paul (chapter 12) but not the recently-deceased John in connection with the city. Scholars who
reject the Johannine legends have seized on this joyfully.
Still, we can sum up the traditional view of John as follows:
1. He was the second son of Zebedee and Salome.
2. He was one of the first of Jesus’s disciples (some believe that John was the second disciple
mentioned in John 1:35–39), and eventually the most beloved.
3. After the crucifixion, he remained in Jerusalem for a long period (at least until 49), then
began a mission in Asia, eventually settling in Ephesus.
4. While in Ephesus, he engaged in a controversy with the Gnostic heretic Cerinthus (Ecc.
Hist. III.28 paraphrases Irenaeus’s quotation of Polycarp, which reports that John would not
remain in a building with Cerinthus, “the enemy of truth,” lest it fall on them!). 1 John, which
seems to be directed against Gnosticism, may come from this period.
5. During the reign of Domitian (81–96 C.E.), probably around 95, he and other Christians
were forced into exile on the island of Patmos to escape the Emperor’s wrath (Rev. 1:9; Ecc. Hist.
III.17. One version of the Acts of John has it that Domitian himself sent the Apostle into exile
after he had been made to drink poison and survived). From there he wrote the Apocalypse.
6. After Domitian’s death he returned to Ephesus (Ecc. Hist. III.23, quoting Clement of
Alexandria). While there, certain gospels came into his hands, prompting him to write his as a
supplement (Ecc. Hist. III.24).1 He continued his evangelistic and organizational work during this
period. Grown too feeble to preach as he once had, he was carried into services and preached the
shortest of all Christian sermons: “Little children, love one another.” (This story is told by
Jerome.) He eventually died a peaceful death at Ephesus (which may have prompted the
1.!For a very long time scholars were in agreement that John knew and used the Synoptic Gospels. But it has now
been shown — most especially by C. H. Dodd — that John’s dependence on the Synoptics is virtually nil; the
common elements could easily come from oral tradition. Some today even argue that John’s is the first gospel,
perhaps dating from c. 60. This might explain John’s frequent anti-Jewish polemics; if the Temple were still
standing, the Jews could be a formidable enemy to Christianity. After the Temple was destroyed, the threat of
Judaism in general was much diminished, and most of what did survive came from the Pharisees, whom we find
treated as the bad guys in the Synoptic Gospels.

composition of chapter 21 of his gospel; it seems to have been written to counter the belief that
the Beloved Disciple was to live until the Second Coming).
Many other works allege to be by or about John, including a second Apocalypse. More
significant is the previously-mentioned Acts of John, a Manichaean work which was condemned to
be burned for its Gnostic tendencies. Most of the work has survived, however; it is a collection of
preaching and miracle stories with the usual bias against the flesh. Essential to the story, however,
is a statement that Jesus — being unearthly — did not suffer; the church had no trouble rejecting
it (Ecc. Hist. III.26). Another Acts of John, said to be by Prochorus (traditionally John’s secretary), is
a more orthodox biography, but is quite late. An Apocryphon of John, written by heretics, tells of his
perpetual virginity; the same people told a tale of his assumption. His feast day is September 26.
Joseph Barsabbas: ’CD4;P \-!4-))-#,1 surnamed Justus. Mentioned only in Acts 1:23,
he was one of the candidates, along with MATTHIAS, to replace JUDAS ISCARIOT among the
twelve. Joseph was not chosen, and fell into the anonymity that swallowed the majority even of
the Apostles. Eusebius tells us, however, that he once swallowed poison and survived by a miracle
(Ecc. Hist. III.39), and that he was believed to have been one of the Seventy (Ecc. Hist. I.12). It has
been speculated, naturally, that he is a relative of JUDAS BARSABBAS. Acts 1:23 !.
Joseph of Arimathea: ’CD4*P 8 -"8 ’K!&?-+-&-#, “Joseph the [one] from Arimathea.”
A Jew, a member of the Sanhedrin (Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50) and a wealthy man (Matt. 27:57).
In the Bible he appears only in the Passion narratives. After Jesus died, Joseph begged the body
from Pilate (Mark 15:43–45; Matt. 27:58; Luke 23:52; John 19:38), prepared it for burial (Matt.
27:59; John 19:39–40, where NICODEMUS is also said to be involved), laid it in a never-before
used tomb (Luke 23:53; John 19:41) which was said to have been his own (Matt. 27:60), and
sealed the tomb with a stone (Matt. 27:60; Mark 15:48). This is all we know of him. But late
tradition has been busy with him. Though Eusebius knows nothing of him, the Gospel of
Nicodemus (Acts of Pilate; probably fourth century) makes him one of its heroes. Joseph’s burial of
Jesus caused the authorities to imprison him in a windowless house with a sealed door; they
planned his execution. But Joseph was carried away by God. The Sanhedrin, in fear, accepted his
testimony. Joseph then caused two youths to narrate the story of Christ’s descent into Hell. In
English legend, Joseph was the first to bring Christianity to Britain, founding Glastonbury in 63
and bringing the Holy Grail with him. In the Latin Assumption of the Virgin, Joseph cared for Mary
the mother of Jesus from the time of Jesus’s ascension until her death. Matt. 27:57, 59; Mark
15:43, (45),2 (46); Luke 23:50; John 19:38 !.
1.! The spelling with two “B’s” is supported by ‫ א‬A B E [ 81 1175; the KJV uses only one following C 614; D 6supp
gig p read “Barnabas”!
2.!Greek “he,” except D Y L 565 vg have “Joseph” explicitly

Excursus: The Thorn Without a Rose

The story of Joseph’s journey to Britain, bringing the Holy Grail, although almost certainly
non-historical, is one of the most important legends in English literature. The journey was said to
be at the direction of Philip the Apostle, who was then preaching in Gaul.
The whole Glastonbury legend is too complex to sum up easily, but the gist is this: The Grail
was the cup used at the Last Supper, and Joseph also caught some of Jesus’s blood from the cross
in it. From that time on, the Grail became a divine artifact capable of feeding whoever owned it.
Joseph was imprisoned for a time after the crucifixion, and so used the Grail. Joseph supposedly
was freed by the future emperor Titus. He and his sister and brother-in-law sailed for France,
where they were told to build a round table, with one seat set aside for a sinless man. Then the
party headed for Glastonbury.
Among other things, Joseph is said to have planted his staff there, which became the
“Glastonbury Thorn” which blooms at Christmas. This plant is mentioned, e.g., in some versions
of the “Corpus Christi Carol,” which say that
Down under the bed there grows a thorn
That ever bloomed blossom when/since Christ was born.
However, the Glastonbury Thorn is not mentioned in historical records until 1716.
Joses Barnabas: see BARNABAS.
Joseph Barnabas: See BARNABAS.
Judas Barsabbas: ’C8E9-# \-!4-))-#,1 Greek form of “Judah.” It has been speculated,
naturally, that he was a relative of JOSEPH BARSABBAS. One of those chosen, along with SILAS, to
leave Jerusalem after the great Conference of 48/9. They were sent with PAUL and BARNABAS to
discuss the issue of Gentile converts (Acts 15:22). Judas and Silas bore a letter on the subject to
the Antioch church (15:27), and were selected because they were best able to discuss the matter
with the Antiochenes. Acts 15:22, 27, 32 !.
*Judas Iscariot: ’C8E9-# ’C4,-!# or variants thereupon. “Judas” is the Greek form of
“Judah”; the meaning of “Iscariot” is disputed.2
One of the Twelve, Judas is listed last in all three gospel catalogues (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:19;
Luke 6:16) and was cast from that fellowship in Acts 1:16–25. He is famous, of course, as the
betrayer of Jesus, and apart from this very little is known of him. In the Johannine tradition, he
1.!For the spelling with two “B”s the KJV has only one, based probably on late Vulgate manuscripts; D (only) has
“Barabbas)!
2.!The common explanation, that Iscariot is from the Aramaic for “man of Kerioth” (a town in Judah, making him
perhaps the only Judean among the Twelve), is rather weak — although quite ancient; indeed, the early
manuscript Codex Bezae, D, of about the fifth century, consistently reads “Judas from Kerioth” for “Judas
Iscariot.” Because it is such a weak explanation, many alternatives have been proposed. It should be observed
that, in the Gospel of John, Judas is called the son of Simon Iscariot (John 6:71, 13:26; cf. 13:2. Note, however,
that in the first of these instances ‫ א‬reads Simon from Kerioth; in this instance D has Simon Skarioth while reading
Simon from Kerioth in chapter 13.
Another explanation is that “Iscariot” is a corruption of “Sicarios,” “dagger” — i.e. read “Judas the Assassin” or
“Judas the Zealot.” This is clever, but it appears from Josephus that the Sicarii did not emerge until some decades
after Jesus’s time.

was Jesus’s treasurer, and a thief (John 12:4–6). He first appears as an individual during the
passion week; he is first seen complaining about MARY of Bethany’s anointing of Jesus (John
12:3–8). We then meet him at the Last Supper. At the table, when Jesus predicted that one of the
Twelve would betray him, Judas (perhaps honestly worried?) asked if he were the one (Matt.
26:25). John claims that Jesus had known who his betrayer was for a long time (John 6:70–71); he
then shows Jesus sending forth Judas to betray him (John 13:26–30). In the Synoptics, on the
other hand, Judas had already made his arrangements, but only very recently (Matt. 26:14; Mark
14:10; Luke 22:3; cf. John 13:2). In any case, all the accounts agree that he soon showed up with
a troop of Temple police (Matt. 26:47; Mark 14:43; Luke 22:47; John 18:2–8). In the synoptic
tradition, Judas identified Jesus by kissing him (Matt. 27:48–50; Mark 14:44–45; Luke 22:48).
What happened to Judas after that is disputed. Mark and John tell us nothing. In Acts he is
described as buying a plot of land with his earnings and dying on it (Acts 1:18–19); Papias tells a
similar story of his death due to a loathsome disease (in which his body swells until it is wagon-
sized, and finally bursts. One gets the impression of an overinflated balloon). Matthew, perhaps
more sympathetic to the betrayer, tells us that he attempted to return his ill-gotten gains (Matt.
27:3) and hanged himself (27:5). This has led many to speculate that Judas was not really Jesus’s
enemy; that he in fact believed that Jesus was the (Jewish-style) Messiah, but betrayed him in an
attempt to force him to get on with the task of overthrowing the Roman authorities. This is
tempting — certainly Judas was doing God’s will, and we would like to give him a good motive
— but unprovable. Others, arguing from John 13:27, argue that Jesus deliberately caused Judas to
do what he did.
What were Judas’s reasons? The footnote on the meaning of “Iscariot” mentions a possible
political one: that he was a Zealot who expected nothing of the Messiah except that he establish
an eternal Jewish state which would rule the world. The Gnostic Gospel of Judas claims that Jesus
did not want to be crucified, and that Judas betrayed him to force him into it. The Narrative of
Joseph of Arimathea makes Judas a member of the high-priestly family, who betrayed Jesus for
family reasons as well as for greed. Another reason is offered by the 13th century ballad Judas:
that Judas’s sister stole thirty pieces of silver from Judas in a manner deliberately designed to
make Jesus look guilty. Judas took the bait, and though he loved Jesus, he betrayed him to get his
money back! Matt. 10:4, 26:14, 25, 47, 27:3; Mark 3:19, 14:10, 43; Luke 6:16, 22:3, 47, 48; John
6:71, 12:4, 13:2, 26, 29, 18:2, 3, 5; Acts 1:16, 25 !.
*Judas of James: ’C8E9-# ’C-,8)8E, “James’s Judas.” If one apostle had to be designated
as the most obscure of them all, this would probably be the one. Even the meaning of the name
is disputed; the King James Version reads “Judas the brother of James” (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13),
but most moderns would interpret the admittedly unclear Greek to mean “Judas son of James.”
Not that this helps much; the former reading admits of the possibility that Judas was the brother
of JAMES the brother of Jesus (and thus the author of the letter of Jude), but the latter reading
doesn’t seem to have anything to do with anyone. Judas takes the place of the Thaddaeus/
LEBBAEUS of Matthew and Mark, but this disciple too was obscure. He is perhaps to be identified
with the “JUDAS (not Iscariot)” of John 14:22. The Apostolic Constitutions — contradicting Eusebius
— make “Judas son of James” the third bishop of Jerusalem (after JAMES the Brother of Jesus
and Symeon son of CLOPAS), but this is — to say the least — difficult on chronological grounds.

And since I have no other traditions to go by, at this point I will let the matter drop. Luke 6:16;
Acts 1:13 !.
*Judas “not Iscariot”: ’C8+9-#, Greek form of “Judah.” Mentioned only in the Gospel of
John, and even in that Gospel he appears only in 14:22 when he asks Jesus how he can be
manifested only to believers and not to the rest of the world (this despite the fact that Jesus had
already withdrawn from the world). Some would equate him with the Thaddaeus/LEBBAEUS of
Matthew and Mark; others identify him with the JUDAS OF JAMES of Luke/Acts (for the
[in]significance of this Judas, see the preceding entry). Neither identification is solid; the first is
particularly weak. John’s Judas, although presumably an Apostle since he was present at the Last
Supper, is altogether an obscure figure. As far as I can tell, he has never been directly equated
with the writer of the book of JUDE. John 14:22 !.
Jude: ’C8E9-#, properly “Judas,” the Greek form of “Judah.” Mentioned only in Jude 1,
where he calls himself “the brother of JAMES.”
Having said that, the questions begin. First off, which James? The most famous James in the
New Testament is JAMES the brother of Jesus. In support of this, we note that James the
Righteous is known to have had a brother Judas (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3). But JAMES son of
Zebedee was also widely known — although his only known brother is John. “JAMES son of
Alphaeus” appears in all four lists of Apostles (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13). In
addition, a “JUDAS of James” is mentioned among the Apostles in Luke 6:16 and Acts 1:13.
So which James are we to think of ? Some scholars would ignore the question, claiming that
the line about “the brother of James” is an interpolation designed to add authority to the letter.
But there is no textual evidence for this. Nor does the letter offer much help; the Greek, although
wordy, is neither exceptionally good nor exceptionally bad. The writing cannot be too late, for it
is generally conceded that 2 Peter chapter 2 is based on Jude.1 And yet, most scholars would not
accept a date before the 80s (or better yet, the 90s) because of the letter’s apocalyptic tendencies
and its treatment of the Apostles as past (verse 17). Criticism is stymied.
At this point, we turn to tradition. A very few sources equate Jude with “Judas of James,” but
the vast majority agree that Jude was the brother of James brother of Jesus. (This has caused him
to be indirectly equated with THADDAEUS.) If either of these theories is true, Jude can hardly
have written his letter. Yet his descendants were known to the church. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. III.20,
III.32) tells of how his grandsons — who had messianic claims made in their names as
descendants of Jesus — were tried before Domitian. (Since they were merely poor farmers, the
Emperor let them go.) Is it conceivable that they could have preserved and updated a work by
their grandfather, or perhaps written it in his name? We can hardly guess.
What we can say is that Jude is an idiosyncratic letter. Unlike the rest of the New Testament
books, it holds much of the Jewish apocrypha (The Assumption of Moses, 1 Enoch, and probably
1.!A few scholars have argued that Jude is based on 2 Peter, but none would deny the relationship. The following list
of parallels shows how often they align:
2 Peter Jude 2 Peter Jude 2 Peter Jude 2 Peter Jude
2:1 4 2:4 6 2:6 7 2:10 8
2:13 12 2:15 11 2:17 12 3:3 18
The two letters also have an unusually large common vocabulary for such short writings.

others) to be sacred. For this and other reasons (including questions about the its Apostolic
authority, and perhaps an encratite strain in its comments about the flesh in verse 23), the work
was only slowly and hesitantly accepted into the canon. Jude 1 !.
Julia: ’C8E%&-/’C8E%&-#1. One of those greeted by PAUL in Rom. 16:15, and so presumably a
citizen of Rome (or Ephesus, if the theories about Rom. 16 are correct). It has been speculated
that she was the wife of PHILOLOGUS and the mother of NEREUS and OLYMPAS. On the other
hand, it is possible to read the name as masculine, Julias (which would seem to preclude the
possibility of being anyone’s wife or mother). Rom. 16:15 !.
Junias: ’C8E5&-#/’C8E5&-.2 He and ANDRONICUS are called PAUL’s “kinsmen and fellow
prisoners” in Rom. 16:7. Called “Junia” (feminine) in the King James version, and in fact the
Greek could be either masculine or feminine. Rom. 16:7 !.
Justus: See JESUS Justus, TITIUS Justus and JOSEPH Barsabbas.
Lazarus: R-'-!8#, Greek form of “Eleazar,” “God is Helper.” The name is used in two
places in the New Testament. The first is in the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke
16:19–31); since this was only a symbolic use, it will not detain us. The second occurrence of the
name — which occurs only in the Fourth Gospel — is far more complex.
Lazarus was a resident of Bethany, and the brother of MARY and MARTHA (John 11:1). All
three were close friends of Jesus (11:5). We known little else of him, as he does not have a
speaking role; he is more of a magician’s dummy on whom Jesus performs a miracle.
Shortly before the Passion, Lazarus fell ill (11:2). Mary and Martha sent a message to Jesus,
asking his help (11:3), but Jesus delayed (11:4–6). finally, after Lazarus died (11:14), Jesus went to
raise him (11:7–13). Lazarus had been dead and buried for four days by the time Jesus arrived
(11:17. The lapse is often taken to mean that Lazarus was “really” dead, for it was said that the
spirit stayed with the body for three days). After some talk about what Jesus and the rest of the
people felt and did (11:18–37), Jesus went to the tomb (11:38), had it opened (11:40–42), and
called the dead man back to life (11:43–44). With this, Lazarus’s known career ends, except as a
source of controversy. The crowds bore witness to his resurrection, and eventually the elders
heard of it. The Sanhedrin was said to be so disgusted with the whole affair that they determined
to kill Jesus (11:45–57); later they added Lazarus to their hit list (12:9–10). When Jesus returned
to Bethany (12:1) for a meal with Lazarus and his family (12:2–7, which also contains the account
of Jesus’s anointing), the authorities set their plans in motion. But we do not know if they took
Lazarus as well as his savior; he is not mentioned again. Nor do the early writings have anything
to say of him, although the Secret Gospel of Mark contains a parallel story of a man’s resurrection.
Despite — indeed, because of — this scanty information, Lazarus has been the center of
much speculation. Some scholars believe that he is just part of a fairy tale built around the Lucan
parallel. But most agree that the story is too real. They also note that Lazarus is the only person
with a stated name whom Jesus is said to have loved in the fourth gospel (John 11:3, 5, 11, 36).3
1.!For “Julia” C* F G read “Junia” (see next note); ന46 reads “Berea and Aulas” for “Julia, Nereus.”
2.!ന46 6 a b and the Bohairic Coptic read the name as “Julia/Julias”; see preceding note.
3.!The only person Jesus loved in the Synoptic Gospels was the Rich Young Ruler, leading some scholars to equate
them — which is highly unlikely. Lazarus does not appear to have been rich and the young man was not a
disciple.

This has led some to speculate that Lazarus was the BELOVED DISCIPLE. This idea, which seems
foolish to me (on linguistic and other grounds), is discussed more fully in the entry on the Beloved
Disciple, p. 467.
The Pseudo-Clement has Lazarus with Peter in Syria; eastern tradition says that he and his
family were set afloat in a leaking boat. They survived miraculously, and Lazarus became Bishop
of Kition. Another version equates Mary of Bethany with MARY MAGDALENE, and claims Mary
Magdalene, Martha, and Lazarus, plus a couple of others, ended up in Marseilles, where Lazarus
was the first bishop. John 11:1, 2, 5, 6, 11, 14, (17), 43, 12:1, 2, 9, 10, 17 !.
Lebbaeus: Greek R*))-&8#. Name used in the “Western” text of Matt. 10:3 (D k) and
Mark 3:18 (D a b ff2 q) for THADDAEUS (whom see).
Levi the Tax Collector: R*E&, Greek form of “Levi.” A disciple of Jesus who had formerly
been a tax collector (Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27–28). Jesus’s association with him at a meal (Luke 5:29)
led to a dispute with the Pharisees (Luke 5:30ƒ). Tradition has always wanted to make him an
apostle, and so identifies him with MATTHEW, who is called a tax-collector in Matt. 9:9. This
identification is plausible — certainly the accounts of the call of the tax collector in the three
gospels are variations on the same story — but unproved. More certain is Mark’s identification of
him as the son of Alphaeus, which would make him the brother to (or perhaps identical to) JAMES
son of Alphaeus. Mark 2:14(–15); Luke 5:27, 29 !.
Linus: R&58#. One of those who greets “Timothy” in 2 Tim. 4:21. The Apostolic Constitutions
(VII.46) make him the son (or husband) of CLAUDIA, and lists him as the first post-Petrine bishop
of Rome, consecrated by PAUL. Irenaeus corroborates the latter traditions (Against Heresies III.iii.3;
cf. Ecc. Hist. III.2). He held the office until 80/81 (based on dating his death to the second year of
Titus — Ecc. Hist. III.13), and since he reigned for twelve years, he apparently assumed the
Episcopacy in 68/69. He is generally thought to have been martyred, but neither Jerome nor
Eusebius says this. 2 Tim. 4:21 !.
Lois: RD&#. The mother of EUNICE the mother of TIMOTHY. A Jewish woman whose faith
was commended by “PAUL” in 2 Tim. 1:5. 2 Tim. 1:5 !.
Lucius: R8E,&8#, a common Roman name. The third of the five “prophets and teachers”
of the Antioch church (Acts 13:1), along with BARNABAS, SIMEON NIGER, MANAEN, and Saul/
PAUL. He is called a native of Cyrene. Beyond this, nothing is known of him. A “Lucius” is also
mentioned in Rom. 16:21 as one of Paul’s fellow-workers, but there is no particular reason to
identify the two. There is a chance that one or both of these is the same as LUKE; neither one is
otherwise attested to. “Lucius” is listed as the first Bishop of Cenchrea. Acts 13:1/Rom. 16:21 !.
Luke: R8E,-#, Loukas, a Greek form of the Roman name Lucius. A companion of PAUL’S
who is mentioned three times in the Apostle’s writings. In Col. 4:14 we learn that he is a
physician, and that Paul loved him. It appears from 4:10–14 that he was a Gentile (since he is
listed after Paul’s Jewish companions). There is little else to say of him; Philem. 23 merely refers to
him as Paul’s fellow worker; 2 Tim. 4:11 (suspected by some of not being Pauline) simply notes
that Luke stayed with Paul when all others had deserted him.
To this short list of facts must be added a long list of questions. first, was Luke the same as
the LUCIUS of Rom. 16:21 or Acts 13:1? Arguing against the first identification is the fact that

Paul would use the name “Luke” in three places; why would he use “Lucius” in a fourth?
Moreover, the Lucius of Rom. 16:21 is described as Paul’s kinsman; would Paul use such a title
for a Gentile? As for the Lucius of Acts, if a major church leader (mentioned before Paul) had left
the Antioch congregation with Paul, would we not have heard of it? Neither identification has
much strength. But we cannot answer with certainty without dealing with the second great
question about Luke: did he write the third Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles?
Early authorities are unanimous in believing that he did. Eusebius so states in Ecc. Hist. III.4,
quotes Irenaeus to this effect in Ecc. Hist. V.8, and gives Origen’s testimony in VI.25. Other
authorities, such as the Muratorian Canon, are equally certain.
Moderns, of course, are not so sure; they question the ancient evidence. They believe that the
reasons for the tradition are as follows: 1. The author of Acts was a companion of Paul (Luke fits
this description, but so do many others); 2. The author of Luke/Acts never mentions himself
(Again, Luke fits, but so do many other companions of Paul such as Titus or Demas); 3. The
author shows some interest in medicine (a debatable point at best). Moreover, the so-called “we”
sections of Acts1 fit the idea that Luke was the author, for he was with Paul in Rome. There is
relatively little counter-evidence except for the complete lack of good evidence for the theory. The
question must remain open, although most scholars are willing to accept Luke as the author (at
least tentatively; I would agree on the grounds that I do not think tradition should be needlessly
questioned).
Having made this identification, we can return to the first question of whether Luke was
Lucius. Eusebius apparently thinks so, for he calls Luke an Antiochene (Ecc. Hist. III.4). Jerome
does the same. Moreover, the Western text of Acts adds another “we” section in 11:27/28 (see
the footnote above) implying that the author came to Antioch with Agabus, implying identity
between Luke and Lucius of Cyrene. With this we let the matter rest.
Other notices about Luke are relatively few. Eusebius quotes Clement of Alexandria to the
effect that Paul wrote Hebrews and that Luke re-edited it — Ecc. Hist. VI.14; Origen proposed
something similar in Ecc. Hist. VI.25. It is true that Luke/Acts and Hebrews feature the best
Greek in the New Testament, but this wild theory has found little support.
Epiphanius claims that Luke was one of the Seventy (Haer II.51); tradition has it that he was
the other disciple (not CLEOPAS) who met Jesus on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13–27). This last
hypothesis seems particularly improbable; the third gospel shows no evidence of containing
eyewitness testimony, and in any case Cleopas’s companion was presumably Jewish. Tradition
makes Luke a painter who created portraits of the Apostles as well as of Jesus and the Virgin
Mary. The second century anti-Marcionite prologue to his Gospel (for it was the third gospel
which Marcion used — in modified form — in his heretical New Testament) tells us that he never
married and lived to be 84. The Apostolic Constitutions claim that he ordained Avilius the
1.!The “we” sections of Acts, which are assumed to be based on the author’s diary, are 16:10-17 (from Troas to
Philippi); 20:5-21:18 (from Philippi to Jerusalem); 27:1-28:16 (from Cæsarea to Rome). As noted below, the so-
called “Western” text of Acts (found in D with partial support from the Old Latin and the Middle Egpytian
Coptic but not 614 gig or the Harkleian Syriac margin) has an additional “we” section after 11:27. This, the first
of the “we” sections, replaces the opening part of 11:28 (where NRSV reads “One of [these prophets] named
Agabus stood up and said”) with “And there was much rejoicing [in the church in Antioch], and when we
gathered, one of [these prophets] named Agabus stood up to signify that....”

second Bishop of Alexandria. There are several stories about his death (one says that he was
crucified with Andrew, another that he died a natural death), but none date from the Apostolic
age. Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:11; Philem. 241 !.
Lydia: RE9&-, probably named for the nation of Lydia. A citizen of Thyatira — a city in
what had been the nation of Lydia (Acts 16:14). PAUL met her in Philippi and converted her; the
Apostolic party then stayed in her house (16:15). They visited her one more time before
departing for Amphipolis (16:40). It has often been speculated that she was fairly well-off, since
she had her own business (being a dealer, moreover, in purple cloth, the official colour of Roman
nobility) and could afford to offer Paul her hospitality. Acts 16:14, 40 !.
Manaen: I-5-;5. The fourth of the five “prophets and teachers” of the Antioch church
(Acts 13:1), along with BARNABAS, SIMEON NIGER, LUCIUS of Cyrene, and Saul/PAUL. He is
described as the “foster-brother of Herod Antipas.” This probably means that Manaen was
educated along with Herod Antipas — although it is difficult to believe that such a man could still
be vigorous in the late 40s (Antipas had died some ten years previously, and was probably in his
sixties at that time). Perhaps we should understand that Manaen was Herod’s courtier. Nothing
else is known of him. Acts 13:1 !.
Mark: The name traditionally given to the author of the second gospel, probably on the
basis of 1 Pet. 5:13. There is, however, no real evidence that [John] Mark wrote this gospel. The
matter is discussed fully in the entry on John Mark.
Martha: I-!+-, from an Aramaic word meaning “Gentlewoman,” “Lady.” The sister of
LAZARUS and MARY of Bethany. In Luke, we meet the two sisters after the return of the Seventy,
when Martha invited Jesus and his company to a meal (10:38). Mary was also there (10:39), and
Martha wanted her help (10:40), but Jesus denied the request (10:41).
In John, Martha plays a role in the far more important incident of the raising of Lazarus. In
11:1 we are told of Martha’s residence in Bethany; in 11:15 we learn that Jesus loved the family.
Shortly before the Passion, Lazarus fell ill (11:1), and the sisters went to Jesus for help (11:3). But
Jesus delayed (11:6–13); it was only when Lazarus died (11:15–17) that he set out, to find the
body buried and the mourners gathered (11:19). When Martha heard that Jesus was coming, she
went out to meet him (11:20), and professed a deep but insufficient faith (11:21–22). Jesus then
taught her more fully about the resurrection (11:23–27). Even now she had her doubts, but Jesus
effectively settled the matter by raising Lazarus (11:41–44). Thereafter, Martha is mentioned only
at a dinner in Bethany (12:2) at which she served — a story quite similar in content to Luke’s, but
occurring much later in Jesus’s ministry. It has been speculated that Martha was the daughter of
Simon the Leper (Mark 14:3–9; this seems to be based on the fact that Mary of Bethany was
present in Simon’s home and the fact that the chronology fits), but this cannot be proved. Luke
10:38–41; John 11:1, 5, 19, 20, 21, 24, 30, 39, 12:2 !.
Mary of Bethany: I-!&-/I-!&-?, Greek form of “Miriam.” The sister of LAZARUS and
MARTHA. Like her sister, she appears in the gospels of Luke and John. In Luke, we meet the two
sisters after the return of the Seventy, when Martha invited Jesus and his company to a meal
1.!Also mentioned in the KJV subscription to 2 Corinthians following K L 1175? 1739 Byz; ന46 ! A B D F G [ 33
omnit

(10:38). Mary sat at Jesus’s feet and listened to his teachings (10:39). Martha complained about
this — she wanted Mary’s help (10:40) — but Jesus assured them that all was as it should be
(10:40–41).
In John, Mary plays a much more significant role. We first meet her in the story of the raising
of Lazarus (11:1, 19), though it was Martha who first visited Jesus. Later, however, Jesus called
Mary to him; she went (11:28) and professed her faith (11:32), and of course Lazarus was
eventually raised. Moreover, Mary had brought certain of her fellow-mourners with her, so they
too believed (11:45).
Soon after, Mary appears in another incident, similar in part to that found in Luke. When
Jesus was having supper in Martha’s house (12:1–2), Mary anointed his feet with oil (12:3; cf.
11:2), which caused a petty controversy with Judas Iscariot (12:4–8). This story is told in a variant
form in the Synoptic gospels (Matt. 26:6–13; Mark 14:3–9), but both the woman and the place
are different. From this, tradition has gone to work. Mary has often been identified with MARY
MAGDALENE, but this is unlikely. It may be that she was the daughter of Simon the Leper (Mark
14:3–9, and see the discussion above under Martha), but this cannot be proved. Luke 10:39, 42;
John 11:1, 2, 19, 20, 28, 31, 32, 45, 12:3 !.
Mary Magdalene: I-!&-/I-!&-? ; ,-%8E?*5; I-69-%;5;, “Mary the [one] called
Magdalene.” (“Magdalene” almost certainly means “of Magdala.”) She is widely thought to be
one of Jesus’s most loyal followers,1 yet apart from the Passion narratives she is mentioned only in
Luke 8:2, where Jesus is said to have cast “seven demons” out of her (similarly Mark 16:9, part of
the later interpolated ending of that gospel2). We next meet her at the foot of the cross (Matt.
27:56; Mark 15:40; John 19:25. Note that Mary is the only woman to be at the foot of the cross
in both the Synoptic and Johannine traditions). She was also one of those who saw Jesus buried
1.!There were several traditions, in fact, that Mary Magdalene was Jesus’s wife. This theory is supported most
particularly by the Gnostic Gospel of Philip, which often depicts Jesus and Mary as kissing or otherwise intimate.
For more on this, see the excursus Was Jesus Married on p. 143.
2.!“Mark 16:9-20” constitute one of the two longest interpolations in the New Testament (John 7:53-8:11 being the
other). The evidence regarding the originality of the Marcan verses is as follows:
• The verses are omitted entirely by ! B sin plus one Sahidic manuscript, many Armenian manuscripts, and two
of the earliest Georgian manuscripts
• An alternate ending, a few lines long, is found in the Old Latin k: “And all that they had been commanded they
told briefly to those around Peter. And afterward Jesus himself sent out through them, from east to west, the
sacred and imperishable proclamation of eternal salvation”)
• Both the long ending (“16:9-20”) and the short ending are found in L [ 579, the Harklean margin, two other
uncials, and many Ethiopic texts.
• The verses are included by ƒ1 but with a note describing them as dubious
• the Old Latin a has been defaced and a partial version of 16:9-20 added, but the original did not leave room for
the whole text; it had either the short ending of k or no ending at all.
• W includes the verses, but with a long addition as well
• One Armenian manuscript includes the verses but with a note attributing them to the Presbyter Aristion
• The verses, as found in the King James Bible, are found in A C D E M Y L ƒ13 33 892 Byz ff2 q vg cur and most
Armenian and Georgian manuscripts
In addition, the language is very un-Markan. Almost all modern scholars agree that the verses, while perhaps
canonical, are not from Mark’s pen. NRSV places them in double brackets [[ ]] as spurious, and also prints the
“short ending” of k; the first edition of RSV relegated the verses to a footnote.

(Matt. 27:61; Mark 15:47). After the Sabbath, she and the other women came to prepare Jesus’s
body for burial (Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1; cf. John 20:1). Since the body was missing, she and her
companions went to tell the Apostles (Luke 24:10; cf. Matt. 28:8; Mark 16:81; John 20:2, 18).
According to John, she had a conversation with the angels in the tomb (20:11–13) and then saw
the resurrected Jesus (20:14–17; cf. Mark 16:9). Much the same story is told in the apocryphal
Gospel of Peter. After this, Mary Magdalene fades from sight — though not from tradition. The
word “maudlin” (similar to the British pronunciation of “Magdalene”) is derived from the
iconography of Mary, in which she is always shown crying. She became the patron saint of
penitents2.
Another tradition, accepted by many Catholics, equates her with MARY of Bethany; this
seems highly unlikely. Still less likely is the association with the sinful woman of Luke 7:37–50,
which is based on the equation with Mary of Bethany. Yet this equation was carried far.
Supposedly Mary Magdalene, MARTHA, and LAZARUS, plus a couple of others, ended up in
Marseilles, where Lazarus was the first bishop. Her feast day in July 22. Matt. 27:56, 61, 28:1;
Mark 15:40, 47, 16:1, [16:9]; Luke 8:2, 24:10; John 19:25, 20:1, 11, 16, 18 !.
Mary the mother of James: I-!&-/I-!&-?, Greek form of “Miriam.” As will be
mentioned in the entries on several other Marys, telling these woman apart is virtually
impossible. The woman we are referring to here was one of those by the cross of Jesus, who was
identified as the mother of James “the younger” and Joseph/Joses (Mark 15:40; cf. Matt. 27:56).
She was one of those who waited by the tomb of Jesus for the Sabbath to end (Matt. 27:61; Mark
15:47). She was one of those who discovered the Empty Tomb and met the risen Jesus (Matt.
28:1; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:10). Beyond this, we know little. Was this woman MARY of Bethany?
MARY the wife of Clopas (John 19:25)? Jesus’s mother? Jesus’s aunt? We will never know… we
can’t even identify which James was her son. Matt. 27:56, 61, 28:1; Mark 15:40, 47, 16:1; Luke
24:10 !.
Mary mother of John Mark: I-!&-/I-!&-?, Greek form of “Miriam.” Mentioned
explicitly only in Acts 12:12, she was apparently a rich woman, for her house was large enough to
hold a church and she had a maid (12:13). Since the house was held in her name, it seems that by
43/44 she was a widow. As a presumed kinswoman of BARNABAS (Col. 4:10, which makes Mark a
kinsman of Barnabas), she apparently belonged to a Levitical family (Acts 4:36), which may have
explained her social status. Acts 12:2 !.
Mary wife of Clopas: I-!&-/I-!&-?, Greek form of “Miriam.” Mentioned only in
John 19:25, where she is listed as one of the women at the foot of the cross. Little is known of
these women (even the reading “wife of Clopas” is questionable; the text merely says “Mary of
Clopas,” which might make her his mother or daughter), but there has been much speculation
about them. It has been pointed out that, if the Synoptics are correct in stating that there were
only three women at the foot of the cross, then Mary must have been Jesus’s aunt (which would
apparently mean that there were two sisters named Mary, but we should note that 1. John never
1.!Note that the true Gospel of Mark ends very abruptly at the end of 16:8 — a precise translation might almost
read, “they told no one, because they were afraid of....”
2.!In the first great Robin Hood tale, the Gest of Robyn Hode, Robin claims to have built a chapel in Barnsdale to her,
and says he has vowed to go there barefoot and clothed in wool as a penitent (stanza 442).

calls the Virgin Mary by any name, and 2. Eusebius — Ecc. Hist. III.10 — makes Clopas Joseph’s
brother, so the two might be sisters-in-law). Continuing this fragile chain of equations, it would
seem that Mary was also called SALOME, and was the mother of JAMES and JOHN the sons of
Zebedee. (The reader is permitted to question this theory.)
Slightly more solid is the tradition that Mary and Clopas’s son Simeon succeeded JAMES the
brother of Jesus as bishop of Jerusalem (Ecc. Hist. III.11, 32). John 19:25 !.
Yet Another Mary: I-!&-/I-!&-?, Greek form of “Miriam.” Mentioned only in Rom.
16:6, where she is one of those whom PAUL greets. She is said to have “worked hard” among the
recipients of the letter. Rom. 16:6 !.
*Matthew: I-0+-&8#/I-EE-+8#, a Greek form of “Mattathiah,” “Gift of Yah[weh].” A
“Mattai” is listed in Jewish writings as one of the five disciples of Jesus, along with Naqui, Netser,
Buni, and Toda. According to the Synoptic tradition, he was one of the Twelve, mentioned in all
four lists (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13). Only the first gospel has more to say of
him; it transfers to him the tale of the tax gatherer LEVI son of Alphaeus (as found in Mark
2:14ƒ., Luke 5:27ƒ.) to Matthew (Matt. 9:9ƒ.). The reason for this change is not apparent; even in
the first gospel Matthew is not mentioned again.
From this small historic kernel, great seeds of fancy have grown. Papias started the chain with
the statement “Matthew compiled the sayings [logia, literally “words”] in the Hebrew [Aramaic]
tongue, and everyone interpreted them as well as possible” (Ecc. Hist. III.39). This led to the
belief that Matthew wrote the first gospel (a ridiculous claim; the gospel is based on Mark and
contains little if any eyewitness testimony. At best, Matthew may have been responsible for the
“Q” source used extensively in the first and third gospels). Irenaeus also told us that Matthew
wrote a Hebrew gospel (quoted in Ecc. Hist. V.8). He was said to have done this when he had
completed his mission to the Jews and was preparing to go to travel elsewhere (Ecc. Hist. III.24).
If this were not enough, an apocryphal work telling a tale of Jesus’s conception, gestation, and
birth in a style reminiscent of the first gospel has been dubbed The Gospel of the Pseudo-Matthew.
Matthew, being such an obscure figure to whom so much literature was attached, has
naturally attracted a great deal of attention from tradition. Clement of Alexandria records that
he was a vegetarian and spent fifteen years evangelizing in Ethiopia, Macedonia, and Persia. A
copy of his gospel was said to have been preserved in India. The Gospel of Thomas (Logion 13)
says that he described Jesus as a “wise Philosopher.” A few sources claim that Matthew died
peacefully, but most assume that he suffered the usual martyrdom. The Acts of Matthew claims he
was killed by cannibals by being nailed to the ground, smothered in oiled paper and brimstone,
and burned. Even so, he managed to address his followers while dying (perhaps it is best not to
ask how he managed this), and his body was not charred. The date was Nov. 16 (odd, given that
his feast day is Sept. 21). The rest of the story tells of his ascension and return to earth. It is not a
very inspiring work, containing nothing but miracle stories. It is apparently based on the late Acts
of Andrew and Matthias and suffers from the common confusion between Matthew and MATTHIAS.
Matt. 9:9, 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13 !.
*Matthias: I-0+&-#/I-++&-#, short form of “Mattathiah,” “Gift of Yah[weh].”
Mentioned only in Acts 1:23ƒ., he and JOSEPH BARSABBAS were the candidates to replace JUDAS
ISCARIOT in the circle of the Twelve. Matthias was chosen, but has no further role to play, except

to be confused with Matthew in some of the apocryphal literature. Eusebius tells us that he was
once one of the Seventy (Ecc. Hist. I.12). Clement of Alexandria identifies him with Zacchaeus,
the tax collector of Luke 19:2ƒ., and also tells of his arguments against the flesh and for chastity
(quoted in Ecc. Hist. III.29). The Recognitions of the Pseudo-Clement credits him with a part in
an apostolic debate with the followers of John the Baptist. He apparently was credited with a
gospel (Ecc. Hist. III.25), but this was generally regarded as spurious. A legend, The Acts of Andrew
and Matthias, reports that he was once rescued from cannibals by the Apostle Andrew (other
versions say that it was Matthew who was rescued by Andrew). A tradition reports that he was
martyred by being crucified and/or hacked to pieces. Act 1:23, 26 !.
Mnason: I5-4D5.1 A citizen of Cyprus who had become an early disciple (Acts 21:16).
PAUL stayed with him at the beginning of his last visit to Jerusalem. We cannot place his home
exactly; different texts place it at different points on the road from Cæsarea to Jerusalem.2 It has
been speculated that he fled to Cyprus at the time of Stephen’s death. Acts 21:16 !.
*Nathanael: X-+-5-;%, from Hebrew meaning “Gift of God.”3 Like so many other
disciples, he has a real role only in the Gospel of John. Indeed, the situation here is even more
extreme than in the other cases, for he is not even mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels. Even in
the Fourth Gospel, his role is almost entirely confined to the first chapter. His residence is
obscure; he seems to be in Bethany of Trans-Jordan in John 1:45, yet he is well-known to PHILIP
the apostle from Bethsaida, and 21:2 makes him a citizen of Cana. The reader is welcome to
speculate on how these facts can be reconciled; you will have many scholars for company. For
myself, I will return to the narrative.
We first meet Nathanael under a fig tree (at Bethany? — 1:45, 49). Philip comes to him and
announces that he has found the Messiah. Nathanael is skeptical (1:46), but agrees to come and
see. Jesus meets him and knows him (1:47–48), and Nathanael is won over (1:49–50). At this point
Nathanael disappears from the narrative, until he appears in the appendix to the gospel (ch. 21)
as one of those who go fishing with Peter in 21:2. This poses a difficulty: could Nathanael be one
of the Twelve? There is no information that he is — but all others mentioned by name in this
verse are Apostles.
The easy solution to this is to say that Nathanael was just another disciple, not an apostle, but
the traditional imagination can hardly let this be. It is sometimes assumed that, since Nathanael
was from Cana, and one of the Apostles was “Simon the Cananaean” (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18),
then they must be the same (though this is not linguistically reasonable). Another common theory
is that he is BARTHOLOMEW, since Bartholomew occurs next to Philip in the lists of Apostles and
1.!For Mnason ! and many of the Latin versions read C-485=Jason.

2.!The common text, found in ‫ א‬A B C E 33 1175 1739 Byz, reads “Some… disciples… brought us to the house of
Mnason” (NRSV), but D (apparently) and the margin of the Harklean Syriac read “disciples brought us to where
we were to lodge. And having come to a certain village, we stayed with Mnason.... 17 Then when we left, we came
to Jerusalem…” (a loose translation, but it gets the point across; in the common text, the trip took one day and
Mnason lived near Jerusalem; in D the trip took two days and Mnason lived nearer Cæsarea).
3.!In LXX “Nathanael” is used for “Nethanel,” which occurs for the prince of Issachar in Num. 1:8, 2:5, 7:18, 23,
10:15; for David’s fourth brother in 1 Ch. 2:14; and for sundry others (mostly Levites) in 1 Ch. 15:24, 24:6, 26:4;
2 Ch. 17:7, 35:9, Ezra 10:22; Neh. 12:21. The Apocrypha uses the name in two additional places: 1 Esdras 1:9
(paralleling 2 Ch. 35:9), Judith 8:1.

Nathanael and Philip were friends. In support of this it is urged that the name Bartholomew is a
patronymic rather than a proper name. This is conceivable, but not particularly likely —
particularly when one learns that others have equated Nathanael with MATTHEW, MATTHIAS,
JOHN son of Zebedee, and even with STEPHEN. Some scholars — admittedly with some reason —
would deny his existence altogether as merely a symbol of “the true Israel, in whom there is no
guile” (John 1:47). Since I can find no reference to Nathanael in the early church writings, I will
contentedly let the matter lie there. John 1:45–49, 21:2 !.
Nereus: X;!*E#,1 named for a Greek sea-deity. A citizen of Rome (or Ephesus?) whom
PAUL greeted in Rom. 16:15. All that we know of him was that he had a sister. It has been
speculated that he is the son of PHILOLOGUS and JULIA and the brother of OLYMPAS. Rom. 16:15
!.
§Nicanor: X&,-58!, “Conqueror.” One of the seven Hellenists of Acts 6:5, the fourth on
the list. Nothing else is known of him. Acts 6:5 !.
Nicodemus: X&,89;?8#, “Conqueror of a District.” The Talmud tells us of a Naqdimon
who lived in Jerusalem before the Jewish revolt. The two have been identified, but this seems
unlikely (John 3:4 seems to imply that Nicodemus was fairly old, whereas Naqdimon was alive
around the time of the siege of Jerusalem in 70). “A Pharisee, a ruler of the Jews” (John 3:1), and
a teacher (3:2). Mentioned only in the Gospel of John, and not often even there. He first came to
Jerusalem at night (a symbol? a benighted Jew coming to the true light?) to ask questions (3:1, 3:4,
3:9) and was treated to the famous discourse of being born of the Spirit.2 Later, when the
Jerusalem authorities tried to arrest Jesus, Nicodemus spoke against it but was scorned (7:50). His
final appearance was at the tomb of Jesus, where he brought spices to place on the body (19:39).
From this point, tradition takes over. A Gospel of Nicodemus (Acts of Pilate), in which Nicodemus and
JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA are the main characters, is a passion narrative allegedly based on Roman
records. Nicodemus and Joseph argue at length with Pilate and the Sanhedrin, are abused, escape
miraculously, go back and win their arguments, see visions about Christ’s death, ride happily off
into the sunset, and live happily ever after. John 3:1, 4, 9, 7:50, 19:39 !.
§Nicolaus: X&,8%-8#, “Conqueror of the People.” One of the seven Hellenists of Acts 6:5,
and the last on the list. He is identified as “a proselyte of Antioch,” but nothing else is known of
him. A heretical sect of “Nicolaitans” is mentioned in Rev. 2:6, 15; Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. III.29)
tells us that they claimed to be followers of Nicolaus. Clement of Alexandria tells a legend —
which he believes to be based on exaggeration — of how the sect arose: that Nicolaus offered his
1.!Except that ന46 gives his name as “Aulus” or something like it.
2.!A passage which, incidentally, proves that the Gospel of John was composed in Greek — a point which the King
James Bible really messes up. There is a Greek word, -5D+*5, anothen, which means equally from above and again.
In John 3:3, Jesus says that no one can see the Kingdom of God without being born -5D+*5 — in this case
pretty definitely meaning from above. But Nicodemus, in 3:4, misunderstands the word and asks how an old man
can be (re)born — a misunderstanding that is only possible in Greek. (If John had wanted to be clear about being
born again, there is a perfectly good Greek word, #-%&5, palin, that means only “again” and is much more
common than -5D+*5. The fact that John didn’t use the word means that he wants the ambiguity, and that the
Gospel passage was written in Greek to exploit it.) Jesus uses -5D+*5 again in 3:7, again, clearly meaning from
above. There is no such thing as being “born again”; it is a singularly unfortunate King James Bible mistranslation.

pretty wife for sexual abuse by the Apostolic community, to show his/their contempt for the flesh.
Acts 6:5 !.
Nympha: XE?P-/XE?P-#. KJV “Nymphas.” A woman (? — the name could equally well
be masculine),1 probably of Laodicea, who had a church in her house (implying a certain degree
of importance) and whom PAUL greeted in Colossians. Col. 4:15 !.
Olympas: ’V%E?"-#, named after the mountain on which the Greek gods lived. He is one
of those whom PAUL greeted in Rom. 16:15. Nothing else is known of him, although it has been
speculated that he was the brother of NEREUS and the son of PHILOLOGUS and JULIA. Rom.
16:15 !.
Onesimus: ’V5;4&?D#, “Useful.” A Christian slave of Colossae who ran away from
PHILEMON to PAUL (Philem. 15–16). He became a servant (Philem. 10), friend, and messenger
(Col. 4:9) of the Apostle, but eventually Paul felt it necessary to send him back to his master
(Philem. 12) — though at the same time appealing to the owner to treat him well (Philem. 10,
17–18) and give him the rights of a free Christian. We learn from the letter of Ignatius to the
Ephesians (chapter 1; cf. Ecc. Hist. III.36) that an Onesimus was the highly-respected Bishop of
Ephesus who met Ignatius as the latter started his long trip for martyrdom in Rome. It is thought
that Ignatius died in 107; if Onesimus met Paul in 62 and was twenty-five at the time, then he
would be seventy at the time of Ignatius’s death — a perfectly possible situation. In support of
this theory we have a tradition that Paul himself consecrated Onesimus to succeed TIMOTHY as
Bishop of Ephesus; it also claims that he was stoned in Rome. But we should not press this theory
too far; there is no direct evidence for it. For one thing, while tradition has it that Philemon was
written from Rome around 61/62, many now believe that it was written from Ephesus in the five
or more years earlier. Moreover, the Apostolic Constitutions (admittedly a late work) make Onesimus
Bishop of Berea, not Ephesus. Col. 4:9; Philem. 102 !.
Onesiphorus: ’V5;4&P8!8#, “Profit-bearing.” A Christian mentioned twice in 2 Timothy,
one of the letters widely denied to PAUL (although it seems to have some genuine elements). He
and his household came to Rome to meet Paul (1:17), and “refreshed” him there (1:16); he
apparently came from (1:18) and returned to Ephesus, for Paul sends regards to him there (? —
see 2 Tim. 4:19). Some ancients guessed that he was identical to ONESIMUS, though there is little
evidence for this. An Onesiphorus appears as the villain (who is later converted) in the Acts of Peter
and Andrew, but this miracle story is clearly spurious. Another Onesiphorus is found in the Acts of
Paul, this time as an ally of the Apostle. In this account, his wife is named Lectra and children
Simmias and Zeno. 2 Tim. 1:16, 4:19 !.
1.!This is a complicated textual problem. The name Nympha(s) takes different genders depending on accents (that is,
Xa?P-5 is presumably feminine while XE?Pq5 is masculine) but accents were not marked in the early
manuscripts. The rest of the line does imply a gender: B 6 424c 1739 1881 mention “the church in her house”; D
F G K L [ Byz read his house; ‫ א‬A C P 33 81 1175 refer to the church in their house. What this probably means
is that everyone guessed at Nympha(s)’s gender and corrected the pronoun. We can’t really know whose guess is
right, but the feminine seems more likely; it has the best attestation and would be more likely to be changed by
sexist scribes.
2.!Also mentioned in the KJV subscription to Colossians following K L 1175? 1739 Byz; ന46 ! A B C D F G [ 33
omit. Also in the KJV subscription to Philemon following K L (1739) Byz; ! A C D [ 33 omit

§Parmenas: /-!?*5-#, contracted from a word meaning “Steadfast”? One of the seven
Hellenists of Acts 6:5, the sixth on the list. Nothing else is known of him. Acts 6:5 !.
Paul: /-u%8#, “Little one”; also L-+%8#, Saulos, Greek form of “Saul.”1 After Jesus himself,
the most important and most frequently mentioned figure in the New Testament. He is the
author of about a quarter of that work, and indirectly responsible for at least another quarter.
His career has been the subject of hundreds of articles, books, and even novels; controversy
about him is endless. A short article cannot hope to cover the entire story; it’s probably beyond
my comprehension anyway. All we can hope to do is provide a brief sketch, based on our three
major sources: Acts, Paul’s letters, and tradition.
I. The History of Paul. This section is based almost entirely on the narrative of Acts,
supplemented occasionally by the Pauline letters. Unfortunately, the account in Acts is now
recognized as containing many errors; some scholars reject it almost completely. But since it is the
only real source we have, we will follow it:
Saul was born in Tarsus in Cilicia (Acts 21:39. Jerome reports a legend that he was born in
Gischala in Palestine, but this seems unlikely given the Biblical accounts of his actions —
although he did apparently have a sister and nephew who lived in Palestine (23:16). He was a
Roman citizen by birth (22:25–28). His parents were Pharisees (23:6); wanting their son to have
the best of religious educations, they sent him to Jerusalem to study under the great rabbi
Gamaliel I (22:3). Saul was apparently an excellent student (Gal. 1:13–14), and soon began
branching out into other activities. In his zeal he became a persecutor of Christians (Acts 22:4),
and played a leading role in the killing of STEPHEN (7:58–8:1). He proved so effective a
persecutor that he was given a commission to deal with the Christians of Damascus (9:1–2).
While on the way to that city he underwent an experience which resulted in his conversion (9:3–
19; cf. 22:6–16, 26:12–18). No longer trusted by the Jews, he was forced to flee from Damascus
by going over the city wall in a basket (9:23–25; cf. 2!Cor. 11:32–33). But the Christians were not
ready to accept him (Acts 9:26) until BARNABAS spoke for him (9:27). Still in a precarious position,
he eventually returned to his home in Tarsus (9:30), where he stayed for more than a decade
(Gal. 2:1). Finally Barnabas summoned him to Antioch (Acts 11:25–26), where they became
leaders of the church (13:1). Soon after, the two went on their first missionary voyage (13:2–
14:27). This journey was relatively unambitious, visiting only a few towns in Cyprus (where Saul
was first called Paul) and southern Asia Minor before returning to Antioch. But it nonetheless
provoked controversy, for in Pisidian Antioch the missionaries began preaching to Gentiles
(13:14, 46–47). This act seemed so outrageous that Paul and Barnabas were sent before the
Apostles in Jerusalem (48/9 C.E. — Acts 15:1ƒ.) In the end, Paul and Barnabas were completely
approved (15:19); their companion Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal. 2:3), and the
Apostles welcomed the missionaries among them (Gal. 2:9).
Soon after, Paul and Barnabas planned another voyage (Acts 15:36), but personality conflicts
(15:37–39) caused them to separate; Paul set off on the greatest of his voyages with SILAS (15:40).
On their way they met TIMOTHY (16:1ƒ.), Paul’s favorite protégé, and first brought Christianity to
1.Note however that in LXX Saul son of Kish is called!L-8E%, not L-8E%8#, and the spelling L-8E% is used in the
only NT reference to the first king of Israel (Acts 13:21). This same indeclinable form is used of Paul in Acts 9:4,
17. 22:7, 13, 14, 26:14, but these are all vocatives (“O Paul”) and the fact may be insignificant.

Europe (16:9). Among the churches they founded were those of Philippi (16:12; it was also there
that Paul was apparently imprisoned for the first time — 16:19–39), Thessalonica (17:1), and
Corinth (18:1), as well as making his first visit to Ephesus (18:19), though a visit to Athens was less
successful (17:14ƒ.). It was in Corinth that Paul met PRISCA and AQUILA (16:2); they practiced the
trade of tentmaking together until the entire group went to Ephesus.
Returning briefly to Jerusalem and Antioch (18:22), the Apostle soon set out on a third
missionary voyage through Asia Minor (18:23; c. 53 C.E.) In this instance the largest part of Paul’s
time was spent in Ephesus (19:1) — a total of more than two years (19:10). While he was there he
regulated the beliefs of the church, performed many miracles, wrote several letters — and
induced a riot (19:23–40. There are those who believe that Paul was imprisoned in Ephesus at
this time). Afterward he set out for Greece to gather a great collection for the church in
Jerusalem. Having collected the money and done some small work in the Greek cities, he set out
for Palestine.
By this time all of Judaism and Christianity knew of the great Apostle. The Jews, moreover,
detested this man who, they felt, had set aside their law. The Christians tried to protect the
Apostle, but it wasn’t long before he found himself in the midst of another riot (21:27–31). His
life was saved only because of Roman intervention (21:32). But the procurator at that time (c. 58
C.E.) was the detestable Felix (23:24); he simply let Paul rot in jail — he probably wanted a bribe
(24:26) — rather than resolving the case. When the new procurator Porcius Festus arrived, he got
things moving again, but wanted to try the Apostle in a Jewish court. Paul, in self-defense,
appealed to the Emperor (25:11); Festus let him go there.
So after a few more delays, Paul set out on the long slow journey to Rome. After a most
eventful trip — the vessel carrying him was shipwrecked off Malta (27:41–28:1) — he arrived at
the Capitol (28:16; c. 61 C.E.), where he preached for several years.
With this the great narrative of Acts ends. It does not tell us of the Apostle’s fate — though it
gives us a strong feeling that he will be martyred (cf. e.g. Acts 20:25, 38; also 26:11, 13)— nor give
us much of an insight into his theology. For the former, we have little choice but to look to
tradition; for the latter, we must turn to
II. The Writings of Paul. The New Testament contains fourteen writings attributed to
Paul. Of these, Hebrews was known all along to be the work of another author; it is thought that
the Pauline attribution was a fiction used by the early church to allow the book into the canon.
The other writings vary; some are clearly genuine, others highly questionable. For more insight,
let us examine the various works in more detail.
A. Romans. Undoubtedly genuine, except perhaps for a few additions. (To say that Romans
is inauthentic is to say that Paul is not Paul.) The letter was written from Corinth during Paul’s
final visit there (57 C.E.), and was the Apostle’s way of introducing himself to a church he
planned to visit shortly. The work sets out all the basics of Pauline theology, and is thus the most
important treatise in Christianity.
Certain early sources omit the last chapter or two of the letter: the heretic Marcion may have
been responsible for the deliberate excision of chapter 15, but the version without chapter 16 —
although attested to only by the late but valuable manuscript 1506 — seems to have arisen
naturally. While chapter 15 is an integral part of the letter, chapter 16 seems very out of place.

Paul had never been to Rome; how could he know all these people? A common — although by
no means universal! — conclusion is that chapter 16 is actually part of a lost letter to someplace
else, with Ephesus being the destination most often suggested. Members of the Corinthian
community from which it was written, not wishing to see any work of the Apostle’s lost,
incorporated this odd chapter into Romans, which understandably led to textual confusion.1
B. The Corinthian Correspondence. Universally acknowledged as genuine, but quite
clearly scrambled. The narrative of Acts gives us no clues as to what was going on in Paul’s life at
this time (55–56 C.E.); we have to guess from the letters. It seems clear that Paul sent at least four
letters from Ephesus to Corinth in the space of a year or so. The usual reconstruction of the
events and texts is something like this:
1. The original letter to Corinth (1 Cor. 5:9–11). This letter appears to have dealt with
matters of sexual and social immorality. It has not been preserved — except perhaps for a
fragment in 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1, which is clearly out of place where it stands. This letter raised
questions in Corinth, and the church chose to write a return letter (1 Cor. 7:1), which may have
been borne by STEPHANAS, FORTUNATUS, and ACHAICUS (1 Cor. 16:17–18). This prompted the
Apostle to write
2. The canonical 1 Corinthians. This letter answered the questions the Corinthians raised,
and brought up additional points about charismatic gifts, morality, and Christian love. The letter
did not solve the problem; instead, it seems to have led to a revolt against Paul’s authority. Paul
was forced to make a lightning trip to Corinth, but this was a disaster (2 Cor. 2:1); many believe
that the Apostle was publicly humiliated. This forced him to write
3. The severe, painful letter (2 Cor. 2:3–4, 9, 7:8). It is widely believed that portions of this
survive in 2 Cor. 10–13. Paul vigorously asserts his Apostolic authority with a dazzling catalog of
tribulations survived and obstacles overcome. (It is as close as we get to an autobiography.) The
passage is compelling — but also frightening; Paul himself regretted what he had written.
Fortunately, TITUS went to Corinth and was able to repair the disaster (2 Cor. 7:6–7, 13). A
relieved Paul was then able to write
4. The peaceful letter. This includes 2 Cor. 1:1–2:4, and probably most of the remainder of
chapters 2–7. Chapters 8 and 9 probably belong to separate documents (since they largely
duplicate each other), but one or the other may also have been included. Whatever the extent of
the letter, its intent is clear: Paul is rejoicing that his charges have returned to the fold. He
apologizes for what has come between them. On this note, with perhaps a hope of future joyful
visits, the Corinthian correspondence closes.
1.!No matter what the destination of chapter 16, it is quite possible that the “original” chapter ended with verse
16:23. The verse numbered “16:24” in the KJV (derived from 16:20 and perhaps 2 Th. 3:28) is found in D F G [
Byz but omitted by ന46 ! A B C 81 1739 1962 2127, while P 33 have the verse after 16:27; NRSV omits it.
“16:25-27” are found at the end of the letter in ! B C D 81 1739 1962 2127 NRSV, but after 14:23 in L [ Byz;
A P 33 have the verses in both places; ന46 locates them after 15:33 (possibly implying that it is derived from an
ancestor which lacked chapter 16); 1506 has them after 15:33 but omits chapter 16; F G 629 omit the verses
altogether. If 16:25-27 are not simply stray verses, they may have formed the original conclusion to the letter
(placed after 15:33, as in 1506), scattered all over the place when chapter 16 was added.

C. Galatians. This most succinct summary of Paul’s attitudes toward freedom and the law
is undoubtedly genuine. The only question about the letter is its date. Since we do not know
which area of Galatia Paul evangelized, we cannot say exactly when he visited. Nor do we know
how long it took the conservative Jewish-Christians to subvert the church. We can only guess
from clues in the letter. Chapter 2 seems to describe the Council of Jerusalem of 48/49 C.E. (Acts
15:1–21), and the letter has a “sound” similar to Romans. This argues for a date probably around
54. But many hold out for an earlier date, perhaps as early as 47, before the Jerusalem synod had
made official pronouncements on the question of Gentile behavior (it is to be observed that Paul’s
requirements of the Galatians do not match those of the Council; this argues for a date before
the meeting).1 Dates as late as 58 have also been proposed based on the similarity to Romans.
None of this is crucial to the letter; is basic point — “For you were called to be free, comrades;
just don’t use your freedom as a way to fulfill your desires, but through love be enslaved to one
another” (5:13 AOT) is one of the crucial points of Paul’s gospel, proclaimed throughout his
career.
D. Ephesians. A very “un-Pauline” writing; the vocabulary, style, and contents are all
atypical of the apostle. To begin with, Ephesians is suspiciously similar to Colossians, even to the
point of mentioning common characters.2 Ephesians has the appearance of an expanded,
improved edition of that letter. Moreover, the words “in Ephesus” in Eph. 1:1 clearly do not
1.!Many also see support for an early date for Galatians in the narrative of Acts, where chapter 11 describes a visit to
Jerusalem not listed in Galatians. They argue that the visit in Acts chapter 11 was that described in Galatians 2,
and this meeting was the one at which it was decided to admit Gentiles to the church. But — as events proved —
this was not an adequate solution; while Gentiles were permitted into the church by this meeting in the early
Forties, it did not resolve the problem of the role of Gentiles as church members. Paul offered his solution in
Galatians, and the Jerusalem council eventually agreed (for the most part) with his viewpoint. The problem with
this hypothesis is that Romans shows no more acquaintance with the Council than does Galatians, yet Romans
must be a late writing. The difficulty admits of no easy solution. It has been suggested that the dictates of the
Council applied only to relations between Jews and Christians. In dealing with the Galatians Paul was probably
addressing a community that had no native Jewish population and hence one to which the decrees of the Council
did not apply. He therefore chose to attack the problem of the relationship between Christians and the law from
“first principles.”
2.!The exact extent of the parallels is difficult to determine, since the text of Colossians has been conformed to that
of Ephesians in dozens of instances. But even if we eliminate all the apparent harmonizations, we find the
following parallels:
Ephesians Colossians Ephesians Colossians Ephesians Colossians
1:1-2 1:1-2 1:4 1:22 1:15 1:4
1:16-17 1:3, 9 1:19 1:27 (+1:11-12) 1:22-23 1:18-19
2:1, 5 2:13 2:6 2:12 2:21-22 2:19
3:2 1:25 3:7 1:29 3:9 1:26
4:1-3 3:13-14 4:16 2:19 (+1:28, 2:10) 4:18 1:21
4:31 3:8 5:3-6 3:5-6 5:15-16 4:5
5:19 3:16 5:22-24 3:18 5:25-30 3:19
6:1-3 3:20 6:4 3:21 6:5-8 3:22-24
6:9 4:1 6:19-20 4:3-4 6:21-22 4:7-8
And even this list might be extended, since it ignores many merely verbal parallels.

belong; they are missing in the best manuscripts and the texts used by Origen and Tertullian.1
Several theories have been proposed to explain this: that Ephesians is actually the lost letter to the
Laodiceans (mentioned in Col. 4:16; the theory was most strongly supported by the heretic
Marcion, who actually knew this as the Laodicean letter), or perhaps a general letter. But most
moderns would consider it a forgery — though a very excellent, perceptive one; if Paul did not
write Eph. 2:8–10, he probably wishes that he had — composed perhaps as a cover letter for a
collection of Paul’s writings. (Speaking from my own readings, the author of Romans could not
have written Ephesians without having undergone a stroke or the like. And then how would one
explain the similarity to Colossians? Paul’s other letters are terse and staccato; Ephesians is
diffuse, full of elaborate connectives. This is obscured in English translations, which —
necessarily — break the chapter-long sentences in Ephesians into smaller units. But if you read
the Greek, the extremely run-on sentences are obvious.) If Ephesians were genuine, it would
seem to come from Paul’s Roman captivity, perhaps around 63 C.E.
E. Philippians. The most friendly and personal of Paul’s letters, its authenticity has never
been seriously questioned. There are those, however, who question its unity, believing that it
contains fragments of three letters. Needless to say, this raises questions about the letter’s date.
The tradition that it was written from Rome around 62 has to compete with a theory that it was
dictated in Ephesus around 56, during Paul’s (hypothetical) imprisonment there. (Indeed, it is
largely to solve the problems of this letter and the other prison letters that this Ephesian
imprisonment has been proposed.)
F. Colossians and Philemon. The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned,
though this is due more than anything else to its similarity to Ephesians. There are places where
the letter expounds doctrines which sound rather un-Pauline, but Paul should not be expected to
be totally consistent. The mention of Onesimus argues for the letter’s authenticity. The
traditional view has the letter written from Rome around 62, but the “Ephesian Alternative” is
gaining respect.
Philemon is closely related to Colossians; the two were obviously sent to the same city and
probably carried by the same messenger. Philemon is the only unquestionably genuine letter of
Paul’s written to an individual. This give it a value out of all proportion to its size, for in it we are
allowed to view Paul’s personal life as nowhere else. The traditional date of 62 still has its
adherents, but several problems (particularly of transportation) are solved by assuming that it was
composed from Ephesus around 56.
G. The Thessalonian Correspondence. 1 Thessalonians is probably Paul’s earliest
writing, prepared for a church which had not strayed from orthodoxy but had certain questions
for its teacher. It was written no later than 51, probably from Corinth.
2 Thessalonians is altogether another matter. It is clearly an early church writing, because
Polycarp’s letter to the Philippians (early second century) knows it. But would Paul have written a
letter which appears to deliberately repudiate his own writing of just a few months earlier? (2 Th.
1.!The words “in Ephesus” are omitted by ന46 !* B* 6 424c 1739; they are found in !c A Bc D F G P [ 33 81 1175
1962 2127 Byz a b d f vg cop arm geo. Although the words are found in NRSV, the underlying Greek of GNT
brackets them as possibly spurious, and in my opinion there can be little doubt but that the words should be
excised altogether.

2:2). Nowhere else did Paul engage in the sort of eschatology found in 2:1–12. Yet the rest of the
letter sounds very Pauline; most scholars accept the tradition that the letter was written soon after
1 Thessalonians, around 51.
H. The Pastoral Epistles: 1 & 2 Timothy, Titus. These three writings are closely
related to each other, yet profoundly different from the other Pauline writings. The language of
the three is similar, yet it is sometimes wildly different from that found in Paul’s other letters.1
Moreover, a high level of church organization is assumed (the offices of “bishop” and “deacon”
are established and distinct; special qualifications are required for each — cf. 1 Tim. 3:1ƒ., 3:8ƒ.).
This simply was not the case in Paul’s time.2
In addition, most scholars agree that Paul could not have written these letters during the
period covered by Acts. If they do come from the Apostle’s pen, they must have been written after
the Roman captivity. This brings up the crucial question, How did Paul die?
We simply don’t know. Clearly the narrative in Acts is leading toward the conclusion that he
was martyred in Rome (Acts 20:25, 38, etc.). 1 Clement 5 (c. 96), however, tells of his preaching
all the way to the “ultimate west.” This would imply that Paul was released from prison and was
able to finish his planned visit to Spain; this is the account given by Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. II.22) and
the Acts of Peter, chapter 3.3 This at least gives the Apostle time to write the letters. On the other
hand, it leaves little time for them to be sent; it would be difficult for a letter sent by Paul to reach
Titus in Crete! For these and many other reasons, the Pauline authorship of the Pastorals as they
now stand is almost universally rejected. They appear to have been written around 125, making
them among the last of the New Testament writings.
And yet, few would be willing to deny them all connection with Paul. 2 Timothy, in particular,
seems to have flashes of the authentic Pauline style. I find it hard to believe that 2 Timothy
chapter 4 was not written by Paul in its extant form4 — and why would a forger have made up
the personal details found in it? The usual explanation is that the author of the Pastorals had
access to some Pauline fragments, which he incorporated into his own framework.
1.!A relatively objective measure of whether a writing is related to others is whether they use a common vocabulary.
If we examine 1 Timothy, we find that it contains 75 words that occur only in this book. The Pauline letters
closest to it in length (Galatians and Philippians), by contrast, contain only 29 and 37 unique words, respectively.
This excess of unusual words is almost always a sign of difference in authorship. For more details, see the
appendix Rare Words Used in New Testament Books on p. 537.
2.!It should be noted that, while most English versions refer to “bishops and deacons” in Phil. 1:1, the actual words
are “overseers [*#&4,8#8#, episkopos, upon+seers, one who watches over] and servants [9&-,858#, diakonos]”; the terms
“bishop” and “deacon” come from later church usage. Nowhere else in any of Paul’s genuine letters is there any
reference to a church hierarchy; indeed, many of the apostle’s troubles arose because his congregations had no
authority figures. The letters of James, and Jude, as well as, probably, the Apocalypse, seem to assume a bishop-
less church. 1 Peter uses the word bishop (2:25), but probably in its original sense overseer. Thus the concept of
“bishop,” although clearly defined by the early second century (since Ignatius of Antioch — died 117 — was a
bishop) is found in the New Testament only in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim. 3:1-3, Tit. 1:17).
3.!This is more or less explicitly stated by the KJV subscription to 2 Timothy (which refers to Paul’s “second [trial]
before Nero”), but this reading, found in K L 1175? Byz, is omitted by ! A C D F G P [ 6 33 1739.
4.!Here again it is interesting to look at the data found in the appendix on Rare Words Used in New Testament
Books on p. 537. The Pastorals have sky-high scores in this area — numbers completely unlike the rest of Paul.
To a statistician, this alone argues for their non-Pauline origin. But 2 Timothy has the lowest score of the three —
an indication perhaps of a higher share of Pauline material.

III. Traditions & Speculations about Paul. We have more New Testament evidence
about Paul than about any other Apostle. Yet there are many unanswered questions. The
Pastorals, for instance, raised the question of how he died. A deeper study brings up many more
questions. For this, we have only tradition available as a source of answers.
A common question is, What did Paul look like? We have hints in the New Testament that his
appearance was unimpressive (2 Cor. 10:10) and his health was perhaps not of the best (2!Cor.
12:7; Gal. 4:13–14), but only the apocryphal Acts of Paul provides us with a description of him: “A
man small of stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows
meeting and nose somewhat hooked…” (Acts of Paul and Thecla, chapter 2). We also hear of his
baldness in the Acts of Peter and Paul, where the bald shipmaster Dioscorus is mistaken for his
famous passenger and beheaded. (Paul responded by flooding the city in which this happened.)
It is difficult to know how seriously to take this. The apocryphal Acts were eventually adopted
by the Manichaean Gnostics (who credited them to a shadowy Leucius) and condemned to be
burned by the Catholic church. But the story of Paul’s deeds did not come from the same source
as the other Gnostic Acts. According to Tertullian, the Acts of Paul was composed around 190 by a
churchman who was expelled from the church for his pains. The reason for this is not hard to see:
in addition to its bias against sex, the book adopts as its true heroine the priestess Thecla. Since
the church would not accept women in the clergy (and one who baptized herself, at that!), the
book was rejected (Ecc. Hist. III.3).
The question then is, how far can we trust this writing? It is actually a collection of several
independent stories, most of them clearly spurious. One section of the work, for instance,
supplies a fanciful explanation of 1 Cor. 15:32: “I fought with wild beasts at Ephesus.” If we are
to believe the Acts, Paul was to be given to the lions at Ephesus, but was saved because a lion he
had baptized (!) recognized him. The story it tells of Paul’s martyrdom is also highly unlikely, for
it tells of his personal condemnation by the Emperor Nero. Moreover, when his head was struck
off there came forth milk rather than blood, and the Apostle was resurrected within hours.
Yet the Acts (as well as the similar Acts of Peter and Paul) agree with the common tradition that
Paul was martyred during the reign of Nero (54–68 C.E.). Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. II.25) says that Paul
was martyred, along with Peter, in Rome in 67 after his return from Spain. (If, as seems likely,
Paul did not go to Spain, he probably died around 63/64. Lactantius, a contemporary of
Eusebius, says that Nero executed him — On the Deaths of the Persecutors 2 — but does not specify
when.) The day was said to be June 29.
The Acts of Paul is not the only expansion of a passage in the Epistles. The Apocalypse of Paul
— which can be clearly dated to the late fourth century — expands on 2 Cor. 12:2–5, where a
man was caught up to “the third heaven” and saw unspeakable mysteries. The Apocalypse
assumes that the man is Paul (certainly the most likely assumption), and that his tongue had been
loosened (far less likely). He was granted a tour of both heaven and hell. (In hell, at Paul’s
request, the damned were given Sundays off from torture.) A large portion of this account is
simply sadistic, and I see no need to repeat it.
There are other extra-canonical works about Paul, of course. But most of them are late and
obscure. Since so much of the Apostle’s life is known, tradition saw little need to compose fiction
about him. Indeed, much of the surviving material about Paul is controversial, not biographical.

There are those who think that the Letter of James was written to combat him. Even more
explicit is the Ascents of James (paraphrased in a later church history), which claims that Paul was a
Gentile of Tarsus who lusted after the daughter of a Jewish priest. To win her, he became a Jew,
but when she rejected him he violently rejected the law. On the other hand, the second-century
heretic Marcion saw Paul as the only true Apostle, the man who freed humanity from slavery to
the Law of the Creator. (Marcion claimed that the Creator and the Trinity were separate
entities.) Few facts can be learned from these writings, but they remind us of one great truth: that
the theology of Paul, being the richest of the New Testament, was also the hardest — and the
most rewarding.
Persis: /*!4&9-//*!4&#, “Persian woman,” a name often used for slaves. One of those
whom PAUL greeted in Romans (16:12). She [?] is one of Paul’s “beloved [friends],” and one who
“has worked hard in the Lord.” Rom. 16:12 !.
*Peter: /*0!8#, “Rock”; also L&?D5, “Simon” (Greek form of “Simeon”)1 and A;P-#,
“Kephas,” Cephas, from the Aramaic word for “Rock.”2 Everyone knows that Simon Peter was
the most important member of the Twelve. But not many realize the extent of his domination.
Peter is mentioned 188 times in the New Testament,3 as opposed to 31 mentions for JOHN son of
Zebedee, 22 for JUDAS ISCARIOT, 20 for JAMES son of Zebedee, 16 for PHILIP the Apostle, a dozen
each for ANDREW and THOMAS, and ten for Jesus’s brother JAMES. (No other Apostle is
mentioned more than five times.) In other words, Peter is mentioned one and a quarter times as
1.!The form “Simeon” (or “Symeon”), as in LXX, is used twice in the New Testament for “Simon”: Acts 15:14
(where the name is used by the ultra-Hebraist James to describe Peter) and in 2 Pet 1:1 according to ‫ א‬A P 1739
1881* 2495 Byz syr arm NRSV (the TR also has “Simeon,” but the KJV renders it “Simon”); in ന72 B [ 81 614 630
1241 1243 1881c vg? cop we find “Simon”; 33 (a very important witness in these books) is illegible
2.!The best Biblical texts, followed by NRSV, use the name “Cephas” nine times: John 1:41, 1 Cor. 1:12, 3:22, 9:5,
15:4, Gal. 1:18, 2:9. 11, 13. In the King James Bible, however, there are only six uses; in Gal. 1:18, 2:11, 14 we
find “Peter.” All four uses in Galatians are in fact disputed in the manuscripts (since it is in this letter that Paul
uses both the name “Peter” and the name “Cephas”).
In 1:18 “Cephas” is read by ന46 !* A B 424c 1241 1739 1962 cop, while !c D F G K P [ 33 1175 Byz vg have
“Peter.”
In 2:9 “Cephas” is read by ! B C K [ 33 81 1739 Byz, but ന46 D F G 629 1175 b read (with variations in word
order) “Peter,” while A omits the name altogether.
In 2:11 “Cephas” is read by ! A B C K P [ 33 81 424c 629 1175 1241 1739 1962 2127, while D F G K Byz b
have “Peter.”
In 2:14 “Cephas” is read by ന46 ! A B C [ 33 81 424c 629 1175 1739 1962 2127, while D F G K Byz b have
“Peter.”
It would appear, on the evidence, that either ! A B 1739 converted an original “Peter” to “Cephas” or — far
more likely — D F G converted an original “Cephas” to “Peter,” with other manuscripts following one or the
other intermittently.
3.!More or less. I count 162 uses of “Peter” in the NRSV text, six of which are not in the Greek, meaning that the
Greek has the name 156 times. “Simon” is used 74 times, with 73 of them being in the Greek and 51 referring to
Peter (19 of them being in the phrase “Simon Peter,” mostly in John, and another 9 times where “Simon” and
“Peter” are used for Peter in the same verse), and “Cephas” is used nine times. In the KJV, the name “Peter” is
used 161 times.

often as all the other Apostles combined. Only PAUL, who is mentioned 196 time,1 can compare
with him in stature.
Who was this man, this Rock on whom Jesus built the church? The gospel facts are meager
(and conflicting); they are quickly told.
Simon was the son of Jonah (Matt. 16:17; “Bar-Jonah” is Aramaic for “Son of Jonah”) or
John (John 1:42, 21:15ƒ.); see the excursus “I Never Knew My Father’s Name” below. He was a
Galilean, perhaps from Bethsaida (John 1:43) or Gennesaret (Luke 5:1–3). The Apostle Andrew
was his brother, and the two apparently worked together (Mark 1:16, etc.). Jesus himself may
have given Simon the nickname Kephas/Peter (John 1:42. The English analogy of this name is
“Rocky.” It is noteworthy that “Cephas” is Paul’s preferred name for him.).
Two stories are told of Simon’s call. According to the Synoptic gospels, Jesus simply told this
ordinary Galilean fisherman to come and “fish for people” (Mark 1:17, etc.). On the other hand,
in the Fourth Gospel, it was Andrew (directed by John the Baptist) who first found Jesus and
brought Simon to him (John 1:40–42).
Simon was apparently part of Jesus’s inner circle of three (along with the sons of Zebedee)
from the very beginning, and as such was allowed to see events denied even to most of the other
disciples — for instance, the healing of his own mother-in-law (Mark 1:30ƒ.; Matt. 8:14; Luke
4:38) and of Jairus’s daughter (Mark 5:37–41; Luke 8:51), the Transfiguration (Matt. 17:1; Mark
9:2; Luke 9:28), the discourse on the End of Things (Mark 13:3ƒ. & ||), the Agony in the
Garden (Matt. 26:37; Mark 14:33), etc. But it was not until nearly the end of Jesus’s mission that
he truly came to the forefront of the Twelve.
After the execution of John the Baptist, when Jesus was near Cæsarea Philippi, he asked the
disciples who he was. After some hemming and hawing, Peter said the great words: “You are the
Christ, [the son of the living God]”2 (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20). From this point on,
even more than before, Peter is the central Disciple. (See, for instance, Mark 16:7, where the
angel tells the women to inform the disciples and Peter that Jesus is risen.)
This doesn’t mean that Peter was perfect. In fact, he showed a consistent pattern of making
an excellent start and then messing up. Immediately after his confession of faith at Cæsarea we
find Jesus rebuking him (Mark 8:32–33 & ||). In Matthew, Peter begins walking on water, and
then his faith fails (Matt. 14:22–23). Most famous of all these stories is Peter’s denial of Jesus:
Peter, alone or almost alone among the disciples, came to see Jesus’s trial (Mark 14:47 & ||), but
then three times denied knowing him (Mark 14:66–72 & ||).
It was only after Jesus’s ascension that Peter really began to shine. It was he who led the early
church with unfailing fortitude and power. Jesus had promised his chief disciple “I will give you
1.!173 times as Paul, 24 as Saul

2.!The phrase You are the Christ, the son of the living God is the original text only of Matthew (except D* has …the saving
God !); in Mark we find merely You are the Christ (except W ƒ13 b add the son of the living God; ! L add simply the son of
God). Luke has You are the Christ of God (except D 28 892 e read the Christ the son of God). Compare also the remark
of Nathanael in John 1:49: Rabbi, you are the son of God, as well as Peter’s comment in John 6:69: and we have believed
and have known that you are the Holy One of God (AOT; this is the text of ന75 ! B C* D L W; Tertullian knew the text
…that you are the Christ; ന66 reads …are the Christ the Holy One of God; Cc Y* ƒ1 33 565 a e vg arm have …are the Christ
the son of God; Yc / [ ƒ13 892 Byz ff2 q KJV read …are the Christ the son of the living God.

the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven,
and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven” (Matt. 16:9). And Peter soon showed
his power over life and death: he killed ANANIAS 1 and SAPPHIRA with a word (Acts 5:1–11) and
raised TABITHA from the dead (Acts 9:36–41).
But Peter’s greatest contribution to the early church was not parlour tricks with his followers’s
lives, nor his willingness to stand up for what he believed (as when he was tried before the
Sanhedrin in Acts 4:1–21 and 5:17–41), nor even his ability to preach a spontaneous sermon (for
instance, Acts 2:14–36 and 3:12–26). Rather, it was his firm hand which led the church into
accepting Gentiles (see the conversion of CORNELIUS in Acts 10:1–11:18). Later he participated
in the Council of Jerusalem (48/49 C.E.) which formally set aside the Mosaic law and admitted
Gentiles into the congregation (Acts 15:7–11; cf. Gal. 2:9).
Yet even then Peter could fall into error — unless we accept Clement of Alexandria’s tale
(quoted in Ecc. Hist. I.12) that there was a second Cephas. For “when Cephas came to Antioch
[Paul] opposed him to his face” (Gal. 2:11) for backsliding on the issue of Gentiles in the church.
This is the last the Bible has to say about Peter. Even hints are few, although some would
argue from Luke 22:50, John 18:10 that he was left-handed (only a dagger in the left hand could
reach the right ear). Having led the church for twenty years, he quietly fades out of sight. (At
least, he does not seem to have been in Jerusalem when Paul arrived there for the last time in 58
C.E.) For other details about his life we must turn to tradition.
Various legends have sent Peter over almost the entire known world. It is widely believed that
he visited Corinth some time before 54 (since a Corinthian faction owing allegiance to Kephas is
mentioned in 1 Cor. 1:12). Since 1 Peter (1:1) is addressed to Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia
(the western region around Ephesus), and Bithynia (all regions in what is now Turkey), he is
frequently believed to have been there. He is said to have established the Bishopric of Antioch
(Ecc. Hist. III.36; his successors are said to have been Euodius — Ecc. Hist. III.22 — and the
famous martyr and church father Ignatius; see also Gal. 2:11).
Peter’s family life must have been complicated. He was married, since the Bible tells us of the
healing of his mother-in-law (Mark 1:30 & ||); Paul refers explicitly to his wife (1 Cor. 9:5). Yet
the Apostle obviously didn’t spend much time with her (see, for example, Matt. 19:27–29).1
According to Clement of Alexandria (quoted in Ecc. Hist. III.30), she was executed before he was,
and his last words to her were “My dear, remember the Lord”! The Acts of Peter — a thoroughly
heretical work — tells us that he had a crippled daughter. At one point, goaded by guests, he
healed her to prove that he could do it — but then re-crippled her so that she might not be
sexually tempted! (This sort of cruel attitude is typical of the Apocryphal Acts.)
The one really strong tradition that we have about Peter is that he ended his life in Rome.
How and when he came there, however, is very much a mystery. The Preaching of Peter tells of a
directive for all the Apostles to go out to preach to the Gentiles twelve years after the Ascension.
This would mean that Peter arrived in (or at least set out for) Rome in 42. Another tradition
claims that he lived there for twenty-five years, which fits in well with his martyrdom in 67. This
1.!Some scholars, however, believe that Peter’s wife travelled with him, arguing that 1 Cor. 9:5 proves that the
Corinthians knew the apostle’s wife personally. To call this a “proof ” is to overstate the case, but the argument
has merit.

would also allow time for him to give the gospel story to JOHN MARK in Rome before the latter
left to become Bishop of Alexandria. On the other hand, it is hard to reconcile with the Apostle’s
presence in Palestine at the Council of Jerusalem around 48.
The Acts of Peter gives another tradition: that Peter went to Rome to deal with the
depredations of SIMON MAGUS, the arch-Gnostic who was subverting the entire Latin population.
Neither theory seems particularly likely. But the Roman residence is strongly attested.
1!Clement 5:4 (c. 96 C.E.) implies that Peter spent time in Rome. Ignatius’s letter to the Romans
(4:3; c. 107 C.E.) speaks of his giving orders to the Romans. Origen also mentions his presence
there (Ecc. Hist. III.1). Dionysius (c. 175 C.E.) credits him with founding the Roman church (Ecc.
Hist. II.25). Lactantius (On the Deaths of the Persecutors 2) says he was crucified by Nero. 1!Pet. 5:13
claims that the letter was written from Babylon, which is interpreted to mean Rome.
Even though Peter is very strongly associated with Rome, we have little knowledge of his
activity there. John Mark is credited with turning his sermons into a Gospel (though this is not as
widely accepted today as it once was). The Acts of Peter devotes a great deal of space to his
magical contest with Simon Magus, in which the Apostle and the Magician traded miracles until
Simon decided to fly up to heaven and Peter shot him down. The Acts also gives the most
substantial account of his martyrdom: Peter was being sought by the city prefect for converting
the women of Rome to chastity (the chief theme of the Apocryphal Acts). Eventually his friends
persuaded the Apostle to flee. As he left the city, he met with Jesus. Peter asked, “Where are you
going?” (Latin “Quo vadis?”) Jesus replied, “To be crucified [for you].” Peter turned back, and
was crucified upside-down,1 preaching all the while. The year, as best we can tell, was 67 C.E.; we
are told that the date was June 29. (There are many variations on this. But that year marked the
height of Nero’s persecution; see Ecc. Hist. II.25. Peter’s crucifixion — or at least his execution —
is apparently foretold in John 21:18–19.)
As the chief of the Apostles, at least five works claiming him as author appeared in the early
years of the church. Of these, only two letters were admitted to the New Testament canon, and
only one stands any chance of being authentic. Even 1 Peter is very possibly pseudepigraphal; its
Greek is quite good and it appears to date from the persecution under Domitian in the 90s. But it
is conceivable that the persecution referred to is Nero’s in the 60s, and that Peter’s secretary
SILVANUS (Silas?) is responsible for the style of the letter.
2 Peter, on the other hand, can hardly be from the Apostle. Even if its incredible wordiness is
ignored (it is clear that the author never used a simple word when an obscure one would do),2 the
letter is clearly based on the letter of Jude (probably written around 90 C.E.), and likely dates from
around 150.
Of the other, non-canonical, “Petrine” works, the most popular was the Preaching of Peter. This
work was accepted by Clement of Alexandria, and does not seem to have been very heretical
(though we cannot be sure; we have only an epitome of it, and there seem to have been two
1.!This detail comes from the Acts of Peter and Paul, but is generally accepted by Catholics; he was said to have
requested this because he was not worthy to suffer in the same way as Jesus.
2.!2 Peter, in just 61 verses, has 48 words which occur nowhere else in the New Testament — the highest rate of odd
words in the New Testament. For details, see the appendix on Rare Words Used in New Testament Books on p.
537.

works floating around under the title Kerygma [teaching/preaching] of Peter). It is probably fairly
early. Even so, Eusebius and the church rejected it (Ecc. Hist. III.3).
The Gospel of Peter is a docetic work (i.e. it does not claim that Jesus came in the flesh, but only
as a spirit) from the second century. It is a passion account which is clearly based on the four
canonical gospels. It survives in fragments, but was never accepted by the church.
The Apocalypse/Revelation of Peter is perhaps the earliest of these writings; it may have been
used by the Acts of Paul; it too was accepted by Clement. Origen gave it due consideration. Even
the Muratorian Canon did not totally reject it. But since it was just another story of heaven and
hell, there was no great need for it in the canon.
Assorted later works describe Peter’s history. None of them merit much attention. The Acts of
Peter has already been alluded to. The Acts of Peter and Andrew is a sequel to the Acts of Andrew and
Matthias; it consists of wonder stories (including one where Peter makes a camel pass through the
eye of a needle). The Acts of Peter and Paul and the Passion of Peter and Paul are related stories of the
two Apostles’s activities in Rome, their opposition to Simon Magus, and their martyrdoms. The
works are orthodox, but date from the fifth century. The Slavonic Acts of Peter tells a tale of Peter
purchasing a slave boy who turns out to be Jesus. A Letter of Peter to James is found in the Pseudo-
Clementine writings; it contains instructions to keep Gentiles out of the church.
Many legends — and jokes — have been told about Peter’s role as the first bishop of Rome
and as the gatekeeper of heaven. The Catholic church, of course, claims a continuous succession
of Popes following him. But none of this claimed history has any real support from the early
sources.
His feast day is June 29.
Excursus: I Never Knew My Father’s Name

So what was the name of Peter’s father? In Matt. 16:17, it is not clear if we should read
)-!&D5-, bariona, a single word patronymic son-of-Jonah (which, being Aramaic rather than
Greek, might be rendered “Bariona” or “Barjonah” in English), or the two words )-! CD5-, bar
Iona, son-of Jonas. Many of the late witnesses, including E F G H L J M ƒ1 ƒ13 33 565 700 892
1241 read the latter, but the early uncials lack spaces and so are uncertain. There is no question,
however, that Matthew calls Peter the “son of Jonah” in some form. In John 1:42, there is doubt.
The reading “son of John” (E&8# CD-558E) is found in ന66 75 ! (B*) L Wsupp 33 a b f ff2; the
majority of texts, including A Bc E F G H M [ 565 579 700 892 Byz, have E&8# CD5-, “son of
Jonah”; Y 1241 have E&8# CD-55-, “son of Johanna.” In John 21:15, we find “[son] of
John” (with the word “son” being left implicit) in !1 B C* D L W; !* has no name; A Cc E G M
Y [ ƒ1 ƒ13 33 565 700 892supp Byz have “[son] of Jonah.” If we look at the various English
translations in Matt. 16:17, John 1:42, 21:15, we find:
• Barjona, son of Jona, son of Jonas (the italics indicating that the word is not in the Greek)
— KJV
• Bar-Jonah, son of John, son of John — RV
• Barjona, son of John, son of John — NAS
• Bar-Jonah, son of Jonah, son of Jonah — NKJV

• Barjona, son of John, son of John — MOFFATT

• son of Jonah, son of John, son of John — GOODSPEED, PHILLIPS, NEB, NIV, NAB, JB, NJB,
REB, NRSV, TNIV
• Bar-Jona, son of John, son of John — CCD1941, RSV
• son of Jonah, John’s son, John’s son – SV
• son of John (with a note that the Greek reads “Jonah), son of John, son of John — NLT
There isn’t really much doubt about the original texts here; it’s Bariona, son of John, [son] of
John. How that should be rendered is another question; personally, I’d go for “Bariona… son of
John… son of John.”
Phebe: name used in the King James Bible for PHOEBE.
Philemon: _&%;?85, probably named after the male hero of Ovid’s tale of Baucus and
Philemon (for this tale, see the note on Baucus and Philemon under the entry on Noah, p. 178). A
citizen of Colossae, a Christian who was rich enough to own slaves. At least, that is the usual
reading; a few scholars — with even less than the usual reasons, as best I can tell — believe that
the mention in Philem. 1 is relatively minor and that ARCHIPPUS is the chief recipient of the
letter. In any case, his (or someone’s) slave ONESIMUS fled to Paul (Col. 4:9; Philem. 9–10) in
Rome (or perhaps Ephesus); eventually the Apostle found it necessary to send the younger man
back (Philem. 12–14), but appealed to his owner to treat him well as a fellow Christian (Philem.
15–16). Various legends, confused and of late date, make him a martyr. The Apostolic Constitutions
make him Bishop of Colossae. Philem. 1 !.
Philetus: _&%;08#, “Beloved/Befriended.” A heretic mentioned along with HYMENAEUS in
2 Tim. 2:17 (a possibly spurious passage). He is said to have claimed “that the resurrection [was]
already passed” (2:18). He was perhaps an early Gnostic. The Apostolic History of Abdias, quoting
a lost and schismatic Acts of James (son of Zebedee), makes him a magician and disciple of
HERMOGENES. 2 Tim. 2:17 !.
*Philip the Apostle: _&%&""8#, “Lover of Horses.” A less-than-noteworthy member of the
Twelve. In the synoptic tradition he is mentioned only in the four lists of the Twelve (Matt. 10:3;
Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13). He is slightly more important in the Gospel of John. We are
told that he, like ANDREW and PETER, was from Bethsaida in Galilee (John 1:44). Perhaps
influenced by Andrew, he apparently met Jesus in Bethany where John was baptizing (1:28, 43),
and seems to have been one of the earliest disciples. He soon began to bring new followers to
Jesus, and was responsible for the conversion of NATHANAEL (1:45–50). His next appearance is at
the feeding of the five thousand, where he has the dubious distinction of getting to ask the dumb
question of how the multitude is to be fed (6:5–7). At the end of the public ministry, he and
Andrew (interestingly enough, the only apostles with Greek names) bore a request from some
Greeks to see Jesus (12:20–22). The request was refused, but may have served as a sign to Jesus
that his “time” (to die) was at hand. The final Biblical appearance of Philip was at the Last
Supper, when he asked Jesus to show him the Father (14:8–11).
Philip the Apostle is often confused with the more important PHILIP the Hellenist (Eusebius,
for instance, is guilty of this in Ecc. Hist. III.30–31; this follows from a mistake made by Clement
of Alexandria), and many of the early feats of the Apostle may actually be the work of his

namesake. But the following notices, rightly or wrongly, are given of Philip in the tradition:
Clement of Alexandria — for no apparent reason — claims that Philip was the young man who
begged leave to bury his father before following Jesus (Matt. 8:21–22; Luke 9:59–60). In Ecc. Hist.
V.24 Philip is said to have died in Hierapolis, as did two of his three daughters. Similarly, the Acts
of Philip claims that he was martyred (apparently in Hierapolis) by being nailed upside down to a
tree; another version says he was stoned while on the cross. The same source claims that he had a
sister Mariamme who traveled with him and almost shared his fate. Their companion was
“Bartholomew,” who is described as one of the Seventy. (On the other hand, the Acts of Philip
dates their activities to 106 C.E. — hardly a reasonable date for a follower of a man who died in
30 C.E.) Other versions of this work tell of the Apostle’s activities in Greece. (Among other things,
he was said to have killed the High Priest Ananias — an event which we know from Josephus did
not happen.) The Golden Legend has an account of him driving off a dragon.
A Gospel of Philip was used by the Egyptian Gnostics, but much of this writing has been lost; it
what survives is far from awe-inspiring.1 The Gnostic Pistis Sophia (“faith wisdom”) was allegedly a
collection of sayings of the resurrected Jesus recorded by Philip. According to Papias (Ecc. Hist.
III.39), Philip was one of the greatest Christian preachers. Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14;
John 1:43–46, 48, 6:5, 7, 12:21–22, 14:8–9; Acts 1:13 !.
§Philip the Hellenist: _&%&""8#, “Lover of Horses.” The second of the seven Hellenists
of Acts 6:5, and the only one other than STEPHEN about whom we have any Biblical information.
Regrettably, he is often confused with PHILIP the Apostle, particularly in the Apocryphal
literature. The Bible offers us only a few meager facts about him. Of his early years in Jerusalem
we know nothing. It was only after the death of Stephen that he became active, for the
persecution of the period had scattered the Christians. Philip (this is generally presumed to be the
Hellenist, for the Apostles were said to have stayed in Jerusalem, but this is hardly proof) fled to
Samaria, and there began to preach and perform miracles (Acts 8:5–8). Among those he
encountered there was SIMON MAGUS (8:9–11, 13. Simon is the reputed founder of Gnosticism
and PETER’S arch-rival in the Acts of Peter). Simon and others were amazed by Philip’s preaching
(8:12), and consented to be baptized. (The Apostles Peter and JOHN came to accept the converts
— 8:14–17. It was at this point that Simon tried to buy the power of the Spirit and was
excommunicated — 8:18–24.) Philip was then directed by an angel to preach in the lands of the
Philistines (8:26). It was there he met the ETHIOPIAN EUNUCH (8:27–28), and converted him to
Christianity (8:29–38), thus for the first time allowing a ritually unacceptable convert into the
church. From there Philip was “caught up” by the spirit, and transported to Azotus. He preached
from there to Cæsarea (8:39–40). From this point Philip disappears from the narrative, except for
a brief mention in Acts 21:8. It seems that he had settled down in Cæsarea and raised a family.
His four daughters came to be prophetesses (21:9). After his return from his third missionary
1.!It has a few points of contact with the gospels, especially John, e.g. §23, The one who does not eat my flesh and drink my
blood does not have life; cf. John 6:53. §123, if you know the truth, the truth will make you free, cf. John 8:32. Also §72, “My
God, my God, why, Lord, did you forsake me?” He said these words on the cross; cf. Mark 15:34, etc.
On the whole, though, the Gospel of Philip is much more Gnostic than its companion the Gospel of Thomas — e.g.
§29, Jesus is a secret name, Christ a revealed name; §21, They are in error who say, “The Lord first died and then he arose”; §55,
Wisdom… is the mother of the angels; §99, The world came into being through a sin.

voyage, PAUL and his party stayed in Philip’s house in Cæsarea for several days before setting out
for Jerusalem.
Once this is said, our sources are confused. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. III.31) quotes a tale of his
burial in Hierapolis in Asia, along with his four daughters, but it is clear that his source did not
distinguish between the Apostle and the evangelizing Hellenist. He is said to have been Bishop of
Tralles. An Acts of Philip also exists, but it may suffer from the same confusion; in any case, it is
discussed under the entry for Philip the Apostle. Acts 6:5, 8:5–6, 12–13, 26, 29–31, 34–40,1 21:8
!.
Philologus: _&%8688#, “Lover of Words,” i.e. “Lover of Learning” [?]. One of those
greeted by PAUL in Rom. 16:15. It has been speculated that he was the husband of JULIA and the
father of NEREUS and OLYMPAS. Rom. 16:15 !.
Phlegon: _%*685. One of those greeted by PAUL in Rom. 16:14. Nothing else is known of
him. Rom. 16:14 !.
Phoebe: _8&);, feminine form of “Phoebus,” a name for the god Apollo. Called “Phebe” in
the King James version. “A deaconess of the church at Cenchreæ” (Rom. 16:1), one of the ports
which served Corinth. PAUL commends her mission to the recipients of Romans 16 (perhaps the
citizens of Rome, but perhaps more likely those of Ephesus — Rom. 16:2). Nothing else is known
of her. Roman tradition makes her a martyr. Rom. 16:12 !.
Phygellus: _E6*%%8#, “Fugitive”? Mentioned only in (the questionably authentic) 2 Tim.
1:15. He, along with HERMOGENES, is said to have been a citizen of Asia who turned away from
PAUL. This may mean that he was an early Gnostic. 2 Tim. 1:15 !.
Priscilla/Prisca: /!&4,&%%-//!&4,-, “Venerable”? Called “Priscilla” in Acts (18:2, 18,
26); this is the informal (diminutive) version of her name. PAUL uses the more formal title
“Prisca” in referring to her as a teacher (Rom. 16:3;3 1 Cor. 16:19; see also the questionable
2!Tim. 4:19). The wife of AQUILA and a prominent Christian. Aquila was a Jew whose family
came from Pontus (Acts 18:2); we do not know if Prisca came from there or from Rome. When
we meet the couple, they and the other Jews of Rome had just been expelled by Claudius (49 C.E.
— cf. Suetonius, Claudius 25). They met Paul in Corinth, and worked together as tentmakers and
teachers (18:3–4). From there, the three went to Ephesus (18:18); Priscilla and Aquila stayed in
that city when Paul went to Jerusalem (18:19). One of the couple’s greatest achievements was
converting APOLLOS to full Christianity (18:26).
Since Paul mentions Prisca before Aquila in two out of three lists (Rom. 16:3; 2 Tim. 4:19 but
not 1 Cor. 16:19), and she is also mentioned first in the story of Apollos’s conversion (Acts
1.!Note that Acts 8:37, which mentions Philip, is found only in E 1739 gig p arm geo KJV ന45 ന74 ! A B C P [ 33?
81 614 1175 Byz omit (D is defective for this passage, although it seems likely based on the readings of the Latin
versions that it would have included the verse)
2.!also mentioned in the KJV subscription to Romans, following L 424 1175? 1739? Byz; ! A B C D F G P [ 33
omit.
3.!In Rom. 16:3 81 365 629 1881c a TR read “Priscilla” but all uncials read “Prisca.” In 1 Cor. 16:19 we find
“Prisca” in ! B P 33 1175* 1739 1881* (ന46 has something like “Priscas”), while C D F G [ 81 Byz ful read
“Priscilla” (A omits the verse); in 2 Tim. 4:19 ! A C and most other texts read “Prisca” but 436 and a handful of
others read ”Priscilla”

18:26),1 it has been speculated that she was the “brains” of the pair.2 Alternately, her social station
may have been higher (the gens Prisca was an honourable Roman family) or she may have turned
Christian before Aquila. All of these hypotheses are possible but unprovable. It has also been
suggested that she, or she with Aquila, was the author of the Letter to the Hebrews; this is even
harder to test. Acts 18:2, 18, 26; Rom. 16:3; 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19 !.
§Prochorus: /!8N8!8#. One of the seven Hellenists of Acts 6:5, the third on the list.
Nothing else is known of him. Tradition associates him with the Apostle JOHN; the Byzantine
church portrayed him as the secretary who transcribed the Fourth Gospel. A life of the John
(from the fifth century) has been attributed to him. He is said to have been one of the Seventy
and later Bishop of Nicomedia. Acts 6:5 !.
Pudens: /8E9*#. Mentioned only in 2 Tim. 4:21 (the Pauline authorship of which is
questionable, although this section is likely original), where he is said to greet TIMOTHY. A
tradition makes him the husband of CLAUDIA. The writer Martial had a friend named Pudens,
and they have sometimes been identified. Martial’s Pudens was a soldier with a British wife
named Claudia. The biblical Pudens is commemorated in both the Eastern and Roman
churches. 2 Tim. 4:21 !.
Quartus: A8E-!08#, “Fourth.” Mentioned only in Rom. 16:23, where PAUL transmits his
greetings and calls him brother/comrade. Rom. 16:23 !.
Rhoda: 289;, “Rose.” The maid of MARY the mother of JOHN MARK (Acts 12:13). She was
apparently a Christian, if not a very bright one, for she knew and loved Peter (12:14), but was too
flustered to open the door for him after his escape from prison. Acts 12:13 !.
Rufus: 28EP8#, “Red-haired.” One whom PAUL greets in Rom. 16:13. He is described as
“eminent in the Lord.” Simon of Cyrene, who carried Jesus’s cross, is said to have been “the
father of Alexander and Rufus” (Mark 15:21), but there is no reason to believe that the two
Rufuses are the same — unless we accept the theory that Mark was written from Rome. If this is
the case, and if Romans 16 is addressed to the community of Rome (highly questionable), then
the two might be the same, for it seems likely that Mark’s Rufus was well-known in his
community. Alexander and Rufus are mentioned in the Acts of Peter and Andrew, but do little. Mark
15:21?; Rom. 16:13 !.
Salome: L-%D?;, from the Hebrew word for “Peace.” A common name in New Testament
times, having been borne by Herod’s sister and also by a daughter of Herodias (perhaps the one
who had John the Baptist killed; cf. Ant. XVIII.v.4, Mark 6:22ƒ., Mark 14:6ƒ., and the entry on
Salome (2)). But it is used of only one woman in the New Testament. She was one of the three
women at the foot of the cross (Mark 15:40) who wanted to anoint the dead Jesus (16:1) and
found instead an empty tomb (16:2–8). The name “Salome” is not used in the parallel account in
the Gospel of Matthew; there, the third woman is called “the mother of the sons of
Zebedee” (27:56). Since the two women by the cross are presumably the same, it would seem that
Salome is also mentioned (though not by name) in Matt. 20:20–21. The latter reference may not
be authentic; the sons are mentioned alone in the Markan parallel (Matthew very possibly
1.!Prisca is listed before Aquila in ന74 ! A B E 33 vg; D [ 81 1175 1739 Byz gig syr list Aquila before Prisca.
2.!It has also been speculated that this is why Paul, who respected her, used the formal name Prisca for her, whereas
Luke, who perhaps was not as familiar with her, uses the diminutive “Priscilla.”

introduced the mother to make the disciples look better than they did in Mark). Mark 15:40, 16:1
!.
Sapphira: L-"P*&!;, from an Aramaic word meaning “Beautiful.” The wife of ANANIAS
(1). The couple were members of the early church, and apparently fairly well off. In accordance
with the practice of the early Christians, the two were to sell their holdings and give the money to
the church. But the two decided to withhold part of the money. Ananias was confronted with the
truth by PETER, denied his guilt, and was struck dead. Soon after, the Apostle confronted
Sapphira. She — not knowing of her husband’s fate — stuck to her story, and so she too was
stricken. The time was probably in the early 30s. Acts 5:1(–11) !.
Saul of Tarsus: See PAUL.
Secundus: L*,8+598#, Latin for “Second.” Mentioned only in Acts 20:4, he was a citizen
of Thessalonica who accompanied PAUL from Ephesus to Troas (and perhaps beyond) on his way
to Jerusalem. He was probably one of those responsible for transporting Paul’s collection to the
mother church. He does not seem to have stayed with the Apostle thereafter. Acts 20:4 !.
Sergius Paulus: L*!6&D# /-E%8#. The proconsul of Cyprus (Acts 13:7).1 At some point in
the 40s he fell in with the conjurer Bar-Jesus/Elymas. But being “an intelligent man,” he sought
to hear many viewpoints, and so invited Saul/Paul and Barnabas to speak before him (13:7) in
Paphos (13:6). Saul, disgusted with the magician, struck him temporarily blind (13:10–11). Paulus
was so impressed that “he believed,” though he is not said to have been baptized (13:12). Saul
may have been so impressed with his high-placed convert that he adopted the name Paul; this
idea was proposed by Origen, though many moderns reject it. Acts 13:7.
Silas: L&%-#. Called “Silvanus” (L&%8E-58#) in the letters of Paul (2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Th. 1:1;
2!Th. 1:1), and also perhaps in 1 Pet. 5:12. A member of the Jerusalem congregation at the time
of the Council of Jerusalem (48 C.E.). In the aftermath of that event, he and JUDAS BARSABBAS
were sent to the congregation of Antioch along with PAUL and BARNABAS (Acts 15:22). They bore
a letter describing their mission (15:27), and were granted authority to explain how the Council’s
decision should be applied. Being prophets, they were apparently very successful in this (15:32).
After their mission, they were said to have returned to Jerusalem (15:33). But Silas, who seems to
have been a Hellenistic Christian while Judas was a Judaiser, cannot have stayed long. When Paul
broke with Barnabas and embarked on his second missionary voyage, he took Silas with him
(15:40). The two were together through many trials, including their arrest (16:19), beating (16:23),
and imprisonment (16:24) in Philippi, as well as their miraculous release (16:25–34). From this
episode it appears that Silas, like Paul, was a Roman citizen. Silas remained with Paul through his
1.!Exactly who this Paulus was is uncertain. Is it safe to assume that Luke is correct in calling him a proconsul? Luke
did know the distinction between proconsuls (mentioned here and in 18:12) and propraetors (seemingly
mentioned in 16:20, were NRSV has “magistrates” for NT strategos; 17:6, where NRSV renders NT politarchs by “city
authorities”; and 28:7, where NRSV has “leading man” for NT prote). So presumably Paulus was a Senator and a
past (or future) consul — probably the first Senator to be interested in Christianity. And there is a good chance
that a proconsul would be found in our records. Three men have been proposed as Luke’s “Paulus.” A Quintus
Sergius Paullus served in the reign of Claudius (?) in northern Cyprus. Another Paullus held office in Cyprus in
an unknown Emperor’s tenth year (although even if this is Claudius’s tenth year, that would be 51 C.E., and Paul
almost certainly visited Cyprus before then). A third consul, L. Sergius Paullus, was curator of the Tiber (the river
of Rome) during Claudius’s reign, and so perhaps could have been proconsul of Cyprus at a later date.

mission in Thessalonica, where he shared the Apostle’s success (17:4), and also in his escape from
the area. But he was apparently not as objectionable to the Jews as Paul was, for he was able to
stay in Berea for a time after Paul departed (17:14). He and TIMOTHY were soon called by the
Apostle, and rejoined him in Corinth (18:5). After this, Silas fades from sight. He may have
remained in Corinth; a tradition makes him the first bishop of that city. But his importance
should not be minimized, for Paul refers to “Silvanus” (generally believed to be the Latinized
form of the Jewish name Silas) as a co-worker (2 Cor. 1:19), and twice he co-authored one of the
Apostle’s letters (1 Th. 1:1; 2 Th. 1:1).
Silvanus is also listed as the secretary who transcribed 1 Peter (1 Pet. 5:12). If 1 Peter actually
was written by Peter from Rome in the 60s (which is possible but by no means certain), and if
Silvanus followed Paul to that city, this is not impossible. But this is a long enough chain of
assumptions to be somewhat fragile; the “Silvanus” mentioned could be someone else, or perhaps
a literary fiction. Acts 15:22, 27, 32,1 40, 16:19, 25, 29, (17:1), 17:4(–5), 10, 14–15, 18:5; 2 Cor.
1:19; 1 Th. 1:1; 2 Th. 1:1; 1 Pet. 5:12? !.
Silvanus: L&%8E-58#. The Latin form of the name SILAS. It was used by Paul in his letters
(2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Th. 1:1; 2 Th. 1:1) and by “Peter” (1 Pet. 5:12). Acts consistently uses the more
Jewish name “Silas” (which see). A Gnostic Teachings of Silvanus is known, but is too late to be
authentic.
Simeon Niger: LE?*D5 8 ,-%8?*58# X&6*!, “Simeon the [one] called Niger [Black (?)].”
The second of the five “prophets and teachers” of the Antioch church, along with BARNABAS,
LUCIUS OF CYRENE, MANAEN, and Saul/PAUL (Acts 13:1). He is not mentioned elsewhere in the
Bible, and rarely if ever in tradition. Acts 13:1 !.
*Simeon Peter: See PETER.
Simon Magus: L&?D5, Greek form of “Simeon.” The name “Magus” is not used in the
Bible, though other names (“one who practiced magic”; “the so-called great power of God” —
Acts 8:10 AB) were applied. A man with a small role in the Bible, but destined for a major — if
hardly esteemed — role in the apocryphal literature. When we first meet him — soon after the
death of STEPHEN, around 31 — he is a magician in Samaria (Acts 8:9) who had gained a great
following (8:10–11). His career took a turn for the worse when PHILIP the Hellenist fled to
Samaria (8:5). Philip’s preaching converted many (8:6). In the end, even Simon was converted
and received baptism (8:13). But when PETER and JOHN arrived to bestow the Holy Spirit (8:14–
17), Simon — thoroughly impressed — tried to buy the gift (or, perhaps, the right to transmit the
gift: 8:18–19 — thus giving rise to the term “simony,” the buying of holy offices2). Peter, appalled,
1.!The KJV also mentions Silas in Acts 15:34, but this verse, although found in C (D) 33 614 1175 1739 pm (gig) arm
geo, is omitted by ന74 ! A B E P [ 81 pm NRSV
2.!Although simony is rare today, it was so common in the Middle Ages that Dante had a special section in Hell for
it, and it was not so far removed from the practice of “indulgences” that Luther so abhorred (an indulgence was
effectively a “get out of sin free” card: you pay enough money and you could get forgiven for whatever you
specified).

laid a sort of a provisional curse on Simon (8:20–23), who asked for forgiveness (8:24).1 With this
incident, Simon’s Biblical career is ended.
If we are to believe the patristic writers, however, this was far from the end of Simon Magus.
(Most scholars think this can best be explained by assuming the existence of at least one and
perhaps two more Simons, but we will operate on the assumption that they are all the same, as
otherwise I wouldn’t have any reason to write this.) Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. II.1) reports him as the
founder of a “disgusting”!heretical sect. The Recognitions of the Pseudo-Clement condemns him
repeatedly and accuses him of many disgusting crimes. Justin Martyr (Ecc. Hist. II.13) and
Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. I.23) tell how Simon (said by the Apostolic Constitutions to be from the
Samaritan town of Gitta) and his consort Helen (formerly a prostitute in Tyre) accepted divine
honours. He is said to have identified himself as Divine Wisdom and Helen as the Holy Spirit.
Though he was unable to “form an organized [church]” (Ecc. Hist. II.14), he is widely credited as
the founder of Gnosticism. His forgery was so successful that he apparently convinced many
Samaritans and more than a few Romans.
For it was in Rome that the final act of this drama was played out. According to the Acts of
Peter (followed by the Apostolic Constitutions and found in a variant form in the Acts of Peter and Paul),
Simon had moved to Rome and was amazing the people with his powers. (Earlier he had used
these powers to rob a rich woman’s house; Peter had him expelled from Palestine for this. The
Recognitions also credits CORNELIUS with a role in his expulsion) When Peter arrived, he scorned
Simon; eventually the rivalry resulted in a magical contest in which Peter matched Simon feat for
feat. Most of the contest was spent in killing and resurrecting a few innocent bystanders. But with
his demonstration going awry, Simon chose to play his final trick: he was going to “fly up into
heaven with God.” But Peter cast him down, and predicted which of his bones would be broken.
The crowd, deeply impressed, stoned Simon. Taken away by his friends, he was brought to a
sorcerer for surgery but did not survive. Acts 8:9, 13, 18, 24 !.
*Simon Peter: See PETER.
*Simon the Cananaean: L&?D5 8 A-5-5-&-5, translated “Simon the Canaanite” in the
King James version.2 One of the Twelve, mentioned only in Matt. 10:4 and Mark 3:18, and not
characterized even there. Luke (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) mentions a “Simon the Zealot,” but still
does not describe him. Even the meaning of the name is controversial; the translations
“Canaanite” and “of Cana” both seem dubious. Many think that the word is, in fact, a
mistranslation or transliteration of the Aramaic word for “Zealot” (qan’!n). In any case, tradition
has little to say of him; he has occasionally been identified with the NATHANAEL of John (on very
dubious grounds), with Jesus’s brother Simon (also highly unlikely), and with Simeon son of
CLOPAS, who succeeded JAMES the brother of Jesus as Bishop of Jerusalem. An Acts of Simon and
1.!The “Western” text, as found in D* and the Middle Egyptian Coptic, with partial support from 614, the margin
of the Harklean Syraic, and the Latin versions, says that Simon begged for forgiveness, weeping all the while.
Clement of Alexandria also mentions Simon’s tears, but for him they are tears of rage.
2.!In Matthew, the reading ,-5-5-&-5=”Cananean” is that of B C (D) L N ƒ1 33 892 vg; ‫ א‬K W Y ƒ13 Byz have
,-5-5&0;5=”Canaanite.” In Mark, “Cananean” has the overwhelming support of ‫ א‬B C D Lvid W M 33 565 579
1241 vg; A K Y ƒ1 ƒ13 Byz have “Canaanite.”

Jude claims that he was martyred by being sawn in two (this is also said to have been the way in
which Isaiah was martyred). Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18 !.
Simon the Tanner: L&?D5, Greek form of “Simeon.” A tanner of Joppa, with whom
PETER stayed for many days after the healing of TABITHA (Acts 9:43). He lived by the sea (10:6).
It was to his house that Cornelius sent to summon Peter. Acts 9:43, 10:6, 17, 32 !.
*Simon the Zealot: L&?D5 8 W;%80;#. The name used by Luke (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) for
the tenth Apostle. The name “Zealot” means that he was a member of the extremist party that
called for the violent overthrow of Rome. But none of this shows in the Gospel; Jesus apparently
tamed him so much that he never even appears as a personality. Since he is almost certainly to be
identified with the SIMON the Cananaean of Matthew and Mark, the reader is invited to turn to
that entry for guesses about his history. Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13 !.
Sopater: LD"-0!8#. A man from Berea in Greece who accompanied PAUL from Ephesus to
Greece (Acts 20:4) as the Apostle started his trip to Jerusalem with his collection. Sopater was
probably one of those entrusted with the money. But he may not have made it beyond his home
town, for he is not heard of again, unless he is the same as SOSIPATER. Acts 20:4 !.
Sosipater: LD4&"-0!8#. He is called PAUL’S kinsman in Rom. 16:21, and is one of those
who greet the readers. Nothing else is known of him, unless he is the same as SOPATER. Rom.
16:21 !.
Sosthenes: LD4+*5;#. Mentioned in 1 Cor. 1:1 as the (sole) co-author of 1 Corinthians,
and as Paul’s “brother/comrade.” Yet he is mentioned nowhere else, and nothing else is known
of him. (Perhaps he was Paul’s secretary?) Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. I.12) informs us that he was
probably one of the Seventy, but adds no details. One source identified him with CRISPUS.
Another Sosthenes was the head of the Corinthian synagogue that brought Paul to trial (Acts
18:17), but these are almost certainly different men. 1 Cor. 18:17 !.
Stachys: L0-NE#, “Head of Grain.”1 Greeted in Rom. 16:9 as Paul’s “beloved,” but
otherwise unknown. The Acts of Philip tells us of that Apostle’s stay at the home of one Stachys in
Hieropolis; this Stachys later became bishop of the city. But the two can hardly be the same; the
Acts does not say that Stachys knew Paul, and claims to have taken place in 106 — nearly fifty
years after Paul wrote. Rom. 16:9 !.
Stephanas: L0*P-5-#, “Crown.” A citizen of Corinth (1 Cor. 1:16), one of the few whom
Paul baptized there, along with his household/family. This household is said to have been “the
first converts in Achaia” (1 Cor. 16:15), and so the Corinthians are urged to obey him. He, along
with FORTUNATUS and ACHAICUS, had recently come to Paul as 1 Corinthians was written
(16:17); perhaps they bore the letter mentioned in 7:1; it is also possible (though less likely) that
they were among “CHLOE’S people” (1:11). 1 Cor. 1:16, 16:15, 172 !.
§Stephen: L0*P-58#, “Crown.”3 The first of the seven Hellenists who were appointed to
deal with the daily distribution to the poor (Acts 6:5). Epiphanus claims that he was one of the
Seventy. “A man full of faith and of the Holy Spirit,” he apparently didn’t spend much time
1.!For this name as a common noun, see Matt. 12:1, Mark 2:23, Luke 6:1
2.!Also mentioned in the KJV subscription to 1 Corinthians following L P (1175) 1739? Byz, but ! A B C D* F G 33
omit
3.!For this word as a common noun cf. e.g. Matt. 27:39, 1 Cor. 9:25, Rev. 9:7

waiting on tables, but began to preach and “did great wonders and signs among the people” (6:8).
It wasn’t long before he was engaged in disputes with foreigners (6:10). These people allegedly
brought false charges against Stephen (6:11–14), and he was brought before the Sanhedrin (6:15–
7:1). After a long speech reprising Jewish history (7:2–50), Stephen accused the authorities of
hypocrisy (7:51–53). The Sanhedrin was understandably angry (7:54, 57); they stoned Stephen
(7:55–56, 58) as he went into a trance. So Stephen died while forgiving his accusers (7:59–60).
Chief among his killers was Saul/PAUL (7:58, 8:1).
This wasn’t really the end of Stephen’s story. “Devout folk buried Stephen,” and mourned for
him (8:2), but most of the church was forced to flee.1 Thus it was that the church began to spread
throughout the world (8:4ƒ., 11:19ƒ.). That is the last mention of Stephen in the Bible — except
for a passage where Paul admits to his part in the murder (Acts 22:20) — but nothing brings an
end to scholarly controversy. Modern authorities question the trial procedures (if the Sanhedrin
couldn’t condemn Jesus to death, how did they get away with stoning Stephen?), the chronology
(the apparent date is 30/31), the role of Paul — even Stephen’s nationality. (A recent article lists
many subtle hints that Stephen may have been a Samaritan.) And despite the known details of
Stephen’s life, and its short duration, tradition has had some fun with him. An Apocalypse of
Stephen (now lost) was condemned by the church for its Manichaean tendencies. In the (13th
century?) ballad “Saint Stephen and Herod,” Stephen is a servant of Herod who deserts his
master on hearing of the birth of Jesus. Herod questions him; Stephen says that the Messiah is
born; the king calls him mad; a roast cock comes back to life to confirm Stephen’s word; Stephen
is stoned, “and therefore is his eve on Christ’s own day” (spelling modernized). This story has also
been told in connection with JAMES son of Zebedee; it may have originated in an addition to the
Gospel of Nicodemus, wherein Judas plans to hang himself for his crimes; his wife says that Jesus will
not be raised till the roast cock crows, and crow it does.... Acts 6:5, 8, 9, (7:2, 54), 7:59, 8:2, 11:19,
22:10 !.
Susanna: L8E4-55-. Mentioned only in Luke 8:3. Not to be confused with the virtuous
woman whom Daniel saved in the apocryphal account of Susanna. She is one of the women,
along with Joanna and others, who supported the community of disciples toward the end of the
Galilean ministry. Luke 8:3 !.
Symeon: NT LE?*D5. Variant spelling of SIMEON; see also SIMON.
Syntyche: LE50EN;, “With-Fate,” i.e. “Good Fortune,” “Coincidence.” A woman of Philippi
who was engaged in some sort of disagreement with EUODIA (Phil. 4:2). Earlier they had been co-
workers with PAUL and CLEMENT. Phil. 4:2 !.
Tabitha: O-)&+-, Aramaic for “Gazelle.” Also called Dorcas (M8!,-#) from the Greek
form of the same name. A woman of Joppa (Acts 9:36) who was renowned for her charity. In the
early 30s, shortly after the conversion of PAUL, she fell sick and died (9:37). The Christians of
Joppa, knowing that PETER was in nearby Lydda (9:38), called in the Apostle; he brought Tabitha
back to life (9:40–41). Acts 9:36, 39, 40 !.
1.!This is the literal reading of Acts 8:1, which says that only the Apostles remained in Jerusalem. But it has been
argued that those who were expelled were in fact the Hellenistic Jews of Stephen’s faction, while the Hebraic
faction (which included the Apostles) was allowed to remain, since its members followed the Law more closely
and could be treated as Jews.

Tertius: O*!0&8#, Latin for “Third.” (Chances are that he was some Latin-speaker’s third
child.) The scribe who took down the Letter to the Romans, or at least the sixteenth chapter
(Rom. 16:22. It is interesting to note that he is the only one of PAUL’S secretaries who explicitly
identifies himself). Some believe — for no reason that I can see — that he is the same as SILAS.
Rom. 16:22 !.
*Thaddaeus: Y-99-&#. A member of the Twelve, according to Mark 3:18 and the
manuscripts of Matt. 10:3 which are usually considered most reliable. Another early version of
the text in Matthew calls him Lebbaeus; late manuscripts, unable to decide between the two,
called him Lebbaeus Thaddaeus.1 His place is taken in the Lucan lists by JUDAS of James, which
has led some to claim that he is the same as JUDE. Obviously the Gospel writers known little
about him. Tradition says a bit more. A “Toda” is mentioned in early Jewish writings as one of
Jesus’s five disciples, along with Mattai, Naqui, Netser, and Buni. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. I.12–II.1)
tells a long story of how he evangelized in Edessa, eventually converting and healing even Abgar
the ruler of the state in 30/31. It should be admitted that Eusebius calls Thaddaeus one of the
Seventy, sent out by Thomas — I.13 — but the whole story is confused in any case. Still, Jerome
and some texts of the Acts of Thaddaeus also call him one of the Seventy. The Acts tell much the
same story and make him a citizen of Edessa, where he was a devout and learned Jew who
followed John the Baptist; we are also told of his peaceful death in Berytus (Beirut) on August 20
or 21. Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18 !.
Theophilus: Y*8P&%*#, “Lover of God.” Mentioned only in the introductions to the Lucan
history (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1). He may not have been a Christian, but merely an inquirer, or even a
symbol of the interested Gentile. Our information is insuffcient to say — though speculation has
not been lacking; it has even been supposed that Theophilus was the Roman prince T. Flavius
Clemens, the heir of Domitian whom that Emperor had executed for Christian sympathies.
Alternately, he may have been a Roman magistrate (probably a prætor, on the argument that Acts
may have been written to help in Paul’s legal defense in Rome). A Theophilus is also listed in the
Apostolic Constitutions as the third Bishop of Cæsarea. Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1 !.
*Thomas: YD?-#, perhaps from Aramaic “Te’rmâ, “Twin.” Ecc. Hist. I.13 calls him “Judas
Thomas,” as do many apocryphal works, including the Syriac version of John 14:22, possibly
implying identity with the “Judas of James” of Luke/Acts. He is surnamed “Didymus” (the
Greek word for “Twin”) in John 11:16, 20:24, 21:2. Perhaps Judas (or Thomas) was his birth-
name and the other his common name. A tradition in the Acts of Thomas has taken his name to
mean that he was Jesus’s twin — at least in appearance — but there is no real evidence for this.
1.!In Matt. 10:3, “Thaddaeus” is the reading of the Alexandrian text found in ! B 892 vg cop RV GOODSPEED
CCD1942 PHILLIPS RSV NASB JB NJB NIV NAB REB NRSV NLT TNIV SV; the “Western” text of D k NEB reads
“Lebbaeus”; a b g1 h q read “Judas Zelotes”; the Received Text of the KJV has “Lebbaeus called Thaddaeus”
supported (with variations) by C L W Y ƒ1 33 Byz (MOFFATT NKJV offer the reading “Lebbaeus whose surname
was Thaddaeus,” which isn’t even a proper translation of the Byzantine text let alone a reading that could
possibly be original)
In Mark 3:18, we again find the “Western” text (D a? (b) ff2 q) reading Lebbaeus, but here all other texts read
“Thaddaeus,” with that reading seemingly found in all English translations.
Thus we find that the Alexandrian text has “Thaddaeus” in both gospels, the “Western” has “Lebbaeus” in both,
and most of the rest of the tradition has “Lebbaeus Thaddaeus” in Matthew and “Thaddaeus” in Mark.

Indeed, canonical evidence for the activities of Thomas is very weak; he is mentioned in the
Synoptic accounts only in the lists of the Twelve (he is seventh on the list in Matt. 10:3; eighth in
Mark 3:18 and Luke 6:15) and his only appearance in Acts is in the list of the Eleven in 1:13. It is
only in the Fourth Gospel that he plays a significant role. In John 11:16, when Jesus sets out to
Bethany to resurrect LAZARUS, Thomas makes the improbable but perceptive comment “Let us
also go, that we may die with him [Jesus].” Despite this insight, he seems rather thick-headed and
stubborn in the rest of the gospel. In 14:5, as Jesus sets out to be arrested, Thomas asks where he
is going (even though Thomas himself stated the answer in 11:16!). In 20:24, after the
resurrection and Jesus’s first appearance to the other disciples, the apostle earned his common
nickname “Doubting Thomas” by demanding detailed evidence that Jesus was alive. He received
it in 20:27, and professed his faith in 20:28, but was rebuked for his doubts in 20:29. He appears
thereafter only in the list of disciples who went fishing with PETER in 21:2.
Despite this unpromising background, tradition has been unusually busy with Thomas.
Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. I.13, II.1) credits him with carrying on a correspondence with the Prince of
Edessa via one Thaddaeus (one of the Seventy, but apparently not the Apostle of that name) in
the year 340 S.E. (properly 28/29 C.E.; read probably 30 C.E.) which resulted in the founding of a
church and the working of several miracles there — including the healing of the king Abgar.
Thomas’s own field of activity was said to be Parthia (Ecc. Hist. III.1). He is also frequently
connected with India (one story, in which he is an architect, has him going there to design a
palace but instead giving away the money to the poor). But it is only in the apocryphal literature
that he really comes into his own. I know of the following works:
1. A mildly Gnostic Gospel of Thomas, which bears a strong resemblance to the so-called “Q”
source which supplied many of the sayings found in Matthew and Luke, was discovered in 1946.
It appears to be a second-century collection of sayings of Jesus, many of which are probably
genuine (though some are rather grotesque and a few firmly Gnostic. Moreover, Logion 13 tells
of Jesus revealing deep secrets to Thomas).
2. The Infancy Gospel of Thomas tells a series of tales about Jesus’s early life which were used by
the writers of other apocryphal gospels. The stories are highly miraculous but hardly pleasant —
at one point Jesus kills a child for bumping him; we can be glad this collection did not end up in
our Bible.
3. The Gnostic Acts of Thomas tells of the Apostle’s activity in India and records his martyrdom
there (a royal official had him speared to death for converting the official’s wife to chastity). The
story describes many unlikely miracles and a few sermons (which seem almost incidental). The
collection also includes the famous “Hymn of the Soul,” a difficult but beautiful piece of poetry.
4. The Apocalypse of Thomas, one of the few Apocalypses credited to a major Christian figure,
purports to be a tale told to Thomas of the end of the world. The last events occur over a space
of seven days. Other than this, the “feel” of the story is not very different from the canonical
apocalypse, though some of the imagery is different. The item is quite short.
5. In the ballad “The Seven Virgins” (“The Leaves of Life”) it is Thomas who tells Mary that
her missing son is dying on the cross.1
1.!The relevant lines run:

All this for someone mentioned eleven times in the Bible! Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15;
John 11:16, 14:5, 20:24, 26, 27, 28, 21:2; Acts 1:13 !.
§Timon: O&?D5, Honoured.” One of the seven Hellenists of Acts 6:5, the fifth on the list.
Nothing else is known of him. Acts 6:5 !.
Timothy: O&?8+*8#, “Honourer of God.” A Christian of Lystra or Derbe (Acts 16:1), the
son of EUNICE the daughter of LOIS (2 Tim. 1:5) by a Gentile father. His mother and
grandmother are said to have been devout Jews, who later became good Christians, despite the
fact the Eunice married a non-believer (a marriage that the Jews would consider illegal, making
Timothy technically illegitimate). He gained fame as an assistant to PAUL. When the two met,
Timothy was a minor figure — respected in his local community (Acts 16:2) but of no particular
significance. To remedy this, Paul circumcised him (as a technical Jew — Acts 16:3) and took him
on the missionary voyage. The two seem to have been together for the rest of the Apostle’s life,
except when Paul sent the younger man — who became his most beloved assistant — on separate
missions. (Examples of this — not always successful — are in Acts 17:10–15, 18:5, in which
Timothy and SILAS stayed in Thessalonica; Acts 19:22, when Timothy and ERASTUS went to
Macedonia while Paul stayed in Ephesus — and caused a riot; 1 Cor. 4:17, 16:10, where Timothy
is the messenger to the church in Corinth; and 1 Th. 3:2, 6, where he bore messages between
Paul and the congregation of Thessalonica; cf. Phil. 2:19 where Paul hopes to send Timothy to
Philippi.) On the other hand, the two were together after the riot in Ephesus (Acts 20:1–5); in
Corinth when Romans was written (Rom. 16:21) and when the gospel was preached there (2 Cor.
1:19); and when 2 Corinthians (2 Cor. 1:1), Philippians (Phil. 1:1), Colossians (Col. 1:1), the
Thessalonian letters (1 Th. 1:1, 2 Th. 1:1), and Philemon (Philem. 1) were written. To imagine
Paul without Timothy — or Timothy without Paul — is almost impossible. Yet this is the
situation which is envisioned in the Pastoral Epistles (this is one of the least of the many reasons
why these letters are commonly regarded as non-Pauline). The two letters contain detailed
instructions on how to manage a church hierarchy (hardly necessary information in Paul’s time,
when churches did not have professional staff); the mentions of Timothy in 1 Tim. 1:2, 18, 6:20;
2 Tim. 1:2 seem almost incidental, though they serve as good examples of Paul’s affection for his
younger colleague. The other Biblical mention of Timothy, in Heb. 13:23, may be a legitimate
reference to an imprisonment of Timothy (perhaps with Paul in Rome?), but is more likely
spurious.
After Paul’s death we know little of Timothy. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. III.4) tells us that he was the
first Bishop of Ephesus, but apparently knows little else. The fifth century Acts of Timothy claims
that he was stoned in 97. ONESIMUS (perhaps the former slave of Colossae) was said to be his
successor. Acts 16:1, (3), 17:14–15, 18:5, 19:22, 20:4; Rom. 16:21; 1 Cor. 4:17, 16:10; 2 Cor. 1:1,
“Oh what are you seeking, you seven pretty maids, all under the leaves of life?”
“We are seeking for no leaves, Thomas, but for a friend of thine.”
“Go down, go down into yonder town and sit in the gallery,
And there you’ll see sweet Jesus Christ, nailed to a big yew tree.”

19; Phil. 1:1, 2:19, (22); Col. 1:1, 3:2, 6; 1 Th. 1:1; 2 Th. 1:1; 1 Tim. 1:2, 18, 6:20; 2 Tim. 1:2;
Philem. 1; Heb. 13:231 !.
Titius Justus: O&0&8# ’C8E408#.2 Called simply “Justus” in the King James version. A
citizen of Corinth in whose house PAUL stayed (Acts 18:7). All we know of him was that he lived
next to the synagogue. Some believe that he was the same as GAIUS 3. Others identify him with
TITUS, but this is unlikely. Acts 18:7 !.
Titus: O&08#. One of the most important and influential companions of PAUL. We first meet
him at the Council of Jerusalem (Gal. 2:1). His presence there sparked a controversy, for he was
an uncircumcised Gentile. But Paul’s view won out, and Titus was accepted as a Christian
without being circumcised (Gal. 2:3–5, according to the majority of witnesses3). He then became
one of the Apostle’s chief messengers, and was instrumental in repairing Paul’s relationship with
the Corinthians. The Corinthian correspondence shows that Paul was close to despairing of his
charges; eventually he sent his “partner” Titus — apparently because Titus had been there
before (2 Cor. 8:6). Titus eventually returned — though apparently after some delay, meeting
Paul in Macedonia rather than Troas (2 Cor. 2:13) — and reported complete success (2 Cor. 7:6–
7); the Corinthians had set his mind at ease (2 Cor. 7:13–14). Titus went on to finish the work
(2!Cor. 8:16, 23; 12:18).
Our other two Biblical reports of Titus are more questionable, for they come from the
“Pastoral Epistles” — late writings whose Pauline authorship is generally rejected. (Indeed, the
portrayal of Titus is one of the reasons for the questions.) 2 Tim. 4:10 (which is in the one part of
the Pastorals which I would consider almost certainly genuine) reports that he has departed on a
mission to Dalmatia. The last and least of the Pastorals is addressed to Titus himself (Titus 1:4);
it purports to be instructions on how to organize the church in Crete. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. III.4)
accepts this tradition, reporting that Titus was the first Bishop of the Cretan church. A Latin
Epistle of Titus is known — it is a tract about virginity — but is clearly spurious. ZENAS is said by
late tradition to have written his biography, but I do not believe that the work has survived. 2 Cor.
2:13, 7:6, 13, 14, 8:6, 16, 23, 12:18; Gal. 2:1, 3; 2 Tim. 4:10; Titus 1:4 !.4
Trophimus: O!8P&?8#, “Nourishing.” One of those who accompanied PAUL from
Macedonia to Troas (Acts 20:4), and apparently eventually to Jerusalem (Acts 21:29). He was
seemingly a Gentile from Ephesus, and it was his presence with Paul that led to the final riot
against the Apostle. 2 Tim. 4:20 tells of Paul leaving him sick at Miletus, but the occasion of this
1.!Also mentioned in the KJV subscriptions to 1 Corinthians following L P (1175) 1739? Byz (! A B C D* F G 33
NRSV omit) and Hebrews (according to K 1739 Byz; ന46 ! A C D [ 33 NRSV omit)
2.!The text “Titius Justus” is that of B* Dc and the Harkleian Syriac; ! E 1175 1739 read “Titus Justus”; the
Received reading “Justus” is found in A Bc D* L [ 33 Byz (this is probably a scribal misreading: Someone
marked the “i” in “Titius” for deletion, and a copyist instead deleted the whole word).
3.!The text which appears to say that Titus was not circumcised is supported by ന46 ! A [[B]] C Dc (F G) P [ 33 81
1175 1739 2127 Byz; D* b d have a text which seems to say he was circumcised, but not as a result of the
Council.
4.!Also mentioned in the KJV subscription to 2 Corinthians following K L 1175? 1739? Byz; ന46 ! A B D F G [ 33
omit

cannot be determined; the authenticity of the entire letter is questionable, and while this chapter
is almost certainly authentic, it cannot be dated. Acts 20:4, 21:29; 2 Tim. 4:20 !.
Tryphena: O!EP-&5-. A “worker in the Lord” greeted by PAUL in Rom. 16:12. The Acts of
Paul and Thecla describes a Tryphena as a rich woman who received Thecla in place of her own
dead daughter, but we do not know if the two should be identified. Rom. 16:12 !.
Tryphosa: O!EPD4-. Like Tryphena, a “worker in the Lord” greeted by PAUL in Rom.
16:12. Rom. 16:12 !.
Tychicus: OEN&,8#, “Fortunate” One of those who accompanied PAUL from Macedonia to
Troas (Acts 20:4) as the Apostle set out for Jerusalem with the collection from the Greek cities.
During Paul’s captivity in Rome (or Ephesus?), he and ONESIMUS visited the Colossians and bore
them instructions from the Apostle (Col. 4:7. A similar comment is found in Eph. 6:12 — a letter
probably based on Colossians). The possibly inauthentic 2 Tim. 4:12 tells of a mission to
Ephesus; the even more doubtful Titus 3:12 refers to a visit that Tychicus or ARTEMAS would
make to TITUS. Tradition makes him the bishop of Colophon and a martyr. Acts 20:4; Eph. 6:21;
Col. 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:12; Tit. 3:121 !.
Urbanus: VE!)-58#, “Elegant,” “Urbane.” Called “Urbane” in the King James version.2
One of those whom PAUL greets in Rom. 16:9. He is said to have been the apostle’s “helper.”
Rom. 16:9 !.
Zenas: W;5-#, contracted form of W;589D!8#, “Zenodorus,” “Gift of Zeus.” A lawyer
(Titus 3:13) whom Titus is instructed to speed on his way. Nothing else is known of him; even the
letter is probably inauthentic. Late tradition, however, makes him bishop of Diospolis, and credits
him with a biography of TITUS. Tit. 3:13 !.
1.!Also mentioned in the KJV subscriptions to Ephesians (following K L 1175? 1739? Byz; ന46 ! A B D F G [ 33 81
omit) and Colossians (following K L 1175? 1739? Byz; ന46 ! A B C D F G [ 33 omit). In addition, L 1739 have
the name in the subscription to Philemon, although here the KJV joins the best texts in omitting.
2.!This, for once, is a translational rather than a textual variant.

The History of the Church

c. 7 B.C.E.? Birth of Jesus (Traditional date Dec.!25, 5 B.C.E. in Catholic and Protestant circles;
Jan. 7, 4 B.C.E. for Orthodox Christians)
c. 26 C.E. Baptism of Jesus & beginning of his ministry (?)
c. 30 Death of Jesus (April 7?)
c. 48 Earliest surviving letter of Paul (1!Thessalonians?)
62 Execution of James brother of Jesus, leader of the Jerusalem church
64 Persecution of Nero. Death of Peter & Paul?
66 Jewish Revolt against Rome
c. 68 Earliest gospel (Mark)
70 Fall of Jerusalem. Destruction of the Temple
73 Last Jewish resistance crushed at Masada
c. 85 Pharisees formally break with Christians by altering synagogue liturgy to curse
“Nazarenes”
96 Persecution of Domitian. Book of Revelation?
112 Letter of Pliny the Younger shows Christianity becoming the dominant religion in
Asia Minor
117 Execution of Ignatius of Antioch, the first Christian known to have borne the title
“bishop”
c. 125 Oldest surviving New Testament manuscript fragment (ന52, for which see the note
on p. 481) written
c. 140 The heretic Marcion (who taught that the God of the Old Testament was not the
same as the God of the New) produces the first New Testament
“Canon” (consisting of edited versions of ten letters of Paul plus the Gospel of
Luke). His changes in the texts of the New Testament books show that the original
manuscripts have now been lost
c. 150 First Latin translations of the New Testament
c. 185 Irenæus of Lyons and the Muratorian Canon show that the New Testament
canon is becoming fixed (all orthodox Christians accept the Gospels, Acts, Paul,
1!Peter, and 1!John; only Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 & 3!John, Jude, and the
Apocalypse remain disputed)
217 The dispute between Callistus I and Hippolytus produces the first pair of rival
popes (Hippolytus, the stricter of the two and the first Latin theological writer, is
considered the Anti-Pope; his schismatic community lasts for many decades)
250 Persecution of Decius. First Empire-wide assault on Christians (until 260)
254 Death of Origen, the greatest scholar of the early church. Although his theology
was questionable (he apparently believed in the pre-existence of souls, and his
opinions about the Trinity were later declared heretical), he deserves credit as
being the first Christian scholar to study the Old Testament in Hebrew

256 Bishop Stephen of Rome, arguing against Cyprian of Carthage, declares the
validity of the sacraments depends only on Christ, not on the moral standing of
the person serving (or receiving) them. This view, opposed by the Donatists and
other heretics, is upheld at the Council of Arles in 314, reiterated by Augustine,
and is accepted by most non-Calvinist Protestants
260 Gallienus issues edict of toleration
272 Church authorities call on the emperor Aurelian (a pagan!) to suppress a heretical
bishop. This is the first direct Roman intervention in church affairs
284 Diocletian becomes Emperor; reforms Empire
c. 302 Armenia becomes the first nation to be officially Christian
303 Persecution of Diocletian
305 Abdication of Diocletian. Extreme persecution continues. Civil war. As many as
six emperors at once. Some Christians’ fanatical opposition to conciliation leads to
the Donatist schism in Africa (310)
312 Battle of Milvian Bridge. Constantine is victorious under the sign of the cross.
Christianity made legal in the west and granted toleration in the east (officially
granted by the Edict of Milan in 313)
c. 318 Arius begins to proclaim “Arianism”: the belief that God the Son, by virtue of
being created, is inferior to God the Father (the orthodox consider the Son to be
pre-existent, “begotten, not made,” and a co-creator of the universe). Although
Arius’s version of this heresy was relatively mild, later Arians went so far as to
deny Christ’s divinity
324 Constantine sole Emperor. Christianity legal throughout Empire
325 Constantine calls Council of Nicæa (first ecumenical council) to combat Arianism.
Preliminary form of the Nicene Creed adopted (the final form dates to 381). An
additional level of episcopal hierarchy is created by granting special powers to the
bishops of Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria (later to become the papacy and the
first orthodox Patriarchates)
c. 325 Oldest surviving complete New Testament manuscripts: the Vatican manuscript B
(now slightly damaged) and the Sinai manuscript !.
337 Death of Constantine. Civil wars allow Arianism to survive. First tensions arise
between Eastern (Orthodox, Greek) and Western (Catholic, Roman) branches of
the church. First of many temporary schisms (343–345). In an attempt to prevent
such outbreaks in the future, the emperor Constantius enforces a mild form of
Arianism in 360
361 Julian the Apostate. Christianity no longer state-supported
363 Death of Julian. Decline of Arianism begins

367 The Easter Letter of Athanasius (of Alexandria) formally proposes the current
27–book New Testament canon. In practice the list had little effect (even in
Alexandria Athanasius’s influence was limited; the Arians hated him as perhaps
the last survivor of the Council of Nicæa and a vigourous defender of orthodoxy),
but letter was later viewed as officially fixing the canon (it should be noted,
however, that the manuscript known as Codex Alexandrinus, written a quarter of
a century or more after Athanasius’s death in 373, still contained the non-
canonical Letters of Clement. Alexandrinus was the last such manuscript).
Athanasius is also credited with the “Athanasian Creed,” but this is probably a
fifth century Latin creation
381 Accession of Theodosius I. Council of Constantinople re-issues and amplifies the
Nicene Creed. Suppression of Arianism. Unity of Empire permanently damaged
383 Jerome commissioned by Pope Damasus to produce an official Latin Bible (the
“Vulgate”). Although the Vulgate had many defects, and was later badly corrupted
by copyists, it is noteworthy as the church’s first significant attempt to translate and
use the Hebrew rather than the Greek Old Testament. It eventually became the
official Bible of the Catholic Church
385 Execution of Priscillian, the first Christian to be killed by Christians for doctrinal
reasons
c. 390 Arrival in Rome of Pelagius, a heretic whose theology could be interpreted as
denying the need for God’s grace. Frantically opposed by Augustine (who
proposed a doctrine of predestination in response), Pelagianism was condemned
as heretical around 416
391 Theodosius I makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire and
forbids the practices of Paganism
395 Death of Theodosius I. Although the churches remain united, for the moment,
the Roman Empire is permanently divided into Eastern (Greek/Byzantine) and
Western (Latin) halves
410 Sack of Rome by the Goths
c. 447 Eutyches propounds the strongest major form of “Monophysitism”: the belief that
Jesus had only one “nature.” The word “monophysite” means “one-nature”;
various forms of the heresy gave Jesus a purely human nature, a purely divine
nature, or one that was somehow combined. Orthodoxy believed that Jesus had at
once a divine and human nature. Eutychianism, which made Jesus more divine
than human, was only one of many flavours of the heresy; perhaps the earliest
was proposed by Apollinarius around 360 (which also made Jesus primarily
divine). “Nestorianism,” which followed in 428, made Jesus primarily human and
refused to grant Mary the title “God-bearer.” Although Apollinarianism was
condemned in 381 and Nestorianism in 431, Eutychianism was temporarily
approved by the “Robber Council” of 449.

451 Council of Chalcedon condemns Monophysitism in all its forms. Heresies

continued to arise at times, but the Catholic position that Christ is equally and
simultaneously human and divine is established. Nonetheless, Monophysitism,
unlike Arianism, survives to this day in the Coptic (Egyptian) and Syrian churches
476 Fall of Western Roman Empire
482 Second schism between east and west (482–518) when the Eastern Emperor Zeno
condones Monophysitism
563 Saint Columba leaves Ireland to found a monastery on the Scottish island of Iona.
Over the following decades, his followers brought Scotland and northern England
into the Celtic Church
590 Papacy of Gregory I “the Great” (until 640). Although Gregory was the first Pope
to send a mission to the Anglo-Saxons in England, he is best remembered for the
powers he claimed for the Papacy — which would eventually make Rome a
secular power ruling most of Italy. By 1076 the Papacy was in a position to fight
and win what amounted to a war with the German Emperor Henry IV (although
Pope Gregory VII barely survived a series of disastrous defeats and had to face an
anti-Pope set up by Henry)
638 Moslems capture Jerusalem. Decline of Byzantine Empire begins. Soon after,
Egypt and North Africa fall to the Arabs, and Christian governments are confined
to Europe
649 Third schism between East & West (649–681) over the doctrine of
“Monothelitism” = “one-will” (a “neo-Monophysite” doctrine which holds that
Christ, despite having two natures, has only one will, the divine. The doctrine was
condemned at the Council of Constantinople in 680/1)
664 Synod of Whitby. Celtic Christianity, necessarily separated from Catholicism
when the Roman legions withdrew from Britain, is brought back under papal
control and its practices “regularized” — e.g. it is forced to adopt the Catholic
date for Easter.
726 Iconoclast schism (until 843). The iconoclasts objected to the use of pictures of
Jesus as idolatry (since they are images of God)
732 Battle of Tours (Poitiers) prevents Moslem conquest of Europe
c. 750 First known use of the “Apostle’s Creed” in its modern form (the creed was
assembled from fragments of earlier doctrinal statements, e.g. that of Marcellus,
and is used by the Catholic and Protestant but not the Orthodox churches)
c. 799 Condemnation of the doctrine of “Adoptionism,” a heresy which claims that Jesus
is not the begotten Son of God, but was adopted by God after his baptism and/or
death
800 Charlemagne, King of Gaul, proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III.
This is arguably the most blatant interference ever by the church in secular affairs,
but was forced on the Pope by the Iconoclast Controversy, which left the Papacy
without Imperial protection

831 Doctrine of Transubstantiation (the belief that Christ’s physical body is present at
communion) is developed by Radbertus. It becomes official Catholic doctrine in
1215 (and is reaffirmed by the Council of Trent in 1545–63), but is rejected by
effectively all other churches
867 Photian schism (until 920)
973 The Catholic Church makes canonization an official practice by declaring Ulrich
of Augsburg a saint
988 Prince Vladimir of Kiev is baptized, introducing Christianity into what will later
be Russia and Ukraine
1054 Official and final schism of Catholic and Orthodox churches — the “Great
Schism.” Although there were many reasons for the division (e.g. the Romans had
slightly altered the Nicene Creed and had a developed concept of Purgatory), the
division was largely political: Pope Leo IX refused to allow the Byzantine Emperor
and clerics internal religious freedom
1057 Rights of the laity in the Catholic Church almost entirely ended by Humbert’s
Libri tres advertus simoniacos
1071 Battle of Manzikert. Byzantines permanently driven from Palestine and most of
Asia Minor
1097 First Crusade. Jerusalem captured 1099
1176 Peter Waldo founds the Waldenses, who preached the Priesthood of all Believers
(male and female!). The movement was suppressed because it denied the need for
ordination and episcopacy
1187 Battle of Hattin. Crusaders driven from Jerusalem
1197 Pedro of Aragon, by decreeing that heretics should be burned, takes the first step
down the path that leads to the Inquisition (formalized around 1231; the laity
were also deprived of the right to read scripture at this time)
1198 Papacy of Innocent III (to 1216), who called himself Vicar of Christ and
demanded the right for the Papacy to control secular government (e.g. he placed
King John of England under interdict in 1209 and technically became the English
Head of State in 1213)
1204 The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople. Final decline of Byzantine Empire
begins
1378 Beginning of the “Great Schism,” during which France and Italy selected a series
of rival Popes. (The Papacy had been based in Avignon in France, rather than
Rome, from 1309–1377 — a period known as the “Babylonian Captivity.” During
the Schism, both Avignon and Rome elected Popes.) Although the schism was
healed in 1417, the Papacy’s influence in secular affairs was necessarily diminished
c. 1380 John Wycliffe (died 1384), arguably the first Protestant, causes the Bible to be
translated into (Middle) English for the first time. Although Wycliffe disagreed
with the Roman church on many points (e.g. on Transubstantiation), this was
probably the most overt act of revolt. Even so, Wycliffe died in peace (although his
bones were burned around 1420!)

1386 with the conversion of Lithuanian King Jagiello, all of Europe is officially
Christian (although the Moslems were not driven out of southern Spain until
1492)
1415 Bohemian reformer Jan Hus burned at the stake for opposing Papal supremacy
and the comforts enjoyed by Catholic officials. Bohemia responded by leaving the
church
1453 Fall of Byzantine Empire to Turks. Orthodox Christianity loses its center; the
various ethnic and national churches become more independent although still in
communion. Flight of Greek scholars to the West helps inspire the Reformation
and Renaissance and leads to a new interest in the Greek Bible
c. 1454 Publication of the first complete printed book. It was an edition of the Latin
Vulgate, now known as — among other things — the “Gutenberg Bible” (after its
publisher) or the “Mainz Bible” (after the place where it was printed). The Mainz
text was not an official church product and its text was never widely adopted.
1515 Pope Leo X, to increase Papal control over the Catholic church and reduce the
number of publications criticizing it, requires that all books be approved by the
church before publication. (Sadly, one of the first victims of this policy was the
Complutensian Polyglot, which would otherwise have been the first published edition
of the Greek Old and New Testaments, and the first Christian edition of the
Hebrew Bible.) In 1557 Pope Paul IV goes even further by creating the Index of
prohibited books
1516 Erasmus edits the first published edition of the Greek New Testament (the Textus
Receptus, a very defective edition which nonetheless was the only one available for
three hundred years, on which both Luther’s translation and the King James Bible
were based)
1517 Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle church
(October 31). Most of the Theses attacked the abuses of the Roman church, but
Luther would later preach the Ministry of all Believers (despite the fact that even
today the Lutheran Church continues to ordain ministers), the right of the laity to
read the scriptures (Luther was not in fact the first to translate the Bible into
German, but his was the first popular German edition), the authority of scripture
over church tradition, and the need reduce the powers of bishops. Luther does not
yet break with the Catholic church (indeed, he never wanted to, despite being
excommunicated in 1521), but the conferences and wars of the next thirty years
gradually made reconciliation impossible. There were points on which Luther
would not compromise (as shown by his famous statement to the Diet of Worms
in 1521: “Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise. God help me.”)

1523 Huldreich Zwingli declares the opinions that will lead to the formation of the
Swiss Reformed churches. It was Zwingli who developed the common Protestant
view that communion is a memorial observation rather than a physical
consumption of Jesus’s body (the Catholic view) or a mystical “participation” (the
Lutheran view). It was disputes over the theology of Communion that prevented
Zwingli and Luther from uniting their churches. Zwingli died in 1531 during the
wars between the Catholic and Protestant cantons of Switzerland
1533 Henry VIII declares the Church of England independent of Rome. Although
various German states had earlier turned Protestant, England was the first
recognized “nation” of Europe to secede from the Catholic church. Nonetheless,
Henry’s “Anglican” church for the moment remained almost entirely Catholic,
except that the English King, rather that the Pope, was head of the church
1534 Ignatius Loyola founds the Society of Jesus (“Jesuits”), which (since it was
organized to combat the Reformation on its own terms) is easily the most scholarly
and progressive of the Catholic orders
1536 William Tyndale is burned at the stake for translating the Bible into English (his
New Testament was published in 1526). John Calvin, leader of the Reformed
Churches, publishes the first edition of his Christianæ Religionis Institutio (“Institutes
of Christian Religion”)
1541 Calvin, who had been expelled from Geneva in 1538 for interference in church
affairs, returns to the city to lead the Reformed churches. Although technically just
another parish priest, he in effect ruled the city until his death in 1564. The
Reformed movements of Calvin and Zwingli reached theological consensus in
1549; expelled Hussites joined the union in 1555. Calvinism is easily the most
radical of the new faiths, having the least exalted view of communion, denying
most sacraments, requiring extremely correct behavior, and stressing
predestination to grace
1545 The Council of Trent, which lasts until 1563, initiates the counter-Reformation,
declares the Latin Vulgate (not the Hebrew or Greek!) the official Bible of the
Catholic church, and formally sets the Bible canon (including the Apocrypha), as
well as granting church tradition authority over scripture, maintaining the
existence of Purgatory, denying that non-Catholics could be saved, and continuing
the practice of “indulgences” (buying forgiveness from sin)
1550 The printer Robert Estienne produces the first New Testament to include verse
divisions (the modern chapter divisions were probably devised by Stephen
Langton, later Archbishop of Canterbury, around 1200)
1555 Peace of Augsburg officially acknowledges Lutheranism. Catholic control of
Europe formally and permanently ends

1559 After 26 years of lurching back and forth between Catholic and Reformed faiths,
England settles on a middle course. Elizabeth!I (once again) breaks with Rome
(which had regained supremacy in England in 1554) and expels many bishops, but
retains a primarily Catholic liturgy. The 39 Articles regulating Anglican doctrine
reach their final form in 1571 (they are clearly Catholic in theology but Reformed
to the extent that they permit married clergy, encourage lay reading of scripture,
and refuse to force assent to tradition)
1560 Scotland, under the leadership of John Knox, turns Presbyterian (Calvinist, with a
church hierarchy headed by elders=presbyters rather than bishops) some 32 years
after the first Protestants preached (and were martyred) there
1590 The first official Bible text of any church, the so-called “Sixtine Vulgate” (official
Catholic Latin Bible) is issued by Pope Sixtus V. Badly corrupt, this edition was
replaced by Pope Clement VIII with the equally corrupt “Clementine Vulgate” in
1592. The Clementine Vulgate remained the official and only Catholic Bible until
the mid-Twentieth century
c. 1610 Arrival of the “Baptist” movement in England. When the Baptists reached
Britain, their primary goal was to purify the church (they felt that the Puritans
were not radical enough). The earliest Baptist movements began around 1525
with the Taüfers, who organized to oppose Zwingli. In 1536 Menno Simmons
(founder of the Mennonites) gave the movement new inspiration and formalized
some Anabaptist (=“again-baptist”) doctrines. Although Baptist sects have many
differences, they generally agree on the fundamental importance of scripture and
the need for adult baptism. The Baptists now claim that their practices date back
to Apostolic times (and it is in fact likely that the Apostles baptized only adults).
Generally speaking, Baptists are Calvinists, believing in unconditional
predestination to grace, the literal authority of scripture, and puritanical behavior.
With the exception of the Free Will Baptists, they practice closed communion. But
since the church is congregational, no single congregation can enforce its opinions
on any other
1611 The Authorized Version or “King James Bible,” based largely on the work of
Tyndale, is published
1618 Thirty Years War begins. Although the war itself was as much political as
religious, the resulting Treaty of Westphalia (1648), by permitting Lutheran,
Reformed, and Calvinist churches to exist in one nation, finally made toleration
an official religious policy
1619 The Synod of Dort (1618–19) gives Calvinism/Presbyterianism a strict
predestinarian doctrine: humanity suffers from “Total Depravity,” the atonement
(and grace in general) are available only to God’s elect, and the elect have no
choice or freedom in the matter. The contrary views of Jakob Arminius
(“Arminianism,” which stresses free will and grace for all) later became the
doctrine of the Methodist church

1632 Galileo tried and convicted on charges of opposing the Catholic opinion that the
sun moves around the earth (he had been ordered to stop teaching this theory in
1616). The so-called “conflict” between science and Christianity claims its first
major victim; Galileo will not be the last
1646 First English Baptist confession of faith published
1658 First Congregational (“Non-Conformist”) confession of faith published (the
“Savoy Declaration”). The Congregationalists came out of the Baptist movement,
although the Congregationalists (which in America are now members of the
United Church of Christ) are not as fundamentalist/predestinarian as most
Baptists
1648 Execution of Charles I of England as a tyrant opposed to Puritanism. The
Puritan commonwealth founded by Cromwell lasted only until 1660, when the
monarchy was restored and conservative Anglicanism re-asserted. Although
Puritan/Calvinist movements continued to arise in England, Anglicanism remains
the official and dominant faith
1660 George Fox founds the Quaker movement. This followed his experience of “inner
light” in 1646
1672 Synod of Jerusalem. This is more or less the Orthodox equivalent of the Catholic
Council of Trent (1545–63): it upholds church tradition, defines the Bible canon,
and rejects Protestantism
1759 The Catholic Church at last allows the Bible to be translated into common
languages (from the Vulgate, not the Greek and Hebrew). Even so, English-
speaking Catholics who wished to use a Catholic Bible were forced to use revisions
of the unintelligible Douai/Rheims Translation (first issued 1582) until the
publication of The New American Bible in 1970. (To be fair, by the mid-twentieth
century, Catholic versions were becoming relatively intelligible. But they were still
expected to follow the Latin against the Greek — although the translators often
cheated on that.)
1791 First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution calls for complete religious freedom
(although the article will not really be enforced until the Twentieth Century).
English society, while still officially Anglican, is turning increasingly tolerant (legal
barriers against Catholics and other dissenters are lifted beginning in 1828). Other
nations followed: Spain began moving fitfully toward toleration in 1868; Portugal
followed suit in 1951. France separated the church and state in 1905, and Calvin’s
old home of Geneva did so in 1907

1795 Wesleyanism/“Methodism” (so called after the “methodical” habits of its

founders) becomes independent of Anglicanism, although its founder John Wesley
(who died in 1791) hoped to the end to reform Anglicanism rather than found a
new church. To this day there are no theological differences between Anglicanism
and Wesleyanism, merely practical ones (e.g. Anglican bishops have a clerical
office; Wesleyan bishops, although required to be clerics, perform secular duties
and are not considered to have a higher calling). The division had occurred in
America in 1784 (as a result of the American Revolution) when Wesley’s colleague
Thomas Coke took charge of American Methodism (American and British
Methodists now use different versions of the Apostle’s Creed, and only British
Methodists use the Nicene Creed in their services!)
c. 1820 F. C. Baur begins to evolve the opinions of his “Tübingen school,” which threw
out nearly the entire New Testament as second century forgeries (Alexander
Souter called his method “Riotous Criticism”). Although most of his theories have
been conclusively rejected (his theory that the Gospel of John was written after
150, for instance, is disproved by the existence of the fragmentary manuscript of
John known as ന52, which is generally felt to date from before 125), the doubts they
caused at the time led to a growth in anti-Christian and sectarian movements.
Influenced by the excesses of Baur and his followers, many Europeans turned
from Christianity or adopted very debased versions of the faith
1823 Joseph Smith receives the first of the revelations that will lead him to found the
Mormon church (1830). He was typical of modern schismatics (as also the early
Gnostics, but hardly anyone in between) in feeling the need to add further books
to Scripture
1831 Karl Lachmann publishes the first edition of the Greek New Testament to be
based on ancient manuscripts. Although the study of textual criticism (which
attempts to reconstruct the text of an ancient document by comparing the errors
in the later copies) was by then several centuries old, and despite the imperfections
of Lachmann’s technique, this is one of the most important steps in discovering
the true readings of the Bible
1844 Year in which William Miller expected the end of the world. Although Miller’s
prediction — obviously — was wrong, his preaching of imminent universal
destruction resulted in the founding of the Adventist movement. The largest
Millerite movement, the Seventh Day Adventists, formed in 1846 and organized
in 1855
1845 Establishment of the Southern Baptist Convention, which is now the largest non-
Catholic non-Orthodox denomination in America. Southern and Northern
Baptists disagreed primarily about slavery but also about church organization.

1854 Pope Pius IX declares the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of Mary — i.e.
that Mary, like Jesus, did not have a human father; see the excursus The Birth of
Mary on p. 167. As recently as 1950 it was decreed in addition that she never
died, but ascended to heaven. This is only one sign of a period of reactionary
development in the Catholic Church (which lasted roughly from 1800–1960) in
which the church rejected as much of modern belief, science, and insight
(including biblical criticism) as it possibly could — and often a good deal more.
This was followed by the “Syllabus of Errors” (a list of mostly liberal beliefs which
the church condemned in 1864); the movement reached its pinnacle in 1870 when
the Doctrine of Papal Infallibility (which automatically prevents any reconciliation
with Protestants and Orthodox) was proclaimed
1865 The Salvation Army is created by “General” William Booth. The name
“Salvation Army” comes into use in 1878
1866 Mary Baker Eddy experiences a supernatural healing and is inspired to develop
the doctrines which became Christian Science. Although Eddy did not originally
intend to form a new denomination, orthodox opposition to her discounting of
the Incarnation and the physical world — as well as her followers’ using her
writings as scriptures — led her to organize her movement in 1879 and form a
“worldwide” mission in 1892
1881 Publication of the English Revised Version (translation begun 1870). Although the
RV is itself a very imperfect rendering, it begins the movement toward modern
Bible translations (it is said that over one hundred English translations of the New
Testament were published 1890–1990, although only a dozen or so are
significant). The Greek New Testament of Westcott and Hort — which influenced
the RV and marked the starting point for most translations since then — was also
published in this year
1884 Charles Taze Russell founds the organization (it does not call itself a “church”)
later to be known as the “Jehovah’s Witnesses.” Although unaffiliated with other
Adventist groups, it preaches the imminent return of Christ and the complete
authority of the Bible
1914 The leading Pentecostal church, the Assemblies of God, is chartered. Other
Pentecostal groups became active in the 1880s, with some dating the real start of
the movement to 1900 when assorted Christians were spontaneously moved to
speak in tongues.

1942 British Council of Churches formed, symbolizing the growing Ecumenical

movement to bring Christians of different sects closer together on areas where
they agree. The World Council of Churches — originally consisting of 135
churches from 44 countries, and now containing nearly every major Christian
denomination except the Roman Catholics and Southern Baptists — is formed in
1948. Many denominations — including Methodists (1968), Lutherans (1987),
Presbyterians (1983), and the United Church of Christ=Congregationalists (1957)
— also manage to reunite their various splinter factions in the second half of the
twentieth century
1962 The Second Vatican Council (lasting until 1965, and open to non-Catholic
delegates!) begins to liberalize the Catholic Church: lay participation is increased
somewhat, and non-Latin liturgies and scripture readings sanctioned. In 1966 the
Index Expurgatorius (list of banned books) is abolished, and the practice of
“fasting” (avoiding meat) on Fridays ended. In 1979 the church returns to studying
scriptures in the original languages, and abandons the official “Clementine
Vulgate” of 1592, a very corrupt edition. Absolute Papal control of the church is,
however, retained

The Language of the New Testament
Appendix I:
The Language
of the
New Testament

Please note: This section is not a grammar of koine or New Testament Greek. It isn’t a
vocabulary. It isn’t anything that will help a Biblical student read the New Testament. Instead, it’s
an analysis of interesting and salient points we can wring from analyzing the text.
Rare Words Used in New Testament Books

This particular section looks primarily at the special vocabulary of the various New
Testament books. This can be particularly useful in considerations of authorship. We start with a
table of data, book by book. This has six columns:
• The book. Self-explanatory.
• Word count. The length of the book, in words. Note that Mark does not include “Mark
16:9-20” and John does not include “John 7:53-8:11.”
• Words found only in this book. That is, words which occur only in this book in the New
Testament. This is a measure of this author’s peculiar vocabulary.
• Words found only once (hapax). Not only are these words found only in this author, but
only in one place in this author. These are thus even more peculiar than the preceding.
• Words found in only two books. Words that aren’t quite as rare as the preceding, but are
still fairly unusual.
• Distinct words. This is, as best I can figure out with my software, the total number of
different words used in each book. That’s not the same as word count. For example, in the
sentence “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog,” the word count is nine, but the
number of distinct words is eight (the word “the” is used twice). So this is a measure of the
range of vocabulary.
All of these measures are somewhat approximate due to textual uncertainty (and the nature
of my word-counting tools), but shouldn’t be too far off.

Unusual Words in New Testament Books

Word Count Words Words found Words Distinct
found only only once found in words
in this book (hapax) two books
Matthew 18,347 116 84 197 1561
Mark 11,237 77 67 129 1246
Luke 19,478 264 213 249 1885
John 15,465 82 58 61 936
Acts 18,461 406 316 209 1773
Romans 7,111 105 87 98 992
1 Corinthians 6,828 95 76 72 937
2 Corinthians 4,477 91 64 65 750
Galatians 2,230 29 27 27 497
Ephesians 2,422 41 35 43 524
Philippians 1,629 37 36 23 432
Colossians 1,582 32 32 27 428
1 Thessalonians 1,481 21 18 12 361
2 Thessalonians 823 10 8 6 246
1 Timothy 1,591 75 64 50 535
2 Timothy 1,238 48 48 36 415
Titus 659 28 28 19 289
Philemon 335 5 5 5 130
Hebrews 4,953 149 123 98 996
James 1,742 63 55 48 554
1 Peter 1,684 62 55 30 532
2 Peter 1,099 54 48 28 390
1 John 2,141 4 1 9 235
2 John 245 2 1 1 97
3 John 219 3 2 2 102
Jude 461 14 14 12 214
Revelation 9,851 105 72 88 870
We can offer several graphs illustrating which books have the most extreme vocabulary. If we
calculate the number of hapax (words used only once) divided by the total words in each book, we
get this:

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Figure 34: Hapax Legomena as a fraction of total words in the book
Several points stand out here. First, the lack of unusual words in the writings of John.
Second, the Pastoral Epistles. Most of Paul’s epistles have a rather low number of hapax but the
Pastorals are sky-high — very strong evidence that they are not by Paul. The same argument
applies to 2 Peter, which has the highest score of all. It looks nothing at all like 1 Peter.
If we count words which occur in only one or two books and divide by the word count, we
get this; once again, the Pastorals and 2 Peter are the leaders:
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Figure 35: Words which occur in only 1 or 2 books as a fraction of total words

A New Church, A New Language

The language of the New Testament is koine Greek — that is, the common Greek used
throughout the Roman world in the first century C.E. But, necessarily, there was some specialized
vocabulary — some of it specific to the Jewish background of the Church, some of it specifically
Christian. The church, for instance, needed to find a name for the Holy Spirit, for the
Resurrection — for the Church itself !
Some of these problems had been addressed earlier, when the Jews of Alexandria had
translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek — the so-called “Septuagint” or “LXX” translation.
This established Greek equivalents — sometimes rather unexpected Greek equivalents — for the
words of the Hebrew cultus and theology. Much of the language of the New Testament is clearly
derived from the LXX.
But there were times when something new was needed. To an extent, the New Testament
establishes a new vocabulary, just as the LXX had done in the preceding three centuries.
We can measure this new vocabulary. All it takes is a comparison of the frequency of
common words in the LXX and NT, and a casting of a ratio.
Some of this may take some explaining — particularly the fact that some words are said to
occur in LXX 0.5 times, or 1.5 or 2.5 times. This is because there is no “standard” text of LXX.
A word which occurs 0.5 times is probably found in LXXB but not LXXA or vice versa. Once that
is clear, the rest mostly follows. The first column is the Greek word. Then comes its typical
translation. Then comes the (approximate) number of times it occurs in the NT, then the number
of times in LXX. For obvious reasons, a word has to appear a certain number of times in the NT
even to be worthy of testing. The final column is the ratio — how much more common the word
is in the New Testament than the old. For example, the eighth item is the word ?-+;0;#, disciple.
This occurs 262 times in the New Testament, but at most once in the LXX. So it is fully 524
times as common in the New Testament as in the LXX.
A few of these changes are simply the evolution of the Greek language. This probably
explains why the NT has a greater usage of -N!&, 8"8E, ?*%%D, 8E"D, 9*&, "-%&5, and *ND.
The word Pharisee occurs in NT, and not LXX, because the Pharisees didn’t exist in Old
Testament times. But some of the changes are quite interesting:, for instance, the rise in the use
of the forms of the root 9&-,85-, such as 9&-,85*D, to minister, and 9&-,858#, a minister/servant/
deacon; together, these words occur 62 times in the NT, 4 times in LXX. The word ?-+;0;#,
disciple, is naturally common in the New Testament, but almost unknown in the Old. 40-E!8#,
cross, is obviously an important New Testament word — but finds no place in the Old, and to
crucify occurs only once in LXX. Apostle is a very New Testament-ish word. So is gospel/good news;
so is resurrection. Christ (anointed one) occurs in LXX, but is far more common in the NT.
More surprising, perhaps, is the fact that Temple is more common in the NT than LXX.
The table below shows the 80 words which show the greatest increase in ratio from LXX to
NT.
Greek Word English Word NT Uses LXX Uses Ratio
_-!&4-&8# Pharisee 97 0 —
*EN-!&40*D to give thanks 38 0 —

9&-,85*D to serve, minister (be a deacon) 36 0 —

6-?*D to marry 28 0 —
40-E!8# cross 27 0 —
40!-0&D0;# soldier 26 0 —
"5*E?-0&,8# spiritual 25 0 —
?-+;0;# disciple, follower, learner 262 0.5 524:1
-"8408%8# apostle 79 0.5 158:1
E"-6D to go, depart 79 1 79:1
9&9-4,-%8# teacher 59 1 59:1
P-5*!8D to manifest, be manifested, appear 49 1 49:1
40-E!8D to crucify 46 1 46:1
-?;5 amen (Hebrew for “truly”) 126 3 42:1
-!N&*!*E# high priest 122 3 40.7:1
-4"-'8?-& to greet 59 1.5 39.3:1
)-"0&'D to baptize 77 2 38.5:1
9&-,85&- service, ministry, diaconate 33 1 33:1
-!5*8?-& to deny 32 1 32:1
-N!& until, as far as 48 1.5 32:1
9&9-N; teaching 30 1 30:1
4E5*&9;4&# conscience 30 1 30:1
4,-59-%&'D to offend, cause to stumble, scandalize 29 1 29:1
*E-66*%&85 gospel, good news 76 3 25.3:1
*"-66*%&- promise, an overarching message 52 3 17.3:1
*E+*D# immediately 33 2 16.5:1
*]*40&5 to be permitted/lawful 31 2 15.5:1
-,8%8E+*D to follow 90 6 15:1
"*?"D to send 79 5.5 14.4:1
-5-40-4&# resurrection (from roots “to stand again”) 42 3 14:1
-"8%ED to release 65 5 13:1
Q%%*58# Greek (Hellene) 26 2 13:1
"*!&44*ED to abound, overflow, be abundant 39 3 13:1
^!&408# Christ, Messiah, anointed one 529 41 12.9:1
8?8%86*D to confess, admit 25 2 12.5:1
"*!&08?; circumcision, a cutting around 37 3.5 10.6:1
8"8E where 82 8 10.3:1
&*!85 temple 70 7 10:1
5&,-D to conquer, overcome, be victorious 27 3 9:1
)%-4P;?*D to blaspheme, slander 34 4 8.5:1
?*%%D to soon be, about to be, to be in process 110 13 8.5:1
9-&?85&85 demon 63 8 7.9:1

-6-"; love, specifically Christian 116 15 7.7:1

"&40&# faith, belief 243 32 7.6:1
-!5&85 lamb 30 4 7.5:1
9&-,858# servant (deacon) 29 4 7.3:1
8N%8# crowd 174 24 7.3:1
8E"D not yet 28 4 7:1
,84?8# world, universe, creation 185 27 6.9:1
)-40-'D to carry, bear 27 4 6.8:1
,-0-!6*D to abolish, destroy, remove 27 4 6.8:1
?-!0E!*D to bear witness 76 12 6.3:1
"-!!;4&- confidence 31 5 6.2:1
?-!0E!&- testimony, witness 37 6 6.2:1
*]8E4&- authority 102 17 6:1
+*!-"*E# to heal 43 8 5.4:1
9*& must, ought, should 102 19 5.4:1
N!*&- need 49 9.5 5.2:1
"&40*ED to believe, have faith 241 49 4.9:1
&9&8# own, one’s own, of one’s self 113 25 4.5:1
P!85*D to think 26 6 4.3:1
"*!&"-0*D to walk 95 25 3.8:1
*"&0&?-D to rebuke 29 8 3.6:1
-6-";08# beloved 61 17 3.6:1
E"8?85; endurance 32 9 3.6:1
PD5*D to call, sound, make noise 42 12 3.5:1
8?8&D# likewise 31 9 3.4:1
-]&8# worthy 41 12 3.4:1
?-%%85 rather, more, instead, in place of 80 24 3.3:1
"-%&5 again 139 43 3.2:1
E"840!*PD to return 35 11 3.2:1
?*%8# body part, limb, member, organ 34 11 3.1:1
?*&'D5 greater, greatest 48 16.5 2.9:1
*ND to have 705 250 2.8:1
*6*&!D to raise, awaken, rouse 143 51 2.8:1
0;!*D to keep 70 25 2.8:1
"-!-66*%D to command 30 11 2.7:1
4E5*!N8?-& to come with, go together 30 11 2.7:1
?E40*!&85 mystery 27 10 2.7:1
8P*&%D to owe, profit, ought 35 13 2.7:1
What is intriguing about this list, apart from the words relating to Jesus’s passion (“cross,”
“crucify,” “resurrection,” “raise [from the dead]”) is the increase in words of personal faith. A

disciple is one whose religion is personal and committed, not just ritual and formulaic. To serve and
to give thanks are also words of religious action, not obedience to the cult. Spiritual implies feeling
one’s faith. An apostle or a teacher is one who spreads it. And belief/faith are things required of a
personal religion but not an essential part of a ritual religion such as we find in the Pentateuch.
If the New Testament places more stress on personal religion, what does it place less stress on?
We can measure this by looking at vocabulary that is relatively more common in LXX than the
NT. This table is similar to the above, except that it has only 75 entries. Note that the LXX is
much longer than the NT, so that the ratio for a “normal” word would be 1:3 or so.
This time, we see words with cultic significance, such as ram and fat and propitiate and whole
burnt offering, near the top; also cultic requirements (commandment) and items relating to war (to
destroy, to drive out, to encircle, to pursue). Even though the LXX vocabulary is mostly the same as the
NT vocabulary, the differences are intriguing.
Greek Word English Word NT Uses LXX Uses Ratio
,!&8# ram, male sheep 0 172 —
"*9&85 field, level place 0 129 —
"!840-6?- injunction, commandment 0 115 —
*]&%-4,8?-& to propitiate 0 96 —
40*-! fat 0 89 —
*]8%8+!*ED to totally destroy, wipe out 1 206 1:206
"-&9-!&85 child, lad 1 191 1:191
*]-&!D to drive out 1 170 1:170
"-!*?)-%%D to encircle, enclose in a palisade 1 134 1:134
,-0-%8&"8# remaining 1 96 1:96
N-%,*8# made of copper/brass/bronze 1 93 1:93
*"-,8ED to hear, listen 1 92 1:92
E"8%*&"D to remain, be left 1 81 1:81
N*&?-!!8# wadi, ravine, brook 1 81 1:81
,-0-9&D,D to pursue, hunt 1 80 1:80
9*!?- skin 1 77 1:77
P-!-6] ravine, valley 1 77 1:77
N*!8E) cherub (transliteration) 1 76 1:76
)8!!-# north 2 145 1:72.5
8%8,-E0D?- whole burnt offering, holocaust 3 185 1:61.7
,0;58# animal 4 234 1:58.5
*EP!84+5; gladness 2 109 1:54.5
"-0!&- family, clan, father's household 3 163 1:54.3
";NE# forearm, cubit, length 4 206 1:51.5
9;?8# people, populace 4 191 1:47.8
*&4-,8ED to listen to 5 235 1:47
-"840!*PD to turn away, return 9 409 1:45.4

)8E58# hill 2 87 1:43.5

*,,%&5D to turn away 3 129 1:43
*"-6D to bring upon 3 119 1:39.7
4,%*&"D to fail, end 4 157 1:39.3
,!*-# meat 2 77 1:38.5
*4"*!- evening 3 114 1:38
?84N8# calf, young ox 6 226 1:37.7
-!?- carriage, chariot 4 150 1:37.5
"-0-44D to hit, strike 10 372 1:37.2
9&-)-&5D to cross, go through 3 111 1:37
4E50-44D to order, direct, set out 3 109 1:36.3
"!84-6D to lead to, bring forward, bring before 4 144 1:36
,&)D08# ark 6 212 1:35.3
40E%8# pillar, column 4 138 1:34.5
)!-N&85 arm 3 103 1:34.3
"E%; gate, door 10 333 1:33.3
%E0!8D to ransom, redeem 3 96 1:32
4D0*!&8# delivering, a bringing of salvation 4 127 1:31.8
*"&)%*"D to gave upon 3 93 1:31
-&N?-%D4&- captivity, prisoners 3 91 1:30.3
%*&08E!6*D to minister, perform ritual 3 91 1:30.3
!8?P-&- sword, long sword 7 203 1:29
,-0&4NED to be strong, prevail, overpower 3 81 1:27
?;,8# length 3 81 1:27
S*E9;# false, lying, liar 3 81 1:27
8!-4&# eye 4 108 1:27
840*85 bone 4 105 1:26.3
-!6E!*8# [made of] silver, silvery 3 78 1:26
,E,%D around, all around 8 208 1:26
4E50!&)D to break, destory 7 179 1:25.6
*50*%%D to command 15 377 1:25.1
?*!&# part, share, portion 5 125 1:25
4E50*%*D to complete, finish 6 149 1:24.8
&4NE# strength 10 246 1:24.6
-?58# lamb 4 97 1:24.3
*?"&"%;?& to fill, satisfy 5 118 1:23.6
858# donkey, ass 5 113 1:22.6
?&-&5D to stain, define 5 111 1:22.2
&*!*E# priest 31 682 1:22
)8E# ox 8 173 1:21.6

N*&%8# lips, shores, edges 7 148 1:21.1

"-!*?)8%; (fortified) camp, palisade, encirclement 10 211 1:21.1
"!84*%E08# proselyte 4 84 1:21
-4*);# impious 10 197 1:19.7
4,;5; tent, booth 20 389 1:19.5
-"*5-50& before, opposite 4 77 1:19.3
8!&85 boundary, region 12 231 1:19.3
)-4&%*E# king 115 2201 1:19.1

Tell Me Again What That Means…

Translation is always a difficult art. Words in different languages have different “semantic
domains.” Take, for example, the Greek word "-&#, pais. In Matt. 2:16 it is used for the children of
Bethlehem, but in 8:6, 12:18, it is used for servants. The word 98E%8# is translated slave in most
texts of Matt. 8:9, but most translations render it servant in Rom. 1:1. There is no definitive
translation in either case (although I would strongly suggest that 98E%8# always be rendered slave
so that people don’t get a wrong impression). Even such an ordinary word as is has different
significance in Greek and English — in Greek, the word is often not necessary, so to include it
gives a special emphasis. To understand a word often requires knowing its context and even the
style of the author — and no English rendering will ever entirely convey the meaning of a word.
The table below is by not intended to be a comprehensive survey of Biblical words of or Biblical
translations. But it does attempt to show how much variety there is in translations. I have chosen
a series of theologically significant words, from both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament,
and have shown how a variety of English versions render them. The leftmost column is the
Hebrew or Greek word, with a transliteration, and the places from which it is cited. Most of the
words listed are common, so I have not tried to list all uses. Marginal variants are noted only
intermittently.
We often find cases where a Hebrew word has what seem like multiple English meanings;
Greek, perhaps because it is more closely related to English, has fewer ambiguous words.
Hebrew words are listed first, in Hebrew alphabetical order, then Greek, in Greek order.
Word & where King Moffatt New New New Revised Revised
cited James (revised) Intern’l American Standard English
‫אמּוָנה‬ֱ • emunah
steady steady steady steady steady steady
Ex. 17:12
Deut. 32:4 truth trusty faithful faithful faithful faithful
1 Sam. 26:23 faithfulness fidelity faithfulness faithfulness faithfulness loyalty
1 Ch. 9:22 set office duties positions positions offices of trust trustworthy
‫ּבִריח‬
ְ • berith
covenant compact covenant covenant covenant covenant
Gen. 6:18
Mal. 3:1 covenant [[Compact]] covenant covenant covenant covenant
‫הָגה‬
ָ • hagah
meditate poring meditates meditates meditate meditation
Psalm 1:2
Psalm 2:1 imagine plotting plot utter plot plots
Prov. 8:7 speak utter speaks recounts utter speak
Isa. 31:4 roar growls growls growling growls growls
‫סד‬
ֶ ‫ה‬ֶ •!!esed
kindness kindness love favor kindness loyally
Gen. 20:13
Hos. 2:19 [21] lovingkindness kindness love love mercy loyalty
Hos. 6:6 mercy love mercy love steadfast love loyalty
Mic. 6:8 mercy kind mercy goodness kindness loyalty

‫ •ְיהָׂוה‬yehowah/
yahweh (adonai) the Lord the Eternal the Lord the Lord the Lord the Lord
Gen. 2:4
Ex. 6:3 Jehovah the Eternal the Lord the Lord the Lord the Lord
Mal. 4:5 the Lord the Eternal the Lord the Lord the Lord the Lord
‫ •י֗ום‬yom
day day day day day day
Gen. 1:5
Josh. 13:1 years years years years years old
1 Kings 3:11 life life life life life life
Neh. 4:16 [10] time [after] that day time day day
covenant
‫עדּוח‬
ֵ , eduth
testimony laws Testimony commandments (margin: treaty Testimony
Ex. 25:16
or testimony)
Jer. 44:23 testimonies injunctions stipulations decrees decrees teachings
‫מה‬ ָ ‫ל‬ְ ‫ע‬ַ • almah
maid girl girl maiden girl she
Ex. 2:8
Psalm 68:25/26 damsels girls maidens maidens girls girls
Isa. 7:14 virgin young woman virgin virgin young woman young woman
‫צֶדק‬ ֶ • (t)sedek
righteousness fairly fairly justly justice strict fairness
Lev. 19:15
Job 8:3 justice justice what is right justice the right what is right
Isa. 32:1 righteousness justice righteousness justly righteousness righteousness
ַ‫ • ֵרע‬rea‘
neighbour neighbour neighbors neighbor neighbor neighbours
Ex. 11:2
Judges 7:13 fellow comrade friend another comrade comrades
Job 6:14 friend friends friends friend friend friends
‫אִרית‬ ֵ ‫ׁש‬
ְ • sherith
posterity posterity remnant remnant remnant descendants
Gen. 45:7
Neh. 7:72 [71] rest rest rest rest rest rest
those who those who
Isa. 15:9 remnant those who flee remnant remnant
remain remain
‫ׁשלֹום‬
ָ • shalom
peace peace peace peace peace peace
Gen. 15:15
Gen. 43:27 welfare how they were how they were how they were well how they were
2 Sam. 18:29 safe all right safe safe well all well
Psalm 73:3 prosperity success prosperity saw… prosper prosperity how… prosper
-6-"-D •
agapao
(compare
lovest love love love love love
-6-";, P&%*D,
P&%8#)
John 21:15-16

-6-"; •!agape
(compare
-6-"-D, charity love love love love love
P&%*D, P&%8#)
1 Cor. 13:1
1 John 4:7-8 love love love love love love
-66*%8# •!angelos
messenger messenger messenger messenger messenger herald
Mark 1:2
Mark 1:13 angel angels angel angel angel angels
-5D+*5 • anothen again again from above
John 3:3, 7, 31, (i.e. born from above (margin: from from above (margin: again
etc. again) above) anew)
9&-+*,; • [covenant in
diatheke testament covenant covenant covenant covenant margin; text
Luke 22:20 omits the verse]
*!;?D4&# •
eremosis
Matt. 24:15, abomination appalling abomination abominable sacrilege abomination
Mark 13:14,
Luke 21:20 only
,8&5D5*D •
koinoneo defile defile make “unclean” make impure defile defile
Mark 7:18
?*0-58&- •
metanoia repentance repentance repentance reform repentance repentance
Matt. 3:8
"-!-984&# •
paradosis traditions tradition traditions traditions traditions tradition
Matt. 15:2-6
"-!-,%*08# •
parakletos
John 14:16, 26, Comforter Helper Counselor Paraclete Advocate advocate
15:26, 16:7, 1 Jn.
2:1
"5*E?- •!pneuma
wind wind wind wind wind wind
John 3:8a
John 3:8b spirit Spirit spirit Spirit spirit spirit
John 19:30 ghost spirit spirit spirit spirit
0*%*D • teleo come to its
accomplished fulfilled completed finished finished
John 19:28 appointed end
it is
John 19:30 it is finished it is finished it is finished it is finished it is finished
accomplished
Rom. 2:27 fulfil fulfil obeys keeps keep fulfilling

E"8,!&0;# •
hypocrites hypocrites impious hypocrites frauds hypocrites hypocrites
Matt. 23:13, 15
P&%*D • phileo
(compare
-6-"-D, love love love love love love
-6-";, P&%8#)
John 21:15-17
P&%8# • philos
(compare
-6-"-D, friends friends friends friends friends friends
-6-";, P&%*D)
John 15:13

Textual Criticism
Appendix II:
Textual Criticism —
Recovering the
Original Text
of the
Hebrew and Greek Bibles

Textual Criticism
The Hebrew of the Old Testament has been copied with scrupulous accuracy for the last
thousand years and more — but during its first several hundred years, the text was treated
cavalierly indeed. Scribes freely added, deleted, paraphrased — or just plain goofed. This is most
evident in the books of Samuel, where the Received Hebrew text is often nonsensical.1 Most of
the other Old Testament books generally make sense on the surface, but even in these books
there is evidence that some of their readings are not original.
Jews generally operate on the assumption that the Received Hebrew text is inerrant, no
matter how absurd it appears on the surface. But many Christians take a different approach. The
Orthodox churches, as noted in the Introduction, have canonized the Greek Old Testament in
place of the Hebrew. The Catholic church, until very recently, gave its allegiance to the Latin
Vulgate. And the Protestants have tended to try to reconstruct the original Hebrew.
All of these approaches have their merits. The Orthodox use of the Greek Old Testament
has a long tradition. The Greek Old Testament (commonly called the “Septuagint” —
abbreviated LXX — after the seventy scholars said to have produced it) was the Bible of the early
church.2 And, unlike the Hebrew (called the “Masoretic Text,” or MT, after the “Masoretes,” the
scholars who eventually came to copy it with such incredible care), the LXX almost always made
sense to the reader. Very often it was uncouth, sometimes it was a poor translation, but it could be
parsed. The Latin Vulgate was a careful translation of the Hebrew, made by a brilliant scholar,
and it, like the LXX, made good sense.
A problem that long bedeviled Bible scholars was that the LXX — the earliest of all Bible
translations, and indeed, one of the earliest works of literary translation ever attempted — often
was a very poor match for the Hebrew. Even when due allowance is made for paraphrase,
transcriptional errors, and incompetent translators,3 the LXX simply did not translate the Hebrew.4
1.!Consider, for instance, 1 Sam. 13:1. The Hebrew reads literally that Saul became king at the age of one, and ruled
for two years. There is only one possible explanation for this: the text is damaged. In this case we have no way to
correct the defect. But we know it is there. Similarly, the latter part of the book of Job seems damaged. Much of
the Hebrew is incomprehensible. Plus, while Eliphaz the Temanite and Bildad the Shuhite are granted three
speeches each, Zophar the Naamathite is allowed only two — and Job says things that sound such as we might
have expected from Zophar. The problem is so severe that one scholar theorized that Job was written in Aramaic
rather than Hebrew and only partly translated!
2.!From the time of the Apostles to Constantine, the only important Christian figure to read Hebrew was Origen.
And it took more than a century for another to arise in Jerome. For Christians, the Hebrew was a closed book. It
is noteworthy that the New Testament, when quoting the Old, almost always follows the LXX rather than using
a literally accurate rendering of the Hebrew.
3.!Generally speaking, the translation of the Pentateuch (Genesis-Leviticus) is highly accurate and close to the
received Hebrew. Most of the Writings are also reasonably well-rendered (although less precise than the early
books). The prophets are much worse. In general, the older the Hebrew text of those books, the less accurate the
rendering. The translation of Isaiah was among the worst. But this translation shows the dependence of the New
Testament writers on LXX. A good example is Isa. 40:3. The Hebrew reads, “A voice cries out, ‘Prepare the way
of the Lord in the wilderness.’” In the LXX, followed in the New Testament by Matt. 3:3, Mark 1:3, Luke 3:4,
John 1:23, we read, “A voice in the wilderness cries out, ‘Prepare the way of the Lord.’”
4.!For instance, the oldest LXX manuscript of 1 Samuel, LXXB, omits about half of the story of David
and Goliath (for details of this, see the excursus David and Goliath on p. 96), as well as rearranging
chapters 12-14 of 1 Kings and omitting 1 Chronicles 1:11-16, 18-24. The LXX edition of Jeremiah is
significantly shorter than the Hebrew (by about 10%!), and the chapters are in a different order. (Job is

Textual Criticism
Over the centuries, many explanations were proposed for the difference between LXX and
the Received Hebrew, known as the Masoretic Text (MT). Some of the differences were simply
the result of errors,1 and so some tried to explain everything away on that basis. But in the light
of the evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls, the simplest theory has been vindicated: that at the
time the LXX was prepared, there were many different versions of the Hebrew text in
circulation. The LXX was translated from one of these, the Hebrew version of which failed to
survive its competition with the MT. However, the Received Hebrew of the MT is not inherently
superior to these other texts. It is simply the text adopted by the Rabbis in the first Christian
centuries. But, as already noted, it is often flawed.
This leaves us with two choices: to accept one text (e.g. the MT, the LXX, or the Vulgate) as
authoritative, or to reconstruct the original Hebrew (what we might call the “Old Hebrew,” by
analogy to the “Old Latin” translation which preceded the Vulgate and the “Old Greek” which
developed into the received LXX). Both approaches have their advocates, and so I have not
followed a fixed procedure. In general I have worked from the MT (as do most modern versions,
e.g. the NRSV which I usually cite), but I have also done my best to supply the divergent readings
of LXX and (where appropriate) speculate on the readings of the Old Hebrew.
Unfortunately, the LXX has as complicated a textual history as the MT — and has been
studied less. Indeed, the problem of LXX is in some senses worse than the problem of the
Hebrew. Our oldest LXX manuscripts are centuries older than our Hebrew manuscripts, but
even so, the major manuscripts of LXX display a wide diversity. Whereas the care of medieval
Jewish scribes was such that almost every Hebrew manuscript displays the exactly identical (if
defective) Masoretic text.
The different parts of the Bible had different histories, but in general the LXX of most books
went through the following stages of development:
1. Initial translation (frequently somewhat coarse) from Hebrew manuscripts often divergent
from MT. This is the “Old Greek,” and is most often found (where it can be recovered at
all) in the Vatican manuscript LXXB. It is by far the most important type of Greek text,
since it is the only one fully independent of the MT.
2. A period of sporadic modification followed, which produced a wide variety of variants in
the Old Greek text. The so-called “proto-Lucianic” text developed at this time.
also about a sixth shorter in LXX than in MT, but this is probably due to the damaged state of the text
of the latter book.) In Ezekiel, where it is again the best Greek text, LXXB omits many sentences found
in the Hebrew.
1.!Consider, for instance, the means by which the unspeakable name of God came to be pronounced “Pipi.” (Yes,
Pipi!). In Hebrew, the divine name ‫ יהוה‬is “Y(a)hw(e)h,” which in Greek sometimes becomes CK", Ia(h)o. But by
the time the LXX was translated, ‫ יחוח‬was normally read aloud as Adonai, “[the] Lord,” to avoid speaking the
sacred name of God. However, the original spelling was retained in the Hebrew text. Most Christian LXX
manuscripts translated the interpretation rather than the text, and so rendered ‫ יהוה‬by ,E!&8#, kyrios, Lord. But a
significant subset followed the Hebrew practice and wrote the name in Hebrew letters, and written right-to-left as
in Hebrew. Later scribes, unable to fathom the Hebrew, read the letters as Greek. The Greek that looks most like
‫ יהוה‬is /C/C, #&#&, pipi. Although this is not found in the great uncials LXX‫ א‬LXXA LXXB, we do find it a few
times in the margin of the important codex of the prophets, LXXQ. As a result, some later Greeks actually took
“Pipi” to be the name of God!

Textual Criticism
3. At least one, and probably two, systematic revisions of LXX were made, accommodating
it to the developing MT. One of these is typically found in the fifth century Codex
Alexandrinus (LXXA), while the other formed the basis of the later rendering of
“Theodotian.”
4. The diversity of texts became so great that several translators attempted new revisions to
clear up the confusion. All were based on the MT. Two of the revisions — those of
Aquila and Symmachus — neither influenced nor were influenced by the LXX, and so
are unimportant critically. But the revision of Theodotian served to perpetuate the
Theodotianic (or Y) text-type.
5. Various scholars, working from earlier materials, struggled to produce authoritative LXX
texts. The edition of Hesychius had little widespread influence. That of Lucian, however,
a revision of an evolved Old Greek text toward the Hebrew (with other elements
involved), proved widespread and influential (and is, where Vaticanus fails, our best
authority for the Old Greek). The third major revision, that of Origen — despite being
intended for scholarly use — became the most widespread of all.
6. The various recensions mixed, diverged, reconverged, and generally coalesced into a mass
of later mongrel manuscripts.
In all of this the basic text of LXX could be recognized in all manuscripts from the first to
the last. But some elements — especially proper names — became thoroughly corrupted, and
conjunctions and particles often became confused (sometimes as a result of deliberate revision).
The primary task of the LXX scholar is, of course, is reconstruct the Old Greek, since this is
the only form of text that consistently goes back to a Hebrew exemplar different from the MT.
Theoretically this does not pose an immense challenge; the techniques of classical textual
criticism are well-known. However, the history of the LXX text is so complex, and the number
of manuscripts so large1 that the task becomes daunting. Only one complete critical edition of
LXX has been published: that of Rahlfs, from 1935. And it includes readings from only about a
dozen manuscripts, of which only three — LXXB, LXXA, and the fragmentary LXX‫ — א‬are
fully collated.
But my task is slightly different. While I am interested in textual criticism, this is a historical
rather than a textual essay. As a result, I have chosen not to dwell on text-critical matters that do
not affect the historical portions of the narratives. Where there are variations in the tradition, I
note them as best I can, but do not (except where it affects the other material) seek after the
“true” reading of the LXX or the original Hebrew.
But — lest the reader be tempted to ignore the textual footnotes — I would observe that the
LXX often adds historical details not found in MT, some of which may be authentic. Other
variants, if probably wrong, are nonetheless highly interesting. It is only in LXX, for instance,
that we read of the great city of Carthage that so nearly destroyed Rome.
1.!Even the first critical edition of LXX, that of Holmes and Parsons from the early nineteenth century, collated over
three hundred LXX manuscripts (although most of these are in Psalms; manuscripts of other books are far
fewer). Since then, the number has risen to well over a thousand, although many texts are fragmentary.
Regrettably, the majority of LXX manuscripts derive from the editions which had been influenced by the MT
text.

Textual Criticism
A knowledge of LXX can also help us to understand the New Testament. For instance, the
genealogy of Jesus given in the gospel of Luke contains several names from the patriarchal era
which are simply not found in our Hebrew bibles. But lo and behold, the names show the
influence of LXX.
The textual situation for the New Testament is at once simpler and more complex than that
for the Old. The greater complexity comes from the vast numbers of New Testament
manuscripts (some six thousand, counting lectionaries, although about two-thirds of this number
contain only the gospels, and less than a tenth contain the entire New Testament) and their great
diversity. The divergence between the original and later New Testament manuscripts is often
greater than that between LXX and MT. On the other hand, whereas even the oldest of the
Dead Sea Scrolls are centuries more recent than the books being copied, the New Testament
textual tradition is almost contemporary with the autographs.1
Almost every New Testament manuscript is corrupt. Early scribes did not take particular care
with the New Testament text. Indeed, at least one scribe produced a paraphrase — the “Codex
Bezae,” or D (at least, it is paraphrased in Acts, and probably in the gospels as well) and passed it
off as a Bible text. (Obviously it was not just ancients who were guilty of this. Consider The Living
Bible.) This paraphrase was not accepted by the church, but often its readings, or similar ones,
found their way into real Bible manuscripts. The vast majority of manuscripts, unfortunately —
including those on which the King James Bible is based — have what is called a “Byzantine” text,
which is less corrupt than the “Western” paraphrase but often departs even further from the
original text in the area of stylistic improvements. The most important Byzantine modifications
are “Mark 16:9-20” and “John 7:53–8:11,” neither of which is found in the best manuscripts.2
1.!The oldest known New Testament manuscript is a tiny fragment (less than five verses) of the gospel of John,
known as ന52, which is believed by many to have been written within thirty years of the gospel’s composition; see
the description on p. 481 for its contents. Two other, more substantial papyri, ന66 and ന75, both date from before c.
225 C.E. The manuscript ന46 of Paul dates from c. 200 Almost the entire New Testament survives in the highly
valuable Vatican codex B (the New Testament portion of LXXB), from the fourth century, and the Sinai codex !
(the New Testament portion of LXX‫)א‬, which contains the entire NT, is only slightly later.
2.!Before everyone starts screaming, it should be noted that while “John 7:53-8:11” — “The Woman Taken in
Adultery” — is not part of the Gospel of John, that does not mean that it is false. As for Mark 16:9-20, although
the verses contain the only passage requiring believers to be baptized, they are mostly a rehash of material from
the other gospels; the loss of them in no way affects our knowledge of either Christian history or theology.
The evidence against John 7:53-8:11 is particularly strong; it is omitted by ന66 ന75 ! (A defective but there isn’t
room for the verses) B (C defective but there isn’t room for the verses) L N T W M Y [ 33 565. D is the only
manuscript from before the eighth century to have the verses, and that in different form. What’s more, different
manuscripts put it in different places — ƒ1 has it after John 21:25, ƒ13 places it after Luke 21:38, other
manuscripts have it in other places, and several have marks implying it is spurious.
The case against Mark 16:9-20 isn’t quite as clear, but the evidence is still good. The passage sounds nothing like
the rest of the gospel of Mark. It is omitted by ! and B, the two earliest manuscripts, although ! shows hints
that the scribe expected something more. Many Armenian manuscripts, and the two best Georgian texts, also
omit it, as does the Sinai Syriac. The Old Latin manuscript k omits it and instead has a very short alternate
ending. Several good manuscripts, including L [ 579, have both endings with a comment that both are current.
ƒ1 has 16:9-20, but with a note saying it is dubious. W has the text but with a long insertion. 16:9-20 are found in

Textual Criticism
But whereas LXX studies have been badly neglected throughout history, New Testament
studies have attracted enough interest that the task of determining the original text is largely
done. Absolute agreement has not been reached, but most would accept that the New Testament
text of the United Bible Societies (GNT3, on which the New Revised Standard Version is based)
is fundamentally sound.
In discussing the New Testament, as in the Old, I have included variant readings (and this
time I have a much better manuscript base from which to select variants). But once again I do not
cite needlessly: the variants noted are either the result of differences between the English
versions, or are historically significant, or are subject to strong doubts.
In general I have adopted the readings of the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) as the
basis for this book. At times I will use my own translation (denoted AOT, for Author’s Own
Translation). When I use another translation, I will note it. The most important of these is, of
course, the King James Version (KJV). I rarely quote it (since in the Old Testament it is based on
inadequate knowledge of Hebrew and in the New it uses a Byzantine text), but I try to keep its
readings before me so as to note the differences between modern versions and the best-known
translation.
But while I have usually tried to follow the NRSV, it should be confessed that I began this work
before it was published, and it is possible that some of the earlier texts (generally from the
Revised Standard Version) may have slipped past my frenzied eye. Moreover, the NRSV is
occasionally somewhat inconsistent in its renderings of Biblical names (e.g. “Rebekah” in the Old
Testament becomes “Rebecca” in the New). In this case I have tended to conform the entries to
the more standard form, adding cross-reference entries where needed. In addition, I will follow
what I consider the best New Testament text, whether this is found in modern translations or not.
In the New Testament, unlike the MT Old Testament in which all the manuscripts are about
equally good, some manuscripts are generally superior. The agreement of B ‫א‬, especially when
supported by A C D L (in the gospels) or by ന46 D G 33 1739 (in the Epistles), stands a very high
likelihood of being correct. A reading supported by Byz (the consensus of the late manuscripts of
the Byzantine Text) has almost no authority unless supported by at least some of the manuscripts
listed above.
A brief description of the manuscripts cited in this book, with some comments, can be found
below.
A C D (W) M Y [ 33 892 Byz without indication of doubt, but these manuscripts are poor enough that it seems
unlikely that these verses are original.

Textual Criticism
Manuscripts Cited
In the list of manuscripts that follows, several things are to be noted. First come the sigla
(symbols) for the manuscripts themselves. Those cited most often, and generally of the greatest
importance, are in bold. This is followed by the manuscript name.
The next item in the table shows the dates. In most cases these are guesses based on script
and other features, and so are rounded to the nearest century. Centuries are denoted by Roman
numerals (e.g. “IV” indicates a manuscript copied in the fourth century.)
There follows a summary description of the manuscript contents. In this section, the most
important symbol is †, which indicates a fragmentary manuscript (one which retains only a
portion of its original text). For the New Testament section, e indicates a manuscript containing
the gospels, a is Acts, p is Paul, c is the Catholic Epistles, and r is the Apocalypse (example: in the
New Testament manuscript B contains eap†c — that is, the Gospels, Acts, and Catholic epistles
complete, and portions of Paul. It does not contain the Apocalypse)
A description may appear below the line.
In addition, New Testament manuscripts are listed by text-types: Alexandrian, Byzantine,
“Cæsarean,” and “Western,” plus a few special designations. In general, the Alexandrian text is
the most accurate and the closest to the original, the “Western” periphrastic, the “Cæsarean” is
fond of reducing the differences between the Gospels, and the Byzantine a late combination of
earlier elements which, although it underlies the King James Bible, has little value of its own.
This is especially true in the Gospels, where the variation between manuscripts are relatively large
and the Byzantine text at its most corrupt. In Paul and the Epistles, the Byzantine text is still the
worst, but is far closer to the earliest manuscripts.
Please note: This is an oversimplification. If you want to get into details, it will take a whole
additional book. My own research, for instance, shows that what is traditionally called the
“Alexandrian” text actually resolves down to three text-types. Even the Byzantine type, which is
the most unified of those known to us, has subdivisions (within the Gospels at least), such as Kx
and family /. Moreover, there are manuscripts which have mixtures of texts, having some
readings from one source and some from another. The goal here is not to tell you all about
textual criticism but to give you enough for elementary work.
The science of textual criticism itself has evolved over hundreds of years, and there is hardly
room here to describe it in justice. But it can be stated categorically that it is a necessary
discipline, since our manuscripts do differ among themselves. This is not disputed by any
reputable Biblical scholar. The difference between them is simply one of deciding which reading
is best.
One theory, supported primarily by fundamentalist scholars, is that the reading supported by
the most manuscripts is best. These scholars tend to prefer the Byzantine text represented (if
rather badly represented) by the King James version.
The modern theory, supported by the large majority of experts in the field, uses a different
basis. I would summarize its precepts as follows:
• All else being equal, the reading found in the oldest manuscripts is preferable.

Textual Criticism
• All else being equal, the reading which best explains the others is preferable.
Fortunately, the two “modern” criteria tend to produce the same results (this is why we accept
this system). As an example, consider James 5:4. The oldest manuscript (B) with other ancient
and valuable support (ന74 048 1241 1739) reads The farmer waits to receive. The mass of later texts
have …waits to receive rain. One early text (!) has …waits to receive fruit. Clearly the first reading is
the hardest; what is the farmer waiting to receive? Various scribes supplied different answers: rain
or fruit. But we can be fairly sure that their suggestions are not original.
This is the basic method of textual criticism: look at the evidence and try to see how the
variations (many of which are fascinating) arose. It’s not an exact science — but in general most
editors agree. There are a few points where we really don’t know what the original text read —
but none affect Christian doctrine, and the few that affect Christian history are generally covered
in the pages above.
For many reasons, I will refrain from a further discussion of textual criticism here. But once
again I express my hope that readers will not assume that the Biblical text is perfectly and entirely
known, and will use the information below to expand their viewpoint. The history of the text is,
to a significant extent, the history of the church, and should be read in that light.

Textual Criticism
Old Testament Manuscripts

Hebrew Manuscripts
4QSama • Qumran Cave IV Samuel scroll a • I B.C.E. • †1–2 Samuel
MT • Masoretic Text • c. 100 C.E. • OT
Greek Manuscripts
LXX! • Codex Sinaiticus • IV • †OT
The famous codex Sinaiticus, the ‫ א‬of the New Testament, in the Old
Testament contains fragments of Genesis and Numbers, plus 1 Ch. 9:27–
19:17, 2 Esdras (=Ezra/Nehemiah) 9:9–end, Esther, Tobit, Judith,
1!Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lam. 1:1–2:20, Joel, Obadiah,
Jonah, Nahum–Malachi, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon,
Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, and Job. Due to its defects its textual nature has
not been clearly determined.
LXX • Codex Alexandrinus • V • †OT
A
This is, after Vaticanus (LXXB), the oldest substantially complete LXX
manuscript; it lacks Gen. 14:14–17, 15:1–5, 16–19, 16:6–9, 1 Kingdoms
(=1!Samuel) 12:18–14:9, Psalms 49(50):20–79(80):11. Although its text is
generally pre-Origen, it usually shows signs of revision toward the Hebrew.
LXX • Codex Vaticanus • IV • †OT
B
Vaticanus is, in the Old Testament as in the New, the best overall manuscript
we possess. It is nearly complete, lacking Gen. 1:1–46:28, 2!Kingdoms
(=2!Samuel) 2:5–7, 10–13, Psalms 105(106):27–137(138):6 and never having
contained any of the Maccabean books. Although not purely an Old Greek
text, it contains a larger amount of this material than any other witness, and in
some places (e.g. 1 Samuel) it is probably more correct than the MT. It differs
most substantially from MT in shortening the story of David and Goliath
(1!Sam. 17–18; see p. 96), rewriting the account of Solomon, Jeroboam, and
Rehoboam (1 Kings 11–14; see Two Tales of Jeroboam I. p. 139), and
omitting much of the first chapter of 1 Chronicles.
LXXC • Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus • V • †Writings
Originally contained the entire Greek Bible, but was erased. Of the OT only
portions of Job, Proverbs, Eccelesiastes, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, and
Song of Solomon survive. Its small compass dramatically reduces its
importance.
LXX • Codex Bodleianus • X • †Genesis
E
LXXF • Codex Ambrosianus • V • †Gen. 31:15–Josh 12:12

LXXM • Codex Coislinianus • VII • †Gen. 1:1–3 Kgdms 8:40
Fairly important for the first few chapters of Genesis, where other good
manuscripts are few; not very important in other areas.

Textual Criticism
LXXN+V • Codex Basiliano-Vaticanus • VIII/IX •

N=†Lev. 13:59–Esther, V=†Job 30:8–Maccabees
Although relatively late and somewhat damaged, this is probably our best
manuscript, after LXXA LXXB, of the first half of the Bible, and second only
to LXXA in Maccabees.
LXXQ • Codex Marchalianus • VI • prophets
Not only is this an excellent text of the Prophets (belonging to the Hesychian
recension) but its margins contain many readings from other editions and
translations.
LXX • Codex Freerianus • III • Minor Prophets (starting with Amos)
W
33 badly damaged leaves out of probably 48 in the original, but of great

textual value. The text begins with Amos 1:10 and has mutilations after that,
but its early date makes it very useful. Most textbooks cite it as X, but Rahlfs
uses the symbol W.
LXX • Codex Berlinensis •!III • Genesis
911
A codex which originally had perhaps 32 leaves, containing Genesis 1-35. The
columns are irregular and the text damaged, but its age makes it important for
Genesis, where LXXA and LXXB are both partly defective.
Lucian • Lucianic Text • c. 300
This is not a manuscript but a text-type, found in various manuscripts. It
generally is closer to the Hebrew than LXXB, but also contains a large
number of peculiar readings, some of which go back to the Old Greek. It
seems to be related to the Byzantine text of the New Testament.
Other Sources
Vulgate • Jerome’s Vulgate Latin translation • IV • OT
Josephus • Citations from Josephus’s Antiquities • I • (OT)

Textual Criticism
New Testament Manuscripts

In the New Testament section, manuscripts are designated by text-types: the general sort of
text each manuscript contains. In the Gospels and Acts, the major text-types are:
• the Alexandrian, generally the most faithful to the original
• the “Western,” an early but periphrastic text, represented primarily by the Latin. A lack of
available texts means that its history and nature is not clearly understood, but most would
divide it into the periphrasic “Bezan” text, the “Italic” and “African” Latin families, and
the “Syriac” branch
• the Byzantine, a corrupt combination of the Alexandrian and “Western” texts, which was
then edited for style.
In the other books, we find Alexandrian, “Western” (here less corrupt, and not obviously
subdivided), and Byzantine texts. Since most manuscripts are actually a mixture of types, many
will have a second type in parentheses.
Greek Manuscripts: Papyri

The papyri include all of the oldest New Testament manuscripts known. Written on papyrus
(obviously), they survived only in Egypt, where the dry climate preserves the papyrus. Most were
buried or thrown away, so they are generally fragmentary. Since they come from Egypt, most
have Alexandrian texts. Although many papyri are early, some are more recent, and less valuable,
than the early uncials.
ന1 • (Oxyrhynchus 2) • III • Matthew† • (Alexandrian?)
ന4 • (Paris National Library Supp. Gr. 1120) • III • Luke† (Alexandrian?)
ന38 • (Ann Arbor, P. Mich. 138) • III/IV • a† • (Western?)
ന45 • Beatty Papyrus I • III • e†a† • (Cæsarean? Freely edited Alexandrian?)
The earliest significant witness to Matthew, Mark, and Acts, and one of the
oldest for Luke and John. Its text is strongly mixed (although with a number of
Cæsarean readings) and shows possible signs of editing, meaning that it is
more important for establishing the antiquity of readings than their ancestry
ന46 • Beatty Papyrus II • II • p† • Alexandrian or pre-Alexandrian
This earliest important manuscript of Paul’s letters is marked by a significant
independence of text. It is most closely related to B, but has many readings
found nowhere else. Scholars vary in their opinions of its exact date (one
would place it in the late first century, although a date between 150 and 200 is
usual) and value.
ന • Beatty Papyrus III • III • r† • (Alexandrian?)
47
ന66 • Bodmer Papyrus II • II/III• John† • Alexandrian, but badly copied

ന72 • Bodmer Papyrus VII,VIII • III/IV • 1-2 Peter, Jude, non-canonical works • Alexandrian
ന74 • Bodmer Papyrus XVII • VII • a†c† • Alexandrian

Textual Criticism
ന75 • Bodmer Papyrus XIV, XV • III • Luke, John† • Alexandrian

Not only is this one of the earliest of gospel manuscripts, but overall the most
accurate now known. It is very similar to B, although of course it is much
more fragmentary.
Greek Manuscripts: Uncials1

! (01) • Codex Sinaiticus • IV • eapcr • Alexandrian
This is the only complete uncial manuscript of the New Testament, and our
best Alexandrian witness after B.
A (02) • Codex Alexandrinus • V • e†ap†cr • Byzantine, Alexandrian
After ‫א‬, this is the most complete of New Testament uncials, intact except that
it lacks most of Matthew, a couple of chapters of John, and part of
2!Corinthians. But it is distinctly less valuable than ‫ א‬or B. In the gospels it has
a proto-Byzantine text. In the rest of the Bible it is better — generally a good
Alexandrian witness — but still has Byzantine readings in all books except the
Apocalypse, where it is our best manuscript.
B (03) • Codex Vaticanus • IV • eap†c • Alexandrian
The best of all New Testament manuscripts (as well as of LXX manuscripts).
It was originally a complete Bible, but the final pages (containing part of
Hebrews, plus 1 & 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and probably the Apocalypse)
have been lost.
C (04) • Codex Ephaemi Rescriptus • V • e†a†p†c†r† • Alexandrian (Byzantine)
A fragmentary manuscript (it is a palimpsest, or erased manuscript; only about
60% of the New Testament survives, and that often illegible). In the gospels it
is mixed, but in Paul it goes with a A 33. Same as LXXC.
D (05) • Codex Bezae • V? • e†a† • Western (Bezan branch)
This is the only Greek gospels manuscript to contain the “Western” text, which
often appears to be a paraphrase of the original text. As such, it has many
fascinating readings (although the correctness of such readings is highly
questionable when not corroborated by other good witnesses). (Observe that its
number of peculiar readings makes it the manuscript most often mentioned in
the Index to this volume.) Note that D in the Gospels and Acts is not the same
1.!Uncial script is the earlier form of writing used in Biblical manuscripts. They are roughly equivalent to modern
upper case letters. Uncials were used from the first until the tenth centuries. From the ninth century on,
manuscripts might instead be written in minuscules, equivalent to our lower case letters (and often written in a
connected script form, unlike uncials which were written letter-by-letter). Note that uncials are used both in the
“uncial” and the “papyrus” manuscripts. The terminology here is somewhat confusing; a papyrus manuscript is
written in uncials on papyrus (only); an uncial manuscript is written in uncials on parchment (only); a minuscule
manuscript is written in minuscules on parchment or paper (or maybe even papyrus, if a very late papyrus ever
turns up). The uncial manuscripts, by virtue of their age, are generally the basis for modern Bible editions; they
are designated by upper-case letters (e.g. ‫ א‬A B C D M Y [) or by numbers preceded by a 0 (e.g. 0243).
Minuscule manuscripts are designated by simple Arabic numbers (e.g. 33 81 892 1739).

Textual Criticism
manuscript as D in Paul, although both manuscripts contain both Greek and

Latin.
D (06) • Codex Claromontanus • VI • p† • Western
Like its namesake Codex Bezae (above), Claromontanus is a “Western” text
with a Latin as well as a Greek text.. In Paul, however, the “Western” text is
not the extravagant production it is in the gospels, and often retains the
original text.
E (07) • Codex Basilensis • VIII • e† • Byzantine (Group Kx)
E (08) • Codex Laudianus • VI • a† • Mixed, but mostly Byzantine
F (010) • Codex Augiensis • IX • p† • Western
G (011) • Codex Seidelianus • IX • e† • Byzantine
G (012) • Codex Boernianus • IX • p† • Western
F and G are sisters, that is, they were probably copied from the same exemplar,
and should be considered only one witness. G is the more complete and
(probably) more accurate of the two. Interestingly, although both F and G
possess a Latin parallel, the two Latin versions are not the same. That in G is
an interlinear Old Latin gloss; F has a parallel Latin text.
H (015) • Codex Coislinianus • VI • p† • weakly Alexandrian
K (017) • Codex Cyprius • IX • e • Byzantine (Group /)
K (018) • Codex Mosquensis • IX • p†c • Byzantine. Includes commentary
L (019) • Codex Regius • VIII • e† • Alexandrian (Byzantine in Matthew)
Other than B and !, probably the most important of the uncials of the
Gospels, although the scribe doesn’t seem to have known Greek very well. It is
closer to B than !.
L (020) • Codex Angelicus • IX • a†p†c • Byzantine
M (021) • Codex Campianus • IX • e • Byzantine (Group M)
N (022) • Codex Purpurensis (i.e. the Purple Codex)• VI • e† • Byzantine (Cæsarean)
P (024) • Codex Porphyrianus • IX •!a†p†c†r† • Byzantine (Alexandrian). Palimpsest
S (028) • Codex Vaticanus • 949 c.e. • e • Byzantine (Group Kx)
T (029) • Codex Borgianus (and others) • V • Luke†John† • Alexandrian. Greek/Sahidic
This manuscript is scattered across several libraries, and the parts have
different designations. The text is very close to B and is of excellent quality. It
has a parallel text in Sahidic Coptic.
U (030) •!Codex Nanianus • IX • e • Byzantine
V (031) • Codex Mosquensis • IX • e† • Byzantine (Group Kx)
W (032) • Freer Gospels (Codex Freerianus) • V • e† • Mixed
This peculiar manuscript, the last of the important early uncials to be found,
contains at various points the Alexandrian, Western, Byzantine, and Cæsarean
texts, as well as having a long interpolation in the ending of Mark known from
no other Greek manuscript. Although W is perhaps not always highly reliable,
it is a very interesting manuscript.

Textual Criticism
X (033) • Codex Monacensis • X • e† • Byzantine (Alexandrian)

Y (034) • Codex Macedonensis • IX •!e† •!Byzantine (Group /)
Z (035) • Codex Dublinensis • VI • Matthew† • Alexandrian. Palimpsest.
J (036) • Codex Tischendorfianus • X •!e† • Byzantine (Group Kx)
M (037) • Codex Sangallensis •!IX • e† • Byzantine (Alexandrian)
Although M is primarily Byzantine in Matthew, Luke, and John, it is mostly
Alexandrian in Mark, and as such is regularly cited for that book
! (038) • Codex Coredethianus (Koridethi) • IX • e† • Cæsarean (Byzantine)
The Koridethi Codex is the key to the Cæsarean text: until its discovery, that
text was too fragmented to be discovered. As it turns out, all Cæsarean
manuscripts are heavily corrupted with Byzantine readings — but Y is among
the best.
R (039) • Codex Tischendorfianus • IX • Luke/John •!Byzantine (Group R)
/ (041) • Codex Petropolitanus • IX • e† • Byzantine (Group /)
L (042) •!Codex Rossanensis • VI • Matt., Mark •!Byzantine (Cæsarean); purple; goes with N
[ (044) • Codex Athous Lavrensis • VIII/IX • e†ap†c • Byzantine (Alexandrian)
# (045) • Codex Athous • IX •!e • Byzantine (Group Kx)
047 • VIII • e† • Byzantine (Group Kx)
Greek Manuscripts: Minuscules

ƒ1 • the Lake Group •!IX? • e • (Cæsarean)
The Lake Group is not a single manuscript but a family of closely-related
manuscripts (1, 118, 131, [205], 209, 1582) which preserves a mostly
Cæsarean text compiled perhaps in the eighth or ninth century. After Y it is
our best Cæsarean witness
ƒ13 • the Ferrar Group • IX? •!e • (Cæsarean)
The Ferrar Group is a family of manuscripts (13, 69, 124, 174, 230, 346, 543,
788, 826, 828, 983, 1689, 1709) which go back to a mixed Cæsarean/
Byzantine text from perhaps the ninth century.
6 • XIII • eapc •!family 1739
Family 1739 is a group of manuscripts, not as closely related as family 1 or family
13, consisting of the very important manuscript 1739 supported by 0243
0121a 0121b 1881 6 630 424c 1908. The text is very valuable, being somewhat
like but probably not descended from the Alexandrian text. It is not cited as a
group because its members differ significantly in how Byzantine they are. It
exists only in Paul, Acts, and the Catholic Epistles. 6 goes with the type in Paul
and perhaps in the Catholics. In the Gospels and Acts, 6 is Byzantine
28 • XI • e† •!Cæsarean (in Mark only; elsewhere Byzantine)
33 • “the Queen of the Cursives” •!IX • e†apc • Alexandrian (Byzantine)
81 • 1044 • a†pc •!Alexandrian
157 •!XII •!e • Mixed
383 •!XIII •!apc • Western/Byzantine

Textual Criticism
424c • XI •![apc] •!family 1739

The symbol “c” (as in 424c) denotes a correction in a manuscript — i.e. a place
where a reader of the manuscript found what was believed to be an error (the
original reading is denoted by an asterisk, e.g. 424*). Sometimes these
alterations correct errors in the manuscript, but often they are because of the
differences in text-types (usually a scribe used to Byzantine readings, upon
finding an Alexandrian reading in his manuscript, would “correct” it. 424 is an
exception: the original manuscript 424* was a worthless Byzantine manuscript,
which was corrected according to an excellent text of family 1739, perhaps
most closely related to 6).
565 • IX • e† • Cæsarean
579 • XIII •!e† •!Alexandrian
614 •!XIII •!apc† •!Western/Byzantine
Of value primarily in Acts and Catholics, where it is one of many manuscripts
of “family 2138” (614, 1505, 1611, 2138, 2495, etc.). These are often called
“Western,” although they aren’t much like D.
629 • XIV •!apc •!Western/Byzantine, with Latin parallel
630 • XIV •!apc •!(family 1739/mixed)
700 •!XI •!e • Cæsarean
892 •!IX •!e† • Alexandrian
1175 •!XI •!ap†c • (late) Alexandrian
1241 • XII • e†a†pc •!Mixed — Alexandrian in Luke, very good in Catholics
1243 •!XI •!eapc •!Mixed
1506 •!1320 •!e†p† •!Alexandrian
1739 • X • apc • family 1739
1739, as noted in the entry on 6, is (in Paul and the Catholics at least) the head
of a family of manuscripts of high value and usefulness. (Note, however, that
since variants in Paul’s letters are rarely cited in this work, I use family 1739
relatively rarely)
1962 • XI •!p† •!(late) Alexandrian
2127 •!XII • eap†c • (late) Alexandrian
2147 •!XI/XII • †eapc • related to 614
2344 • XI • apcr • most valuable in Apocalypse, where it goes with A
2495 •!XIV/XV • eapcr • Mixed
Very close to 1505. Valuable primarily in Acts and Catholics, where it goes
with 614
Old Latin texts

Note that the same symbol can be used for different Latin manuscripts in
different parts of the Bible. The number in parentheses is the “Beuron
number,” used to uniquely identify the various Latin manuscripts.
a (3) •!Codex Vercellensis • IV • e† • Western (Italic branch)

Textual Criticism
b (4) • Codex Veronensis • V • e† • Western (Italic branch)

b (89) • VIII • p •!Western
d (75) • Codex Claromontanus •!VI •!p† • Western. This is the Latin side of D above.
e (2) • Codex Palatinus •!V • e† • Western (African branch)
ff2 (8) • Codex Corbiensis • V • e† • Western (Italic branch)
g1 (7) • Codex Sangermanensis • VIII • e • Western (Italic branch)
gig (51) •!Codex Gigas • XIII • (e)a(pc)r • Western
h (12) • Codex Claromontanus •!IV/V •!Matthew† •!Western (Italic branch)
h (55) •!Fleury palimpsest • V •!†acr •!Western (African branch)
k (1) •!Codex Bobiensis • IV/V •!Matt./Mark† • Western (African branch)
l (11) • Codex Rehdigeranus •!VII •!e† • Western (Italic branch)
p (54) • Codex Perpinianus • XIII • a† • Western
q (13) •!Codex Monacensis •!VI/VII • e† • Western (Italic branch)
w (58) • Prague codex • XIV/XV • a
Other Ancient Versions

vg •!Jerome’s Vulgate (official Catholic Latin Bible) • IV • eapcr •!Mixed
am •!Codex Amiatinus of the Vulgate •!VIII • OT+NT
ful •!Codex Fuldensis of the Vulgate • 547 • (e)apcr
sin • Sinai Syriac • IV • e† • Western (Syriac branch)
cur •!Curetonian Syriac • V •!e† •!Western (Syriac branch)
cop •!Coptic versions •!III and later •!eapcr • Alexandrian
Individual Coptic versions: sa (Sahidic), bo (Bohairic), mae (Middle Egyptian)
arm •!Armenian version •!V •!eapcr •!Cæsarean
geo •!Georgian version • V/VI •!eapcr •!Cæsarean
English Bible Versions

AB Anchor Bible
AOT (Author’s Own Translation)
CCD1941 Rheims/Challoner 1941 translation (allegedly of the Vulgate, but mostly Greek)
GAS George Adam Smith Translation
GOODSPD Edgar J. Goodspeed Translation
JB Jerusalem Bible
JPS Jewish Publication Society edition
KJV King James (Authorised) Version
MOFFATT James Moffatt Translation
NAB New American Bible
NASB New American Standard Bible (edition of 1977)
NEB New English Bible
NETS A New English Translation of the Septuagint
NIV New International Version
NJB New Jerusalem Bible

Textual Criticism
NKJV New King James Bible

NLT New Living Translation
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
PHILLIPS J. B. Phillips Translation
REB Revised English Bible
RSV Revised Standard Version
RV (English) Revised Version of 1881
SV Scholars Version
TNIV Today’s New International Version
Greek Editions
TR • Textus Receptus (1516), the corrupt Greek text from which the King James Bible is
translated
GNT • Greek New Testament, the Greek edition prepared in the 1960s on which most
modern translations are based
Ancient Authors
Ant Josephus, Antiquities
BJ Josephus, Jewish War
Ecc. Hist. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History
Hist. Herodotus, Histories
Miscellaneous Abbreviations
B.C.E. Before the Common Era (B.C.)
C.E. Common Era (A.D.)
LXX Septuagint (Greek OT)
MT Masoretic Text (Hebrew OT)
NT New Testament
OT Old Testament
S.E. Seleucid Era
Symbols in the Text

! Denotes that the entry with this symbol lists all scriptural references to the person
|| Parallels (in the gospels)
J, E, P, D Sources of the Torah (Jahwist, Elohist, Priestly, Deuteronomic)
Textual Symbols
! A [ 33 Greek manuscripts
A* original scribe of A
Ac later corrector of A
pm permulti (very many — a large fraction of the manuscripts)

Textual Criticism
Manuscripts To See When You Travel

What follows isn’t really a proper part of this book. It’s not a reference; it’s more a travel
guide. I thought of this when I was reading about the fact that the minuscule 223 is in Ann
Arbor, Michigan. I cannot travel far, so most important NT manuscripts are inaccessible to me.
The one that might be within reach, the Michigan sections of ന46, are not really publicly
available. But 223 — that I might be able to see.
I haven’t yet seen it. I may never see it. But I compiled a list, based on geography, of the most
important manuscripts in particular regions of the world. If you want to be a “manuscript
tourist,” this might give you a list of materials to start with. Note that it is not organized by nation
or state or city but by region; odds are that if you can get to New York you can also get to Boston
(e.g.), but you might not be able to get to Tblisi or Paris. The goal is to list all the most important
manuscripts you might see on a trip to a particular part of the world. I’ve generally confined the
list to about five manuscripts in a given region (with the exceptions of Athos, Oxford, London,
and Paris, which simply have too many important manuscripts to cut off the list). Within a
region, I’ve listed manuscripts in roughly descending order of significance. Some places will have
relatively unimportant manuscripts listed (e.g. I list 223 for the midwestern U. S. because there
are few important manuscripts in that part of the world; Ann Arbor has some five dozen Biblical
manuscripts, but few have much value).
Note: Manuscripts don’t often move from place to place — they are too valuable. But it does
happen — they may be sold, or go on loan, and a few are in politically unstable places.... I have
checked the list based on the newest sources available to me, but best to check before you visit a
particular library.
Particularly important manuscripts are shown in italic.
Africa
Northern Africa
Alexandria, Egypt: 81 (Patriarchal Library MS. 59)
Cairo, Egypt: ന15 (Museum of Antiquities MS. 47423)
Cairo, Egypt: ന16 (Museum of Antiquities MS. 47424)
Sinai, Egypt: 1881 (St. Catherine’s Monastery MS. 300)
Sinai, Egypt: ന14 (St. Catherine’s Monastery MS. Harris 14)
Asia
Georgia
Tblisi: ,/038 (State Museum Greek 28)
Turkey
Istanbul: 1286 (Sérail Library MS.34)
Istanbul: 1872 (Patriarchate, Chalki, #96)

Textual Criticism
Istanbul: 1144 (Patrriarchate MS. ?)

Istanbul: 1145 (Patrriarchate MS. ?)
Israel
Jerusalem: 1319 (Panagiou Taphou MS. 47)
Jerusalem: 1342 (Holy Saba MS. 411)
Canada
Montreal: 2415 (McGill University MS. 2)
Toronto: 2321 (University Library, no MS. #)
Europe
Austria
Vienna: 424 (Austrian National Library, MS. Greek Theological 302)
Vienna: ന3 (Austrian National Library, Greek Papyrus 2323)
Belgium
Ghent: ന30 (Rijksunuiversiteit Library Papyrus 61)
Denmark
Copenhagen: 234 (Royal Library MS. GkS 1322,40)
England
Cambridge: De/05 (University Library MS. Nn.II.41)
Cambridge: Fp/010 (Trinity College MS. B.XVII.1)
Cambridge: ന27 (University Library MS. Add. 7211)
Cambridge: ന17 (University Library MS. Add. 5893)
Cambridge: 0250 (Westminster College Codex Climaci rescriptus)
Leicester: 69 (Town Museum and Art Gallery, Cod. 6 D 32/1)
London: ! (British Library, Additional MS. 43725)
London: A (British Library, Royal MS. 1 D VIII)
London: ന13 (British Library, Papyrus 1532v)
London: 892 (British Library, Additional MS. 33277)
London: Mp/0121 (British Library, Harley MS. 5613)
London: 700 (British Library, Egerton MS. 2610)
London: 104 (British Library, Harley MS. 5537)
Cambridge: Z/040 (University Library, British and Foreign Bible Society MS. 24)
Manchester: ന52 (John Rylands Library Greek Papyrus 457)
Oxford: Ea/08 (Bodleian Library MS. Laud 35)
Oxford: ന29 (Bodleian Library MS. Gr. Bibl. g.4 (P))
Oxford: 0232 (Bodleian Library P. Antinoopolis P. 12)
Oxford: 0231 (Bodleian Library P. Antinoopolis P. 11)
Oxford: ന19 (Bodleian Library Ms. Gr. Bibl.d.6 (P))
Oxford: 326 (Lincoln College MS. Lat. 82)

Textual Criticism
Oxford: 1908 (Bodleian Library MS. Thomas Roe 16

Oxford: 050 (Christ Church College MS. Wake 2))
France
Paris: C/04 (National Library Gr. 9)
Paris: 33 (National Library Gr. 14)
Paris: Dp/06 (National Library Gr. 107)
Paris: L (National Libtary Gr. 62)
Paris: 256 (National Library MS. Armenian 9)
Paris: ന4 (National Library Supp. Grec. 1120)
Paris: O/023 (National Library Supp. Grec. 1286)
Strasbourg: ന6 (National and University Library Pap. Copt. 379.381f.384)
Germany
Berlin: ന8 (State Museum, Egyptian collection, P. 8683)
Berlin: ന25 (State Museum, Egyptian collection, P. 16388)
Dresden: Gp/012 (Sächsiche Landesbibliothek A 145b)
Hamburg: Mp/0121b/0243 (State and University Library Cod. 50 in scrin.)
Hamburg: He/013 (State and University Library Cod. 91 in scrin.)
Heidelberg: ന40 (State University Library, University Papyrus Archive Papyrus 45)
Munich: X/033 (University Library fol. 30)
Munich: 0142 (Bavarian State Library MS. Greek 375)
Wolfenbüttel: Q/026 (Herzog August Library MS. Weißenburg 64)
Wolfenbüttel: P/024 (Herzog August Library MS. Weißenburg 64)
Wolfenbüttel: 429 (Herzog August Library MS. August. 16.7.40)
Greece
Athens (-./0%): 1611 (Greek National Library MS. 94)
Athens (K+o5-): 075 (Greek National Library MS. 100)
Athens (K+o5-): N/022 (Byzantine Museum fragment 21)
Athos (1.2(): 1739 (Great Lavra B' 62)
Athos (1.2(): 1582 (Vatopediu MS. 949)
Athos (s+D#): 945 (Vatopediu MS. 37/124
Athos (s+D#): 1071 (Great Lavra A' 104)
Patmos (4%567(): 1175 (Monastery of the Holy John the Theologian MS. 16)
Ireland
Dublin: ന46 (Chester Beatty Library; Beatty Papyrus II; no MS. #)
Dublin: ന45 (Chester Beatty Library; Beatty Papyrus I; no MS. #)

Textual Criticism
Dublin: ന47 (Chester Beatty Library; Beatty Papyrus III; no MS. #)

Dublin: Z/035 (Trinity College MS. K 3.4)
Dublin: 61 (Trinity College MS. A 4.21)
Italy (see also Vatican Library)
Florence: ന13 (Papiri della Societá Italiana #1292)
Florence: 365 (Laurentian Library MS. VI.36)
Florence: ന48 (Papiri della Societá Italiana #1165)
Naples: 88 (National Library MS. II.A.7)
Naples: 0116 (National Library MS. II.C.15)
Naples: 1912 (National Library Cod. Vien. 8)
Grottaferrata: 828 (della Badia library, A.-.5)
Grottaferrata: 098 (della Badia library, Z.-.24)
Milan: 614 (Ambrosian Library, MS. E.97 sup.)
Milan: 0135 (Ambrosian Library, MS. Q.6.sup.)
Milan: 346 (Ambrosian Library, MS. S.23 sup.)
Modena: Ha/014 (Estense Library, MS. G.196/II.G.3)
Palermo: 2127 (National Library Dep. Mus. 4)
Rome: Le/020 (Angelican Library MS. 39)
Rossano: L/042 (Archepiscopal Library, no MS. #)
Venice: 0243 (Library of San Marco 083 (II.181, folios 1-7))
Venice: 205 (Library of San Marco 420 (F. a. 5)
Venice: 209 (Library of San Marco 394 (F. a. 10))
Venice: U/030 (Library of San Marco 1397 (I.8))
Macedonia
Ohrid (VN!`9-): 2624 (National Museum MS. 2)
Netherlands
Utrecht: Fe/09 (Rijksunuiversiteit Library MS. 1)
Norway
Oslo: ന62 (University Library Papyrus P. Oslo Inv. 1661)
Russia
Moscow: Kap/018 (History Museum V.9 S.399)
Moscow: V/031 (History Museum V.9 S.399)
Moscow: 462 (History Museum V.24 S. 346)
St. Petersburg: 330 (State Library, MS. Gr. 101)
St. Petersburg: ന11 (State Library, MS. Gr. 258)
St. Petersburg: / (State Library, MS. Gr. 34)
St. Petersburg: 087 (State Library, MS. Gr. 12.278)
St. Petersburg: 088 (State Library, MS. Gr. 6.II, folios 5-6)

Textual Criticism
Scotland
Glasgow: ന22 (Glasgow University Library MS. 2-x.1)
Spain
Madrid: 2051 (National Library MS. 4750)
Sweden
Linköping: 1851 (Stiftsbibl. T.14)
Linköping: 2600 (Stiftsbibl. T.277)
Uppsala: 441 (University Library Greek 1, pp. 3-182)
Uppsala: 442 (University Library Greek 1, pp. 183-440)
Uppsala: 1852 (University Library Greek 11)
Switzerland
Basel: 1 (University Library A.N.IV.2)
Basel: E/07 (University Library A.N.III.12)
Geneva: 323 (Public and University Library, MS. Gr. 20)
Ukraine
Kiev: Hp/015 (Ukranian National Library Petrov MS. 17)
Kiev: 064 (Ukranian National Library Petrov MS. 17)
Vatican Library (see also Italy)
Vatican: B/03 (MS. 1209)
Vatican: 436 (MS. 367)
Vatican: 630 (Cod. Ottoboniani Gr. 299)
Vatican: 629 (Cod. Ottoboniani Gr. 298)
Vatican: 861 (MS. 1090)
South America
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 2437 (National Library I.2)
United States
Midwest
Ann Arbor, MI: ന46 (University of Michigan MS. Inv. Nr. 6238)
Ann Arbor, MI: 543 [member of ƒ13] (University of Michigan MS. 15)
Ann Arbor, MI: 876 (University of Michigan MS. 16)
Ann Arbor, MI: ന37 (University of Michigan MS. Inv. Nr. 1570)
Ann Arbor, MI: 223 (University of Michigan MS. 34)
Chicago, IL: 2412 (University Library MS. 922)
Dayton, OH: 0206 (Bonebrake Theological Seminary, no MS. #)
Maywood, IL: 1424 (Lutheran Theological Seminary, Gruber collection, MS. 152)
Urbana, IL: ന33 (University of Illinois, Classical Museum G. P. 1229)

Textual Criticism
Northeast
Cambridge, MA: ന9 (Harvard Semitic Museum MS. 3736)
Cambridge, MA: ന10 (Harvard Semitic Museum MS. 2218)
Chester, PA: ന39 (Crozer Theological Seminary, Brucknell Library, MS 8864)
Madison, NJ: 1960 (Drew University MS. 1)
New Haven, CT: 0212 (Yale University Library P. Dura 10)
New Haven, CT: ന50 (Yale University Library P. 1543)
New Haven, CT: ന49 (Yale University Library P. 415)
Newton Center, MA: ന24 (Andover-Newton Theological School Hills Library OP 1230)
New York, NY: T/029 (Pierpont Morgan Library MS. 664A)
New York, NY: ന12 (Pierpont Morgan Library MS. Pap.G.3)
New York, NY: ന44 (Metropolitan Museum of Art Inv. 14-1-527)
New York, NY: 0162 (Metropolitan Museum of Art Inv. 09-182-43)
New York, NY: 076 (Pierpont Morgan Library MS. Pap.G.8)
Philadelphia, PA: ന1 (University of Pennsylvania Museum E2746)
Princeton, NJ: ന20 (Princeton University Library P. Princeton AM 4117)
Princeton, NJ: ന54 (Princeton University Library P. Princeton AM 15)
Princeton, NJ: 047 (Princeton Univ. Library Medieval and Renaissance MS. Garrett 1)
Princeton, NJ: 1799 (Princeton Univ. Library Medieval and Renaissance MS. Garrett 8)
Washington, DC: W/030 (Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery of Art MS. 06.274)
Washington, DC: I/016 (Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery of Art MS. 06.275)
Southwest
Berkeley, CA: ന28 (Pacific Institute of Religion, Palestine Inst. Pap. 2)
San Marino, CA: 703 (Henry Huntington Library H.M. 1081)
South
Dallas, TX: ന26 (Southern Methodist University, A. V. Lane Museum, no MS. #)
Durham, NC: 2423 (Duke University MS. Greek 3)
Louisville, KY: 2358 (Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, no MS. #)

Bibliography
Bibliography
This book was compiled over a period of more than twenty years, with more than a ten year hiatus between the
last draft and the edition you are now holding. I do not begin to remember every book I have cited, and at least some
were destroyed by mold, so I can’t cite them. But this will give you at least some idea of the sources involved.
It is perhaps an indication of how easy it is to put together a long bibliography that this list certainly omits
many books I have used, and I know that I did not have adequate sources for many parts of this book, and yet look
at how long this list is! And this even though I did not cite the concordances (six) or linguistic references (at least
nine) that I used in this process.
I haven’t worried too much about a standard bibliographic format here; the goal was to be clear.
Complete English Bibles, New Testaments, Apocrypha

(in order primarily of date of translation, with related translations grouped)
• The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments… The text conformable to that of the
edition of 1611 commonly known as the Authorized or King James’s Version, with the
“Jewel” cross-reference system, A. J. Holman, 1942. Cited as KJV.
• The New Testament of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, being the version set forth A.D. 1611
compared with the most ancient authorities and revised A.D. 1881 (the “English Revised
Version”), Oxford University Press, 1881. Cited as RV.
• James Moffatt, The Historical New Testament, second revised edition, T & T Clark, 1901.
• James Moffatt, A New Translation of the Bible, 1922, 1926, revised edition 1935, Harper & Row,
1954. Cited as MOFFATT.
• The Bible: An American Translation, The Old Testament translated by a group of scholars under
the editorship of J. M. Powis Smith, The New Testament translated by Edgar J. Goodspeed,
University of Chicago Press, 1935. Cited as GOODSPEED.
• Edgar J. Goodspeed, translator, The Apocrypha: An American Translation, with an introduction by
Moses Hadas, 1939; Vintage Books edition 1959. Cited as GOODSPEED.
• The New Testament of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, Translated from the Latin Vulgate, A
Revision of the Challoner-Rhiems Version Edited by Catholic Scholars Under the Patronage
of The Episcopal Committee of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, St. Anthony Guild
Press, 1941. Cited as CCD1941.
• Herbert G. May and Bruce M. Metzger, editors, The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the
Apocrypha, Revised Standard Version, Oxford University Press. New Testament translation
1946, 1971; Old Testament 1952; Apocrypha 1971; annotations 1961, 1977. Translation
cited as RSV.
• The Holy Scriptures: According to the Masoretic Text (Hebrew Bible only, for obvious reasons!),
Jewish Publication Society of America, 1955. Cited as JPS.
• J. B. Phillips, The New Testament in Modern English, 1947 (Epistles), 1952 (Gospels), 1955 (Acts),
1957 (Apocalypse); combined edition, Macmillan, 1958. Cited as PHILLIPS.

Bibliography
• Samuel Sandmel, general editor; M. Jack Suggs, New Testament Editor; Arnold J. Tkacik,
Apocrypha Editor, The New English Bible with the Apocrypha: Oxford Study Edition, Oxford
University Press. New Testament translation 1961, 1970, 1972; Old Testament and
Apocrypha 1970, 1972; annotations 1976. Cited as NEB.
• The Jerusalem Bible (Reader’s Edition), based on La Bible de Jérusalem, Doubleday, 1966-1968.
Cited as JB.
• The New Jerusalem Bible, based on the 1973 revised version of La Bible de Jérusalem, Doubleday,
1985. Cited as NJB.
• The New American Bible, Translated from the Original Language with Critical Use of All the
Ancient Sources by members of the Catholic Biblical Association of America, Thomas
Nelson Publishers, 1970; edition with revised New Testament, Catholic Book Publishing
Company, 1986. Collectively cited as NAB.
• The Holy Bible: New American Standard, Holman Bible Publishers, 1977. Note: The Lockman
Foundation has continued to revise this editions; references are specifically to the 1977
edition. Cited as NASB.
• Holy Bible: New International Version, New Testament 1973; Old Testament 1978; Zondervan,
1983. This translation also has been several times revised; references are specifically to the
edition as published 1978. Cited as NIV.
• The New King James Version: New Testament, Thomas Nelson, 1982. Cited as NKJV.
• Bruce M. Metzger and Roland E. Murphy, editors, The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the
Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, New Revised Standard Version, Oxford University Press.
Translation published 1989; annotations 1962, 1965, 1973, 1977, 1991. Text cited as NRSV.
• The Revised English Bible with the Apocrypha, Oxford University Press/Cambridge University
Press, 1989. Cited as REB.
• The Holy Bible: Today’s New International Version, International Bible Society, 2001, 2005. Cited
as TNIV.
• NLT Complete Reference Bible: New Living Translation, 1996; reference edition, Tyndale House,
2003. Cited as NLT.
• Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright, Editors, A New English Translation of the Septuagint
(and the Other Greek Translations Traditionally Included under That Title), Oxford University Press,
2007. Cited as NETS.
English Translations of, and Commentaries on, Individual Biblical Books

(in order by book based on the Protestant canon)
• Gerhard von Rad, Genesis, translated by John Marks. German Edition 1956; English Edition
from The Old Testament Library, Westminster Press, 1961
• E. A. Speiser, Genesis, The Anchor Bible 1, Doubleday, 1964. Cited as AB.
• Anthony F. Campbell & Mark A. O’Brien, Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History (Joshua, Judges,
1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, with translation based on the NRSV), Fortress Press, 2000
• Robert G. Boling and G. Ernest Wright, Joshua, The Anchor Bible 6, Doubleday, 1982. Cited
as AB.

Bibliography
• Victor H. Matthews, Judges & Ruth, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary, Cambridge
University Press, 2004
• Hans Wilhelm Hertzberg, 1 & 2 Samuel, translated by J. S. Bowen. German Edition 1960;
English Edition from The Old Testament Library, Westminster Press, 1964
• P. Kyle McCarter, Jr., I Samuel, The Anchor Bible 8, Doubleday, 1980. Cited as AB.
• P. Kyle McCarter, Jr., II Samuel, The Anchor Bible 9, Doubleday, 1984. Cited as AB.
• Mordechai Cogan and Hayim Tadmor, II Kings, The Anchor Bible 11, Doubleday, 1988.
Cited as AB.
• Jacob M. Myers, I Chronicles, The Anchor Bible 12, Doubleday, 1965. Cited as AB.
• Jacob M. Myers, II Chronicles, The Anchor Bible 13, Doubleday, 1965. Cited as AB.
• Jacob M. Myers, Ezra • Nehemiah, The Anchor Bible 14, Doubleday, 1965. Cited as AB.
• Walter F. Adenay, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, The Expositor’s Bible, Funk & Wagnalls, 1900
• George Adam Smith, The Book of Isaiah, Volume I, Chapters I-XXXIX, new and revised
edition, Hodder and Stoughton, 1927?
• George Adam Smith, The Book of Isaiah, Volume II, Chapters XL-LXVI, revised edition,
Harper and Brothers, 1927?
• John L. McKenzie, Second Isaiah, The Anchor Bible 20, Doubleday, 1968. Cited as AB.
• George Adam Smith, Jeremiah, fourth edition, revised and enlarged, Harper & Brothers, 1929
• John Bright, Jeremiah, The Anchor Bible 21, Doubleday, 1965. Cited as AB.
• Louis F. Hartman and Alexander A. Di Lella, The Book of Daniel, The Anchor Bible 23,
Doubleday, 1978. Cited as AB.
• Norman W. Porteous, Daniel, The Old Testament Library, Westminster Press, 1964
• Frances I. Anderson and David Noel Freedman, Hosea, The Anchor Bible 24, Doubleday,
1980. Cited as AB.
• James Luther Mays, Hosea, The Old Testament Library, Westminster Press, 1969.
• George Adam Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets: Volume I: Amos, Hosea, Micah, revised
edition, Harper & Brothers, 1928?
• George Adam Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets, Volume II: Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk,
Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Joel, Jonah, revised edition, Harper & Brothers, 1929? Cited
as GAS.
• Jacob M. Myers, I & II Esdras, The Anchor Bible 42, Doubleday, 1974. Cited as AB.
• Jonathan A. Goldstein, I Maccabees, The Anchor Bible 41, Doubleday, 1976. Cited as AB.
• Jonathan A. Goldstein, II Maccabees, The Anchor Bible 41A, Doubleday, 1983. Cited as AB.
• Carey A. Moore, Daniel, Esther, and Jeremiah: The Additions, The Anchor Bible 44, Doubleday,
1977. Cited as AB.
• Robert J. Miller, editor, The Complete Gospels: Annotated Scholars Version, with a foreword by
Robert W. Funk, third edition, Harper Collins, 1994. Cited as sv.
• Burton H. Throckmorton, Gospel Parallels: A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels (in the Revised
Standard Version), based on the Huck-Leitzmann Greek synopsis, 1936; fourth edition,
Thomas Nelson Inc., 1979
• Floyd V. Filson, The Gospel According to St. Matthew, Harper’s New Testament Commentaries
(1960), Hendrickson, 1987.

Bibliography
• Sherman E. Johnson, The Gospel According to St. Mark, Harper’s New Testament
Commentaries, 1960.
• A. R. C. Leaney, The Gospel According to St. Luke, Harper’s New Testament Commentaries,1958
• Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John I-XII, The Anchor Bible 29, Doubleday,
1966. Cited as AB.
• Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John XIII-XXI, The Anchor Bible 29A, Doubleday,
1970. Cited as AB.
• C. S. C. Williams, The Acts of the Apostles, Harper’s New Testament Commentaries, 1957
• Johannes Munck, The Acts of the Apostles, The Anchor Bible 31, Doubleday, 1967. Cited as AB.
• F. F. Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles: Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary, third edition,
Eerdmans, 1990
Bible Commentaries and Companions

• Matthew Black and H. H. Rowley, Peake’s Commentary on the Bible, Nelson, 1962
• Frederick Carl Eiselen, Edwin Lewis, and David G. Downey, editors, The Abingdon Bible
Commentary, Abingdon, 1929.
• Charles Gore, Henry Leighton Goudge, Alfred Guillaume, editors, A New Commentary on Holy
Scripture including the Apocrypha, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1932.
• A. E. Harvey, The New English Bible Companion to the New Testament, Oxford University Press/
Cambridge University Press, 1970
• Charles M. Laymon, editor, The Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary on the Bible, Abingdon Press,
1971
• Victor H. Matthews and James C. Moyer, The Old Testament: Text and Context, second edition,
Hendrickson, 2005
Other Bible Reference works

• George Arthur Buttrick et al, The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, four volumes, Abingdon,
1962; supplementary fifth volume 1976
• J. D. Douglas, Organizing Editor, The New Bible Dictionary, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,
1962
• James Hastings, editor, Dictionary of the Bible, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1947
• James B. Pritchard, The Harper Atlas of the Bible, Harper & Row, 1987
• Joseph Rhymer, Atlas of the Biblical World, Greenwich House, 1982
• George Adam Smith, Atlas of the Historical Geography of the Holy Land, Hodder and Stoughton,
1915
• W. E. Vine, Merrill F. Unger, William White, Jr.; An Expository Dictionary of Biblical Words, being
a single-volume publication of Unger & White, Nelson’s Expository Dictionary of the Old Testament,
1980, and Vine’s An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, fourth printing, 1984;
combined edition, Nelson, 1985

Bibliography
Early Histories and Texts

• [Anonymous], The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, translated and edited by R. H. Charles
with an introduction by W. O. E. Oesterley, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
1917, reprinted 1925
• [Anonymous], The Epic of Gilgamesh, translated by N. K. Sandars, 1960; revised 1964, 1972; I
use the the 1985 Penguin printing
• Various/Apostolic Fathers, Early Christian Writings, translated by Maxwell Staniforth, 1968;
Dorset Press edition, 1986.
• Aeschlyus, Suppliant Maidens • Persians • Prometheus • Seven Against Thebes (Aeschylus Volume I),
translated with notes by Herbert Weir Smith, Loeb Classical Library (#145), 1922.
• Appian, The Civil Wars, translated with an introduction by John Carter, Penguin, 1996.
• Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt, 1958, revised with a
new introduction by J. R. Hamilton, 1971; Penguin, 1984
• Henry Bettenson, editor, Documents of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, 1947
• Jacobus de Voragine, The Golden Legend: Readings on the Saints, translated by William Granger
Ryan, Volume I, Princeton University Press, 1993 (I use the 1995 Princeton paperback)
• Eusebius, The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine, translated with an introduction by
G. A. Williamson, 1965; Barnes & Noble, 1995. Cited as Ecc. Hist.
• Herodotus, The Histories, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt, revised and with an introduction
by A. R. Burn, Penguin, 1954; revised 1972. Cited as Hist.
• Homer, The Odyssey, translated by Richmond Lattimore (published under the title The Odyssey
of Homer: A Modern Translation), Harper & Row, 1967.
• Flavius Josephus, The Life • Against Apion (Josephus Volume I), translated with notes by H. St. J.
Thackeray, Loeb Classical Library (#186), 1926
• Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War, Books I-III (Josephus Volume II), translated with notes by H. St.
J. Thackeray, Loeb Classical Library (#203), 1927. Cited as BJ.
• Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War, Books IV-VII (Josephus Volume III), translated with notes by H.
St. J. Thackeray, Loeb Classical Library (#210), 1928. Cited as BJ.
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books I-IV (Josephus Volume IV), translated with notes by H.
St. J. Thackeray, Loeb Classical Library (#242), 1930. Cited as Ant.
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books V-VIII (Josephus Volume V), translated with notes by H.
St. J. Thackeray and Ralph Marcus, Loeb Classical Library (#281), 1934. Cited as Ant.
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books IX-XI (Josephus Volume VI), translated with notes by
Ralph Marcus, Loeb Classical Library (#326), 1937. Cited as Ant.
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books XII-XIV (Josephus Volume VII), translated with notes by
Ralph Marcus, Loeb Classical Library (#365), 1943. Cited as Ant.
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books XV-XVII (Josephus Volume VIII), translated with notes
by Ralph Marcus and Allen Wikgren, Loeb Classical Library (#410), 1963. Cited as Ant.
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books XVIII-XIX (Josephus Volume IX), translated with notes
by L. H. Feldman, Loeb Classical Library (#433), 1965 (originally part of a single volume
now divided into volumes IX and X). Cited as Ant.

Bibliography
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, Books XX+Index (Josephus Volume X), translated with notes by
L. H. Feldman, Loeb Classical Library (#456), 1965 (originally part of a single volume now
divided into volumes IX and X). Cited as Ant.
• Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War, translated by G. A. Williamson, revised with a new
introduction, notes, and appendices by Mary Smallwood, Penguin, 1959; revised edition
1981.
• Livy (Titus Livius), Rome and the Mediterranean [i.e. The Histories, XXXI-XLV], translated by
Henry Bettenson, with an introduction by A. H. McDonald, Penguin, 1976
• Ovid, Metamorphoses, translated by Mary M. Innes, Penguin, 1955
• Plutarch, Fall of the Roman Republic [Lives of Marius, Sulla, Crassus, Pompey, Cæsar, Cicero],
translated by Rex Warner, 1958, with an introduction and note by Robin Seager, Penguin,
1972
• Plutarch, Makers of Rome [Lives of Coriolanus, Fabius Maximus, Marcellus, Cato the Elder,
Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Sertorius, Brutus, Mark Antony], translated by Ian
Scott-Kilvert, Penguin, 1965
• Polybius, The Rise of the Roman Empire, translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert, abridged and with an
introduction by F. W. Walbank, Penguin, 1979.
• James B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, Volume I: An Anthology in Text and Pictures, Princeton
University Press, 1950
• James B. Pritchard, The Ancient Near East, Volume II: A New Anthology in Text and Pictures,
Princeton University Press, 1975
• Sallust, Jugurthine War • The Conspiracy of Cataline, translated by S. A. Handford, Penguin, 1963
(I use the 1983 paperback edition)
• Suetonius, (Volume I: Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar, Tiberius, Gaius Caligula), translated by J. C.
Rolfe with an introduction by K. R. Bradley, Loeb Classical Library (#31), 1913, 1951, new
introduction 1998.
• Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, translated by Robert Graves, revised and with an introduction
by Michael Grant, 1957, 1979.
• Tacitus, The Histories, translated by Kenneth Wellesley, Penguin, 1964, 1972, 1975..
• Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, translated by Michael Grant, Penguin, 1956, 1959, 1971
• Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, translated by Rex Warner with an introduction and notes
by M. I. Finley, 1954; new introduction and appendices 1972.
• Xenophon, The Persian Expedition [i.e. The Anabasis], translated by Rex Warner, 1949, with a
new introduction by George Cawkwell, Penguin, 1972
• Xenophon, Cyropaedia II, [Books V-VIII] (Xenophon Volume VI), translated with notes by
Walter Miller, Loeb Classical Library (#52), 1914.
Greek, Hebrew, and Latin Bibles and materials for textual criticism
• (no author listed), Greek • Latin • English: New Testament Student’s Workbook (Greek and Latin from
Novum Testamentum Graece et Latine, edited by Erwin Nestle and Kurt Aland, based on the
edition by Eberhard Nestle, twenty-first edition, 1962; English from The New Testament of

Bibliography
Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, Translated from the Latin Vulgate, A Revision of the
Challoner-Rheims Version, 1941), The Liturgical Press, 1963
• Barbara Aland and Kurt Aland, revisors, Novum Testamentum Graece, based on the editions by
Eberhard and Erwin Nestle, twenty-seventh edition, revised, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft,
Stuttgart, 1993. Cited as GNT.
• Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger, Allen Wikgren, The Greek
New Testament, third edition, United Bible Societies, 1975. Cited as GNT.
• Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger,
The Greek New Testament, fourth edition, United Bible Societies, 1993. Cited as GNT.
• Kurt Aland, Synopsis Quattuor Evangeliorum, thirteenth edition revised, Deutsche
Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1986.
• Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament, translated by Erroll F. Rhodes,
second edition, Eerdmans, 1989
• Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton, The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English, 1851;
Hendrickson reprint, 1987
• Robert K. Brown and Philip W. Comfort, translators; J. D. Douglas, Editor, The New Greek-
English Interlinear New Testament, A new interlinear translation of the Greek New Testament, United Bible
Societies’ Third, Corrected Edition with The New Revised Standard Version, New Testament, Tyndale
House Publishers, 1990
• Ernest C. Colwell, Studies in Methodology in Textual Criticism of the New Testament, William B.
Eerdmans, 1969
• C. E. Hammond, Outlines of Textual Criticism Applied to the New Testament, sixth edition, revised,
Oxford University Press, 1902
• Sidney Jellicoe, editor, Studies in the Septuagint: Origins, Recensions, and Interpretations, Ktav, 1974
• Karen M. Jobes & Moisés Silva, Invitation to the Septuagint, Baker Academic Press, 2000
• Sir Frederic Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, revised by A. W. Adams, Harper &
Brothers, 1958
• Rudolf Kittel, editor, with Paul Kahle, Albrecht Alt, Otto Eissfeldt, Biblia Hebraica, seventh
edition, American Bible Society, 1959. Cited as BHK.
• Augustinus Merk, S.J., Novum Testamentum Graece et Latine, fifth edition, Pontifical Bible Institute,
1944
• Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: A Companion Volume to the
United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament (third edition), United Bible Societies, 1971
• Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament: Their Origin, Transmission, and
Limitations, Oxford University Press, 1977
• Bruce M. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration, third
edition, Oxford University Press, 1992
• W. Robertson Nicoll, editor, The Expositor’s Greek Testament, in five volumes, Eerdmans, 1951
• Alfred Rahlfs, Septuaginta (T /-%-&- M&-+;,; ,-0- 08E4 V´), 2 volumes, 1935; I use the
1979 Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart single volume edition
• Burnett Hillman Streeter, The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins, Macmillan and Co., 1927

Bibliography
• H. B. Swete, An Introduction to The Old Testament in Greek, revised by Richard Rusden Ottley,
1914; Hendrickson edition, 1989
• Leon Vaganay, An Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism, second edition revised and
updated by Christian-Bernard Amphoux, 1986; translated by Jenny Heimerdinger,
Cambridge University Press, 1991
• Robert Weber et al, Bibla Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem, edited by B. Fischer, I. Gribomont, H.
F. D. Sparks, W. Thiele, with critical apparatus by Robert Weber, fourth corrected edition,
Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1994
• Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek,
with appended Greek-English lexicon by W. J. Hickie, Macmillan, 1941. Cited as WH.
• Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort, Introduction to The New Testament in the
Original Greek, 1882; Hendrickson edition, 1988
• John Wordsworth and Henry J. White, Novum Testamentum Latine, secundum editionem sancti
Hieronymi, editio minor (by H. J. White), second edition, Oxford University Press, 1911
• G. Zuntz, The Text of the Epistles: A Disquisition upon the Corpus Paulinum, The Schwiech Lectures
1946, The British Academy, 1953
Modern Histories, etc.

• William Foxwell Albright, Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, fifth edition, Doubleday, 1968
• William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Historical Process, Johns
Hopkins Press, 1940
• C. K. Barrett, editor, The New Testament Background: Selected Documents, 1956; Harper edition,
1961
• Elias Bickerman, From Ezra to the Last of the Maccabees: Foundations of Postbiblical Judaism,
portions translated by Moses Hadad, Schocken Books, 1962
• Matthew Black, The Scrolls and Christian Origins, Scribners, 1961
• John Bright, A History of Israel, third edition, Westminster Press, 1981
• M. Cary, A History of the Greek World, 323 to 146 B.C.E., 1932, 1951, 1963; University
Paperbacks by Metheun & Co., 1972
• Brian Caven, The Punic Wars, 1980; Barnes & Noble edition, 1992
• David Christie-Murray, A History of Heresy, Oxford University Press, 1976
• J. M. Cook, The Persian Empire, 1983; Barnes & Noble edition 1993
• Gaalyah Cornfeld, Archaeology of the Bible: Book by Book, Harper & Row, 1976
• C. H. Dodd, Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel, Cambridge University Press, 1963
• C. H. Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel, Cambridge University Press, 1953
• Raymond Philip Dougherty, Nabonidus and Belshazzar: A Study of the Closing Events of the Neo-
Babylonian Empire, Yale University Press, 1929
• David Noel Freedman and Jonas C. Greenfield, New Directions in Biblical Archaeology,
Doubleday, 1969
• Victor P. Hamilton, Handbook on the Historical Books, Baker Academic Books, 2001
• Dovid Kotz, Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish, Basic Books, 2004

Bibliography
• Sir Frederic Kenyon, The Bible and Archæology, Harper & Brothers, 1940
• Avraham Negev, The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, with a preface by Carol L.
Meyers, revised edition, Nelson, 1986
• Martin Noth, The History of Israel, 1958; second English edition, Harper & Row, 1960
• David Potter, Constantine the Emperor, Oxford University Press, 2013 (I use a 2012 advance
review copy officially labelled as “uncorrected”)
• Donald B. Redford, Akhenaten: The Heretic King, Princeton University Press, 1984
• Robert William Rogers, A History of Ancient Persia, 1929; Books for Libraries Press edition 1971
• George Steindorff and Keith C. Seele, When Egypt Ruled the East, University of Chicago Press,
1942, revised edition 1957
• Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, revised edition, Academie Press,
1983
• G. Ernest Wright, Biblical Archaeology, Westminster Press, 1957
Folklore, Biblical and Otherwise

• H. M. Belden, Ballads and Songs Collected by the Missouri Folk-Lore Society, University of Missouri
[Press], 1940, 1955
• J. M. Bierlein, Parallel Myths, Ballantine Books, 1994
• Katherine Briggs, British Folktales (originally published in 1970 as A Dictionary of British Folk-
Tales), revised 1977 (I use the 1977 Pantheon paperback edition)
• T. W. Doane, Bible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions, Being a Comparison of the Old Testament
Myths and Miracles, seventh edition, 1910 (available on Project Gutenberg)
• Sam D. Gill & Irene F. Sullivan, Dictionary of Native American Mythology, Oxford University
Press, 1992
• David Goldstein, Jewish Folklore and Legend, Hamlyn, 1980
• Pierre Grimal, Dictionnaire de la Mythologie Greque et Romaine, 1951; English translation by A. R.
Maxwell-Hyslop, edited by Stephen Kershaw and published as The Penguin Dictionary of
Classical Mythology, Penguin, 1990
• Philip D. Noble, editor, The Watkins Dictionary of Saints, Watkins Publishing, 2007
• Norris J. Lacy, Editor, The Arthurian Encyclopedia, 1986 (I use the 1987 Peter Bedrick paperback
edition)
• Anthony S. Mercante, The Facts on File Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend, second
edition revised by James R. Dow, in two volumes, Facts on File, 2004
• Vance Randolph, Ozark Folksongs, four volumes, 1946-1950 (I use the University of Missouri
press 1980 reprint which omits a few items for copyright reasons)
• John Stevens, Medieval Romance: Themes and Approaches, 1973 (I use the 1974 Norton paperback
edition)
• Stith Thompson, The Folktale, University of California Press, 1946, 1977
• Thorlac Turville-Petre, Alliterative Poetry of the Later Middle Ages: An Anthology, Routledge, 1989
• Jacobus de Voragine, The Golden Legend: Readings on the Saints, translated by William Granger
Ryan, Volume I, Princeton University Press, 1993 (I use the 1995 Princeton paperback)

Index
Index
Biblical Manuscripts 1 Clement 65.1 ............................................. 473
Acts of John 18 ............................................. 482
6 563 Acts of Paul and Thecla 2 .............................. 503
424 ............................................................ 564 Acts of Peter 3 .............................................. 502
614 ........................................ 443, 464, 489, 564 Apostolic Constitutions VII.46 ........................ 488
1506 ........................................................... 499 Barbara Allen, ballad ..................................... 179
1739 ....................................... 473, 501, 511, 564 Book of Jubilees 11.14ƒ. ................................... 77
A, Codex Alexandrinus ....... 376, 526, 553, 558, 561 Book of Jubilees 12.1ƒ. ................................... 201
B, Codex Vaticanus 96, 139, 238, 243, 491, 501, 518, Commentary on Habakkuk 2.5–6ƒ. .................. 435
525, 551–552, 554, 557, 558, 561 Commentary on Habbakuk 1.13b .................... 435
C, Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus .......... 394, 558, 561 Commentary on Nahum 2.11b ................. 362, 417
Curetonian Syriac ......................................... 467 Commentary on Psalm 37.32-33 ...................... 435
D, Codex Bezae .. 120, 144, 173, 224, 453, 458, 463, Damascus Document, ch. 1 ............................ 436
465, 471, 474, 484, 489, 494, 505, 515, 518, 554, Epiphanius Haer II.51 ................................... 489
561 Genesis Apocryphon ................................ 76, 162
D, Codex Claromontanus ........................ 521, 562 Golden Legend ............................................. 129
E, Codex Laudianus ......................... 173, 473, 511 Gospel of Peter §2.3 ...................................... 146
Ethiopic version ............................................ 473 Gospel of Thomas, Logion 13 .................. 493, 519
ƒ1563 Ignatius, Ephesians 1 ..................................... 496
ƒ13 ............................................................ 563 Ignatius, Ephesians 12 .................................... 482
G, Codex Boernianus .................................... 562 Ignatius, Romans 4.3 ..................................... 507
k (Old Latin) ................................... 491, 518, 554 Infancy Gospel of James .......................... 130, 167
L, Codex Regius ........................................... 562 Irenaeus, Against Heresies III.iii.3 .................... 488
N+V, Codex Basiliano-Vaticanus ..................... 559 Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 2 . 503 ,
ന38 ............................................................ 463 507
ന45 ............................................................ 560 Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 44 . 402
ന46 .................................. 495, 499–501, 554, 560 Letter of Aristeas .............................. 40, 217, 345
ന52 ............................................... 524, 533, 554 Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer 21 ................................. 73
Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions I.7 .................... 465
ന66 ............................................................ 554
Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions I.59 ........... 466, 476
ന75 ............................................... 146, 554, 561
Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions X.55 ................. 471
Q , Codex Marchalianus .......................... 552, 559
Qumran MS. 4Q324 .............................. 417, 441
Sinaitic Syriac .............................................. 141
Qumran MS. 4Q448 ..................................... 435
Theodotian Daniel ........................................ 240
Qumran MS. 4Q559 ......................... 85, 158, 162
Vulgate ....................................................... 470
Talmud Sanhedrin 42b .................................. 146
W, Freer Gospels ...................... 120, 491, 554, 562
Tanhuma Bereshit II ..................................... 160
Y, Koridethi Codex ................................ 508, 563
Tertullian Marcion IV.19 ................................ 140
!, Codex Sinaiticus ... 463, 484, 518, 518, 501, 518,
Testament of Amram ...................................... 85
561, 561, 561, 561, 561 Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.9-10 ..
207
Early Jewish and Christian Works Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Dan I.1 ....... 95
1!Clement 5.4 .............................................. 507 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Gad I.1 ...... 115
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah II.2-3 157

Index
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah II.4 ... 157 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Zebulun VI.1-3 .
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah III.1- 203
VII.11 ..................................................... 157
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah IX.2 . 112 Folklore, Folk Song, and Romance
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah IX.3 . 112
Bitter Withy, The (ballad) ................................ 154
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah VIII.2 . 90
Carnal and the Crane (ballad), The .................. 153
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah X.1 .. 199
Chaucer, Geoffrey, The Franklin’s Tale .............. 245
Cherry Tree Carol (ballad), The ................ 130, 153
Corpus Christi Carol ..................................... 484
Earl of Toulouse (romance) ............................. 239
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Judah XI.3-5 90
Gest of Robyn Hode (romance) stanza 442 ........ 492
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi II.2 ..... 161
Judas (ballad) ................................................ 485
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi IX.1-5 . 124
Leaves of Life, The (ballad) ............................. 519
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi VII.4 .. 161
Octavian (romance) ......................................... 29
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.1 ... 162
Patience, line 247 .......................................... 249
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.1-2 . 116
Patience, line 251 .......................................... 249
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.2 ... 162
Patience, line 258 .......................................... 249
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.4 .. 158 ,
Saint Stephen and Herod (ballad) ..................... 517
162
Seven Virgins, The (ballad) ............................. 519
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.7 .. 162 ,
Shakespeare, Hamlet ....................................... 82
171
Shakespeare, Henry IV, Part Two ..................... 342
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XI.8 .... 85 ,
Shakespeare, The Merry Wives of Windsor, I.iv.23 92
149, 158, 162
Sir Aldingar (ballad) ........................................ 29
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XII.4 ... 84 ,
149, 158, 162
Greek and Latin History and Literature
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XII.5 .. 161
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Levi XII.7 .. 152 Aeschylus, The Persians, cast of characters 311, 317,
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.1 177 322
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.9 91 , Aeschylus, The Persians, line 774 ..................... 320
186 Against Apion I. 18 ......................................... 33
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.10 91 Against Apion I.3 .......................................... 269
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.11-12 Against Apion I.13 ........................................ 267
207 Against Apion I.14 ........................................ 264
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Naphtali I.12 91 Against Apion I.14, 15, 26 .............................. 265
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Reuben I.1-2 .... Against Apion I.15 ........................................ 265
188 Against Apion I.16, 26 ................................... 264
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Reuben I.7 . 188 Against Apion I.19 ................................. 113, 297
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Reuben I.8 . 188 Against Apion I.20 ................................. 298–299
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Simeon I.1 . 197 Against Apion I.22 ........................... 335–337, 339
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Simeon I.12 196 Against Apion I.26 ................................. 174, 265
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Zebulun 1.6- Against Apion I.28ƒ. ...................................... 174
IV.10 ....................................................... 203 Against Apion I.31 ........................................ 174
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Zebulun III.2 .... Against Apion I.34 ........................................ 174
196
Against Apion I.39 .......................................... 33
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Zebulun IV.8-11
Against Apion II.2 .................................. 174, 269
95, 196
Against Apion II.4 .................................. 339–340

Index
Against Apion II.4 ........................................ 391 Ant III.ii.4 ............................................ 123, 172
Against Apion II.5 .................... 345–346, 349, 351 Ant III.v.3 .................................................... 149
Ant I.i.2 ........................................................ 78 Ant III.vii.1 .................................................. 176
Ant I.i.4 ........................................................ 73 Ant III.viii.1 ..................................... 74, 108, 125
Ant I.ii.1 ....................................................... 92 Ant III.viii.9 ................................................. 447
Ant I.ii.3 ....................................................... 78 Ant III.xi.4 .................................................. 174
Ant I.iii.1 ..................................................... 179 Ant III.xiv.4 ............................................ 93, 181
Ant I.iii.3 .............................................. 157, 173 Ant IV.ii.2 .................................................... 158
Ant I.iii.4 .......................... 111, 131, 157, 160, 193 Ant IV.vi.10 ................................................. 184
Ant I.iv.1 ..................................................... 117 Ant IV.vi.12 ................................................. 184
Ant I.iv.2ƒ. ................................................... 178 Ant IV.viii.47 ................................................ 174
Ant I.v.5 ...................................................... 188 Ant IX.ix.3 .................................................... 88
Ant I.vi.1 ..................................................... 178 Ant IX.vii.1 ................................................. 133
Ant I.vi.2 ........................................... 93–94, 196 Ant IX.viii.1 ................................................ 132
Ant I.vi.4 ................ 85, 87, 107–108, 163, 183, 194 Ant IX.viii.4 .................................................. 83
Ant I.vi.5 . 91, 93, 107, 117, 124, 162, 172, 176, 190, Ant IX.viii.6 ................................................ 132
193, 200 Ant IX.x.3 ..................................................... 88
Ant I.vii.1 ............................................... 76, 162 Ant IX.xi.1 ..................................... 169, 183, 194
Ant I.viii.2 ..................................................... 77 Ant IX.xi.2 .................................................. 156
Ant I.x.4 ............................................... 116, 124 Ant IX.xi.3 .................................................. 252
Ant I.x.5 ..................................................... 124 Ant IX.xii.1 ............................................ 80, 164
Ant I.xi.5 ................................................ 90, 173 Ant IX.xii.3 ................................................. 280
Ant I.xii.1 .................................................... 190 Ant IX.xiii.1 ................................................ 122
Ant I.xix.6 ................................................... 185 Ant IX.xiv.1 .................................... 122–123, 278
Ant I.xix.7 ............. 87, 115, 125, 152, 161, 177, 188 Ant V.i.2 ...................................................... 186
Ant I.xv.1 .................................................... 157 Ant V.i.25 .................................................... 154
Ant I.xvi.2 ..................................................... 91 Ant V.i.26 .................................................... 184
Ant I.xviii.1 ................................................. 112 Ant V.iii.2 ...................................................... 24
Ant I.xxi.1 ................................................... 124 Ant V.iii.3 ............................................... 24, 183
Ant II.ix.1 ................................................... 277 Ant V.iv.2 ...................................................... 26
Ant II.ix.2 ...................................... 141, 173, 445 Ant V.iv.3 ...................................................... 26
Ant II.ix.3 ..................................................... 84 Ant V.ix.1 ......... 91, 94, 108, 110, 165, 177, 182, 189
Ant II.ix.4 ............................................. 149, 172 Ant V.ix.2 ...................................................... 91
Ant II.ix.5 ................................................... 277 Ant V.ix.4 ........................................ 95, 140, 181
Ant II.ix.6 ................................................... 173 Ant V.v.4 ....................................................... 26
Ant II.ix.7 ................................................... 173 Ant V.vii.1 ..................................................... 27
Ant II.vi.1 ............................................. 111, 165 Ant V.vii.6 ..................................................... 28
Ant II.vii.4 ................. 116–117, 158, 171, 194, 205 Ant V.vii.14–15 .............................................. 30
Ant II.x.1ƒ. .................................................. 173 Ant V.x.1 ..................................................... 122
Ant II.x.2 .................................................... 188 Ant V.x.2 ....................................................... 32
Ant II.xii.1 ................................................... 147 Ant V.x.4 ....................................................... 32
Ant II.xii.2 ................................................... 277 Ant V.xi.2 ................................ 108–109, 122, 185
Ant II.xiii.1 .................................... 110, 115, 207 Ant V.xi.3 .................................................... 123
Ant II.xv.2 ................................................... 277 Ant V.xi.5 .................................. 75, 108–109, 213
Ant III.ii.1 ................................................... 123 Ant VI.iv.1 ................................................... 190
Ant III.ii.3 ................................................... 181 Ant VI.iv.5 ................................................... 158

Index
Ant VI.vi.1 .................................................. 151 Ant VIII.xv.4 ................................................ 257

Ant VI.vi.5 ............................................... 81–82 Ant VIII.xv.5 ............................................ 79–80
Ant VI.vi.6 .............. 74, 76, 125, 165, 170–171, 178 Ant X.ii.1 .................................................... 118
Ant VI.viii.1 ........................ 75, 109, 178, 183, 186 Ant X.iii.2 ..................................................... 84
Ant VI.viii.2 .......................................... 104, 192 Ant X.ix.3 ..................................................... 37
Ant VI.viii.9 .................................................. 75 Ant X.v.1 ..................................................... 296
Ant VI.xii.1 ................................................... 82 Ant X.v.2 ................................. 117, 132–133, 203
Ant VI.xii.6 ................................................... 73 Ant X.vi.1 ................................................... 297
Ant VI.xiii.5 ..................................... 32, 191, 253 Ant X.vi.3 ............................................. 132, 134
Ant VI.xiv.7 ................................................. 192 Ant X.vii.1 .................................................. 204
Ant VI.xiv.9 ................................................. 191 Ant X.vii.5 .................................................. 204
Ant VII.i.3 ................................ 86, 112, 147, 207 Ant X.viii.1 .................................................. 191
Ant VII.i.4 ...................... 79, 83, 94, 117, 163, 171 Ant X.viii.5 .................................................. 193
Ant VII.i.4) ................................................... 77 Ant X.viii.6 ........................................... 212, 214
Ant VII.i.5 .............................................. 76, 148 Ant X.viii.7 .................................................. 204
Ant VII.iii.3 ................................................. 197 Ant X.x.1 .................................................... 238
Ant VII.v.3 .................................................. 187 Ant X.xi.1 ............................................. 276, 297
Ant VII.v.5 .................................................. 170 Ant X.xi.2 ................................................... 298
Ant VII.vii.1 .................................................. 89 Ant XI.i.3 .................................................... 205
Ant VII.viii.1 ............................................... 200 Ant XI.ii.5 ................................................... 304
Ant VII.viii.2 ............................................... 202 Ant XI.iii.1 .................................................. 304
Ant VII.x.1 .................................................... 83 Ant XI.iv.4 ................................................... 195
Ant VII.xv.3 ............................................ 33, 447 Ant XI.iv.5 ................................................... 195
Ant VIII.i.3 ...................................... 83, 201, 213 Ant XI.v.1 ................................................... 114
Ant VIII.ii.5 ................................................. 198 Ant XI.v.2 ..................................................... 39
Ant VIII.iii.1 ................................................. 33 Ant XI.v.5 ................................................... 115
Ant VIII.ix.1 ................................................ 258 Ant XI.v.6 ..................................................... 38
Ant VIII.v.3 ................................................... 33 Ant XI.vi.1 ........................................... 307, 322
Ant VIII.vi.1 ......................................... 268, 274 Ant XI.vi.2ƒ. ................................................ 216
Ant VIII.vi.2 ................................................ 262 Ant XI.vii.1 ........................................... 215, 310
Ant VIII.vii.5 ........................................ 138, 237 Ant XI.vii.2 ........................................... 215–216
Ant VIII.vii.7 ............................................... 138 Ant XI.vii.3–5 ................................................ 40
Ant VIII.vii.8 ........................................ 177, 197 Ant XI.viii.1 ................................................ 329
Ant VIII.vii.8ƒ. ............................................. 139 Ant XI.viii.1, 3 ............................................. 329
Ant VIII.viii.1 .............................................. 176 Ant XI.viii.2 ................................................ 216
Ant VIII.viii.5 ................................. 139, 246, 258 Ant XI.viii.2–4 ............................................. 215
Ant VIII.x.1 ....................................... 74–75, 164 Ant XI.viii.3 .......................................... 216, 329
Ant VIII.x.3 ................................................. 268 Ant XI.viii.4 ................................................ 216
Ant VIII.xi.4 ........................................... 89, 176 Ant XI.viii.7 .......................................... 217, 330
Ant VIII.xii.1 ............................................... 275 Ant XII.i.1 ..................................... 335, 338, 340
Ant VIII.xii.4 ........................................ 108, 207 Ant XII.i.1ƒ. ................................................ 339
Ant VIII.xii.5 ........................................ 181, 201 Ant XII.ii.1ƒ. ............................................... 345
Ant VIII.xii.6 ................................................. 89 Ant XII.ii.5 .................................................. 217
Ant VIII.xiii.1 ......................................... 79, 147 Ant XII.iii.1, 2 ............................................. 340
Ant VIII.xiii.7 ........................................ 135, 178 Ant XII.iii.3 ................................................. 346
Ant VIII.xiv.5 ........................................ 251, 258 Ant XII.iii.3ƒ. .............................................. 357

Index
Ant XII.iv.1 ............................. 218, 345–346, 357 Ant XIV.vii.4 ................................................ 441
Ant XII.iv.3 ................................................. 218 Ant XIV.xi.2 .......................................... 420, 444
Ant XII.iv.4–5 .............................................. 218 Ant XIV.xi.4 ................................................ 439
Ant XII.iv.10 ................................................ 218 Ant XIV.xiii.3 ............................................... 439
Ant XII.iv.10 ............................................... 217 Ant XIV.xiii.10 ................................ 222, 448, 452
Ant XII.ix.1 ................................................. 360 Ant XIV.xiv.1 ............................................... 452
Ant XII.ix.7 .......................................... 219–220 Ant XIV.xiv.5 ............................................... 444
Ant XII.v.1 .................................................. 219 Ant XIV.xv.10 .............................................. 449
Ant XII.v.2 .................................................. 359 Ant XIV.xvi.1-4 ............................................ 421
Ant XII.v.3 .................................................. 359 Ant XIV.xvi.4 ............................................... 439
Ant XII.vi.1 .......................................... 443, 452 Ant XIX.i.1 ................................................. 393
Ant XII.vii.2 ................................................ 359 Ant XIX.ii.5 ................................................ 393
Ant XII.x.5 ................................................. 221 Ant XIX.iii.1 ............................................... 394
Ant XII.x.6 ........................................... 376, 450 Ant XIX.ix.1 .................................. 437, 443, 452
Ant XII.xi.1 .......................................... 221, 361 Ant XIX.ix.2 ................................................. 47
Ant XIII.i.5 ................................................. 447 Ant XIX.v.1 .............................. 46, 436, 442, 446
Ant XIII.ii.1 ................................................ 361 Ant XIX.vi.2 ................................................ 224
Ant XIII.ii.4 ................................................ 361 Ant XIX.vi.4 ................................................ 224
Ant XIII.iii.1 ......................................... 219, 348 Ant XIX.vii.3ƒ. ............................................ 436
Ant XIII.iv.8 ................................................ 348 Ant XIX.viii.1 .............................................. 224
Ant XIII.ix.3 ................................................ 364 Ant XIX.viii.2 .............................................. 436
Ant XIII.ix.7 ................................................ 219 Ant XV.ii.4 .................................................. 222
Ant XIII.vi.7 ................................................ 340 Ant XV.ii.4) ................................................. 222
Ant XIII.viii.1 .............................................. 453 Ant XV.iii.1 ................................................. 222
Ant XIII.viii.4 .............................................. 447 Ant XV.iii.3 ........................................... 222, 441
Ant XIII.x.2 ................................................. 364 Ant XV.iii.5 ........................................... 449, 451
Ant XIII.x.4 ................................................. 219 Ant XV.iii.9 ................................................. 449
Ant XIII.x.7 ................................................. 447 Ant XV.ix.3 ........................................... 222, 452
Ant XIII.xi.1 ................................................ 440 Ant XV.vi.1–3 .............................................. 448
Ant XIII.xi.2 ......................................... 439–440 Ant XV.vi.1–4 .............................................. 222
Ant XIII.xi.3 ................................................ 440 Ant XV.vii.4 ................................................. 451
Ant XIII.xii.2 ............................................... 349 Ant XVI.i.2 ................................................. 441
Ant XIII.xiii.4-xiv.3 ....................................... 365 Ant XVI.xi.7 ................................................ 437
Ant XIII.xiv.2 ............................................... 438 Ant XVII.i.3 ................................... 440, 445, 451
Ant XIII.xv.4 ............................................... 438 Ant XVII.iii.2 .............................................. 453
Ant XIII.xvi.6 .............................................. 438 Ant XVII.iv.2 .................................. 222, 452–453
Ant XIV.i.2 .................................................. 448 Ant XVII.vi.1 ............................................... 444
Ant XIV.ii.1 .......................................... 439, 448 Ant XVII.vi.4 ................................. 222–223, 445
Ant XIV.ii.3 .......................................... 439–440 Ant XVII.vi.5 ............................................... 445
Ant XIV.iv.4 ................................................. 435 Ant XVII.vii.1 .............................................. 439
Ant XIV.iv.5 ................................................. 441 Ant XVII.viii.1 ............................................. 439
Ant XIV.ix.2 ................................................ 444 Ant XVII.viii.2 ............................................. 445
Ant XIV.ix.3 ................................................ 444 Ant XVII.xi.4 ................................. 440, 445–446
Ant XIV.v.2 .................................................. 418 Ant XVII.xii.1 .............................................. 437
Ant XIV.vi.2 .......................................... 418, 439 Ant XVII.xii.2 .............................................. 437
Ant XIV.vii.3 ................................................ 442 Ant XVII.xiii.1 ...................................... 223, 440

Index
Ant XVII.xiii.2 ............................................. 440 Ant XX.vii.3 ................................................ 442

Ant XVII.xiii.4 ............................................. 444 Ant XX.viii.1 .......................................... 48, 394
Ant XVII.xiii.5 .............................................. 45 Ant XX.viii.4 ............................................... 441
Ant XVII.xiii.5–XVIII.i.1 .............................. 140 Ant XX.viii.5 .......................................... 48, 224
Ant XVIII.i.1 ..................................... 44–45, 223 Ant XX.viii.6 ................................................. 48
Ant XVIII.ii.1 ............................. 44–45, 223, 440 Ant XX.viii.8 ............................................... 225
Ant XVIII.ii.2 .................................. 44, 223–224 Ant XX.viii.9 ................................................. 48
Ant XVIII.iii.1 ............................................... 46 Ant XX.viii.10 ............................................... 48
Ant XVIII.iii.2 ............................................... 46 Ant XX.viii.11 ....................................... 225, 395
Ant XVIII.iii.3 ............................................. 140 Ant XX.vli.3 ................................................ 452
Ant XVIII.iv.1 ............................................... 46 Ant XX.x.1 .................................................. 226
Ant XVIII.iv.2 ......................................... 46, 396 Ant XX.x.2 ........................................... 213–214
Ant XVIII.iv.3 ....................................... 224, 396 Ant XX.x.3 ........................................... 219–221
Ant XVIII.iv.6 .............................................. 453 Ant XX.x.4 .................................................. 440
Ant XVIII.ix.8 ............................................. 340 Ant XX.xi.1 .................................................. 49
Ant XVIII.v.1 ........................... 150, 222, 446, 453 Ant XX.xii.1 ................................................ 450
Ant XVIII.v.2 ........................................ 150, 446 Ant. X.i.5 .................................................... 289
Ant XVIII.v.3 ............................................... 224 Ant. XI.i.3 ................................................... 195
Ant XVIII.v.4 ............. 222, 437, 441–442, 452, 454 Ant. XI.viii.5 ................................................ 318
Ant XVIII.vi.1 ........................................ 46, 436 Ant. XII.v.1 ................................................. 220
Ant XVIII.vi.2 ........................................ 46, 453 Ant. XVIII.v.4 .............................................. 512
Ant XVIII.vi.2ƒ. ........................................... 436 Appian, Civil Wars I.100 ................................ 415
Ant XVIII.vi.3 ........................................ 47, 436 Appian, Spanish Wars II.16 ............................ 407
Ant XVIII.vi.4 ............................................. 436 Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander VII.22 ............... 339
Ant XVIII.vi.5 ........................................ 44, 392 BJ I.11 ........................................................ 359
Ant XVIII.vi.6 ............................................. 436 BJ I.i.1 ........................................................ 219
Ant XVIII.vi.10 ............................................ 436 BJ I.i.3 ........................................................ 452
Ant XVIII.vii.1ƒ. .......................................... 447 BJ I.i.5 ........................................................ 447
Ant XVIII.vii.2 ............................................. 446 BJ I.ii.2 ....................................................... 364
Ant XVIII.viii.2 ............................................ 393 BJ I.ii.2–3, 5 ................................................. 364
Ant XVIII.viii.8 ............................................ 436 BJ I.ii.5 ....................................................... 447
Ant XX.i.1 .................................................... 47 BJ I.ii.6 ....................................................... 447
Ant XX.i.3 .................................................. 224 BJ I.ii.7 ....................................................... 364
Ant XX.ix.1 .......... 49, 127–128, 140, 144, 225, 475 BJ I.ii.8 ....................................................... 447
Ant XX.ix.2 .................................................. 49 BJ I.iii.1 ...................................................... 440
Ant XX.ix.3 ................................................. 225 BJ I.iii.2 ...................................................... 440
Ant XX.ix.4 ................................................. 225 BJ I.iv.1 ................................................ 435, 438
Ant XX.ix.5 .................................................. 49 BJ I.iv.2 ....................................................... 349
Ant XX.ix.7 ................................................. 226 BJ I.iv.4 ....................................................... 438
Ant XX.v.1 .................................................... 47 BJ I.iv.4-5 .................................................... 365
Ant XX.v.2 ...................................... 47, 224, 446 BJ I.iv.7 ....................................................... 365
Ant XX.v.3ƒ. ................................................. 48 BJ I.ix.1 ...................................................... 441
Ant XX.vi.2 ................................................. 225 BJ I.v.1 ................................................. 438, 440
Ant XX.vi.3 .................................................. 48 BJ I.v.2 ........................................................ 438
Ant XX.vii.1 ......................................... 442, 444 BJ I.v.4 ........................................................ 440
Ant XX.vii.2 ......................................... 442, 450 BJ I.vi.1 ...................................................... 448

Index
BJ I.vi.2 ...................................................... 448 BJ I.xxxiii.8 .................................................. 439

BJ I.vi.3 ................................................ 439, 441 BJ II.i.2 ....................................................... 223
BJ I.vi.6 ................................................ 418, 441 BJ II.i.3 ....................................................... 440
BJ I.vii.2 ...................................................... 441 BJ II.ii.3 ...................................................... 440
BJ I.vii.6 ...................................................... 435 BJ II.iii.1 ..................................................... 451
BJ I.vii.7 ...................................................... 441 BJ II.ix.2–3 .................................................... 46
BJ I.viii.2 ..................................................... 418 BJ II.ix.4 ....................................................... 46
BJ I.viii.2ƒ. ............................................ 416, 437 BJ II.ix.6 ............................................... 436, 453
BJ I.viii.4 ..................................................... 422 BJ II.vi.3 ..................................................... 440
BJ I.viii.6 ..................................................... 441 BJ II.vii.3 .................................................... 440
BJ I.viii.7 .............................................. 350, 418 BJ II.vii.4 .................................................... 444
BJ I.viii.8 ..................................................... 416 BJ II.viii.1 ..................................................... 44
BJ I.viii.9 .............................................. 420, 442 BJ II.xi.1 ..................................................... 394
BJ I.vvviii .................................................... 437 BJ II.xi.2 ..................................................... 436
BJ I.x.3 ....................................................... 439 BJ II.xi.5 ..................................................... 442
BJ I.xi.1 ...................................................... 420 BJ II.xi.6 ................................................ 47, 436
BJ I.xi.2 ...................................................... 420 BJ II.xii.1 ............................................... 48, 437
BJ I.xi.4 ................................................ 439, 444 BJ II.xii.1ƒ. .................................................... 48
BJ I.xii.5 ...................................................... 444 BJ II.xii.5 .................................................... 224
BJ I.xiii.1 ..................................................... 439 BJ II.xii.6 .................................................... 225
BJ I.xiii.2 ..................................................... 441 BJ II.xiii.3 ............................................... 48, 224
BJ I.xiii.9 .................................................... 448 BJ II.xiii.5 ..................................................... 48
BJ I.xiii.10 ................................................... 452 BJ II.xiii.6 ..................................................... 48
BJ I.xiv.4 ..................................................... 444 BJ II.xiv.1 ...................................................... 49
BJ I.xv.2 ...................................................... 425 BJ II.xiv.2 ...................................................... 49
BJ I.xvi.6 ..................................................... 425 BJ II.xiv.3 ...................................................... 49
BJ I.xvii.1 .................................................... 449 BJ II.xiv.4 ...................................................... 49
BJ I.xviii.3 ................................................... 439 BJ II.xiv.6 ...................................................... 49
BJ I.xxii.2 .................................................... 441 BJ II.xv.1 .................................................. 47–48
BJ I.xxii.4 .................................................... 451 BJ II.xvii.9 ................................................... 225
BJ I.xxii.5 ............................................. 449, 451 BJ II.xx.3 .................................................... 225
BJ I.xxiii.1 ................................................... 439 BJ II.xx.4 ...................................................... 50
BJ I.xxiii.3 ................................................... 437 BJ II.xxii.1 ................................................... 225
BJ I.xxiv.2 .................................................... 444 BJ III.x.9 ..................................................... 450
BJ I.xxiv.5 .................................................... 453 BJ IV.v.2 ............................................... 225–226
BJ I.xxix.2 ................................................... 222 BJ V.i.6 ......................................................... 48
BJ I.xxix.4 ................................................... 453 BJ V.xiii.1 .................................................... 226
BJ I.xxvii.2–6 ............................................... 441 BJ VI.iv.3 ...................................................... 48
BJ I.xxvii.6 .................................................. 437 BJ VII.xi.2 ................................................... 219
BJ I.xxviii.2 .................................................. 453 Dio Cassius, Histories L.2ƒ. ............................ 421
BJ I.xxviii.4 ................ 222, 439–440, 445, 451, 453 Dio Cassius, Histories L.4, 6 ............................ 421
BJ I.xxx.7 ............................................. 222, 453 Dio Cassius, Histories L.7 ............................... 382
BJ I.xxxii.7 .................................................. 446 Dio Cassius, Histories L.13 ............................. 421
BJ I.xxxiii.1 .................................................. 444 Dio Cassius, Histories L.33 ............................. 352
BJ I.xxxiii.5ƒ. ............................................... 445 Dio Cassius, Histories XLI.18 ......................... 441
BJ I.xxxiii.6 .................................................. 445 Dio Cassius, Histories XLI.36 ......................... 423

Index
Dio Cassius, Histories XLII.32 ........................ 422 Ecc. Hist. III.32 ............................... 470, 486, 493
Dio Cassius, Histories XLIX.12 ....................... 424 Ecc. Hist. III.34 ............................................ 469
Dio Cassius, Histories XLIX.22 ................ 439, 444 Ecc. Hist. III.36 ..................................... 496, 506
Dio Cassius, Histories XLIX.39 ....................... 422 Ecc. Hist. III.38 ............................................ 470
Dio Cassius, Histories XLVI.39 ....................... 381 Ecc. Hist. III.39 ................. 478, 481, 483, 493, 510
Dio Cassius, Histories XLVI.40 ....................... 381 Ecc. Hist. V.6 ............................................... 469
Dio Cassius, Histories XLVIII.14 ..................... 423 Ecc. Hist. V.8 ......................................... 489, 493
Dio Cassius, Histories XLVIII.17 ..................... 424 Ecc. Hist. V.10 .............................................. 466
Ecc. Hist. I.4 ................................................ 129 Ecc. Hist. V.24 ................................ 469, 482, 510
Ecc. Hist. I.12 .................... 465, 483, 494, 506, 516 Ecc. Hist. VI.14 ..................................... 478, 489
Ecc. Hist. I.12–II.1 ........................................ 518 Ecc. Hist. VI.25 ..................................... 478, 489
Ecc. Hist. I.13 ........................................ 518–519 Ecc. Hist. VI.26 ............................................ 470
Ecc. Hist. II.1 .................... 465, 475, 477, 515, 519 Ecc. Hist. VII.25 ........................................... 478
Ecc. Hist. II.9 ............................................... 477 Ecc. Hist.. IV.23 ............................................ 472
Ecc. Hist. II.13 ............................................. 515 Ecc. Hist.V.23–25 ......................................... 146
Ecc. Hist. II.14 ............................................. 515 Hist I.6 ....................................................... 312
Ecc. Hist. II.15 ............................................. 478 Hist I.8ƒ. .............................................. 308, 319
Ecc. Hist. II.16 ............................................. 478 Hist I.15 ...................................................... 308
Ecc. Hist. II.22 ............................................. 502 Hist I.16 ...................................................... 320
Ecc. Hist. II.23 ...................................... 129, 475 Hist I.33 ...................................................... 312
Ecc. Hist. II.24 ............................................. 478 Hist I.73ƒ. ................................................... 298
Ecc. Hist. II.25 ...................................... 503, 507 Hist I.74 ........................................ 306, 311, 313
Ecc. Hist. III.1 .......................... 462, 482, 507, 519 Hist I.77ƒ. ................................................... 314
Ecc. Hist. III.2 .............................................. 488 Hist I.95ƒ. ................................................... 318
Ecc. Hist. III.3 ................................ 474, 503, 508 Hist I.103–106 ....................................... 247, 257
Ecc. Hist. III.4 ................... 469, 472, 489, 520–521 Hist I.106ƒ. .................................................. 311
Ecc. Hist. III.5 .............................................. 475 Hist I.109ƒ. .................................................. 313
Ecc. Hist. III.10 ..................................... 470, 493 Hist I.183 .................................................... 290
Ecc. Hist. III.11 ..................................... 470, 493 Hist I.190–191 ............................................. 299
Ecc. Hist. III.13 ............................................ 488 Hist II.102 ................................................... 263
Ecc. Hist. III.15 ............................................ 469 Hist II.124 ................................................... 262
Ecc. Hist. III.16 ............................................ 469 Hist II.141 ............................... 118, 270, 276, 290
Ecc. Hist. III.17 ............................................ 482 Hist II.159 ............................................ 155, 297
Ecc. Hist. III.20 ............................................ 486 Hist III.89 ...................................... 311, 312, 314
Ecc. Hist. III.22 ............................................ 506 Hist III.159 .................................................. 276
Ecc. Hist. III.23 ..................................... 468, 482 Hist IX.58 ................................................... 326
Ecc. Hist. III.24 ..................................... 482, 493 Hist IX.108ƒ. ............................................... 308
Ecc. Hist. III.25 ............................... 466, 480, 494 Hist V.11 ..................................................... 306
Ecc. Hist. III.26 ............................................ 483 Hist V.27 ..................................................... 308
Ecc. Hist. III.28 ............................................ 482 Hist VI.112ƒ. ............................................... 326
Ecc. Hist. III.29 ..................................... 494–495 Hist VII.11 .................................................. 315
Ecc. Hist. III.30 ............................................ 506 Hist VII.20 .................................................. 326
Ecc. Hist. III.30–31 ....................................... 509 Hist VII.114 ................................................ 306
Ecc. Hist. III.31 ..................................... 482, 511 Hist VII.176ƒ. .............................................. 326

Index
Hist VIII.83ƒ. .............................................. 326 Plutarch, Life of Tiberius Gracchus 8 ............... 413
Homer, Odyssey, IV.446 ................................. 249 Polybius Histories XIII.9 ................................ 360
Life of Josephus 3 .................................... 48, 395 Polybius, Histories I.20 ................................... 375
Livy, Histories XLV.12 ................................... 359 Polybius, Histories V.107 ................................ 346
Livy, Histories XLV.12ƒ. ................................. 347 Polybius, Histories XVIII.35 ........................... 413
Livy, Histories XXXV.11, XXXVI.2 ................ 412 Polybius, Histories XXIX.27 ........................... 359
Livy, Histories XXXVI.11 .............................. 357 Polybius, Histories XXXI.11ƒ. .................. 361, 376
Macrobius, Saturnalia II.iv.11 ......................... 445 Polybius, Histories XXXI.28 ........................... 413
Ovid, Metamorphoses I ................................. 180 Sallust, Conspiracy of Catiline 62 .................... 419
Ovid, Metamorphoses, book VIII .................... 179 Suetonius, Augustus 16 .................................. 424
Plutarch, Life of Antony 6 .............................. 422 Suetonius, Augustus 22 .................................. 383
Plutarch, Life of Antony 8 .............................. 422 Suetonius, Cæsar 1 ........................................ 390
Plutarch, Life of Antony 17 ............................. 381 Suetonius, Cæsar 14 ...................................... 390
Plutarch, Life of Antony 40 ............................. 421 Suetonius, Cæsar 74–75 ................................. 390
Plutarch, Life of Antony 66 ............................. 352 Suetonius, Claudius 3 .................................... 394
Plutarch, Life of Antony 68 ............................. 426 Suetonius, Claudius 10 ................................... 394
Plutarch, Life of Artaxerxes [II] ....................... 315 Suetonius, Claudius 18 ................................... 461
Plutarch, Life of Artaxerxes [II] 1 .............. 308–310 Suetonius, Claudius 25 ..................... 144, 394, 464
Plutarch, Life of Artaxerxes [II] 4 .................... 310 Suetonius, Claudius 44 ................................... 394
Plutarch, Life of Brutus 5 ............................... 420 Suetonius, Domitian 2 ................................... 397
Plutarch, Life of Brutus 9 ............................... 420 Suetonius, Domitian 15 .................................. 397
Plutarch, Life of Cæsar 7 ................................ 419 Suetonius, Gaius 11 ....................................... 393
Plutarch, Life of Cæsar 11 .............................. 390 Suetonius, Gaius 15 ....................................... 394
Plutarch, Life of Cæsar 46 .............................. 420 Suetonius, Gaius 24 ................................ 393–394
Plutarch, Life of Cicero 39 ............................. 419 Suetonius, Gaius 40 ....................................... 393
Plutarch, Life of Crassus 2 .............................. 416 Suetonius, Gaius 52 ....................................... 400
Plutarch, Life of Crassus 7 .............................. 390 Suetonius, Gaius 55 ....................................... 393
Plutarch, Life of Marius 9 ............................... 414 Suetonius, Nero 3 ......................................... 421
Plutarch, Life of Marius 11ƒ. .......................... 414 Suetonius, Nero 16 ........................................ 144
Plutarch, Life of Marius 46 ............................. 415 Suetonius, Nero 33 ........................................ 394
Plutarch, Life of Pompey 6 ............................. 417 Suetonius, Nero 34 ........................................ 394
Plutarch, Life of Pompey 10 ............................ 417 Suetonius, Nero 35 ........................................ 394
Plutarch, Life of Pompey 39 ............................ 418 Suetonius, Nero 38 ........................................ 395
Plutarch, Life of Pompey 45 ..................... 417–418 Suetonius, Otho 3 ......................................... 395
Plutarch, Life of Pompey 48 ............................ 379 Suetonius, Tiberius 16ƒ. ................................. 392
Plutarch, Life of Pompey 53 ............................ 418 Suetonius, Tiberius 23 ................................... 392
Plutarch, Life of Sulla 31 ................................ 415 Suetonius, Tiberius 42ƒ. ................................. 392

Index
Suetonius, Tiberius 54 ................................... 392 Tacitus, Histories IV.2 .................................... 397

Suetonius, Titus 7 ................................... 397, 442 Tacitus, Histories IV.81 .................................. 396
Suetonius, Vespasian 4 ..................................... 50 Tacitus, Histories V.2 ..................................... 269
Suetonius, Vespasian 5 ................................... 450 Tacitus, Histories V.3 .............................. 174, 269
Suetonius, Vespasian 6 ..................................... 48 Tacitus, Histories V.8 ..................................... 359
Suetonius, Vespasian 7 ................................... 396 Tacitus, Histories V.9 ............ 48, 417, 440, 443–444
Suetonius, Vitellius 1 ..................................... 396 Tacitus, Histories V.10 ................................ 49–50
Suetonius, Vitellius 2 ..................................... 396 Tacitus, Histories V.13 ..................................... 50
Suetonius, Vitellius 4 ..................................... 396 Tale of Two Brothers (Blackfoot folktale) ........... 153
Suetonius, Vitellius 17 .................................... 396 Tale of Two Brothers (Egyptian folktale) ............ 153
Tacitus, Annals I.3 ........................................ 392 Thucydides 1.22 ............................................. 14
Tacitus, Annals I.5 ........................................ 392 Virgil, Aeneid, II.49 ....................................... 324
Tacitus, Annals I.41 ....................................... 393 Xenophon, Anabasis I.9.1 .............................. 315
Tacitus, Annals I.80 ....................................... 392 Xenophon, Cyropaedia, VIII.vii ...................... 314
Tacitus, Annals II.1ƒ. ..................................... 430
Tacitus, Annals II.85 ..................................... 394 Biblical Citations
Tacitus, Annals III.48 ...................................... 45
Gen. 1.5 ...................................................... 547
Tacitus, Annals IV.1 ....................................... 392
Gen. 1.21 .................................................... 249
Gen. 1.27 .................................................... 113
Tacitus, Annals IV.7ƒ. .................................... 392
Gen. 2.4 ...................................................... 547
Gen. 2.13 ...................................................... 94
Tacitus, Annals IV.57 ..................................... 392
Gen. 2.27 .................................................... 113
Tacitus, Annals VI.19 .................................... 393
Gen. 3.3 ...................................................... 114
Tacitus, Annals VI.22ƒ. .................................. 392
Gen. 3.20 ............................................. 113–114
Tacitus, Annals VI.40 .................................... 437
Gen. 4.1 ...................................................... 114
Tacitus, Annals XI.8 ...................................... 430
Gen. 4.15 ...................................................... 92
Tacitus, Annals XI.26ƒ. .................................. 394
Gen. 4.17–24 ................................................. 92
Tacitus, Annals XII.25ƒ. ................................ 394
Gen. 4.19-23 ................................................. 78
Tacitus, Annals XII.53 ............................ 393, 444
Gen. 4.22 .................................................... 201
Tacitus, Annals XII.54 ..................................... 48
Gen. 4.23–24 ............................................... 160
Tacitus, Annals XIII.16 .................................. 394
Gen. 4.25 .................................................... 114
Tacitus, Annals XIII.45ƒ. ............................... 395
Gen. 4.26 .................................................... 111
Tacitus, Annals XIV.2ƒ. .................................. 394
Gen. 5.24 .................................................... 111
Tacitus, Annals XIV.26 .................................. 437
Gen. 5.32 .................................................... 117
Tacitus, Annals XV.1-30 ................................. 437
Gen. 6.10 .................................................... 117
Tacitus, Annals XV.28 ..................................... 47
Gen. 6.18 .................................................... 546
Tacitus, Annals XV.38ƒ. ................................. 395
Gen. 7.13 .................................................... 117
Tacitus, Annals XV.44 ................. 46, 143–144, 395
Gen. 9.3 ...................................................... 179
Tacitus, Histories I.9 ...................................... 396
Gen. 9.18 .................................................... 117
Tacitus, Histories I.11 ...................................... 47
Gen. 9.20 .................................................... 179
Tacitus, Histories I.13 .................................... 395
Gen. 9.20–22 ............................................... 117
Tacitus, Histories II.2 ..................................... 442
Gen. 9.24 .................................................... 117
Tacitus, Histories II.58–59 ................................ 49
Gen. 9.24–27 ........................................ 117, 179
Tacitus, Histories II.79 ..................................... 48
Gen. 9.25–27 ................................................. 94
Tacitus, Histories III.2ƒ .................................. 396
Gen. 10.8 .................................................... 178
Tacitus, Histories III.84–85 ............................. 396

Index
Gen. 10.9 .................................................... 178 Gen. 21.8–21 ............................................... 117

Gen. 10.10–12 ............................................. 178 Gen. 22 .................................................. 29, 124
Gen. 10.16 .................................................. 131 Gen. 22.1–10 ................................................. 77
Gen. 10.22-24 ................................................ 86 Gen. 22.20–22 ............................................. 172
Gen. 10.24 .................................................... 93 Gen. 23.1 .................................................... 190
Gen. 10.25 .................................................. 183 Gen. 23.17-20 .............................................. 190
Gen. 11.12-13 ................................................ 93 Gen. 24.1–9 ................................................. 186
Gen. 11.24-32 .............................................. 190 Gen. 24.10–14 ............................................. 186
Gen. 11.26–31 ............................................. 118 Gen. 24.10–67 ............................................. 124
Gen. 11.28 ............................................ 162, 201 Gen. 24.12 .................................................. 245
Gen. 11.29 .................................................. 124 Gen. 24.15–27 ............................................. 186
Gen. 11.32 .................................................. 201 Gen. 24.50 .................................................... 91
Gen. 12.4 ...................................................... 76 Gen. 25.21 .................................................. 186
Gen. 12.4–5 ................................................. 162 Gen. 25.26 .................................................. 124
Gen. 12.10–13.1 ........................................... 274 Gen. 25.29–34 ............................................. 112
Gen. 12.10–20 ........................................ 76, 190 Gen. 25.31 .................................................. 112
Gen. 12.20 LXX .......................................... 162 Gen. 25.33 .................................................. 112
Gen. 13.8–13 ............................................... 163 Gen. 26.1–11 ............................................... 124
Gen. 14.18ƒ. ................................................ 202 Gen. 26.3 .................................................... 126
Gen. 15 ........................................................ 76 Gen. 26.6–11 ............................................... 187
Gen. 15.2 ............................................. 162, 282 Gen. 26.34 .................................................. 124
Gen. 15.13 MT ............................................ 277 Gen. 27 ........................................... 27, 112, 124
Gen. 15.15 .................................................. 547 Gen. 27.1–40 ............................................... 186
Gen. 16.1 .................................................... 116 Gen. 27.25-27 .............................................. 196
Gen. 16.1–2 ................................................. 190 Gen. 27.36 .................................................. 112
Gen. 16.1ƒ. .................................................. 282 Gen. 27.41–28.5 ........................................... 186
Gen. 16.5 .................................................... 190 Gen. 27.43 .................................................. 126
Gen. 16.5–14 ............................................... 117 Gen. 28.2 .................................................... 126
Gen. 16.15–16 ............................................. 190 Gen. 28.6–9 ................................................. 112
Gen. 17.5 ...................................................... 76 Gen. 28.15 .................................................. 126
Gen. 17.15 .................................................. 190 Gen. 29.1 .................................................... 112
Gen. 17.17 .................................................. 190 Gen. 29.6 .................................................... 185
Gen. 17.20 .................................................. 125 Gen. 29.16 .................................................. 159
Gen. 18.11 .................................................. 190 Gen. 29.18 ............................................ 126, 185
Gen. 18.20–33 ............................................. 163 Gen. 29.21–26 ............................................. 126
Gen. 19.1–11 ............................................... 163 Gen. 29.21–29 ............................................. 185
Gen. 19.17 .................................................. 161 Gen. 29.24, 29 ............................................. 159
Gen. 19.24–25 ............................................. 163 Gen. 29.27–30 ............................................. 126
Gen. 19.26 .................................................. 163 Gen. 29.31–32 ............................................. 188
Gen. 19.30–38 ............................................. 163 Gen. 29.31–35 ............................................. 161
Gen. 19.37 .................................................. 173 Gen. 29.33 LXX .......................................... 161
Gen. 19.38 .................................................... 90 Gen. 29.34 .................................................. 161
Gen. 20.1–18 .......................................... 76, 190 Gen. 30-31 .................................................... 27
Gen. 20.7 .................................................... 236 Gen. 30.1–8 ................................................. 185
Gen. 20.12 ............................................. 77, 190 Gen. 30.3 .................................................... 126
Gen. 20.13 .................................................. 546 Gen. 30.7–8 ................................................. 177

Index
Gen. 30.9 .................................................... 126 Gen. 44.18–34 ............................................. 156

Gen. 30.14–17 ............................................. 188 Gen. 45.7 .................................................... 547
Gen. 30.14–24 ............................................. 161 Gen. 46.10 .................................................. 107
Gen. 30.15 LXX .......................................... 161 Gen. 46.11 .................................................. 116
Gen. 30.20 .................................................. 107 Gen. 46.13 .................................................... 28
Gen. 30.22–24 ............................................. 153 Gen. 46.15 .................................................. 107
Gen. 31.19 ............................................ 159, 185 Gen. 46.20 LXX .................................... 116, 164
Gen. 31.20 .................................................. 126 Gen. 47.28 .................................................. 127
Gen. 31.35 .................................................. 159 Gen. 48 ....................................................... 111
Gen. 32.5 .................................................... 112 Gen. 48.5 .................................................... 166
Gen. 32.22–32 ............................................. 126 Gen. 48.17–20 ............................................. 166
Gen. 33 ....................................................... 126 Gen. 49.3–4 ............................................ 91, 188
Gen. 34.1–31 ........................................ 122, 161 Gen. 49.29–31 ............................................. 161
Gen. 34.14 LXX .......................................... 197 Gen. 49.30 .................................................. 124
Gen. 34.25–31 ............................................. 196 Gen. 49.31 ............................................ 124, 187
Gen. 35.7 .................................................... 112 Gen. 50.13 .................................................. 127
Gen. 35.8 ............................................... 91, 186 Ex. 1.8 ........................................................ 274
Gen. 35.10 .................................................. 126 Ex. 1.11 ...................................................... 267
Gen. 35.16–19 ............................................... 90 Ex. 2.1–4 ..................................................... 173
Gen. 35.16–20 ............................................. 126 Ex. 2.4 ........................................................ 172
Gen. 35.19 .................................................. 185 Ex. 2.5–10 ................................................... 173
Gen. 35.22 ............................................. 91, 188 Ex. 2.8 ........................................................ 547
Gen. 35.28 .................................................. 124 Ex. 2.11-14 .................................................. 158
Gen. 35.29 .................................................. 124 Ex. 2.11–15 ................................................. 173
Gen. 36.10 .................................................. 112 Ex. 2.18 ...................................................... 188
Gen. 36.31-33 .............................................. 112 Ex. 2.21–22 ................................................. 174
Gen. 37.2 .................................................... 152 Ex. 3.1–14 ................................................... 175
Gen. 37.22, 29–30 ........................................ 188 Ex. 3.8, 17 ................................................... 131
Gen. 37.25–36 ............................................. 127 Ex. 4.1–17 ................................................... 174
Gen. 37.29-30 .............................................. 196 Ex. 4.14 ........................................................ 73
Gen. 37.31-33 .............................................. 196 Ex. 4.18–23 ................................................. 174
Gen. 38 ................................................ 184, 195 Ex. 4.25 ...................................................... 208
Gen. 38.2–5 ................................................. 156 Ex. 6.3 ........................................................ 547
Gen. 38.6–7 ................................................. 156 Ex. 6.16 ...................................................... 116
Gen. 38.8–10 ............................................... 156 Ex. 6.20 ........................................................ 84
Gen. 38.9 .................................................... 182 Ex. 6.20 LXX .............................................. 172
Gen. 38.12 .................................................... 90 Ex. 7.1 ........................................................ 236
Gen. 38.12–19 ............................................. 156 Ex. 11.2 ...................................................... 547
Gen. 38.24–30 ............................................. 156 Ex. 12.1–27 ................................................. 175
Gen. 41.50–52 ....................................... 111, 165 Ex. 12.7 ...................................................... 145
Gen. 41.51 .................................................. 165 Ex. 12.40 ..................................................... 277
Gen. 42.24 .................................................. 196 Ex. 14.10–30 ................................................ 174
Gen. 43.8–9 ............................................ 90, 156 Ex. 15.20 .............................................. 172, 251
Gen. 43.23 .................................................. 196 Ex. 15.21 .............................................. 172, 175
Gen. 43.26–34 ............................................... 91 Ex. 17.1–7 ................................................... 175
Gen. 43.27 .................................................. 547 Ex. 17.8–13 ................................................. 154

Index
Ex. 17.10–12 ................................................ 123 Num. 22.21–34 ............................................ 238

Ex. 17.10ƒ ................................................... 172 Num. 23.7–10, 18–24, 24.3–9, 15–19 ............... 238
Ex. 17.12 ..................................................... 546 Num. 24.22-24 ............................................... 87
Ex. 18.4 ...................................................... 174 Num. 24.24 ................................................. 107
Ex. 20.1–17 ................................................. 175 Num. 25.4 ................................................... 207
Ex. 20.6 ...................................................... 245 Num. 25.6–15 .............................................. 184
Ex. 21.5 ...................................................... 245 Num. 25.14 ................................................. 184
Ex. 24.8 ...................................................... 145 Num. 26.5–51 .............................................. 175
Ex. 24.14 ..................................................... 123 Num. 26.14 ................................................. 196
Ex. 25.16 ..................................................... 547 Num. 26.15 LXX ................................... 184, 205
Ex. 31.2 ...................................................... 123 Num. 26.20 ................................................. 195
Ex. 32 ............................................. 73, 138, 175 Num. 26.21 ........................................... 117, 119
Ex. 32.25–29 ................................................ 162 Num. 26.23 ................................................... 28
Ex. 34.29–35 ................................................ 175 Num. 26.29 ................................................. 115
Ex. 38.21 ..................................................... 125 Num. 26.29-30 ............................................. 116
Ex. 38.22 LXX ............................................. 159 Num. 26.33-34 ............................................. 116
Lev. 10.1–3 .................................................. 176 Num. 26.59 ............................................ 84, 149
Lev. 10.1ƒ. ....................................... 74, 108, 125 Num. 26.60-61 ............................................... 74
Lev. 19.15 .................................................... 547 Num. 26.61 .................................... 108, 125, 176
Num. 1.8, 2.5, 7.18, 23, 10.15 ......................... 494 Num. 27.12–23 ............................................ 175
Num. 1.17–46 .............................................. 175 Num. 31.6 ................................................... 184
Num. 1.23 ................................................... 196 Num. 31.8 ................................................... 238
Num. 1.47–53 .............................................. 162 Num. 32.12 ................................................. 136
Num. 3.2-4 .................................................... 74 Deut 5.10 .................................................... 245
Num. 3.4 ....................................... 108, 125, 176 Deut. 10.8–9 ................................................ 162
Num. 3.12 ................................................... 162 Deut. 11.10 .................................................. 261
Num. 3.27–32 .............................................. 158 Deut. 18.15 .................................................. 258
Num. 4.24–26 .............................................. 116 Deut. 18.15–16 ............................................. 174
Num. 4.28, 33 .............................................. 125 Deut. 26.5 .............................................. 76, 200
Num. 4.38–41 .............................................. 116 Deut. 26.5–10 .............................................. 175
Num. 10.29 ................................................. 188 Deut. 32.4 ................................................... 546
Num. 11.26–29 ............................................ 241 Deut. 34.7 ................................................... 175
Num. 12 ................................................. 73, 175 Deut. 34.9 ................................................... 154
Num. 12.1 ...................................... 172–173, 208 Deut. 34.10–12 ...................................... 174, 258
Num. 12.3 ................................................... 175 Josh. 1.1 ...................................................... 154
Num. 12.9–16 .............................................. 172 Josh. 2.1 ...................................................... 186
Num. 13.8 ................................................... 154 Josh. 3.10 .................................................... 131
Num. 13.16 ............................................ 93, 154 Josh. 3.14–17 ............................................... 154
Num. 14.6–9 ................................................ 154 Josh. 3.16 ...................................................... 79
Num. 16 ............................................... 175, 188 Josh. 6.1–26 ................................................. 154
Num. 16.1ƒ. ................................................. 158 Josh. 7.2–8.29 ............................................... 154
Num. 16.28–35 ............................................ 159 Josh. 9.3–27 ................................................. 154
Num. 20.1 ................................................... 172 Josh. 9.7 ...................................................... 122
Num. 20.2–13 .............................................. 175 Josh. 10.1–14 ............................................... 154
Num. 20.12 ................................................. 174 Josh. 10.1ƒ. .................................................. 202
Num. 22.20 ................................................. 238 Josh. 11.1 ...................................................... 26

Index
Josh. 11.1–15 ............................................... 154 Judges 10.1–2 ................................................. 28

Josh. 13.1 .................................................... 547 Judges 10.3–5 ................................................. 28
Josh. 13.15–23 .............................................. 188 Judges 10.6–11.33 ........................................... 28
Josh. 13.22 ............................................ 227, 238 Judges 11.1 ............................................ 116, 166
Josh. 13.30 .................................................... 28 Judges 11.5 .................................................... 28
Josh. 14.4 .................................................... 162 Judges 11.34–40 ............................................. 28
Josh. 14.6 ...................................................... 93 Judges 12.1–6 ................................................. 28
Josh. 15.1–12 ............................................... 157 Judges 12.8–10 .......................................... 29, 91
Josh. 15.1–62 ............................................... 157 Judges 12.11–12 ............................................. 29
Josh. 16.10 LXX ........................................... 274 Judges 12.13–15 ............................................. 30
Josh. 17.1–13 ............................................... 166 Judges 13 ...................................................... 30
Josh. 18.11–28 ............................................... 91 Judges 15–16 ................................................ 188
Josh. 19.1–9 ................................................. 196 Judges 15.4-5 ................................................. 27
Josh. 19.10–16 .............................................. 203 Judges 15.11 .................................................. 24
Josh. 19.32–39 .............................................. 177 Judges 15.14–17 ............................................. 31
Josh. 19.47–48 ............................................... 95 Judges 15.15 .................................................. 26
Josh. 21.33 ................................................... 116 Judges 17 ...................................................... 30
Josh. 21.43–45 .............................................. 175 Judges 17.8–9 ............................................... 152
Josh. 22.10–34 .............................................. 184 Judges 17.30 ................................................. 116
Josh. 24.1–24 ............................................... 154 Judges 18 ...................................................... 95
Josh. 24.2 .................................................... 201 Judges 18.1 .................................................... 84
Josh. 24.11 ................................................... 131 Judges 18.27–29 ............................................. 95
Josh. 24.16–18 .............................................. 175 Judges 18.27–30 ............................................ 152
Josh. 24.29–30 .............................................. 154 Judges 19.1–21.24 ........................................... 91
Josh. 24.33 LXX ........................................... 184 Judges 20 ...................................................... 24
Judges 1.3 .................................................... 196 Judges 20.16 .................................................. 90
Judges 1.21 .................................................. 131 Judges 20.27 ................................................. 184
Judges 1.34 .................................................... 84 Judges 21 ..................................................... 192
Judges 3 ...................................................... 183 Judges 21.25 .................................................. 24
Judges 3.3–11 ................................................. 24 Ruth 1.1 ................................................. 25, 110
Judges 3.12-28 .............................................. 189 Ruth 1.2-5 ..................................................... 94
Judges 3.15 .................................................... 90 Ruth 1.14 .................................................... 182
Judges 3.31 .................................................... 26 Ruth 4.9 ....................................................... 94
Judges 4 ........................................................ 26 Ruth 4.18 .................................................... 120
Judges 4.4 .................................................... 240 Ruth 4.18 LXX ............................................ 120
Judges 4.5 ................................................. 25–26 Ruth 4.19 .................................................... 186
Judges 5 ...................................................... 240 Ruth 4.20-21 ................................................ 189
Judges 5.6 ...................................................... 26 1 Sam. 1 ...................................................... 167
Judges 5.17 .................................................. 115 1 Sam. 1-3 ................................................... 253
Judges 6–8 ..................................................... 27 1 Sam. 1.1 ..................................................... 32
Judges 6.15 .................................................. 166 1!Sam. 1.1 ................................................... 159
Judges 7.13 .................................................. 547 1 Sam. 1.1-25 ............................................... 254
Judges 8.22–23 ............................................... 27 1 Sam. 2.1-10 ............................................... 254
Judges 8.24 .................................................. 158 1 Sam. 2.11-26 ............................................. 254
Judges 8.24-27 ............................................... 27 1!Sam. 2.12 ................................................. 122
Judges 9.53 .................................................... 28 1!Sam. 2.12–17 ............................................ 109

Index
1 Sam. 2.22–25 ............................................ 109 1 Sam. 14.49 ........................................... 75, 125

1 Sam. 2.27-36 ............................................. 254 1 Sam. 14.51 ............................ 158, 178, 190–191
1 Sam. 3.1-4.1 .............................................. 254 1 Sam. 15.1-35 ............................................. 255
1 Sam. 4.1-7.2 .............................................. 253 1 Sam. 16.1-13 ............................................. 255
1!Sam. 4.1–11 .............................................. 109 1!Sam. 16.10 ................................................ 104
1 Sam. 4.2-7.2 .............................................. 254 1!Sam. 16.12 ................................................ 104
1 Sam. 4.4, 11, 17 ......................................... 122 1 Sam. 16.14 LXX ........................................ 192
1!Sam. 4.12–18 ............................................ 109 1 Sam. 16.14-23 ........................................... 255
1 Sam. 4.15 ................................................. 109 1!Sam. 16.14–23 .................................... 104, 192
1 Sam. 4.18 ............................................ 32, 109 1!Sam. 17 ............................................. 104, 192
1!Sam. 4.22 ................................................. 123 1 Sam. 17.1-18.5 ........................................... 255
1 Sam. 7.3-17 ............................................... 254 1 Sam. 17.12 ........................................... 96, 104
1 Sam. 8.1-22 ............................................... 254 1 Sam. 17.12-31, 41, 48b, 50, 55-58 ................... 96
1 Sam. 8.2 ................................................... 253 1!Sam. 17.12–16 ........................................... 194
1 Sam. 9.1 .............................................. 74, 190 1 Sam. 17.13 ................................................ 109
1!Sam. 9.1 .......................... 90, 158, 178, 192, 205 1 Sam. 17.16 ................................................. 96
1 Sam. 9.1-10.16 ........................................... 255 1 Sam. 17.28 ................................................ 109
1!Sam. 9.2 ................................................... 192 1 Sam. 17.28ƒ. ............................................... 96
1!Sam. 9.6 ................................................... 192 1 Sam. 17.43, 51 ............................................ 96
1 Sam. 9.6-9 ................................................ 227 1 Sam. 17.58 ................................................. 96
1!Sam. 9.15–10.8 .......................................... 192 1!Sam. 18.1 ................................................. 104
1!Sam. 10.1 ................................................... 91 1 Sam. 18.1-5; 10-11, 17-19, 29b-30 .................. 96
1!Sam. 10.2 ................................................. 185 1 Sam. 18.1ƒ. ................................................. 96
1 Sam. 10.10 ................................................ 192 1 Sam. 18.6-20 ............................................. 255
1 Sam. 10.17-27 ........................................... 255 1 Sam. 18.7 ................................................... 96
1 Sam. 10.17–27 ............................................ 91 1!Sam. 18.7 ................................................. 104
1!Sam. 10.17–27 ........................................... 192 1!Sam. 18.10 ................................................ 172
1!Sam. 10.21 ................................................. 85 1!Sam. 18.17 ................................................ 104
1 Sam. 10.23 ................................................ 192 1!Sam. 18.19 ................................................ 104
1 Sam. 11.1-15 ............................................. 255 1!Sam. 18.20–27 ........................................... 104
1!Sam. 11.1–11 ............................................ 192 1!Sam. 18.29 ................................................ 192
1!Sam. 11.12–15 ........................................... 192 1!Sam. 19.1 ................................................. 104
1 Sam. 12.1-25 ............................................. 255 1 Sam. 19.1-10 ............................................. 255
1 Sam. 13.1 ........................................... 255, 551 1!Sam. 19.11 ................................................ 104
1 Sam. 13.1 Lucian ....................................... 191 1 Sam. 19.11-17 ........................................... 255
1!Sam. 13.1 MT ........................................... 191 1 Sam. 19.11–17 ........................................... 172
1 Sam. 13.2-7 ............................................... 255 1 Sam. 19.11–24 ........................................... 192
1 Sam. 13.7b-15a .......................................... 255 1 Sam. 19.18-24 ........................................... 255
1!Sam. 13.8–15 ............................................ 192 1 Sam. 20.1-42 ............................................. 255
1 Sam. 13.15b-14.52 ..................................... 255 1!Sam. 20.30–34 ........................................... 151
1 Sam. 14.1-22 ............................................... 96 1 Sam. 21.1-9 ............................................... 255
1!Sam. 14.1–15 ............................................ 151 1 Sam. 21.10-15 ........................................... 255
1!Sam. 14.1–23 ............................................ 192 1 Sam. 22.1-23 ............................................. 255
1 Sam. 14.3 ................................................. 123 1 Sam. 22.5 ................................................. 243
1!Sam. 14.16–46 ........................................... 151 1!Sam. 22.6–23 .............................................. 73
1 Sam. 14.18 ................................................. 81 1 Sam. 23.1-13 ............................................. 255

Index
1 Sam. 23.14-24.22 ....................................... 255 2!Sam. 5.4 ................................................... 105

1!Sam. 24 .................................................... 192 2!Sam. 5.6–7 ................................................ 105
1 Sam. 25.1 ................................................. 255 2!Sam. 5.6–8 ................................................ 131
1 Sam. 25.2-44 ............................................. 255 2 Sam. 5.14ƒ. ............................................... 105
1!Sam. 25.2–42 .............................................. 74 2 Sam. 5.16 ........................................... 105, 177
1 Sam. 25.28-31 ........................................... 255 2!Sam. 6.16 ................................................. 172
1 Sam. 25.44 ................................................ 172 2!Sam. 6.23 ........................................... 172, 193
1!Sam. 26 ............................................. 104, 192 2 Sam. 7.1–17 .............................................. 252
1 Sam. 26.1-25 ............................................. 255 2 Sam. 8.7 LXX ........................................... 268
1!Sam. 26.6 ................................................... 75 2!Sam. 8.7 LXX ........................................... 275
1 Sam. 26.23 ................................................ 546 2 Sam. 8.17 ................................................. 202
1 Sam. 27.1-28.2 ........................................... 255 2!Sam. 8.17 ................................................... 82
1!Sam. 27.2 ................................................. 104 2 Sam. 8.18 ................................................. 214
1 Sam. 28.3-25 ............................................. 255 2!Sam. 9.1–13 .............................................. 170
1!Sam. 28.6 ................................................. 192 2!Sam. 9.12 ................................................. 170
1!Sam. 28.7–25 ............................................ 192 2!Sam. 11–12 ............................................... 105
1 Sam. 29.1-30.31 ......................................... 255 2!Sam. 11.1–21 ............................................ 148
1 Sam. 30 ...................................................... 94 2!Sam. 11.3 ................................................... 89
1!Sam. 31.1 ................................................. 192 2 Sam. 11.21 ................................................. 28
1 Sam. 31.1-13 ............................................. 255 2!Sam. 11.21 ................................................. 27
1!Sam. 31.2 ................................................. 192 2 Sam. 12.7 ................................................. 252
1!Sam. 31.2–3 .............................................. 192 2!Sam. 12.10–11 ....................................... 77, 89
1!Sam. 31.4 ................................................. 192 2!Sam. 12.14 ................................................. 89
1!Sam. 31.8–13 ............................................ 192 2!Sam. 12.24–25 ........................................... 197
2 Sam 3.3 ...................................................... 94 2 Sam. 13.13 ................................................ 163
2!Sam. 2.1–4 ................................................ 104 2 Sam. 13.21 ................................................. 84
2!Sam. 2.8–11 ................................................ 76 2 Sam. 14.27 ....................................... 75, 78, 86
2!Sam. 2.10 ................................................. 113 2 Sam. 14.27 LXX ..................... 86, 164, 187, 200
2!Sam. 2.12–17 ............................................ 148 2 Sam. 15.7 ................................................... 77
2!Sam. 2.17 ................................................... 86 2!Sam. 15.24 ................................................ 202
2!Sam. 2.18 ................................................... 86 2!Sam. 16.1–4 .............................................. 170
2 Sam. 3.2ƒ. ................................................. 105 2 Sam. 17.25 ................................................. 74
2 Sam. 3.4 ................................................... 138 2!Sam. 17.25 ......................................... 125, 146
2 Sam. 3.7 ................................................... 113 2!Sam. 18.2 ................................................. 148
2!Sam. 3.7 ................................................... 189 2!Sam. 18.9–15 ............................................ 148
2 Sam. 3.8 ................................................... 113 2 Sam. 18.18 ................................................. 78
2 Sam. 3.11 ................................................. 113 2 Sam. 18.29 ................................................ 547
2!Sam. 3.13–16 ............................................ 172 2!Sam. 18.33 ................................................. 77
2!Sam. 3.30 ................................................... 76 2!Sam. 19.13 ................................................ 148
2 Sam. 4.1-2 ................................................ 113 2!Sam. 19.24–30 ........................................... 170
2!Sam. 4.1–4 ................................................ 170 2!Sam. 20.4–13 ............................................ 148
2!Sam. 4.3 ................................................... 113 2!Sam. 21.1–7 .............................................. 170
2!Sam. 4.3–12 .............................................. 193 2!Sam. 21.1–9 .............................................. 170
2!Sam. 4.4 ................................................... 151 2!Sam. 21.1–14 ............................................ 170
2!Sam. 4.12 ................................................. 113 2!Sam. 21.2 ................................................... 84
2!Sam. 5.1–5 ................................................ 105 2 Sam. 21.8 ................................................. 172

Index
2!Sam. 21.8 ................................................... 85 1 Kings 11.26 ........................................ 138, 277

2!Sam. 21.8–9 ....................................... 189, 193 1!Kings 11.26–39 .......................................... 138
2!Sam. 21.10–14 ........................................... 192 1!Kings 11.26–40 .......................................... 198
2 Sam. 21.19 ................................................. 95 1 Kings 11.26ƒ. ............................................ 269
2!Sam. 21.19 ........................................... 96, 104 1 Kings 11.30–31 .......................................... 236
2!Sam. 23.1 ................................................... 95 1 Kings 11.40 ........................................ 268–269
2 Sam. 23.11–12 ............................................ 31 1!Kings 11.40 ........................................ 138, 198
2 Sam. 23.18 ................................................. 75 1!Kings 12.1–20 ........................................... 138
2 Sam. 23.34 ................................................. 89 1!Kings 12.11 ............................................... 187
2 Sam. 24 .................................................... 243 1!Kings 12.21-23 ............................................ 91
2 Sam. 24.9 ................................................. 106 1 Kings 12.21–24 .......................................... 256
2!Sam. 24.11 ................................................ 227 1!Kings 12.21–24 .......................................... 187
2!Sam. 24.16–18 ........................................... 131 1 Kings 12.22 ............................................... 139
1!Kings 1 ..................................................... 202 1 Kings 12.24 LXX ................................ 256, 268
1!Kings 1.1-12.1 LXX ................................... 198 1 Kings 12.24- LXX ..................................... 187
1 Kings 1.8, 11 ............................................. 197 1 Kings 12.24+ ............................................. 140
1!Kings 1.39 .......................................... 197, 202 1!Kings 12.25 ............................................... 138
1!Kings 2.5–6, 28–34 ..................................... 148 1!Kings 12.26–31 .......................................... 138
1 Kings 2.12 ................................................ 197 1!Kings 12.28–29 ........................................... 95
1!Kings 2.23–35 ........................................... 197 1 Kings 12.28ƒ. ............................................ 236
1!Kings 2.26 ................................................ 122 1 Kings 12.32 ............................................... 139
1!Kings 2.35 ................................................ 148 1 Kings 13 ................................................... 246
1 Kings 2.46+ ............................................... 148 1!Kings 13.1–10 ..................................... 139, 155
1 Kings 3.1 ........................................... 198, 268 1 Kings 13.2–3 ............................................. 258
1!Kings 3.1 .................................................. 274 1 Kings 14.1–18 ............................................. 74
1!Kings 3.5ƒ. ................................................ 197 1!Kings 14.1–20 ........................................... 139
1 Kings 3.6 .................................................. 245 1 Kings 14.20 ............................................... 139
1 Kings 3.11 ................................................ 547 1 Kings 14.21 ........................................ 187, 197
1!Kings 3.16–28 ..................................... 198–199 1 Kings 14.25 ............................................... 268
1 Kings 4.2 .................................................... 88 1 Kings 14.25–28 .......................................... 275
1 Kings 4.11 ................................................ 198 1 Kings 15.2 ...................................... 75, 86, 187
1 Kings 4.11, 15 ........................................... 187 1!Kings 15.2 ........................................... 75, 164
1 Kings 4.15 ................................................ 198 1 Kings 15.2 .................................................. 78
1 Kings 4.32–33 ........................................... 198 1!Kings 15.2–3 ............................................... 75
1 Kings 6.1 .................................................. 213 1!Kings 15.9 ................................................ 139
1 Kings 7.8 .................................................. 274 1 Kings 15.10 ..................................... 78, 86, 164
1 Kings 7.21 .................................................. 91 1 Kings 15.10, 13 ........................................... 86
1 Kings 9.16 .......................................... 268, 274 1 Kings 15.13 ............................................... 164
1 Kings 9.16, 24 ........................................... 274 1!Kings 15.16–23 .......................................... 279
1!Kings 9.20–21 ........................................... 131 1 Kings 15.18 ............................................... 279
1!Kings 11.1–2 ............................................. 198 1 Kings 15.27 ................................................ 81
1!Kings 11.4–8 ............................................. 198 1 Kings 16.22 LXX ....................................... 201
1 Kings 11.14–22 .......................................... 275 1!Kings 16.31 ............................................... 113
1 Kings 11.14ƒ. ............................................ 269 1 Kings 17.8-16 ............................................ 179
1 Kings 11.23-24 LXX .................................. 277 1 Kings 17.17–24 .......................................... 241
1!Kings 11.23–25 .......................................... 279 1!Kings 18.4 ................................................ 147

Index
1 Kings 18.30–40 .......................................... 241 2!Kings 9.31 ................................................ 207

1 Kings 19.16 ............................................... 242 2!Kings 9.31–37 ........................................... 135
1!Kings 19.16 ............................................... 135 2 Kings 10.1–11 ............................................. 80
1!Kings 20.1–34 ........................................... 279 2!Kings 10.1–11 ........................................... 135
1 Kings 20.35-43 .......................................... 251 2!Kings 10.12–17 .......................................... 135
1 Kings 20.35–43 .......................................... 258 2!Kings 10.18–28 .......................................... 135
1!Kings 21.1–16 ........................................... 147 2!Kings 10.30 ............................................... 135
1!Kings 21.23 ............................................... 147 2 Kings 10.32–33 .......................................... 280
1 Kings 22 ..................................................... 79 2!Kings 10.32–33 .......................................... 188
1!Kings 22.1 ................................................ 279 2!Kings 11.1–2 ............................................... 88
1 Kings 22.1–40 ........................................... 279 2!Kings 11.2 .......................................... 133, 149
1!Kings 22.5–28 ........................................... 135 2!Kings 11.13–16 ........................................... 88
1 Kings 22.8 ................................................ 251 2!Kings 11.18 ................................................ 88
1 Kings 22.17 ............................................... 251 2 Kings 12 LXX ........................................... 275
1 Kings 22.25 ............................................... 257 2!Kings 12.17–18 .......................................... 149
1 Kings 22.31 ................................................ 79 2!Kings 12.19–21 .......................................... 149
1 Kings 22.34–36 .......................................... 251 2!Kings 12.20) .............................................. 133
1 Kings 22.41-51 .......................................... 135 2 Kings 12.22 ................................................ 83
2 Kings 1.3 .................................................... 81 2 Kings 13.14–20 .......................................... 242
2 Kings 1.9–12 ............................................. 241 2!Kings 13.14–21 .......................................... 132
2 Kings 1.17 .................................................. 81 2 Kings 13.16 ............................................... 132
2 Kings 1.18 LXX ........................................ 134 2!Kings 13.21 ............................................... 242
2 Kings 2 ..................................................... 227 2 Kings 13.22 ............................................... 280
2 Kings 2.9 .................................................. 242 2 Kings 14.1-2 ............................................... 83
2 Kings 2.9–12 ............................................. 241 2!Kings 14.2 ................................................ 131
2 Kings 2.12–13 ........................................... 242 2!Kings 14.3 .................................................. 83
2 Kings 2.23–25 ........................................... 242 2!Kings 14.8–14 ...................................... 83, 132
2!Kings 3.14 ................................................ 135 2 Kings 14.17 ................................................ 88
2 Kings 3.15 ................................................ 242 2 Kings 14.23 ................................................ 83
2 Kings 3.27 .................................................. 29 2 Kings 14.25 ............................................... 249
2 Kings 4.18ƒ. .............................................. 242 2!Kings 14.25, 28 .......................................... 280
2!Kings 6.8–23 ............................................. 280 2 Kings 14.27 ................................................ 83
2!Kings 8.16–19 ........................................... 134 2 Kings 15.1 ........................................ 35, 83, 88
2 Kings 8.18 .................................................. 87 2!Kings 15.5 .................................................. 88
2!Kings 8.22 ................................................ 134 2 Kings 15.6-8 ............................................... 35
2!Kings 8.26 .................................................. 87 2 Kings 15.10 ............................................... 194
2!Kings 8.28–29 ..................................... 134, 280 2 Kings 15.13 ................................................ 35
2!Kings 9 .............................................. 149, 280 2!Kings 15.16 ............................................... 169
2!Kings 9.1–10 ............................................. 135 2 Kings 15.17 ................................................ 35
2!Kings 9.1–13 ............................................. 134 2 Kings 15.19 ........................................ 293, 295
2!Kings 9.11–13 ........................................... 135 2!Kings 15.19 ............................................... 169
2 Kings 9.14 ................................................ 280 2 Kings 15.19ƒ. ............................................ 293
2!Kings 9.20 .................................................. 84 2 Kings 15.23 ................................................ 35
2!Kings 9.21–26 ........................................... 135 2 Kings 15.27 ................................................ 35
2!Kings 9.21–28 ............................................. 88 2 Kings 15.29–31 .......................................... 293
2!Kings 9.27–28 ........................................... 135 2 Kings 15.30 .......................................... 35, 156

Index
2 Kings 15.32 ................................................ 35 2!Kings 23.29, 33, 34, 35 ................................ 271

2 Kings 15.34 ................................................ 35 2!Kings 23.30–33 .......................................... 132
2 Kings 16.3 ............................................. 29, 35 2!Kings 23.34–35 .......................................... 132
2!Kings 16.3 .................................................. 80 2 Kings 24.1 ................................................ 296
2 Kings 16.5–9 ............................................. 293 2!Kings 24.1–2 ............................................. 134
2!Kings 16.5–9 ............................................. 280 2 Kings 24.3 .......................................... 155, 166
2!Kings 16.20 ................................................ 80 2 Kings 24.6 ................................................ 134
2 Kings 17.1 ................................................ 156 2 Kings 24.7 ................................................ 271
2 Kings 17.2 ................................................ 123 2!Kings 24.8 ................................................ 132
2 Kings 17.3 ................................................ 292 2 Kings 24.10–17 .......................................... 296
2 Kings 17.4 .......................................... 269, 275 2!Kings 24.12 ............................................... 132
2!Kings 17.4 ................................................ 270 2!Kings 24.12, 15 .......................................... 178
2!Kings 17.6 ................................................ 123 2 Kings 24.17 ............................................... 204
2 Kings 18–19 .............................................. 270 2!Kings 24.17 ............................................... 204
2!Kings 18.4 .......................................... 118, 178 2 Kings 24.18 ............................................... 204
2 Kings 18.9 ................................................ 292 2 Kings 25.1–21 ........................................... 296
2!Kings 18.9–12 ........................................... 118 2 Kings 25.7 .......................................... 165, 204
2!Kings 18.13–19.37 ...................................... 118 2!Kings 25.18 ............................................... 193
2 Kings 19.9 ................................................ 270 2 Kings 25.18-22 .......................................... 121
2!Kings 19.9 ................................................ 276 2 Kings 25.18–21 .......................................... 214
2 Kings 19.35 ............................................... 290 2!Kings 25.18–21 .......................................... 193
2 Kings 19.35–36 .......................................... 270 2 Kings 25.22–24 ........................................... 37
2 Kings 19.37 ................................. 289–290, 292 2 Kings 25.26 ............................................... 276
2!Kings 20.1–11 ........................................... 118 2 Kings 25.27–29 .......................................... 298
2 Kings 20.12 ........................................ 289, 295 1 Ch. 1.11-16 ................................................. 84
2 Kings 20.12ƒ. ............................................ 295 1!Ch. 1.14 ................................................... 131
2 Kings 21.1 ................................................ 166 1 Ch. 1.18 ..................................................... 93
2!Kings 21.4 ................................................ 166 1 Ch. 1.18-26 ................................................. 84
2 Kings 21.6 .................................................. 29 1!Ch. 1.19 ................................................... 183
2!Kings 21.6 ................................................ 166 1!Ch. 2.3 ....................................................... 90
2 Kings 21.24 ............................................... 155 1 Ch. 2.9 ....................................................... 93
2!Kings 22.3 ................................................ 121 1 Ch. 2.9 -10 ................................................ 186
2 Kings 22.8 ................................................ 245 1 Ch. 2.9-10 ................................................. 120
2!Kings 22.8 .......................................... 121, 155 1 Ch. 2.11 ................................................... 189
2 Kings 22.12 ................................................ 37 1 Ch. 2.14 ................................................... 494
2 Kings 22.14 ............................................... 245 1!Ch. 2.15 ................................................... 104
2!Kings 22.14 ............................................... 121 1!Ch. 2.16 ................................................... 147
2 Kings 22.15–20 .......................................... 245 1!Ch. 2.17 .............................................. 83, 146
2 Kings 23.15 ............................................... 258 1!Ch. 2.18-19, 42 ............................................ 93
2!Kings 23.15 ........................................ 139, 155 1 Ch. 2.19 ................................................... 123
2!Kings 23.21–23 .......................................... 155 1 Ch. 2.42 ..................................................... 93
2 Kings 23.24 ............................................... 156 1 Ch. 3.1 ....................................................... 94
2 Kings 23.24ƒ. ............................................ 296 1!Ch. 3.1 ....................................................... 94
2!Kings 23.26 ........................................ 155, 166 1!Ch. 3.1–9 .................................................. 138
2!Kings 23.29 ........................................ 132–133 1 Ch. 3.5 ....................................................... 90
2 Kings 23.29–30 .......................................... 276 1!Ch. 3.5 ....................................................... 89

Index
1!Ch. 3.15 ............................................. 132–133 2 Ch. 11.18 ................................................... 74

1!Ch. 3.18 ............................................. 183, 195 2!Ch. 11.18 ........................................... 109, 138
1 Ch. 3.19 ........................................ 76, 183, 205 2 Ch. 11.20 ............................................. 78, 164
1 Ch. 3.19-24 ................................................. 39 2 Ch. 11.20-23 ............................................. 200
1 Ch. 4.17-18 ............................................... 277 2!Ch. 11.20–23 ............................................. 187
1 Ch. 4.17–18 .............................................. 274 2 Ch. 11.21-22 ............................................. 164
1 Ch. 5.26 ............................................. 293, 295 2 Ch. 12.2–12 .............................................. 275
1 Ch. 6.3–15 ................................................ 214 2 Ch. 12.2, 5, 7, 9 ......................................... 268
1 Ch. 6.8-14 LXX ......................................... 212 2 Ch. 12.5-7 ................................................. 256
1 Ch. 6.8-14 MT .......................................... 212 2 Ch. 12.10 .................................................. 268
1 Ch. 6.10 ................................................... 212 2 Ch. 13 ....................................................... 75
1!Ch. 6.13 ................................................... 121 2 Ch. 13.2 .............................................. 78, 164
1 Ch. 6.13-14 ............................................... 121 2 Ch. 14.9–14 .............................................. 275
1 Ch. 6.14 ..................................................... 89 2 Ch. 15.1–8 ................................................ 238
1!Ch. 6.14 ................................................... 193 2!Ch. 15.9 ................................................... 166
1!Ch. 6.27 ..................................................... 32 2 Ch. 15.16 ............................................. 78, 164
1 Ch. 6.33 ................................................... 244 2 Ch. 16.1–10 .............................................. 279
1!Ch. 6.33–38 .............................................. 159 2 Ch. 16.1–13 .............................................. 244
1 Ch. 7.14 ............................................. 116, 164 2!Ch. 16.7–13 ................................................ 86
1 Ch. 7.25 ................................................... 199 2!Ch. 19.1–3 ................................................ 135
1 Ch. 8.29 ................................................... 192 2 Ch. 19.2 ................................................... 247
1!Ch. 8.33 ................................. 76, 113, 158, 178 2 Ch. 20.34 .................................................. 247
1 Ch. 8.34 ................................................... 170 2!Ch. 20.35–37 ............................................. 135
1!Ch. 8.35, 9.41 ............................................ 170 2 Ch. 21.6 ..................................................... 87
1 Ch. 9.22 ................................................... 546 2 Ch. 21.10 .................................................. 134
1 Ch. 9.39 ................................................... 158 2 Ch. 21.12 .................................................. 241
1!Ch. 9.39 ........................................ 76, 113, 178 2!Ch. 21.17 ................................................... 81
1!Ch. 11.4–6 ......................................... 131, 148 2!Ch. 21.18–20 ............................................. 134
1 Ch. 11.18 .................................................. 109 2!Ch. 22.2 ..................................................... 87
1 Ch. 14.4ƒ. ................................................. 105 2 Ch. 22.5 ................................................... 134
1 Ch. 16.41 .................................................. 244 2!Ch. 22.11 .................................................. 133
1 Ch. 20.5 ..................................................... 96 2 Ch. 24.6, 21 .............................................. 132
1!Ch. 20.5 ................................................... 104 2!Ch. 24.15 .................................................. 133
1!Ch. 21.15–18 ............................................. 131 2!Ch. 24.20 .................................................. 133
1 Ch. 23.15 .................................................. 152 2!Ch. 24.20–22 ...................................... 204, 256
1!Ch. 24.3 .............................................. 73, 109 2!Ch. 24.22 .................................................. 149
1!Ch. 24.4 ................................................... 125 2 Ch. 24.27 ................................................... 83
1!Ch. 24.6 ..................................................... 82 2!Ch. 25.1 ................................................... 131
1 Ch. 24.7 ................................................... 452 2!Ch. 25.23 ................................................... 81
1 Ch. 24.14 .................................................. 220 2!Ch. 26.16 ................................................... 89
1!Ch. 27.18 .................................................. 109 2 Ch. 27.5 ................................................... 156
1 Ch. 27.21 ................................................... 76 2 Ch. 27.7 ..................................................... 86
1 Ch. 29.7 ................................................... 316 2 Ch. 28.2 ................................................... 252
2!Ch. 3.1 ..................................................... 131 2!Ch. 28.7 ..................................................... 80
2!Ch. 3.17 ..................................................... 91 2!Ch. 28.22–23 .............................................. 80
2 Ch. 8.11 ................................................... 274 2 Ch. 28.24–25 .............................................. 80

Index
2 Ch. 28.27 ................................................... 80 Ezra 7.1–2 ................................................... 193

2 Ch. 28.27, 29.1 .......................................... 131 Ezra 7.1, 7, 11–12, 21 .................................... 309
2!Ch. 30 ...................................................... 118 Ezra 7.4 ..................................................... 205
2!Ch. 33.10–13 ...................................... 166, 288 Ezra 7.8 ........................................................ 40
2 Ch. 33.18 MT ........................................... 245 Ezra 8.1 ...................................................... 309
2 Ch. 33.22–23 ............................................. 314 Ezra 8.3 ........................................................ 39
2 Ch. 35.19- ................................................ 156 Ezra 8.27 .................................................... 316
2 Ch. 35.20 ........................................... 276, 297 Ezra 10.6 .................................................... 215
2 Ch. 35.20-22 ............................................. 271 Neh. 1.11-2.1 ................................................. 38
2 Ch. 35.20–24 ............................................. 276 Neh. 2.1 ...................................................... 309
2 Ch. 35.21 .................................................. 259 Neh. 2.3ƒ ...................................................... 38
2 Ch. 36.2 ................................................... 134 Neh. 3.1 ...................................................... 215
2 Ch. 36.2 LXX ........................................... 271 Neh. 4.16 .................................................... 547
2 Ch. 36.4 ............................................. 156, 271 Neh. 6.14 .................................................... 252
2 Ch. 36.4 LXX ........................................... 271 Neh. 7.70ƒ. .................................................. 316
2 Ch. 36.9 ................................................... 132 Neh. 7.72 .................................................... 547
2!Ch. 36.9 ................................................... 132 Neh. 8.9 ........................................................ 40
2 Ch. 36.10 .................................................. 204 Neh. 9.1 ...................................................... 131
2 Ch. 36.17 LXX .......................................... 204 Neh. 12.5, 18 ............................................... 220
2 Ch. 36.22–23 ............................................. 300 Neh. 12.10-11 ................................................ 39
Ezra 1 ......................................................... 243 Neh. 12.16 .................................................... 40
Ezra 1.1–4 ................................................... 314 Neh. 12.22 ............................................ 215, 318
Ezra 1.1–5 ................................................... 300 Neh. 12.26 ................................................... 215
Ezra 1.2ƒ. .................................................... 304 Neh. 13.4–5 ................................................. 215
Ezra 1.8+11 ................................................. 195 Neh. 13.28 ............................................ 215–216
Ezra 2.69 .................................................... 316 Esther 1.1 ............................................. 307, 321
Ezra 3.2 ............................................... 214, 257 Esther 1.1, 2, 9, 10, 17 LXX ........................... 309
Ezra 4.2 ...................................................... 289 Esther 1.1ƒ. ................................................. 306
Ezra 4.4–6 ................................................... 304 Esther 1.9, 11, 12, 15–17, 19 ........................... 307
Ezra 4.5-6 ................................................... 306 Esther 2.1 LXX ............................................ 307
Ezra 4.6 ...................................................... 322 Esther 2.1, 4, 17 ........................................... 307
Ezra 4.6-23 .................................................. 304 Esther 2.16, 21 LXX ..................................... 309
Ezra 4.7, 8, 11, 23 ......................................... 312 Esther 3.1, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13 LXX ........................ 309
Ezra 4.7ƒ. .................................................... 304 Esther 6.2 LXX ............................................ 309
Ezra 4.10 .................................................... 287 Esther 8.1, 12 LXX ....................................... 309
Ezra 4.12 .................................................... 304 Esther 9.10 LXX .......................................... 309
Ezra 4.17ƒ. .................................................. 304 Esther 10.3 LXX .......................................... 309
Ezra 4.24 .............................................. 304, 316 Esther A.1 ................................................... 307
Ezra 5.1 ............................................... 243, 256 Esther A.1, 13 LXX ...................................... 309
Ezra 5.1ƒ. .................................................... 304 Esther B.1 LXX ........................................... 309
Ezra 5.16 .................................................... 243 Esther E.1 LXX ........................................... 309
Ezra 6.1–15 ................................................. 316 Esther F.11 LXX .......................................... 349
Ezra 6.14 .................................................... 256 Job 6.14 ...................................................... 547
Ezra 6.14–15 ............................................... 243 Job 8.3 ........................................................ 547
Ezra 7 ......................................................... 309 Job 40.12 LXX ............................................. 334
Ezra 7.1 ......................................... 114, 121, 214 Job 41.22 LXX ............................................. 334

Index
Job 41.24 LXX ............................................. 334 Jer. 1.1 .................................................. 121, 136
Job LXX Afterword ....................................... 112 Jer. 1.2 ........................................................ 136
Psalm 1.2 .................................................... 546 Jer. 3.16 ....................................................... 138
Psalm 2 ....................................................... 438 Jer. 4.5–8 ..................................................... 247
Psalm 2.1 .................................................... 546 Jer. 6.22–26 .................................................. 247
Psalm 31.5 ................................................... 144 Jer. 7 ........................................................... 247
Psalm 68.25/26 ............................................ 547 Jer. 7.1-2a LXX ............................................ 247
Psalm 70 LXX (71 MT) preface ....................... 151 Jer. 7.22–23 .................................................. 247
Psalm 73.3 ................................................... 547 Jer. 9.13, 15–16 ............................................. 247
Psalm 74 ..................................................... 358 Jer. 12.6 ....................................................... 136
Psalm 79.2–3 ............................................... 221 Jer. 16.1–2 ................................................... 136
Psalm 88 title ............................................... 244 Jer. 16.2 ....................................................... 247
Psalm 151 ..................................................... 96 Jer. 22.11 ..................................................... 132
Prov. 8.7 ...................................................... 546 Jer. 22.13–16 ................................................ 247
Eccl. 9.14-15 ................................................ 375 Jer. 22.15 ....................................................... 81
Isa 1.1 .......................................................... 35 Jer. 22.24 ..................................................... 132
Isa. 1.14, 18 ................................................. 246 Jer. 22.24-28 .................................................. 94
Isa. 6.1 .............................................. 35, 89, 246 Jer. 25.19 ..................................................... 271
Isa. 7.1–9 .................................................... 280 Jer. 26.7–11 .................................................. 247
Isa. 7.1ƒ. ..................................................... 293 Jer. 26.16–19 ................................................ 250
Isa. 7.3 ........................................................ 246 Jer. 26.24 ....................................................... 37
Isa. 7.8 ........................................................ 111 Jer. 28.10 ..................................................... 244
Isa. 7.14 ...................................................... 547 Jer. 28.16–17 ................................................ 244
Isa. 8.3 ........................................................ 258 Jer. 29.3 ....................................................... 121
Isa. 8.16 ...................................................... 246 Jer. 31.3–4 ................................................... 248
Isa. 9.1 ........................................................ 177 Jer. 32 ......................................................... 247
Isa. 10.29 .................................................... 192 Jer. 32.2 ................................................ 121, 136
Isa. 14.28ƒ. .................................................. 293 Jer. 32.6–12 .................................................. 121
Isa. 15.9 ...................................................... 547 Jer. 32.6–25 .................................................. 136
Isa. 19.4 ........................................................ 27 Jer. 32.7 ....................................................... 136
Isa. 20.1 ...................................................... 290 Jer. 33 ......................................................... 247
Isa. 23.1 LXX .............................................. 376 Jer. 35.4 ....................................................... 244
Isa. 23.6, 10, 14 LXX .................................... 376 Jer. 37 ......................................................... 247
Isa. 25.8 ...................................................... 246 Jer. 37.1 .................................................. 94, 132
Isa. 31.4 ...................................................... 546 Jer. 37.5, 7, 11 ........................................ 271, 276
Isa. 32.1 ...................................................... 547 Jer. 37.11 ..................................................... 271
Isa. 36–39 .................................................... 270 Jer. 37.15 .............................................. 121, 136
Isa. 37.9 ............................................... 270, 276 Jer. 37.16–21 ................................................ 204
Isa. 37.38 .............................................. 289, 292 Jer. 38.6 ................................................ 121, 165
Isa. 39.1 ...................................................... 289 Jer. 39.3, 13 .................................................. 298
Isa. 39.1ƒ. .................................................... 295 Jer. 40.5–16 ................................................... 37
Isa. 40.1–2 ................................................... 241 Jer. 41.10 ..................................................... 204
Isa. 40.3 ...................................................... 551 Jer. 43.1–7 ................................................... 276
Isa. 45.1 ......................................... 145, 300, 314 Jer. 43.5–7 ................................................... 136
Isa. 52.13–53.12 ........................................... 240 Jer. 43.8–13 .................................... 271, 277, 296
Isa. 66.19 .............................................. 131, 185 Jer. 43.9 ....................................................... 271

Index
Jer. 44.11–14 ................................................ 277 Dan. 5.1, 2, 9, 22, 29, 30 ................................ 299
Jer. 44.23 ..................................................... 547 Dan. 5.31 ............................................. 299, 304
Jer. 44.30 ........................................ 271, 276, 296 Dan. 5.31 LXX ............................................ 309
Jer. 45.6 LXX ............................................... 165 Dan. 6.1 ...................................................... 316
Jer. 46.2 ................................................ 276, 297 Dan. 6.28 .................................................... 299
Jer. 46.2 ...................................................... 271 Dan. 8.5-8, 18 .............................................. 329
Jer. 46.13ƒ. .................................................. 271 Dan. 8.8 ...................................................... 332
Jer. 46.25 ..................................................... 271 Dan. 8.14 .................................................... 450
Jer. 47.1 ....................................................... 271 Dan. 9.1 ........................................ 306, 318, 322
Jer. 47.17=26.17 LXX ................................... 271 Dan. 9.26 .................................................... 219
Jer. 49.14–16 ................................................ 252 Dan. 11.2 .................................................... 317
Jer. 52.24 ..................................................... 193 Dan. 11.3-4 ............................................ 40, 329
Jer. 52.30 ..................................................... 296 Dan. 11.4 ............................................. 335, 342
Jer. 52.31–34 ................................................ 298 Dan. 11.5 ............................................. 344, 354
Ezek. 1.1 ..................................................... 242 Dan. 11.6 ............................................. 345, 355
Ezek. 1.2 ..................................................... 242 Dan. 11.7–8 .......................................... 345, 356
Ezek. 1.8-27 ................................................. 243 Dan. 11.9 ............................................. 345, 356
Ezek. 12.13 .................................................. 204 Dan. 11.10ƒ. ................................................ 356
Ezek. 14.14, 20 ............................................. 238 Dan. 11.11 ............................................ 346, 356
Ezek. 23.23 LXX .......................................... 185 Dan. 11.11-12 .............................................. 357
Ezek. 27.10 .................................................. 185 Dan. 11.12–17 ............................................. 346
Ezek. 27.12, 25 LXX ..................................... 376 Dan. 11.14 .................................................. 346
Ezek. 27.13, 19 ............................................. 131 Dan. 11.15–17 ............................................. 357
Ezek. 27.23 ................................................... 87 Dan. 11.17 .................................................. 346
Ezek. 28.3 ................................................... 238 Dan. 11.17–19 ............................................. 357
Ezek. 29.2-3 ................................................. 271 Dan. 11.18 .................................................. 410
Ezek. 30.21-25 ............................................. 271 Dan. 11.18–19 ............................................. 346
Ezek. 31.2 ................................................... 271 Dan. 11.19 .................................................. 357
Ezek. 31.3–17 .............................................. 289 Dan. 11.20 .................................................. 358
Ezek. 31.18 .................................................. 271 Dan. 11.21 .................................................. 358
Ezek. 32.2 ................................................... 271 Dan. 11.21–28 ............................................. 359
Ezek. 32.22–23 ............................................. 289 Dan. 11.22 .................................................. 219
Ezek. 32.24–25 ............................................. 287 Dan. 11.26 .................................................. 347
Ezek. 32.31-32 ............................................. 271 Dan. 11.27 .................................................. 347
Ezek. 38.1–39.20 .......................................... 243 Dan. 11.29 .................................................. 359
Ezek. 38.2 ............................................. 165, 319 Dan. 11.30 ..................................... 359, 362, 410
Ezek. 38.2–3, 14–18 ...................................... 165 Dan. 11.30–39 ............................................. 359
Ezek. 38.6 ................................................... 319 Dan. 11.34 .................................................. 450
Ezek. 38.13 LXX .......................................... 376 Dan. 11.36-40 .............................................. 358
Ezek. 39.1, 11 .............................................. 165 Hos. 1.1 ........................................................ 35
Ezek. 39.6 ................................................... 165 Hos. 1.2–3 ................................................... 244
Dan. 1.1 ...................................................... 296 Hos. 1.4 ...................................................... 244
Dan. 1.1–2 .................................................. 134 Hos. 1.5 ...................................................... 244
Dan. 1.18ƒ. .................................................. 296 Hos. 2.19 ..................................................... 546
Dan. 4 ........................................................ 299 Hos. 5.13 ....................................... 293, 293–293
Dan. 4.25 .................................................... 298 Hos. 6.6 ................................................ 245, 546

Index
Hos. 6.7 ........................................................ 79 Zech. 6.12 ................................................... 257

Hos. 10.6 ....................................... 294, 294, 294 Zech. 9.7 ..................................................... 131
Hos. 10.14 ...................................... 292, 291–292 Zech. 14.5 ..................................................... 35
Hos. 11.1 ..................................................... 245 Zech. 14.6 ................................................... 241
Hos. 14.3 ....................................... 123, 169, 293 Mal. 1.1 ...................................................... 250
Joel 1.4 ....................................................... 248 Mal. 2.10 .................................................... 250
Joel 2.25, 28 ................................................. 248 Mal. 3.1 ...................................................... 546
Joel 3.6 ....................................................... 248 Mal. 4.5 ......................................... 241, 250, 547
Amos 1.1 ......................................... 35, 237, 241 Mal. 4.5–6 ................................................... 150
Amos 1.2 ..................................................... 237 Matt 10.2 .............................................. 476, 479
Amos 1.4 ..................................................... 280 Matt. 1.1–17 ................................................ 141
Amos 1.5 ..................................................... 280 Matt. 1.3-4 ............................................ 120, 186
Amos 4.3 ..................................................... 145 Matt. 1.4 ....................................................... 84
Amos 5.18 ................................................... 237 Matt. 1.4-5 .................................................. 189
Amos 7.1 ..................................................... 319 Matt. 1.5 ................................................ 91, 181
Amos 7.10–13 .............................................. 237 Matt. 1.7 ....................................................... 76
Amos 7.14 ............................................ 227, 237 Matt. 1.7-8 .................................................... 87
Amos 9.8–15 ................................................ 237 Matt. 1.13 ..................................................... 76
Obadiah 1–5 ................................................ 252 Matt. 1.15–16 .............................................. 127
Obadiah 11–14 ............................................ 252 Matt. 1.16 ................................................... 141
Jonah 1.17 ................................................... 249 Matt. 1.16–18 .............................................. 141
Jonah 2.1 ..................................................... 249 Matt. 1.19 ................................................... 153
Jonah 4.6-10 ................................................ 250 Matt. 2.1 .............................................. 140–141
Micah 6.8 ............................................. 251, 546 Matt. 2.1ƒ. .................................................... 45
Nahum 1.1 .................................................. 251 Matt. 2.2ƒ. ................................................... 140
Nahum 2.8 .................................................. 251 Matt. 2.13-15 ............................................... 353
Nahum 3.7 .................................................. 251 Matt. 2.16 ............................................. 140, 445
Nahum 3.8 .............................. 252, 270, 276, 288 Matt. 2.22 ................................................... 440
Nahum 3.9 ............................................ 185, 288 Matt. 3.3 ..................................................... 551
Hab. 1.1–2.5 ................................................ 243 Matt. 3.8 ..................................................... 548
Hab. 2.3 ...................................................... 227 Matt. 4.15 ................................................... 177
Hab. 2.6–20 ................................................. 243 Matt. 4.18 ................................................... 462
Hab. 3.1–19 ................................................. 243 Matt. 4.21 ............................................. 476, 479
Zeph. 1.1 .................................................... 257 Matt. 8.14 ................................................... 505
Zeph. 1.14–15 .............................................. 257 Matt. 8.20 ................................................... 413
Haggai 1.1 ................................................... 214 Matt. 8.21–22 .............................................. 510
Haggai 2.3 ................................................... 243 Matt. 9.9 ..................................................... 488
Haggai 2.21 ................................................. 194 Matt. 9.9ƒ. ................................................... 493
Haggai 2.21–24 ............................................ 244 Matt. 9.13 ................................................... 245
Haggai 2.23 ................................................. 257 Matt. 10.2 ................................................... 462
Zech 3.1 ...................................................... 214 Matt. 10.3 ........... 466, 509, 509, 509, 509, 518–519
Zech. 4.7 ..................................................... 257 Matt. 10.4 ...................................... 484, 494, 515
Zech. 4.14 ................................................... 257 Matt. 11.14 .................................................. 150
Zech. 6.10, 14 .............................................. 205 Matt. 12.1 ................................................... 516
Zech. 6.11–14 .............................................. 214 Matt. 12.40 .................................................. 249
Zech. 6.11ƒ. ................................................. 257 Matt. 12.46–50 ............................................. 167

Index
Matt. 12.50 .................................................. 127 Matt. 27.59 .................................................. 483

Matt. 13.55 ................ 128, 130, 154, 166, 475, 486 Matt. 27.60 .................................................. 483
Matt. 14 ...................................................... 150 Matt. 27.61 ........................................... 492–492
Matt. 14.1–12 .............................................. 446 Matt. 28.1 ............................................. 492–492
Matt. 14.3 ................................................... 453 Matt. 28.8 ................................................... 492
Matt. 14.6 ............................................. 447, 454 Mark 1.2 ..................................................... 548
Matt. 14.6–11 .............................................. 446 Mark 1.3 ..................................................... 551
Matt. 14.6ƒ. ................................................. 454 Mark 1.4 ..................................................... 149
Matt. 14.22–23 ............................................. 505 Mark 1.13 ................................................... 548
Matt. 15.2-6 ................................................. 548 Mark 1.16 ............................................. 462, 505
Matt. 16.9 ................................................... 506 Mark 1.16–17 .............................................. 462
Matt. 16.16 .................................................. 505 Mark 1.17 ................................................... 505
Matt. 16.17 .................................... 462, 505, 508 Mark 1.19 ................................................... 476
Matt. 17.1 ............................................. 477, 505 Mark 1.19–20 ........................................ 476, 479
Matt. 17.1ƒ. ................................................. 479 Mark 1.20 ................................................... 479
Matt. 17.10–13 ............................................. 150 Mark 1.21–29 .............................................. 462
Matt. 19.27–29 ............................................. 506 Mark 1.29–31 ........................................ 477, 479
Matt. 20.20–21 ............................................. 512 Mark 1.30 ................................................... 506
Matt. 20.20–24 ............................... 477, 479–480 Mark 1.30ƒ. ................................................. 505
Matt. 20.29–34 ............................................. 467 Mark 2.14 ................................................... 488
Matt. 20.33 .................................................. 467 Mark 2.14ƒ. ................................................. 493
Matt. 23.13, 15 ............................................. 549 Mark 2.23 ................................................... 516
Matt. 23.26 .................................................. 146 Mark 2.26 ..................................................... 82
Matt. 23.35 ........................................... 204, 256 Mark 3.17 ...................................... 476–477, 479
Matt. 24.15 ........................................... 259, 393 Mark 3.18 ... 462, 466, 509, 509, 509–494, 509, 515,
Matt. 26.3 ................................................... 224 518–519
Matt. 26.5 ................................................... 146 Mark 3.19 ................................................... 484
Matt. 26.6–13 .............................................. 491 Mark 3.21 ................................................... 475
Matt. 26.14 .................................................. 485 Mark 3.31–35 ........................................ 167, 475
Matt. 26.17, 19 ............................................. 145 Mark 5.37 ................................................... 479
Matt. 26.25 .................................................. 485 Mark 5.37–41 ........................................ 477, 505
Matt. 26.28 .................................................. 145 Mark 6 ........................................................ 150
Matt. 26.37 .................................... 477, 479, 505 Mark 6.1 ..................................................... 141
Matt. 26.47 .................................................. 485 Mark 6.3 .......................... 128, 130, 154, 475, 486
Matt. 26.57 .................................................. 224 Mark 6.6 ..................................................... 129
Matt. 26.57ƒ. ............................................... 146 Mark 6.14 ................................................... 149
Matt. 27.1ƒ. ................................................. 146 Mark 6.14–29 .............................................. 446
Matt. 27.2 ..................................................... 46 Mark 6.17 ...................................... 150, 446, 453
Matt. 27.3 ................................................... 485 Mark 6.22 ............................................. 447, 454
Matt. 27.5 ................................................... 485 Mark 6.22 ................................................... 150
Matt. 27.39 .................................................. 516 Mark 6.22-28 ........................................ 446, 454
Matt. 27.46 .................................................. 144 Mark 6.22ƒ. ................................................. 512
Matt. 27.48–50 ............................................. 485 Mark 6.24 ................................................... 149
Matt. 27.56 ....................... 476, 479, 491–492, 512 Mark 6.25 ................................................... 150
Matt. 27.57 .................................................. 483 Mark 6.33 ................................................... 166
Matt. 27.58 .................................................. 483 Mark 7.18 ................................................... 548

Index
Mark 7.33 ................................................... 397 Mark 16.8 ................................................... 492

Mark 8.23 ................................................... 397 Mark 16.9 ................................................... 491
Mark 8.28 ................................................... 150 Mark 16.9-20 ........................................ 491, 554
Mark 8.29 ................................................... 505 Luke 1.3 ...................................................... 518
Mark 8.32–33 .............................................. 505 Luke 1.5 .......................................... 45, 110, 140
Mark 9.2 .............................................. 477, 505 Luke 1.5–25 ................................................. 150
Mark 9.2ƒ. ................................................... 479 Luke 1.6 ...................................................... 166
Mark 9.11–13 ........................................ 150, 241 Luke 1.7 ...................................................... 110
Mark 9.30-44 ............................................... 179 Luke 1.35 .................................................... 141
Mark 9.38ƒ. ................................................. 479 Luke 1.46 .................................................... 110
Mark 10.17 .................................................. 467 Luke 1.57–80 ............................................... 150
Mark 10.35–41 ............................... 477, 479–480 Luke 2.1 ............................................... 140, 391
Mark 10.39 .................................... 468, 480, 482 Luke 2.1-2 ..................................................... 45
Mark 10.46 .................................................. 467 Luke 2.1ƒ. ................................................... 141
Mark 10.47–52 ............................................. 467 Luke 2.4 ...................................................... 141
Mark 13.3–37 .............................................. 462 Luke 2.36 ...................................................... 87
Mark 13.3ƒ. .................................... 477, 479, 505 Luke 2.41–50 ............................................... 167
Mark 13.14 ........................................... 393, 548 Luke 2.42–43 ............................................... 153
Mark 14.2 ................................................... 146 Luke 2.51 .................................................... 167
Mark 14.3–9 ......................................... 490–491 Luke 3.1 ...................... 46, 143, 146, 392, 453, 459
Mark 14.6ƒ. ................................................. 512 Luke 3.2 .......................................... 44, 223–224
Mark 14.10 .................................................. 485 Luke 3.4 ...................................................... 551
Mark 14.12, 16–17 ........................................ 145 Luke 3.19 .................................................... 453
Mark 14.24 .................................................. 145 Luke 3.23 ............................................... 45, 140
Mark 14.33 .................................... 477, 479, 505 Luke 3.23–38 ............................................... 141
Mark 14.43 .................................................. 485 Luke 3.26 .................................................... 152
Mark 14.44–45 ............................................. 485 Luke 3.32 ...................................................... 91
Mark 14.47 .................................................. 505 Luke 3.32 .................................................... 189
Mark 14.51–52 ............................................. 478 Luke 3.33 ............................................... 79, 186
Mark 14.53ƒ. ............................................... 146 Luke 3.35 .................................................... 188
Mark 14.66–72 ............................................. 505 Luke 3.36 ................................................. 85–86
Mark 15.1 ..................................................... 46 Luke 3.36–37 ................................................. 93
Mark 15.1ƒ. ................................................. 146 Luke 3.37 .................................................... 157
Mark 15.21 .................................... 146, 461, 512 Luke 4.38 .................................................... 505
Mark 15.34 ........................................... 144, 510 Luke 5.1–3 .................................................. 505
Mark 15.40 .............................. 476, 491–492, 512 Luke 5.10 .................................................... 479
Mark 15.40 ................................................. 479 Luke 5.10–11 ............................................... 476
Mark 15.42 .................................................. 146 Luke 5.27–30 ............................................... 488
Mark 15.43 .................................................. 483 Luke 5.27ƒ. .................................................. 493
Mark 15.43–45 ............................................. 483 Luke 6.1 ...................................................... 516
Mark 15.46 .................................................. 146 Luke 6.14 ......................... 462, 466, 476, 479, 509
Mark 15.47 ........................................... 492–492 Luke 6.15 ................... 509, 509, 509, 515–516, 519
Mark 15.48 .................................................. 483 Luke 6.16 ............................................. 484–486
Mark 16.1 ...................................... 492–492, 512 Luke 7.37–50 ............................................... 492
Mark 16.2–8 ................................................ 512 Luke 8.2 ...................................................... 491
Mark 16.7 ................................................... 505 Luke 8.3 ............................................... 478, 517

Index
Luke 8.4–8 .................................................. 167 John 1.35–39 ................................................ 482

Luke 8.51 ....................................... 477, 479, 505 John 1.40 ..................................................... 462
Luke 9.7–9 .................................................. 446 John 1.40–42 ................................................ 505
Luke 9.20 .................................................... 505 John 1.41 ..................................................... 462
Luke 9.28 ............................................. 477, 505 John 1.42 ....................................... 462, 505, 508
Luke 9.28ƒ. .................................................. 479 John 1.43 ....................................... 462, 505, 509
Luke 9.49ƒ. .................................................. 479 John 1.44 ..................................................... 509
Luke 9.54 .................................................... 477 John 1.45-50 ................................................ 494
Luke 9.54ƒ. .................................................. 479 John 1.45–50 ................................................ 509
Luke 9.58 .................................................... 413 John 1.47 ..................................................... 495
Luke 9.59–60 ............................................... 510 John 1.49 ..................................................... 505
Luke 10.1–24 ............................................... 470 John 2.1–11 ................................................. 167
Luke 10.38-41 .............................................. 490 John 2.1ƒ. ............................................. 143, 479
Luke 10.38–41 ............................................. 491 John 2.20 ..................................................... 141
Luke 11.51 ............................................ 204, 256 John 3.1-9 ................................................... 495
Luke 13.1 ...................................................... 46 John 3.3 ................................................ 495, 548
Luke 16.19–31 ............................................. 487 John 3.4 ...................................................... 495
Luke 18.35–43 ............................................. 467 John 3.7 ...................................................... 495
Luke 18.41 .................................................. 467 John 3.8 ...................................................... 548
Luke 19.2ƒ. .................................................. 494 John 6.1, 23 ................................................. 392
Luke 19.12ƒ. ................................................ 440 John 6.5–7 ................................................... 509
Luke 22.3 .................................................... 485 John 6.5–9 ................................................... 462
Luke 22.7 .................................................... 145 John 6.53 ..................................................... 510
Luke 22.8 ............................................. 469, 479 John 6.69 ..................................................... 505
Luke 22.16 .................................................. 145 John 6.70–71 ................................................ 485
Luke 22.20 ............................................ 145, 548 John 6.71 ..................................................... 484
Luke 22.47 .................................................. 485 John 7.5 ...................................................... 475
Luke 22.48 .................................................. 485 John 7.41-43 ................................................ 141
Luke 22.50 .................................................. 506 John 7.50 ..................................................... 495
Luke 23.1 ...................................................... 46 John 7.53-8.11 .............................................. 491
Luke 23.7–12 ............................................... 446 John 7.53–8.11 ............................................. 554
Luke 23.34 .................................................. 144 John 8.32 ..................................................... 510
Luke 23.43 .................................................. 144 John 9.6ƒ. .................................................... 397
Luke 23.46 .................................................. 144 John 11.1 ....................................... 487, 490–491
Luke 23.50 .................................................. 483 John 11.2 ..................................................... 487
Luke 23.52 .................................................. 483 John 11.3 ....................................... 468, 487, 490
Luke 23.53 .................................................. 483 John 11.4–6 ................................................. 487
Luke 24.10 ............................................ 476, 492 John 11.5 .............................................. 468, 487
Luke 24.10-11 .............................................. 478 John 11.6–13 ................................................ 490
Luke 24.13–27 ............................................. 489 John 11.7–13 ................................................ 487
Luke 24.13–35 ............................................. 470 John 11.11 ............................................ 468, 487
Luke 24.51 ............................................ 143–144 John 11.14 ................................................... 487
John 1.21 .............................................. 150, 258 John 11.15 ................................................... 490
John 1.23 ..................................................... 551 John 11.15–17 .............................................. 490
John 1.28 ..................................................... 509 John 11.16 ................................................... 518
John 1.29 ..................................................... 145 John 11.17 ................................................... 487

Index
John 11.18–37 .............................................. 487 John 19.26-27 .............................................. 144

John 11.19-22 ........................................ 490–491 John 19.28 ............................................ 144, 548
John 11.23–27 .............................................. 490 John 19.30 ............................................ 144, 548
John 11.28-32 .............................................. 491 John 19.35 ................................................... 467
John 11.36 ............................................ 468, 487 John 19.38 ................................................... 483
John 11.38 ................................................... 487 John 19.39 ................................................... 495
John 11.40–42 .............................................. 487 John 19.39–40 .............................................. 483
John 11.41–44 .............................................. 490 John 19.41 ................................................... 483
John 11.43–44 .............................................. 487 John 20.1 ..................................................... 492
John 11.45–57 .............................................. 487 John 20.1–2 ................................................. 467
John 11.49 ................................................... 224 John 20.2 ..................................................... 492
John 12.1 ..................................................... 487 John 20.3–10 ................................................ 467
John 12.1–3 ................................................. 491 John 20.11–13 .............................................. 492
John 12.2 ..................................................... 490 John 20.14–17 .............................................. 492
John 12.2–7 ................................................. 487 John 20.18 ................................................... 492
John 12.3–8 ................................................. 485 John 20.24 ................................................... 518
John 12.4–6 ................................................. 485 John 20.27-29 .............................................. 519
John 12.4–8 ................................................. 491 John 21.1 ..................................................... 392
John 12.9–10 ................................................ 487 John 21.2 .......................... 468, 480, 494, 518–519
John 12.20–22 .............................................. 509 John 21.3ƒ. .................................................. 468
John 12.20–26 .............................................. 462 John 21.6–7 ................................................. 467
John 13.1 ..................................................... 145 John 21.15 ................................................... 508
John 13.2 .............................................. 484–485 John 21.15-17 ........................................ 547, 549
John 13.23 ................................................... 467 John 21.15ƒ. ................................................ 505
John 13.24–25 .............................................. 467 John 21.18 ................................................... 467
John 13.26 ................................................... 484 John 21.18–19 .............................................. 507
John 13.26–30 .............................................. 485 John 21.20 ................................................... 467
John 13.27 ................................................... 485 John 21.21–24 .............................................. 467
John 14.5 ..................................................... 519 John 21.22 ................................................... 468
John 14.8–11 ................................................ 509 John 21.22–23 .............................................. 480
John 14.16 ................................................... 548 John 21.24 ............................................ 467, 480
John 14.22 ............................................ 485–486 Acts 1.1 ....................................................... 518
John 14.22 Syriac .......................................... 518 Acts 1.1-2 .................................................... 458
John 15.13 ................................................... 549 Acts 1.9 ....................................................... 144
John 18.2–8 ................................................. 485 Acts 1.9–11 .................................................. 143
John 18.10 ................................................... 506 Acts 1.11 ..................................................... 144
John 18.13 ................................................... 223 Acts 1.13 462, 466, 509, 480, 485–486, 509, 509, 515
John 18.13–14 .............................................. 224 –516, 519
John 18.15–18 .............................................. 467 Acts 1.14 ........................................ 167, 458, 475
John 18.24 ................................................... 224 Acts 1.16–25 ................................................ 484
John 18.28 ............................................ 145, 224 Acts 1.18–19 ................................................ 485
John 18.29 ..................................................... 46 Acts 1.23 .............................................. 465, 483
John 19.14, 31, 42 ......................................... 145 Acts 1.23ƒ. ................................................... 493
John 19.25 ............................... 470, 477, 491–492 Acts 2.14–36 ................................................ 506
John 19.25–27 .............................................. 167 Acts 2.44–45 ................................................ 461
John 19.26 ................................................... 467 Acts 3.1–15 .................................................. 480

Index
Acts 3.1, 3, 4, 11 ........................................... 469 Acts 9.3–19 .................................................. 497

Acts 3.1ƒ. .................................................... 469 Acts 9.4 ....................................................... 497
Acts 3.12–26 ................................................ 506 Acts 9.10–12 ................................................ 462
Acts 3.13 ....................................................... 46 Acts 9.13–14 ................................................ 462
Acts 3.22 ..................................................... 258 Acts 9.15–16 ................................................ 462
Acts 3.29–32 ................................................ 259 Acts 9.17 .............................................. 462, 497
Acts 4.1–21 .................................................. 506 Acts 9.23–25 ................................................ 497
Acts 4.1–22 .................................................. 480 Acts 9.26-27 ................................................. 497
Acts 4.1, 13, 19 ............................................. 469 Acts 9.28–30 ................................................ 465
Acts 4.6 .................................... 44, 223–224, 461 Acts 9.30 ..................................................... 497
Acts 4.27 ................................................ 46, 446 Acts 9.36-41 ................................................. 517
Acts 4.34–37 ................................................ 465 Acts 9.36–41 ................................................ 506
Acts 4.36 ................................. 464–465, 478, 492 Acts 9.43 ..................................................... 516
Acts 5.1–11 ........................................... 461, 506 Acts 10.1 .............................................. 414, 471
Acts 5.17 ..................................................... 223 Acts 10.1–11.18 ............................................ 506
Acts 5.17–41 ................................................ 506 Acts 10.2 ..................................................... 471
Acts 5.36 ....................................................... 47 Acts 10.3 ..................................................... 471
Acts 5.37 .................................................. 44–45 Acts 10.4–6 .................................................. 471
Acts 6.5 ............................ 495–497, 510, 512, 516 Acts 10.6 ..................................................... 516
Acts 6.8 ....................................................... 517 Acts 10.7 ..................................................... 471
Acts 6.15–7.1 ............................................... 517 Acts 10.7–8 .................................................. 471
Acts 7.2–50 .................................................. 517 Acts 10.17–23 .............................................. 471
Acts 7.21 ..................................................... 173 Acts 10.21 ................................................... 471
Acts 7.51–8.1 ............................................... 517 Acts 10.24–26 .............................................. 471
Acts 7.58–8.1 ............................................... 497 Acts 10.27–29 .............................................. 471
Acts 8.1 ....................................................... 517 Acts 10.30–33 .............................................. 471
Acts 8.2 ....................................................... 517 Acts 10.34–43 .............................................. 471
Acts 8.4ƒ. .................................................... 517 Acts 10.44–48 .............................................. 471
Acts 8.5-6 .................................................... 514 Acts 11.19–26 .............................................. 465
Acts 8.5–8 ................................................... 510 Acts 11.19ƒ. ................................................. 517
Acts 8.9-11 .................................................. 514 Acts 11.25–26 .............................................. 497
Acts 8.9–13 .................................................. 510 Acts 11.27 ................................................... 461
Acts 8.10 ..................................................... 514 Acts 11.27-28 ............................................... 489
Acts 8.13-19 ................................................. 514 Acts 11.27–30 .............................................. 465
Acts 8.14 ..................................................... 469 Acts 11.28 ............................................. 394, 461
Acts 8.14–17 ................................................ 510 Acts 12.1 ....................................................... 47
Acts 8.14, 17, 25 ........................................... 469 Acts 12.1–2 .................................................. 468
Acts 8.14ƒ. ................................................... 480 Acts 12.1–5 ............................................. 47, 436
Acts 8.18–24 ................................................ 510 Acts 12.1–17 ................................................ 478
Acts 8.20–24 ................................................ 515 Acts 12.2 .............................................. 477, 480
Acts 8.26 ..................................................... 510 Acts 12.6 ....................................................... 47
Acts 8.27–38 ................................................ 510 Acts 12.11 ..................................................... 47
Acts 8.27–39 ................................................ 472 Acts 12.12 ............................................. 478, 492
Acts 8.37 .............................................. 473, 511 Acts 12.13 ............................................. 492, 512
Acts 8.39–40 ................................................ 510 Acts 12.14 ................................................... 512
Acts 9.1–2 ............................................. 461, 497 Acts 12.17 ................................................... 475

Index
Acts 12.19-23 ................................................. 47 Acts 16.12 ................................................... 498

Acts 12.20–23 .............................................. 436 Acts 16.14-15 ............................................... 490
Acts 12.21-23 ................................................. 47 Acts 16.19-34 ............................................... 513
Acts 12.25 ................................................... 478 Acts 16.19–39 .............................................. 498
Acts 12.25–13.1 ............................................ 465 Acts 16.20 ................................................... 513
Acts 13.1 ........................................ 488, 490, 514 Acts 16.37 ................................................... 378
Acts 13.2 ..................................................... 465 Acts 16.40 ................................................... 490
Acts 13.2–14.27 ............................................ 497 Acts 17.1 ..................................................... 498
Acts 13.4 ..................................................... 465 Acts 17.4 ..................................................... 514
Acts 13.6 .............................................. 466, 478 Acts 17.5–9 .................................................. 477
Acts 13.6-12 ................................................. 513 Acts 17.6 ..................................................... 513
Acts 13.7 ........................................ 426, 465, 513 Acts 17.10–15 .............................................. 520
Acts 13.13 ................................................... 472 Acts 17.14 ................................................... 514
Acts 13.14, 46–47 ......................................... 497 Acts 17.14ƒ. ................................................. 498
Acts 13.21 ............................................. 191, 497 Acts 17.34 ............................................. 471–472
Acts 13.28 ..................................................... 46 Acts 18.1 ..................................................... 498
Acts 13.43-50 ............................................... 465 Acts 18.2 ........................................ 394, 463, 511
Acts 13.44–47 .............................................. 465 Acts 18.3 ..................................................... 464
Acts 14.12-20 ............................................... 465 Acts 18.3–4 .................................................. 511
Acts 15.1–2 .................................................. 465 Acts 18.5 ..................................................... 520
Acts 15.1–21 ................................................ 500 Acts 18.7 ..................................................... 521
Acts 15.1–29 ................................................ 127 Acts 18.8 ..................................................... 471
Acts 15.1ƒ. ................................................... 497 Acts 18.12 ................................................... 513
Acts 15.6–21 ................................................ 465 Acts 18.12, 14, 17 ......................................... 426
Acts 15.7–11 ................................................ 506 Acts 18.18 ............................................. 464, 511
Acts 15.13 ................................................... 475 Acts 18.19 ...................................... 464, 498, 511
Acts 15.14 ................................................... 504 Acts 18.21 ................................................... 464
Acts 15.19 ................................................... 497 Acts 18.22 ................................................... 498
Acts 15.22 ...................................... 465, 484, 513 Acts 18.23 ................................................... 498
Acts 15.27 ............................................. 484, 513 Acts 18.24 ................................................... 463
Acts 15.30–35 .............................................. 465 Acts 18.25 ................................................... 150
Acts 15.32 ................................................... 513 Acts 18.26 ...................................... 463–464, 511
Acts 15.33 ................................................... 513 Acts 18.27–28 .............................................. 463
Acts 15.34 ................................................... 514 Acts 19.1 .............................................. 463, 498
Acts 15.36 ................................................... 465 Acts 19.10 ................................................... 498
Acts 15.36-40 ............................................... 497 Acts 19.22 ............................................. 472, 520
Acts 15.36–41 .............................................. 478 Acts 19.23–40 .............................................. 498
Acts 15.37–38 ........................................ 465, 478 Acts 19.24ƒ. ................................................. 472
Acts 15.39 ................................................... 465 Acts 19.29 ................................................... 464
Acts 15.40 ................................................... 513 Acts 19.33 ................................................... 461
Acts 16.1 .............................................. 473, 520 Acts 20.1 ..................................................... 472
Acts 16.1ƒ. ................................................... 497 Acts 20.1–5 .................................................. 520
Acts 16.2 ..................................................... 498 Acts 20.4 ............. 464, 473–474, 513, 516, 521–522
Acts 16.2-3 .................................................. 520 Acts 20.5-21.18 ............................................ 489
Acts 16.9 ..................................................... 498 Acts 20.25, 38 ........................................ 498, 502
Acts 16.10-17 ............................................... 489 Acts 21.8-9 .................................................. 510

Index
Acts 21.10–11 .............................................. 461 Acts 27.2 ..................................................... 464

Acts 21.16 ................................................... 494 Acts 27.41–28.1 ............................................ 498
Acts 21.17–20 .............................................. 475 Acts 28.7 ..................................................... 513
Acts 21.18 ................................................... 129 Acts 28.16 ................................................... 498
Acts 21.27–31 .............................................. 498 Rom. 2.27 ................................................... 548
Acts 21.29 ................................................... 521 Rom. 15.33 .................................................. 499
Acts 21.31ƒ. ................................................. 414 Rom. 16.1-2 ................................................. 511
Acts 21.32 ................................................... 498 Rom. 16.3 ............................................. 464, 511
Acts 21.38 ..................................................... 48 Rom. 16.5 ................................................... 472
Acts 21.39 ................................................... 497 Rom. 16.6 ................................................... 493
Acts 22.3 ..................................................... 497 Rom. 16.7 ............................................. 463, 487
Acts 22.4 ..................................................... 497 Rom. 16.8 ................................................... 461
Acts 22.6–16 ................................................ 497 Rom. 16.9 ............................................. 516, 522
Acts 22.7 ..................................................... 497 Rom. 16.10 ........................................... 463–464
Acts 22.12 ................................................... 462 Rom. 16.12 ........................................... 504, 522
Acts 22.13, 14 .............................................. 497 Rom. 16.13 .................................................. 512
Acts 22.20 ................................................... 517 Rom. 16.14 ........................................... 474, 511
Acts 22.25–28 .............................................. 497 Rom. 16.15 .............................. 487, 495–496, 511
Acts 22.25ƒ. ................................................. 378 Rom. 16.20 .................................................. 499
Acts 22.28 ................................................... 378 Rom. 16.21 .............................. 477, 488, 516, 520
Acts 23.2 ..................................................... 224 Rom. 16.22 .................................................. 518
Acts 23.6 ..................................................... 497 Rom. 16.23 .................................... 472, 499, 512
Acts 23.16 ................................................... 497 Rom. 16.24 .................................................. 499
Acts 23.24 ................................................... 498 Rom. 16.25-27 ............................................. 499
Acts 23.24-26 ................................................. 48 Romans subscription ..................................... 511
Acts 24.3 ....................................................... 48 1 Cor. 1.1 .................................................... 516
Acts 24.22-27 ................................................. 48 1!Cor. 1.11 .................................................. 469
Acts 24.24 ................................................... 443 1 Cor. 1.12 ............................................ 463, 506
Acts 24.26 .............................................. 48, 498 1 Cor. 1.14 .................................................. 471
Acts 24.27 .............................................. 48, 443 1 Cor. 1.16 .................................................. 516
Acts 25.1 ....................................................... 48 1 Cor. 3.5 .................................................... 463
Acts 25.4 ....................................................... 48 1 Cor. 3.6 .................................................... 463
Acts 25.6–12 .................................................. 49 1 Cor. 3.22 .................................................. 463
Acts 25.9 ....................................................... 48 1 Cor. 4.6 .................................................... 463
Acts 25.11 ................................................... 498 1 Cor. 4.17 .................................................. 520
Acts 25.12–14 ................................................ 48 1 Cor. 5.7 .................................................... 145
Acts 25.13 ................................................... 442 1 Cor. 5.9–11 ............................................... 499
Acts 25.13–26.32 .......................................... 437 1 Cor. 7.1 ....................................... 461, 473, 499
Acts 25.14 ..................................................... 48 1 Cor. 7.1 ................................................... 516
Acts 25.22–24 ................................................ 48 1 Cor. 9.5 .................................................... 506
Acts 26.11, 13 .............................................. 498 1 Cor. 9.6 .................................................... 465
Acts 26.12–18 .............................................. 497 1 Cor. 9.25 .................................................. 516
Acts 26.14 ................................................... 497 1 Cor. 11.23–26 ............................................ 146
Acts 26.24-25 ................................................. 48 1 Cor. 11.25 ................................................. 145
Acts 26.32 ..................................................... 48 1 Cor. 13.1 .................................................. 548
Acts 27.1-28.16 ............................................ 489 1 Cor. 15.7 ............................................ 127, 475

Index
1 Cor. 15.32 ................................................. 503 Phil. 1.1 ................................................ 502, 520

1 Cor. 16.10 ................................................. 520 Phil. 2.19 ..................................................... 520
1 Cor. 16.12 ................................................. 463 Phil. 2.25-27 ................................................ 472
1 Cor. 16.15 ................................................. 516 Phil. 4.2 ................................................ 473, 517
1 Cor. 16.17 ................................... 461, 473, 516 Phil. 4.3 ...................................................... 469
1!Cor. 16.17 ................................................. 469 Phil. 4.18 ..................................................... 472
1 Cor. 16.17–18 ............................................ 499 Phil. subscription .......................................... 472
1 Cor. 16.19 ................................................. 511 Col. 1.1 ....................................................... 520
1!Cor. 16.19 ................................................. 464 Col. 1.5–8 ................................................... 472
1 Cor. subscription ........................... 461, 516, 521 Col. 4.7 ....................................................... 522
2 Cor. 1.1 .................................................... 520 Col. 4.9 ................................................ 496, 509
2 Cor. 1.1–2.4 .............................................. 499 Col. 4.10 ................................. 464–465, 478, 492
2 Cor. 1.19 ............................................ 513, 520 Col. 4.10–14 ................................................ 488
2 Cor. 2.1 .................................................... 499 Col. 4.12 ..................................................... 472
2 Cor. 2.3–4 ................................................. 499 Col. 4.14 ..................................................... 471
2 Cor. 2.9 .................................................... 499 Col. 4.15 ..................................................... 496
2 Cor. 2.13 .................................................. 521 Col. 4.16 .............................................. 355, 501
2 Cor. 6.14–7.1 ............................................. 499 Col. 4.17 ..................................................... 464
2 Cor. 7.6–7 ................................................. 521 Col. subscription .................................... 496, 522
2 Cor. 7.6–7, 13 ............................................ 499 1 Th. 1.1 .............................................. 513, 520
2 Cor. 7.8 .................................................... 499 1 Th. 3.2-6 .................................................. 520
2 Cor. 7.13–14 ............................................. 521 2 Th. 1.1 .............................................. 513, 520
2 Cor. 8.6 .................................................... 521 2 Th. 2.1–12 ................................................ 502
2!Cor. 8.16, 23 ............................................. 521 2 Th. 2.2 ..................................................... 501
2 Cor. 8.18 .................................................. 465 2 Th. 3.28 ................................................... 499
2 Cor. 10.10 ................................................. 503 1 Tim. 1.2 ................................................... 520
2!Cor. 11.32–33 ............................................ 497 1 Tim. 1.18 .................................................. 520
2 Cor. 12.2–5 ............................................... 503 1 Tim. 1.19–20 ............................................. 461
2!Cor. 12.7 .................................................. 503 1!Tim. 1.19–20 ............................................. 474
2 Cor. subscription ................................. 490, 521 1 Tim. 3.1-3 ................................................. 502
Gal. 1.13–14 ................................................ 497 1 Tim. 3.1ƒ. ................................................. 502
Gal. 1.18 ..................................................... 504 1 Tim. 3.8ƒ. ................................................. 502
Gal. 1.19 .............................................. 128, 475 1 Tim. 6.13 ................................................... 46
Gal. 2.1 ......................................... 465, 497, 521 1 Tim. 6.20 .................................................. 520
Gal. 2.3 ....................................................... 497 2 Tim. 1.2 ................................................... 520
Gal. 2.3–5 ................................................... 521 2 Tim. 1.5 ...................................... 473, 488, 520
Gal. 2.9 ............... 465, 469, 475, 480, 497, 504, 506 2 Tim. 1.15 ........................................... 474, 511
Gal. 2.11 .............................................. 504, 506 2 Tim. 1.16-18 ............................................. 496
Gal. 2.12 ..................................................... 475 2 Tim. 2.17 .................................................. 509
Gal. 2.13 ..................................................... 465 2 Tim. 2.17–18 ............................................. 475
Gal. 2.14 ..................................................... 504 2 Tim. 2.18 .................................................. 509
Gal. 4.13–14 ................................................ 503 2 Tim. 4.10 ........................................... 471, 521
Gal. 5.13 ..................................................... 500 2 Tim. 4.11 ........................................... 478, 488
Eph. 2.8–10 ................................................. 501 2 Tim. 4.12 .................................................. 522
Eph. 6.12 .................................................... 522 2 Tim. 4.14 .................................................. 461
Eph. subscription .......................................... 522 2 Tim. 4.19 .................................... 464, 496, 511

Index
2 Tim. 4.20 .................................................. 521 Rev. 2.15 ..................................................... 495

2 Tim. 4.20 ................................................. 472 Rev. 5.6 ....................................................... 145
2 Tim. 4.21 .................................... 469, 488, 512 Rev. 7.5 ....................................................... 188
2!Tim. 4.21 .................................................. 473 Rev. 7.6 ........................................................ 87
2 Timothy subscription ............................ 395, 502 Rev. 9.7 ....................................................... 516
Titus 1.4 ..................................................... 521 Rev. 13.18 ................................................... 394
Titus 1.12 .................................................... 259 Rev. 17.9 ..................................................... 374
Titus 1.17 .................................................... 502 Rev. 17.9-10 ................................................. 394
Titus 3.12 ............................................. 464, 522 Rev. 20.8 ..................................................... 165
Titus 3.13 ............................................. 463, 522 1 Esdras 1.25 ............................................... 297
Philem. 1 .............................................. 509, 520 1 Esdras 1.25-29 ........................................... 271
Philem. 2 .............................................. 463–464 1 Esdras 1.25–27 .......................................... 259
Philem. 9–10 ................................................ 509 1 Esdras 1.25–31 .......................................... 276
Philem. 10 ................................................... 496 1 Esdras 1.28 ............................................... 259
Philem. 12 ................................................... 496 1 Esdras 1.34 ......................................... 131–132
Philem. 12–14 .............................................. 509 1 Esdras 1.38 ............................................... 134
Philem. 15–16 ....................................... 496, 509 1 Esdras 1.39–41 .......................................... 134
Philem. 17–18 .............................................. 496 1 Esdras 1.43–46 .......................................... 132
Philem. 23 ............................................ 472, 488 1 Esdras 2.3ƒ. ............................................... 304
Philem. 24 ............................... 464, 471–472, 478 1 Esdras 2.12 ............................................... 195
Philem. subscription ................................ 496, 522 1 Esdras 2.12, 15 .......................................... 189
Heb. 11.37 ................................................... 246 1 Esdras 2.16-30a ......................................... 304
Heb. 13.23 ................................................... 520 1 Esdras 2.16ƒ. ............................................. 304
Heb. subscription .......................................... 521 1!Esdras 2.16ƒ. ............................................. 312
James 5.4 ..................................................... 557 1 Esdras 2.18 ............................................... 304
1 Pet. 1.1 ..................................................... 506 1 Esdras 2.26ƒ. ............................................. 304
1 Pet. 2.25 ................................................... 502 1 Esdras 3.1-4.46 .......................................... 206
1 Pet. 5.12 ................................................... 513 1 Esdras 4.13 ............................................... 206
1 Pet. 5.13 ...................................... 469, 478, 490 1 Esdras 4.35 ............................................... 206
1!Pet. 5.13 ................................................... 507 1 Esdras 4.41 ............................................... 206
2 Pet 1.1 ...................................................... 504 1 Esdras 4.43ƒ. ............................................. 304
2 Pet. 2.4 ..................................................... 334 1 Esdras 5.5 .......................................... 193, 206
2 Pet. 2.15 ................................................... 238 1 Esdras 5.69 ............................................... 289
1 John 4.7-8 ................................................. 548 1 Esdras 5.73 ............................................... 304
3 John 1 ...................................................... 474 1 Esdras 8.2 LXX ......................................... 205
3 John 12 ..................................................... 472 1 Esdras 9.1 ................................................. 215
Jude 1 ......................................................... 486 1!Esdras 9.49 ................................................. 40
Jude 11 ....................................................... 238 2 Esdras 1.2–3 .............................................. 114
Jude 14–15 .................................................. 111 2 Esdras 1.3 ................................................. 309
Jude 17 ....................................................... 486 2 Esdras 2 .................................................... 109
Jude 23 ....................................................... 487 Tobit 1.2 ..................................................... 291
Rev. 1.1, 4 ................................................... 480 Tobit 1.13–15 ............................................... 292
Rev. 1.9 ....................................................... 482 Tobit 1.15 .................................................... 290
Rev. 2.6 ....................................................... 495 Tobit 1.17 ............................................. 291–292
Rev. 2.13 ..................................................... 463 Tobit 1.21 ............................................. 289, 291
Rev. 2.14 ..................................................... 238 Tobit 1.22ƒ. ................................................. 289

Index
Tobit 2.1 ..................................................... 289 1 Macc. 1.8-9 ............................................... 335

Tobit 14.4 .................................................... 252 1 Macc. 1.8–9 .............................................. 342
Tobit 14.4, 15 ............................................... 295 1 Macc. 1.8ƒ. ............................................... 332
Tobit 14.8 .................................................... 252 1 Macc. 1.10 ......................................... 356, 358
Tobit 14.15 ..................................... 297, 306, 313 1 Macc. 1.16–19 ........................................... 359
Judith 1.1, 5, 13 ..................................... 310, 319 1!Macc. 1.16–20 ........................................... 347
Judith 1.1ƒ. .................................................. 297 1 Macc. 1.20–24 ........................................... 359
Judith 2.23 ................................................... 185 1 Macc. 2.1 .................................................. 452
Judith 4.6, 8, 14 ............................................ 215 1 Macc. 2.1–28 ............................................. 452
Judith 8.1 .................................................... 171 1 Macc. 2.2 ........................................... 447, 449
Judith 16.6 ................................................... 171 1 Macc. 2.2ƒ. ............................................... 452
Sirach 36.16 .................................................. 73 1 Macc. 2.3 .................................................. 454
Sirach 36.22 .................................................. 73 1 Macc. 2.4 .................................................. 450
Sirach 43.25 ................................................. 249 1 Macc. 2.6 .................................................. 448
Sirach 45 ...................................................... 73 1 Macc. 2.26 ................................................ 452
Sirach 45.1–5 ............................................... 173 1 Macc. 2.49 ................................................ 452
Sirach 45.23–26 ............................................ 184 1!Macc. 2.59-60 ............................................ 366
Sirach 46.1–8 ............................................... 155 1 Macc. 2.65 ................................................ 454
Sirach 46.9 .................................................... 93 1 Macc. 2.66 ................................................ 450
Sirach 47.1 .................................................. 252 1 Macc. 2.69–70 ........................................... 452
Sirach 47.2 .................................................... 95 1 Macc. 3.1 .................................................. 450
Sirach 47.12–23 ............................................ 198 1 Macc. 3.1–4.35 .......................................... 450
Sirach 47.13 ................................................. 197 1 Macc. 3.30 ................................................ 359
Sirach 48.10 ................................................. 242 1 Macc. 4.36–59 ........................................... 450
Sirach 48.11–14 ............................................ 242 1 Macc. 5.1–7.46 .......................................... 450
Sirach 48.22 ................................................. 118 1 Macc. 5.55ƒ. ............................................. 449
Sirach 49.1–4 ............................................... 155 1!Macc. 6 .................................................... 360
Sirach 49.4 ............................................. 95, 118 1 Macc. 6.2 .................................................. 329
Sirach 49.8–9 ............................................... 242 1!Macc. 6.2 ................................................... 40
Sirach 49.12 ................................................. 214 1!Macc. 6.8–16 ............................................. 360
Sirach 49.12–13 ............................................ 215 1 Macc. 6.14–17 ........................................... 360
Sirach 49.13 .................................................. 38 1 Macc. 6.43–46 ........................................... 443
Sirach 49.16 ................................................. 111 1 Macc. 6.55–59 ........................................... 360
Sirach 49.21 ................................................. 206 1 Macc. 7.1 .................................................. 361
Sirach 50.1 .................................................. 218 1 Macc. 7.1–4 .............................................. 360
Sirach 50.1-24 .............................................. 455 1 Macc. 7.12–18 ........................................... 435
Sirach 50.1–24 ............................................. 217 1 Macc. 7.12ƒ. ............................................. 221
Sirach 50.1ƒ. ................................................ 218 1 Macc. 7.16–17 ........................................... 221
Sirach 51.12 ................................................. 203 1 Macc. 7.21ƒ. ............................................. 221
Sirach prologue ...................................... 348–349 1 Macc. 7.26–32 ........................................... 361
1 Macc. 1.1 .................................................. 329 1 Macc. 8.5 .................................... 376, 411–412
1!Macc. 1.1 ................................................... 40 1 Macc. 8.6 .................................................. 376
1 Macc. 1.1, 7 .............................................. 329 1!Macc. 8.6ƒ. ............................................... 357
1 Macc. 1.6 .................................................. 330 1 Macc. 8.8 .................................................. 357
1 Macc. 1.7 .................................................. 330 1 Macc. 8.10 ................................................ 376
1!Macc. 1.7 ................................................... 40 1 Macc. 8.19-22 ............................................ 376

Index
1 Macc. 9.1–22 ............................................. 361 1 Macc. 15.25ƒ. ............................................ 364

1 Macc. 9.7–18 ............................................. 450 1!Macc. 16.11–19 ......................................... 453
1 Macc. 9.28–31 ........................................... 448 1 Macc. 16.15 .............................................. 453
1 Macc. 9.54 ................................................ 221 1 Macc. 16.16 ........................................ 451, 455
1 Macc. 10.1 ................................... 348, 361–362 1 Macc. 16.21–24 ......................................... 447
1 Macc. 10.15–21 ......................................... 361 2 Macc. 1.13-17 ............................................ 358
1 Macc. 10.20 .............................................. 448 2 Macc. 1.16 ......................................... 357, 360
1!Macc. 10.29–33 ......................................... 448 2 Macc. 1.18 .................................................. 38
1 Macc. 10.32 .............................................. 448 2 Macc. 1.19-36 ............................................. 38
1 Macc. 10.48–50 ......................................... 361 2 Macc. 2.1–8 .............................................. 138
1 Macc. 10.49 .............................................. 361 2 Macc. 3–4 ................................................. 358
1 Macc. 10.51–58 ................................... 348, 362 2 Macc. 3.1–4.7 ............................................ 358
1 Macc. 10.57-8 ............................................ 365 2 Macc. 3.2 .................................................. 357
1 Macc. 10.59ƒ. ............................................ 448 2 Macc. 3.4 ........................................... 218, 220
1 Macc. 10.67 ........................................ 348, 362 2 Macc. 3.25ƒ. ............................................. 358
1 Macc. 10.69–89 ......................................... 362 2 Macc. 4.1ƒ. ............................................... 358
1 Macc. 10.87ƒ ............................................. 448 2!Macc. 4.4 .................................................. 358
1!Macc. 11.9 ................................................ 362 2 Macc. 4.7 .................................................. 359
1 Macc. 11.13 .............................................. 348 2 Macc. 4.7ƒ. ............................................... 219
1 Macc. 11.13–19 ......................................... 362 2!Macc. 4.7ƒ. ............................................... 219
1 Macc. 11.17 .............................................. 362 2 Macc. 4.23ƒ. ............................................. 220
1 Macc. 11.18 .............................................. 348 2 Macc. 4.29 ................................................ 220
1 Macc. 11.19 .............................................. 348 2 Macc. 4.34 ......................................... 219, 359
1 Macc. 11.30–37 ......................................... 363 2 Macc. 4.42 ................................................ 220
1 Macc. 11.31–32 ......................................... 363 2!Macc. 5.5 .................................................. 220
1!Macc. 11.38 .............................................. 363 2 Macc. 8.1–9.4 ............................................ 450
1 Macc. 11.45-51 .......................................... 363 2 Macc. 8.20 ................................................ 355
1 Macc. 11.53 .............................................. 363 2 Macc. 8.22 ................................................ 452
1!Macc. 12.7 ................................................ 217 2!Macc. 8.22 ................................................ 449
1 Macc. 12.7ƒ. ............................................. 217 2 Macc. 8.23 ......................................... 441, 452
1 Macc. 12.20 .............................................. 217 2!Macc. 8.23 ................................................ 443
1 Macc. 12.24 .............................................. 362 2 Macc. 9 .................................................... 360
1 Macc. 12.39–13.32 ..................................... 363 2 Macc. 9.2 .................................................. 360
1 Macc. 12.46–48 ......................................... 448 2!Macc. 9.3 .................................................. 360
1!Macc. 13.7ƒ. ............................................. 455 2 Macc. 10.1–8 ............................................. 450
1!Macc. 13.20ƒ. ............................................ 455 2 Macc. 10.10–15.39 ..................................... 450
1 Macc. 13.23 .............................................. 448 2 Macc. 10.19 .............................................. 449
1 Macc. 13.41–42 ......................................... 363 2 Macc. 11.34 .............................................. 426
1!Macc. 13.41–42 ......................................... 455 2!Macc. 13.3ƒ. ............................................. 220
1 Macc. 14.1 ................................................ 429 2 Macc. 14.3 ................................................ 221
1 Macc. 14.1–3 ............................................. 363 2 Macc. 14.11–15.39 ..................................... 361
1 Macc. 14.2–3 ............................................. 429 2 Macc. 15.12-16 .......................................... 219
1 Macc. 15 .................................................. 363 2 Macc. 15.14-16 .......................................... 138
1 Macc. 15.10 .............................................. 363 Baruch 1.7 ................................................... 214
1 Macc. 15.16 .............................................. 376 Baruch 1.11, 12 ............................................ 299
1!Macc. 15.16 .............................................. 348 Prayer of the Three Young Men ...................... 249

Index
Bel and the Dragon 1 .............................. 243, 311 Abraham29, 64, 76, 119, 455, 455, 455, 209, 236, 245,
Bel and the Dragon 33–39 .............................. 243 274, 490
3 Macc. 1.1ƒ. ........................................ 346, 356 Abram. see Abraham
3 Macc. 1.8ƒ. ............................................... 346 Absalom ................................. 75, 77, 455, 163–455
3 Macc. 1.13ƒ. ............................................. 218 Absalom uncle of Aristobulus II .......................... 435
3 Macc. 2.1 .................................................. 346 Abubus father of Ptolemy .................................. 436
3!Macc. 2.1 .................................................. 218 Achaemenes .................................................... 306
3 Macc. 2.27ƒ. ............................................. 346 Achæus, Seleucid pretender ............................... 357
3 Macc. 5.1ƒ. ............................................... 346 Achaicus, early Christian ............... 461, 473, 499, 516
3 Macc. 6.8 .................................................. 249 Achim ancestor of Jesus ...................................... 78
3 Macc. 6.16ƒ. ............................................. 346 Achsah daughter of Caleb ................................... 78
4 Macc. 3.20 ................................................ 358 Aclima, sister of Cain and Abel ............................ 92
4 Macc. 3.20ƒ. ............................................. 354 Actium, Battle of .... 352, 448, 448, 448, 448, 448, 448–
4 Macc. 4.1-14 ............................................. 358 448, 448, 448
4 Macc. 4.15 ................................................ 358 Adad-Idri of Damascus. See Ben-Hadad I, II
Prayer of Manasseh ....................................... 166 Adad-nirari I ................................................... 283
Adad-nirari II .................................................. 283
General Index Adad-nirari III ................................... 280, 287, 455
Adah wife of Lamech ......................................... 78
Aaron ....................... 25, 73, 125, 138, 455, 490, 236
Adam .............................. 73, 78, 455, 113, 455, 209
Abdon, minor Judge ........................................... 30
Addanc (flood-causing monster) .......................... 180
Abel ....................................... 73, 78, 455, 204, 256
Addi, ancestor of Jesus ........................................ 79
Abgar, King of Edessa ................................ 518–519
Admin, ancestor of Jesus .............................. 79, 120
Abi son of Joab ................................................ 148
Adoni-zedek king of Jerusalem ........................... 202
Abi wife of Ahaz ............................................... 73
Adonijah ........... 202, 79, 202, 202, 202, 202, 202, 202
Abiathar ........................................ 32, 73, 109, 122
Adoptionist Heresy ........................................... 527
Abiel father of Kish ........................................... 74
Adrammelech son of Sennacherib ....................... 287
Abigail (1) wife of Nabal and David ................. 74, 94
Adrianople, Battle of ......................................... 405
Abigail (2), mother of Amasa ............................... 74
Adriel husband of Merab ............................. 79, 103
Abihail wife of Jerimoth ...................................... 74
Aegisthus, killer of Agamemnon ......................... 334
Abihu (son of Aaron) .......................................... 74
Ægospotami, Battle of ....................................... 328
Abijah (1) king of Judah. see Abijam
Æmilian, Emperor ........................................... 400
Abijah (2) son of Jeroboam I ................................ 74
Aemilius Paullus, Lucius, victor at Pydna .............. 412
Abijah (3) son of Samuel ................................... 253
Aemilius Paulus, Lucius, killed at Cannae ....... 412, 412
Abijam, King of Judah ............................. 34, 74, 78
Æneas of Troy ................................................. 372
Abimelech ........................................................ 27
Aeschylus, dramatist ................................... 326, 328
Abimelech King of Gerar .................................. 236
Agabus, Christian prophet ................... 259, 461, 489
Abinadab (1) son of Saul ..................................... 75
Agamemnon, King of Mycenae . 29, 324–325, 334, 372
Abinadab (2) son of Jesse ................................ 75, 98
Agathocles son of Lysimachus ............................ 338
Abishag the Shunammite .................................... 79
Agis III, King of Sparta .................................... 336
Abishai son of Zeruiah ...... 75, 207, 207, 207–207, 207
Agrippa I. see Herod Agrippa I
Abishua son of Phinehas the Priest ........................ 75
Agrippa Posthumus grandson of Augustus ............ 391
Abiud son of Zerubbabel .................................... 76
Agrippa Postumus grandson of Augustus .............. 392
Abner son of Ner205, 205, 76, 205, 205, 102, 205, 205, Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius .... 352, 382, 392, 423–424,
205–205, 205, 205, 205, 192, 205
425
Agrippina the Elder .......................................... 392

Index
Agrippina the Younger ............................... 394, 421 Alexander the Great14, 23, 40, 216, 241, 273, 490, 318,
Ahab ............. 16, 79, 87, 113, 455, 455, 258, 258, 258 328–330, 342–343, 354, 370–367
Ahasuerus (see also Xerxes I) ................. 306–307, 313 Alexander V son of Cassander ..................... 336–337
Ahaz ............... 29, 35, 80, 88, 123, 490, 258, 280, 490 Alexander Zebinas, Seleucid pretender .......... 364, 364
Ahaziah ................................................... 119, 141 Alexander, Christian schismatic .................... 474, 474
Ahaziah (1) son of Ahab ..................................... 81 Alexander, Tiberius Julius (Procurator) ............ 47, 353
Ahaziah (2) King of Judah ....................... 34, 81, 133 Alexandra (1) wife of Alexander Janneus . 42, 221, 438,
Ahenobarbus, Cnaeus Domitius, commander at 440, 447, 454
Magnesia .................................................. 426 Alexandra (2) daughter of John Hyrcanus II . 438, 445,
Ahenobarbus, Gnaeus Domitius ...... 426, 426, 426, 426 445, 451
Ahenobarnus, Lucius Domitius the elder .............. 421 Alphaeus father of James and Levi ......... 470, 476, 488
Ahenobarnus, Lucius Domitius the younger .......... 421 Alyattes of Lydia ........... 302, 306, 311, 312–313, 320
Ahiah. see Ahijah Amariah (1) grandfather of Zadok ........................ 83
Ahijah (1) brother of Ahimelech ........................... 81 Amariah (2) son of Solomon's priest Azariah ........... 83
Ahijah (2) father of Baasha .................................. 81 Amariah (3) son of Hezekiah ............................... 83
Ahijah the Shilonite .............................. 74, 138, 236 Amasa, Absalom's general ................. 74, 83, 147–148
Ahikar, supposed conqueror of Ninevah ............... 313 Amasis, pharaoh ....................................... 271, 277
Ahimaaz (1) son of Zadok ................................... 82 Amaziah ............................... 34, 455, 119, 455, 141
Ahimelech priest of Nob ..................................... 82 Ambivius (procurator) ......................................... 44
Ahinoam (1) wife of Saul ..................................... 82 Amel-Marduk. see Evil-Merodach
Ahinoam (2) wife of David .................................. 82 Amenhotep I, pharaoh ...................................... 264
Ahiqar nephew of Tobit .................................... 289 Amenhotep II, pharaoh ..................................... 266
Ahithophel ....................................................... 77 Amenhotep III, pharaoh ................................... 266
Ahithophel, counselor of David ............................ 89 Amenhotep III, Pharaoh ................................... 174
Ahitub (1) father of Ahimelech ............................. 82 Amenhotep IV, pharaoh .................................... 266
Ahitub (2) father of Zadok ................................... 83 Amenmeses, pharaoh ........................................ 267
Ahmose (Amasis), pharaoh ................................. 271 Amestris wife of Xerxes I ........................... 306, 308
Ahmose I, pharaoh ........................................... 264 Ammihud father of Elishama ............................... 83
Ai, Conquest of ............................................... 154 Amminadab father of Nahshon ............................ 84
Aiah father of Rizpah ......................................... 83 Amnon son of David ... 77, 82, 84, 105, 150, 163–164,
Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), pharaoh ........... 266, 274 200–200
Alaric the Goth, sacker of Rome ......................... 405 Amon ......................................................... 36, 84
Albinus, Clodius .............................................. 399 Amorites .......................................................... 84
Albinus, Lucius (Procurator) ................... 49, 225, 475 Amos (ancestor of Jesus) ...................................... 84
Alcibiades, Greek adventurer .............................. 327 Amos the prophet ............................... 227, 237, 244
Alcimus, High Priest ........................... 220, 361, 435 Amplias. see Ampliatus
Alexander (1) son of Aristobulus ..... 418, 437, 441, 451 Ampliatus, early Christian ................................. 461
Alexander (2) son of Herod ..... 437, 439, 441, 445, 451 Amram father of Aaron, Miriam, and Moses73, 84, 85,
Alexander Balas 221, 348, 362, 361, 362–417, 429, 490 110, 149, 158, 162, 172, 174, 277
Alexander Helios son of Antony and Cleopatra ..... 353 Amyntas III of Macedon ................................... 328
Alexander II of Macedon .................................. 328 Amyrteos, pharaoh ........................................... 272
Alexander III. see Alexander the Great Ananelus, High Priest ....................................... 222
Alexander IV son of Alexander the Great 330–331, 336 Ananias (1) husband of Sapphira ........... 506, 506, 513
Alexander Janneus ... 41, 417, 222, 349, 417, 417, 490, Ananias (2), Christian who converted Paul ............ 461
435, 438, 455, 447 Ananias son of Nebedius (High Priest) ................. 224
Alexander the coppersmith ................................ 461 Ananias son of Onias IV ............................ 219, 438

Index
Ananus (High Priest) ......................................... 128 Antonius Primus, Vespasian’s general ................... 396
Andragoras, Seleucid official .............................. 428 Antony, Antyllus .............................................. 353
Andrew the apostle ................ 457, 462, 504–505, 509 Antony, Lucius ............................. 351, 382, 423, 425
Andronicus, early Christian ................................ 463 Antony, Mark ... 43, 350–352, 380–382, 391, 401, 418–
Andronicus, Seleucid official .............................. 219 421, 422, 423–426, 430, 439, 444, 448
Anencletus, Bishop of Rome .............................. 469 Apamea, Peace of ............................... 346, 357, 411
Ankhesenpaton, wife of Tutankhamon ................. 266 Apelles, early Christian ..................................... 463
Anna mother of Mary ...................................... 167 Aphek, Battle of .. 32, 85, 108–109, 122–123, 185, 253,
Annas (High Priest) ...................... 475, 475–475, 475 280
Annas son of Annas (High Priest) ........................ 475 Aphiah ancestor of Saul ...................................... 85
Ano wife of Jeroboam I ..................................... 139 Aphrodite, Greek goddess of beauty .................... 372
Antigonus I Monophthalmos ... 40, 330–332, 335, 336– Apollinarian heresy .......................................... 526
339, 342–344, 354, 366, 375 Apollonius, Seleucid governor of Samaria ............ 451
Antigonus II Gonatas ............. 332, 337, 339, 344, 375 Apollos, Christian missionary ................ 463–464, 511
Antigonus Mattathias 43, 430, 490, 439, 455, 455–455, Apostle’s Creed ......................................... 527, 533
455 Apphia, early Christian ..................................... 463
Antigonus son of John Hyrcanus I ....................... 439 Apries, pharaoh ........................................ 271, 276
Antiochus Hierax ...................................... 355–357 Aquila, husband of Prisca 250, 463–464, 498, 511–512
Antiochus I .............................................. 344, 355 Aram (1) son of Noah ......................................... 85
Antiochus II .................. 344, 346, 355, 356, 370, 429 Aram (2) ancestor of Jesus ................................... 85
Antiochus III .... 40, 218, 335, 346–347, 355, 356, 357, Aram son of Hezron ......................................... 120
360, 368, 490, 410–412, 429–429 Arcadius, Emperor ........................................... 405
Antiochus IV23, 41, 213, 218–490, 347–348, 357, 358, Archelaus ....................... 43, 490, 440, 445–446, 455
360, 366–367, 370–370, 417, 417, 490, 451–452 Archelaus son of Mithridates of Pontus ................ 350
Antiochus IX .................................................. 364 Archimedes, Greek scientist ......................... 375, 409
Antiochus V ............................... 360, 361, 429, 451 Archippus, early Christian .................... 463–464, 509
Antiochus VI ........................................... 363, 490 Ardashir, founder of Sassanid Persia .................... 431
Ardys of Lydia ................................................ 308
Antiochus VII ........................ 33, 363, 365, 429, 447
Areus king of Sparta ......................................... 217
Antiochus VIII ................................................ 364
Arian heresy .................................................... 525
Antiochus X .................................................... 365
Arik-den-ili of Assyria ....................................... 283
Antiochus XI .................................................. 365
Aristarchus, early Christian ......................... 464, 473
Antiochus XII ................................................. 365
Aristion, Presbyter ............................................ 491
Antiochus XIII ................................................ 365
Antipas. see also Herod Antipas Aristobulus (4) son of Herod .. 437, 439, 441, 442, 445–
Antipas, Christian martyr .................................. 463 446, 451, 454
Antipater of Idumea 42, 391, 417–418, 433, 439, 440, Aristobulus (5) son of Herod of Chalcis ......... 441, 446
442, 444, 448–449, 452 Aristobulus I ...................................... 490–455, 440
Antipater son of Cassander ......................... 336–337 Aristobulus II ... 42, 490, 490, 435, 490–455, 440–441,
Antipater son of Herod the Great . 437, 439, 445–445, 455
445 Aristobulus III ......... 222, 435, 455–455, 441, 455, 451
Antipater, Alexander’s governor of Greece .... 330–331, Aristobulus, early Christian ................................ 464
335, 336, 337–338, 344 Aristophanes, dramatist .............................. 326, 328
Antonia daughter of Octavia and Antony ............. 421 Ark of the Covenant .. 32, 81, 109, 122–123, 138, 158,
Antoninus Pius ................................................ 398 185, 237, 253–254
Antonius Felix. see Felix, Marcus Antonius Arkites ............................................................. 85

Index
Arminius, Jakob ............................................... 531 Ashurrabi II .................................................... 283

Armoni son of Saul ............................................ 85 Ashuruballit I ........................................... 266, 283
Arni son of Hezron ..................................... 85, 120 Ashuruballit II ................................................. 288
Arpachshad son of Shem ........................ 85, 93, 209 Asshur son of Shem ........................................... 87
Arrideus, Macedonian officer ....................... 331, 338 Astyges of Media ........... 303, 306, 311, 311–314, 319
Arsaces I of Parthia ................................... 355, 428 Athaliah .......................................... 34, 81, 87, 134
Arsaces VI of Parthia. See also Mithridates I of Parthia Athanasius of Alexandria .................................. 405
Arsaces, founder of the Sassanid Empire .............. 428 Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria ..................... 526
arsenic ............................................................. 92 Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom ....................... 334
Arses ............................................................... 40 Athens
Arses, Emperor of Persia ................................... 308 classical history of ......................................... 325
Arsinoë I daughter of Lysimachus and wife of Ptolemy Imperial ambitions ................................. 326–327
II ............................................................ 344 Juries in ....................................................... 325
Arsinoë II wife of Lysimachus and Ptolemy II . 338, 344 Xerxes’s destruction of ................................... 326
Arsinoë sister of Cleopatra VII .................... 350–351 Atossa daughter of Cyrus the Great ......... 82, 311, 314
Artabanos, murderer of Xerxes I ........................ 309 Atreus father of Agamemnon ............................. 334
Artabanus brother of Gotarzes II ........................ 430 Attai son of Rehoboam ....................................... 88
Artabanus III of Parthia .................................... 430 Attalus I of Pergamum ...................................... 356
Artabanus V of Parthia ..................................... 431 Attalus III of Pergamum ................................... 376
Artabazanes son of Darius I ............................... 308 Augustus. see Cæsar, Augustus
Artaphernes brother of Darius I ......................... 308 Aurelian ......................................................... 401
Artaxerxes I .. 38–39, 273, 304, 307, 308, 455–322, 490 Aurelius. see Marcus Aurelius
Artaxerxes II ................... 39, 216, 272, 435, 309, 315 Ausculum, Battle of .................................... 339, 375
Artaxerxes III ........................ 40, 215, 273, 310, 455 Authorized Version ........................................... 531
Artemas, early Christian ............................. 464, 522 Ay, pharaoh .................................................... 266
Artemis ............................................................ 29 Azariah (1) grandson of Zadok ............................. 88
Artystone daughter of Cyrus the Great ................ 314 Azariah (2) priest of Solomon ............................... 88
Arvadites .......................................................... 86 Azariah (3) son of Jehoshaphat ............................. 88
Aryenis wife of Cyaxares ................................... 311 Azariah (4)/Uzziah ................................ 35, 88, 201
Asa 34, 78, 86, 258, 276 Azariah (5) father of Seraiah ................................ 89
Asaces V of Parthia .......................................... 363 Azariah son of Mattathias ................................. 441
Asahel ............................... 75–76, 86, 147–148, 207 Azariah son of Oded ........................................ 238
Asaph, alternate name for Asa .............................. 87 Azor ancestor of Jesus ........................................ 89
Asaph, Temple musician .................................... 237 Azubah wife of Asa ............................................ 89
Asenath wife of Joseph .................. 107, 111, 153, 165 Baanah and Rechab, murderers of Eshbaal ........... 113
Asher son of Jacob ............................................. 87 Baasha .......................................... 81, 89, 108, 258
Ashur-itil-ilani son of Ashurbanipal ........ 288, 292, 302 Bacchides, Seleucid noble .................................. 451
Ashur-nadinapli of Assyria ................................ 283 Baecula, Battle of ...................................... 410, 410
Ashur-nirari V ................................................. 288 Bagoas, eunuch of Artaxerxes III .... 215, 318, 310, 318
Ashurbanipal13, 65, 108, 155, 166, 270–271, 276, 287, Balaam the prophet .......................................... 238
288–289, 292, 295–296, 299, 302, 313, 319 Balak son of Zippor king of Moab ...................... 238
Ashurdan I ....................................................... 24 Balbinus, Emperor ........................................... 400
Ashurdan II .................................................... 283 Banias, Battle of. see the Battle of Panion
Ashurdan III ................................................... 288 banjo, musical instrument, origin of ..................... 117
Ashurnadinshumi son of Sennacherib .................. 288 Bar-Jesus, magician .......................................... 513
Ashurnasirpal II .............................................. 288 Bar-Kochba rebellion ........................................ 398

Index
Barak son of Abinoam .......................... 26, 177, 240 Bodora mother of Job ....................................... 112
Bardiya. see Smerdis Bomilcar, failed Carthaginian admiral .................. 409
Barnabas the Apostle .... 458–459, 464–466, 478, 484, Booth, William ................................................ 534
488, 490, 492, 497, 513 Br’er Rabbit ..................................................... 27
Barsaba King of Adullam ................................... 90 Britannicus son of Claudius ............................... 394
Barsine Statire daughter of Darius III .................. 329 Brutus, Decimus Junius ................. 379–381, 391, 422
Bartholomew the Apostle ..................... 457, 466, 494 Brutus, Lucius Junius .................................. 373, 406
Bartimeus the blind beggar ................................ 467 Brutus, Marcus Junius ............ 379–381, 391, 420, 424
Basemath daughter of Solomon .......................... 198 Bukki grandson of Phinehas ................................ 92
Bath-Enosh mother of Noah .............................. 179 Cæsar, Augustus 15, 143, 351, 378, 380–383, 391, 392–
Bath-Shua wife of Judah ..................................... 90 393, 407, 419, 421–426, 428, 437, 440, 444–446,
Bathsheba ............................................ 79, 89, 105 448, 453
Baucus, wife of Philemon .................................. 178 Cæsar, Gaius Julius . 350–352, 377–381, 390, 391, 416–
Baur, F. C. ...................................................... 533 423, 425, 439, 441
Becorath ancestor of Saul ................................... 90 Cæsarea Philippi .............................................. 346
Bedriacum, Battles of ........................................ 396 Cæsarion. see Ptolemy XV Cæsarion
Bela son of Beor .............................................. 112 Caiaphas, Joseph (High Priest) 396, 396, 396, 396, 396,
Beloved Disciple, The .... 457, 467, 468, 477, 480–481, 396
483, 488 Cain ....... 73, 78, 92, 111, 123, 157, 160, 169, 171, 193
Belshazzar son of Nabonidas .............................. 299 Cainan son of Arpachshad ........................... 93, 209
Belshazzar, Daniel’s ................................... 298–299 Caleb ....................................................... 93, 455
Ben-Ammi, ancestor of the Ammonites ................. 90 Caligula. see Gaius (Caligula)
Ben-Hadad I of Damascus ................................ 279 Callistus I, Pope ............................................... 524
Ben-Hadad III of Damascus .............................. 280 Calvin, John .................................................... 530
Benaiah son of Jehoiada ............................. 148, 197 Cambyses (1) father of Cyrus the Great ................ 311
Benjamin .................................................. 90, 455 Cambyses son of Cyrus the Great ... 38, 271–272, 303–
Berenice. see Bernice 304, 311–312, 314–315, 320
Beriah son of Ephraim ....................................... 91 Canaan son of Ham ........................................... 93
Bernice (2) mother of Agrippa I .......................... 442 Candace, Queen of Ethiopia. see Kandake
Bernice II daughter of Ptolemy II ....................... 367 Candaules king of Lydia .................................... 319
Bernice IV ...................................................... 350 Canidius Crassus, Publius .............. 426, 426, 426–426
Bernice sister of Agrippa II 49, 397, 436–437, 442, 446 Cannae, Battle of ............ 375, 406, 408, 410, 412, 429
Bernice wife of Antiochus II ........................ 355–356 Capito, Herenius (Roman official) ......................... 47
Bernice wife of Ptolemy I .................................. 344 Caracalla, Emperor .......................................... 400
Bessus, Persian usurper ............................... 329, 329 Carbo, Cnaeus Papirius ....................... 378, 415, 417
Bethuel father of Laban and Rebecca91, 186, 186, 186, Carchemish, Battle of . 20, 65, 133, 155, 271, 276, 289,
186, 186 293, 296, 297, 302
Bezalel ........................................................... 123 Carinus, Emperor ............................................ 401
Bibulus, consul, opponent of Cæsar ..................... 379 Carrhae, town and battle of ... 441, 441, 441, 441, 441,
Bildad the Shuhite ............................................ 551 441, 441–441, 441
Bilhah concubine of Jacob . 91, 94, 126, 159, 177, 185– Carus, Emperor ............................................... 401
186, 188, 207 Casca, C. Publius Servilius, murderer of Cæsar ..... 380
Bithiah daughter of Pharaoh .............................. 277 Cassandane wife of Cyrus the Great ............. 311–312
Boaz husband of Ruth ..................... 29, 91, 110, 140 Cassander son of Antipater ..... 331–332, 336–338, 366
Bochorus, pharaoh .................................... 174, 269 Cassius Longinus, Caius . 379–381, 391, 420, 421, 424,
444

Index
Catiline, and conspiracy of ................... 378, 390, 419 Cleopatra wife of Herod the Great ............... 442, 453
Cato the Elder .......................................... 412, 412 Cleophas. see Clopas
Cato the Younger, Marcus Portius ................. 419–420 Cletus, Bishop of Rome. See Anencletus
Cephas .......................... 469. see Peter. see also Peter Clodius, Roman gang leader .............................. 379
Cestius Gallus. see under Gallus Clopas ........................................................... 129
Chaeronea, Battle of ......................................... 328 Clopas, early Christian ...................................... 470
Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor .................. 527 Clytaemnestra wife of Agamemnon .............. 324, 334
Charles I, King of England ................................ 532 Cnut, King of England ....................................... 82
Cheklias son of Onias IV .................................. 219 Colline Gate, Battle of the ................................. 415
Chelubai (alternate name for Caleb?) ..................... 93 Commodus son of Marcus Aurelius .............. 398, 399
Cheops (Khufu) ............................................... 262 Commodus, Lucius .......................................... 398
Chilion, step-brother of Ruth ............................... 94 Complutensian Polyglot .................................... 529
Chloe, associate of Paul ................. 461, 469, 473, 516 Conference of Jerusalem ............................. 484, 497
Chuza, husband of Joanna ................................ 478 Coniah (alternate name for Jehoiachin) .................. 94
Cicero, Marcus Tullius ... 378, 380–381, 413, 419, 421– Constans, Emperor ........................................... 404
422 Constantine I the Great .......... 402, 403, 404, 417, 525
Cimber, Tillius, murderer of Cæsar .............. 380, 420 Constantine II, Emperor ................................... 404
Cimon, Athenian general .................................. 326 Constantinople, Fall of ...................................... 529
Cinna, Lucius Cornelius .. 378, 380, 390, 414, 415, 417 Constantius I, Emperor ........................ 401–402, 404
Claudia, early Christian ....................... 469, 488, 512 Constantius II, Emperor .................................... 404
Claudius .... 47–48, 392, 393–394, 396, 426, 436, 444, consuls, consulate, Roman office ............. 16, 373, 374
461, 465, 511, 513 Coponius, procurator ................................... 43, 223
Claudius II ..................................................... 401 Corbulo, Cnæus Domitius ................................... 47
Claudius Nero, victor at the Metaurus River ......... 410 Coriolanus, Roman soldier ................................. 373
Claudius, Appius, father-in-law of Tiberius Gracchus ... Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus .......... 407, 413
413 Cornelius the centurion ....................... 471, 506, 515
Cleisthenes of Athens ....................................... 325 Corupedium, Battle of .................. 337, 340, 344, 354
Clemens, T. Flavius ...................... 397, 469–470, 518 Cosam ancestor of Jesus ...................................... 94
Clement of Alexandria ..................................... 470 Council of Arles .............................................. 525
Clement of Rome ............................................ 469 Council of Chalcedon ....................................... 527
Clement VIII, Pope .......................................... 531 Council of Jerusalem459–460, 465, 475, 500, 506, 513,
Clement, early Christian ...................... 469, 473, 517 521
Cleon, Athenian demagogue .............................. 327 Council of Nicæa ...................................... 403, 525
Cleopas, early Christian .............................. 470, 489 Council of Trent ................................ 528, 530, 532
Cleopatra Bernice ............................................ 350 Cozbi daughter of Zur ...................................... 184
Cleopatra I, daughter of Antiochus III .. 218, 346–347, Crassus, Marcus Licinius 378, 390, 401, 415, 416, 417–
368 419, 428–430
Cleopatra II ............................................. 347–349 Craterus, treasurer of the Alexandrian regency .... 330–
Cleopatra III ............................... 348–349, 365, 438 331, 336, 337–338
Cleopatra IV ................................................... 365 Cremona, Battles of .......................................... 396
Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Antony and Cleopatra ... Crescens, early Christian ................................... 471
443, 443 Crispus, early Christian .............................. 471, 516
Cleopatra Thea daughter of Ptolemy VI . 365, 365–365
Croesus of Lydia ......................... 303, 306, 312, 314
Cleopatra V .................................................... 350
Crusade, Fourth ............................................... 406
Cleopatra VI ................................................... 350
Cumanus, Ventidius (Procurator) ........... 443, 443, 443
Cleopatra VII .. 350–351, 352, 379, 382, 390, 421, 426 Cunaxa, Battle of ...................................... 310, 315

Index
Cush son of Canaan .......................................... 94 Didius Julianus, Emperor ................................... 399

Cushan-rishathaim, invader of Israel ..................... 24 Dido of Carthage ............................................. 372
Cushi father of Zephaniah .................................. 94 Diet of Worms ................................................ 529
Cyaxares ...................... 297, 302–303, 306, 313, 313 Dinah ........................................ 417, 107, 455, 153
Cynoscephalæ, Battle of .................................... 411 Diocletian, Emperor .................... 239, 401–402, 403
Cyprian of Carthage ........................................ 525 Diodotus I of Bactria ................................. 355, 428
Cypros (1) wife of Antipater of Idumea ......... 439, 442 Dionysius the Areopagite ............................ 471, 472
Cypros (2) wife of Agrippa I ........................ 442, 452 Djoser, pharaoh ............................................... 262
Cyrenius. see Quirinius Doeg the Edomite ......................................... 73, 82
Cyrus “the Great” ..... 490, 37, 435, 490, 304, 313, 372 Dolabella, Publius Cornelius .......... 380–381, 420, 422
Cyrus “the Younger” ................................. 272, 315 Domitian ............... 394, 397, 460, 469, 472, 482, 507
Damaris, early Christian ............................. 471–472 Domitilla niece of Domitian .............................. 397
Damaspia wife of Artaxerxes I ..................... 308, 315 Donatist schism ............................................... 525
Damasus, Pope ................................................ 526 Dorcas. see Tabitha
Dan son of Jacob ........................................ 94, 196 Doris wife of Herod the Great ............... 439, 442, 445
Daniel son of David. see Chileab Druma concubine of Gideon ............................... 27
Daniel the Prophet .................................... 238–239 Drusilla sister of Agrippa II ............. 48, 436, 442, 443
daric, Persian coin ............................................ 316 Drusus son of Tiberius ...................................... 392
Darius I .. 14, 38–39, 82, 273, 490, 303–304, 312, 315, Drusus, Livius, populist tribune ........................... 377
490, 490 Dwyvach (Celtic flood hero) ............................... 180
Darius II ............................... 39, 272, 315, 317, 322 Dwyvan (Celtic flood hero) ................................. 180
Darius III ....................... 40, 216, 273, 455, 318, 329 Ea (Mesopotamian god) ..................................... 180
Darius son of Artaxerxes II ................................ 318 Eber son of Shelah .................................... 107, 209
Darius the Mede, Daniel’s .............. 299, 304, 314, 317 Eddy, Mary Baker ............................................ 534
Darius, son of Xerxes I ..................................... 309 Edict of Milan ................................................. 403
Dathan and Abiram ............................ 158, 175, 188 Edom. see Esau (for the person); also Idumea
David ... 12–13, 23, 28–29, 33, 77, 455, 83, 95, 98–99, Eglon King of Moab ........................................ 189
101–104, 105, 455, 119, 490, 182, 490, 245, 258, Eglon, King of Moab ......................................... 26
254, 447, 551 Egypt son of Canaan ........................................ 108
Deborah nurse of Rebekah .................... 91, 186, 207 Ehud, Judge ................................................. 25–26
Deborah the prophetess ...................... 25–26, 91, 240 Elagabalus, Emperor ........................................ 400
Decius, Emperor .............................................. 400 Elah (1) son of Baasha ...................................... 108
Deioces of Media ............................................. 318 Elah (2) father of Hoshea ................................... 108
Delian League .......................................... 326–328 Elam ............................................................. 108
Demas, early Christian ........................ 471–472, 474 Elasa, Battle of ................................................. 451
Eldad, unsanctioned prophet .............................. 241
Demetrius I ............ 358, 360, 361–362, 417, 429, 490
Eleazar (1) son of Aaron ............................. 108, 452
Demetrius II .... 221, 348–349, 362–364, 417, 429, 490
Eleazar (2), ancestor of Jesus .............................. 108
Demetrius III Eukairos .................. 438, 365, 438, 438
Eleazar Maccabee ..................................... 443, 452
Demetrius Poliorcetes .... 331–332, 335, 336, 337, 339,
Eleazar son of Annas (High Priest) ...................... 224
343, 357, 366
Eleazar son of Boethus (High Priest) .................... 223
Demetrius, early Christian ................................. 472
Eleazar son of Simon I, High Priest ..................... 217
Denis, Saint .................................................... 472
Elephantine Colony ............................ 272, 278, 310
Deucalion ....................................................... 179
Elhanan son of Jaare-oregim ................................ 95
Deutero-Isaiah ................................................ 240
Eli 25, 32, 455, 108, 455, 258
Deutero-Zechariah ........................................... 241
Eliab son of Jesse .............................. 74, 98–99, 109

Index
Eliakim (1). see Jehoiakim Estienne, Robert .............................................. 530

Eliakim (2) ancestor of Jesus ............................... 109 Ethbaal of Phoenicia ................................. 147, 147
Eliam father of Bathsheba ................................... 89 Ethelred II Unraed (“the Unready”), King of England ..
Eliam son of Ahithophel ..................................... 89 82
Eliashib son of Joiakim (High Priest) .................... 215 Ethiopian Eunuch ..................................... 472, 510
Eliezer (1) son of Moses ..................................... 110 Eubulus, early Christian .................................... 473
Eliezer (2) ancestor of Jesus ................................ 110 Euclid, mathematician ...................................... 343
Elijah .................................................. 79–81, 241 Eucrates, general of Antiochus IV ....................... 359
Elimelech husband of Naomi ........................ 94, 110 Eugenius, Emperor ........................................... 405
Elioneus son of Cithearus (High Priest) ................ 224 Eumenes I of Pergamum ............................ 355, 357
Eliphaz the Temanite ................................. 551, 551 Eumenes of Cardia .. 330–331, 335–336, 337, 338, 344
Elisabeth mother of John the Baptist ............. 110, 168 Euna mother of Bilhah and Zilpah ...................... 207
Elisha .................................. 132, 227, 242, 258, 280 Eunice, mother of Timothy .................. 473, 488, 520
Elishama grandfather of Joshua .......................... 110 Euodia, early Christian ........................ 469, 473, 517
Elisheba wife of Amram .................................... 110 Euridice beloved of Orpheus .............................. 163
Eliud ancestor of Jesus ...................................... 110 Euridice daughter of Antipater ........................... 344
Elizabeth!I, Queen of England ........................... 531 Euripides, dramatist ................................... 326, 328
Elizabeth mother of John the Baptist. see Elisabeth Eutyches, heretic .............................................. 526
Elizaphan son of Uzziel .................................... 158 Eutychian heresy .............................................. 526
Elkanah father of Samuel .................................. 253 Eve 78, 92, 113
Elmadam ancestor of Jesus ................................ 111 Evil-Merodach ........................................... 37, 298
Elon, judge of Israel ........................................... 29 Ezekiel the prophet ........................................... 242
Elymas, magician ............................................. 513 Ezra .................................... 39, 114–115, 258, 490
Emma of Normandy, Queen of England ............... 82 Fabius Maximus, "Cunctator" ........ 408, 408, 408–409
Endor, Witch of ............................................... 192 Fadus, Cuspius (Procurator) ............................ 47, 47
Enemessaros of Assyria. see Shalmaneser V
Fausta wife of Constantine the Great ................... 402
Enlil (Mesopotamian god) .................................. 180
Felix, Marcus Antonius (Procurator) 48, 224, 353, 442,
Enobarbus. see Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
Enoch (1) son of Cain ....................................... 111 443
Enoch (2) father of Methuselah .................... 111, 209 Festus, Porcius (Procurator) 498–498, 498, 498, 498, 498
Enosh son of Seth ..................................... 111, 209 Fifth Syrian War .............................................. 346
Epaenetus, early Christian ................................. 472 First Crusade .................................................. 528
Epaphras, early Christian .................................. 472 First Macedonian War ...................................... 411
Epaphroditus, early Christian ............................. 472 First Punic War ......................................... 375, 383
Ephraim ......................................................... 153 First Syrian War ........................................ 344, 355
Epimenides (philosopher) ................................... 259 First Triumvirate .......................... 378, 390, 417, 419
Er (1) son of Judah ..................................... 112, 182 Flaminius, Gaius, killed at Trasimene ............ 406, 408
Er (2) ancestor of Jesus ...................................... 112 Flaminius, Titus Quinctius ................................. 411
Erasmus, Desiderius ......................................... 529 Flavia Helena, mother of Constantine I. See Helena
Florian, Emperor ............................................. 401
Erastus, early Christian ............................... 472, 520
Florus, Gessius (Procurator) ................................. 49
Eratosthenes of Cyrene, mathematician ............... 345
Fortunatus, early Christian .................... 473, 499, 516
Esarhaddon ....... 65, 270, 276, 287, 289, 290, 292, 302
Fourth Crusade ................................................ 528
Esau .......................................... 107, 112, 124, 455
Fourth Syrian War ..................................... 346, 356
Eshbaal .................................... 33, 76, 86, 455, 112
Fox, George .................................................... 532
Esli, ancestor of Jesus ........................................ 112
Fulvia, wife of Mark Antony ........................ 423, 423
Esther .................................................... 306–307
Gabiene, Battle of ............................................ 337

Index
Gabinius, Aulus 350, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441, 441 Goliath ........ 96, 98–101, 104, 182, 192–194, 306, 551
Gad son of Jacob ...................................... 115, 196 Gomer son of Japheth ...................................... 116
Gad, David's seer ............................................. 243 Gomer wife of Hosea ....................................... 244
Gadi father of Menahem ................................... 115 Gordian I, Emperor .......................................... 400
Gaius (Caligula) ........ 47, 353, 392, 393, 400, 425, 436 Gordian II, Emperor ........................................ 400
Gaius, early Christian of 1 Cor. 1 ........................ 474 Gordian III, Emperor ....................................... 400
Gaius, early Christian of 3 John .......................... 474 Gordium and the Gordian Knot ......................... 329
Gaius, early Christian of Acts 19 ......................... 473 Gorgias, Seleucid noble ..................................... 451
Gaius, early Christian of Acts 20 ......................... 474 Gotarzes II of Parthia ................................ 430–431
Gaius, early Christian of Romans 16 ............. 521, 521 Gracchus, Gaius ........................................ 377, 413
Gaius, grandson of Augustus .............................. 392 Gracchus, Tiberius .................................... 377, 413
Galba, Servius Sulpicious, Emperor .............. 396–396 Granicus, Battle of ..................................... 318, 329
Galerius, Emperor ..................................... 401–402 Gratian son of Valentinian ................................. 405
Galileo ........................................................... 532 Gratus, Valerius (procurator) ................. 224, 224–224
Gallienus, Emperor .......................................... 400 Gregory I “the Great,” Pope .............................. 527
Gallio Annæus, L. Junius ................................... 426 Gutenberg Bible .............................................. 529
Gallus nephew of Constantius ............................ 404 Gwydion (Welsh trickster) .................................... 27
Gallus, Cestius (Governor of Syria) .................. 49–50 Gyges king of Lydia ..................... 165, 308, 319–319
Gallus, Emperor, successor of Decius ................... 400 Habakuk the prophet ................................. 227, 243
Gamala of Galilee ............................................. 50 Habil. see Abel
Gaugamela, Battle of ................................. 318, 329 Habsburg Empire ............................................ 199
Gaumeta, magus allegedly crowned Persian Emperor ... Hadad the Edomite ...................... 139, 269, 275, 278
312, 320 Hadadezer king of Zobah .................................. 279
Gaza, Battle of (Seleucus’s victory). See Battle of Gezer Hadar, Son of. see Ben-Haded I, II, etc.
Gedaliah grandfather of Zephaniah .................... 115 Hadianu of Damascus ...................................... 280
Gedaliah son of Ahikam .............................. 37, 296 Hadrian, Emperor .................................... 398, 431
Geminus, Servilius, consul 217 B.C.E. .................. 408 Hagar mother of Ishmael ............... 76, 116, 124, 185
Germanicus son of Drusus .......................... 392–393 Haggai .................................................... 206, 243
Gershom son of Moses ............................... 115, 152 Haggith wife of David ...................................... 117
Gershon son of Levi ......................................... 116 Ham son of Noah ....................................... 93, 117
Geta, Emperor ................................................ 400 Hamathites ..................................................... 117
Gezer, Battle of ................................... 336, 342, 354 Hammurabi ............................................. 282, 295
Gideon ................................. 25, 166, 166, 166, 166 Hamor father of Shechem ............................ 27, 161
Gilboa, Battle of192, 192–192, 192, 192, 192, 192, 192, Hamul son of Perez .......................................... 117
192, 255 Hamutal wife of Josiah ...................................... 117
Gilead son of Machir ........................................ 116 Hanan son of Igdaliah ...................................... 244
Giliminu (Hurrian wife) ..................................... 116 Hanani, prophet of the time of Asa ..................... 244
Ginath father of Tibni ...................................... 116 Hananiah, opponent of Jeremiah ........................ 244
Girgashites ..................................................... 116 Hannah mother of Bilhah and Zilpah ............. 91, 207
Glabrio, Acilius ........................................ 357, 412 Hannah mother of Samuel ................................ 253
Glaphyra wife of Alexander (2) .............. 437, 440, 444 Hannibal Barca .................................. 375, 406–411
Glastonbury, England ....................................... 484 Haran father of Lot .......................................... 117
Gobryas, father-in-law of Darius I ................ 308, 319 Hasdrubal brother of Hannibal ................... 409–410
Gobryas, Persian general ............... 299, 303, 314, 319 Hatshepsut, ruler of Egypt ................................. 265
Godgifu of Mercia (“Lady Godiva”) .................... 163 Hattin, Battle of ............................................... 528
Godiva. see Godgifu of Mercia Hazael of Damascus ........................... 291, 291, 291

Index
Hector son of Priam .............. 155, 342, 372, 390, 450 Hosea the prophet .............................. 237, 244, 250
Helen of Sparta (Helen of Troy) .................. 324, 334 Hoshea (1). see Joshua
Helena mother of Constantine I ......................... 404 Hoshea (2), last king of Israel 122–123, 275, 289, 291,
Heli, Luke's father of Joseph .............................. 118 293
Heliodorus, Seleucid official ........................ 358, 369 Hostilius, Tullus, king of Rome ........................... 372
Heman the Ezrahite ......................................... 244 Hozai, seer, who opposed King Manasseh ............. 245
Henry VIII, King of England ............................. 530 Hrihor, (de facto) Pharaoh ................................. 268
Hephzibah wife of Hezekiah .............................. 118 Huldah (prophetess) ................................... 121, 245
Heraclea, Battle of ........................................... 375 Hur 123, 172
Hercules ............................................. 31, 399, 444 Hus, Jan ......................................................... 529
Hermas, author of the Shepherd of Hermas ......... 474 Hushai the Archite ............................................. 77
Hermas, early Christian .................................... 474 Hussein, Saddam ............................................. 199
Hermes, early Christian .................................... 474 Hyksos, rulers of Egypt ..................................... 264
Hermogenes, early Christian .......... 472, 474, 509, 511 Hymenaeus, early Christian heretic ........ 461, 474, 509
Herod (2) son of Herod ..................................... 445 Hystapes father of Darius I ................................ 319
Herod Agrippa I . 46–48, 224, 393, 436, 437, 441, 446, Hystaspes, son of Xerxes I ................................. 309
452–453, 459 Iapetus, Greek ancestory of humanity .................. 130
Herod Agrippa II .............. 47, 49, 346, 397, 437, 442 Ibzan (Judge) ................................................ 29, 91
Herod Antipas . 43, 150, 490, 440, 445–455, 447, 455, Ichabod grandson of Eli .................................... 123
453, 454, 490 Idamante son of Idomeneus, sacrificial victim ......... 29
Herod of Chalcis ........... 224, 437, 441–442, 446, 454 Iddo, seer of Solomon’s time ....................... 246, 258
Herod Philip ................................................... 222 Idomeneus ....................................................... 29
Ilapa, Battle of .......................................... 407, 410
Herod the Great ... 42, 43, 47, 140, 168, 222–223, 391,
Incitatus, horse of Gaius (Caligula) ...................... 393
430, 433, 436–442, 444, 455, 455–455, 455–455,
Innocent III, Pope ............................................ 528
460
Iphigenia daughter of Agamemnon ................ 29, 334
Herodias ............................. 490, 455, 446, 455–455
Ipsus, Battle of ......... 332, 335–337, 339–340, 354, 357
Herodium ........................................................ 50
Irad son of Enoch son of Cain ........................... 123
Herodotus, historian .................................... 14, 326
Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. I.23 ................................... 515
Heth son of Canaan ......................................... 118
Isaac .................. 29, 455, 91, 112, 124, 125, 455, 190
Hezekiah .................. 16, 35, 118, 455, 276, 290, 490
Isaiah .......................................... 80, 123, 246, 250
Hezion of Damascus ........................................ 279
Iscah daughter of Haran ...................... 190, 190, 190
Hezron son of Perez .................................. 119–120
Ish-bosheth. see Eshbaal
Hiero of Syracuse ............................................ 409
Ishmael ...................................... 455, 112, 116, 124
Hieronymus of Syracuse ................................... 409
Ishmael son of Phiabi (High Priest) ............... 223, 225
Hilkiah, High Priest in the time of Josiah ....... 121, 214 Ishvi son of Saul. See also Abinadab 1 ................. 125
Hippolytus, Anti-Pope ....................................... 524 Isis, Egyptian goddess ....................................... 462
Hiram of Tyre .................................................. 33 Israel (as a name for Jacob) ................................. 125
Hirtius, Aulus, consul .......................... 380–381, 422 Issachar .......................................................... 125
Hivites ........................................................... 122 Issachar, High Priest when Mary was born ............ 168
Hobab ........................................................... 122 Issus, Battle of .................................... 318, 329, 335
Holofernes ............................................... 297, 320 Ithamar son of Aaron ....................................... 125
Honorius, Emperor .......................................... 405 Ithra (Jether) husband of Abigail ......................... 125
Hophni ..................................................... 32, 122 Izhar son of Kohath ......................................... 126
Hophra, pharaoh ...................................... 271, 276 Jaasiel son of Abner ........................................... 76
Horemhab, pharaoh ......................................... 266 Jabal son of Lamech ......................................... 126

Index
Jabesh ............................................................ 126 Jephthah .............................................. 25, 28, 490

Jabesh-Gilead .................................... 126, 191–192 Jephunneh father of Caleb ................................. 136
Jabesh-Gilead ................................................. 192 Jerahmeel son of Hezron ................................... 136
Jabin King of Hazor .................................. 240, 240 Jeremiah ............................... 37, 136, 258–258, 247
Jacob . 27, 87, 90–91, 94, 107, 112, 124, 126, 152, 159, Jerimoth son of David ....................................... 138
166, 177 Jeroboam I 75, 123, 138–139, 455, 256, 258, 256, 258,
Jacob (2) grandfather of Jesus ............................. 127 275
Jaddua, High Priest ................................ 38–40, 216 Jeroboam II ................................... 35, 83, 139, 258
Jair, minor Judge ................................................ 28 Jerome, translator of the Vulgate .................. 129, 526
James brother of Jesus .... 49, 127–128, 465, 470, 475, Jerubaal. see Gideon
476, 480, 485–486, 504 Jerubesheth. see Gideon
James son of Alphaeus ... 128–129, 457–458, 470, 476, Jerusha wife of Uzziah ...................................... 140
486, 488 Jeshua (High Priest) .... 38–39, 114–115, 202, 206, 213,
James son of Zebedee .... 128, 436, 457–459, 462, 468, 214, 215, 243, 256, 316
470, 475, 476–477, 479, 486, 493, 504, 517 Jeshua son of Joiada, brother of the High Priest ..... 215
James the brother of Jesus .............. 129, 225, 458–459 Jesse ............................................ 98, 102, 455, 140
Jannai ancestor of Jesus ..................................... 130 Jesus .. 12, 105, 119, 140–141, 143, 455, 168, 406, 457,
Japheth son of Noah ......................................... 130 459, 484, 524
Jared father of Enoch ................................. 131, 209 Jesus Justus, early Christian ................................ 478
Jarim king of Assyria. see Tiglath-Pileser III Jesus son of Damnaeus (High Priest) .................... 225
Jason brother of Onias III, High Priest .. 219–220, 359, Jesus son of Gamaliel (High Priest) ...................... 225
368, 435 Jesus son of Phiabi (High Priest) .......................... 222
Jason, early Christian ........................................ 477 Jesus son of See (High Priest) .............................. 223
Javan son of Japheth ......................................... 131 Jether father of Amasa ...................................... 146
Jebusites ......................................................... 131 Jethro father-in-law of Moses ............................. 147
Jecoliah wife of Amaziah ................................... 131 Jeush son of Rehoboam .................................... 147
Jedidah mother of Josiah ................................... 131 Jewish Revolt of 66 ............................................ 49
Jeduthun, musician ........................................... 246 Jezebel wife of Ahab 241, 241, 241, 241, 241, 241, 241,
Jehiel son of Jehoshaphat ................................... 131 241, 241
Jehizkiah (alternate name for Hezekiah) ................ 131 Joab28, 33, 76–77, 83, 86, 455, 455, 148, 455
Jehoaddin mother of Amaziah ............................ 131 Joachim father of Mary ..................................... 167
Jehoahaz (1) son of Jehu .................................... 132 Joanan ancestor of Jesus .................................... 148
Jehoahaz (2) son of Josiah ............................. 36, 132 Joanna, early Christian ...................................... 478
Jehoash (1) King of Israel .................................. 132 Joash (1), king of Israel. see Jehoash (1)
Jehoash (2) king of Judah. see Joash Joash (2) King of Judah 34, 88, 119, 133, 135, 141, 149
Jehoiachin ........... 37–38, 455, 119, 132, 141, 490, 490 Joazar son of Boethus (High Priest) ............... 222–223
Jehoiada ............................................ 149, 212, 222 Job (of the Book of Job) .............................. 112, 551
Jehoiakim .............................. 36, 133, 247, 276, 490 Jobab, alternate name for Job ............................. 112
Jehoiarib, ancestor of a priestly division ................ 452 Jochebed daughter of Levi .......................... 149, 162
Jehoram (1) son of Ahab ............ 80–81, 134–135, 280 Joda ancestor of Jesus ....................................... 149
Jehoram (2) son of Jehoshaphat ................. 34, 87, 134 Joel son of Pethuel, prophet ............................... 248
Jehoshaphat ........................................ 34, 134, 251 Joel son of Samuel ........................................... 253
Jehoshaphat (2) father of Jehu ............................. 135 Johanan descendant of Zadok ............................ 149
Jehosheba wife of Jehoiada ....... 88, 133–135, 149, 204 Johanan Maccabee .................................... 447, 452
Jehu34, 455, 135 Johanan son of Kareah ....................................... 37
Jehu son of Hanani, prophet .............................. 247

Index
John Hyrcanus I . 33, 41, 364, 435, 490, 455, 447, 453, Josiah ............... 36, 117, 121, 455, 155, 455, 258, 435
455 Jotapa .............................................................. 50
John Hyrcanus II42, 222, 417, 490, 435, 437–455, 444, Jotham ........................................... 35, 80, 88, 156
447, 455 Jovian, Emperor ............................................... 405
John Mark, early Christian 465, 468, 478, 507–507, 512 Juba II of Numidia ........................................... 353
John son of Zebedee 143, 457–458, 460, 462, 465, 468– Juba king of Libya ............................................ 444
470, 475–476, 479–480, 483–483, 493, 495, 504, Jubal son of Lamech ......................................... 156
510, 512, 514 Judah (1) son of Jacob ................................ 156, 196
John the Apostle .............................................. 223 Judah (2) ancestor of Jesus ................................. 157
John the Baptist 110, 149–150, 168, 447, 454, 462–463 Judas “not Iscariot” .......................................... 486
Joiada son of Eliashib (High Priest) ...................... 215 Judas Barsabbas, early Christian ............ 483–484, 513
Joiakim son of Jeshua (High Priest) ...................... 215 Judas brother of Jesus ....................................... 157
Joktan son of Eber ........................................... 150 Judas Iscariot.... 129, 457, 460, 465, 483, 484, 493, 504
Jonadab son of Shimeah ................................... 150 Judas Maccabeus41, 138, 219, 221, 490, 370, 490, 443,
Jonah son of Amittai .................................. 249, 252 455–455, 450, 454, 454
Jonam ancestor of Jesus ..................................... 151 Judas of James, Apostle .......... 457–458, 485, 486, 518
Jonathan (1) uncle of David ............................... 151 Judas son of Simon Maccabee ............................ 451
Jonathan (2) son of Saul ...... 82, 96, 102, 151, 170, 255 Judas the Galilean .............................................. 44
Jonathan (3) son of Shimei ................................. 151 Jude, author of the Letter of Jude ................. 486, 518
Jonathan (4) son of Abiathar .............................. 151 Jugurtha, King ................................................. 415
Jonathan (5) son of Gershom .............................. 152 Jugurthine War ......................................... 376, 414
Jonathan Maccabee .. 41, 221, 361, 363, 433, 435, 447, Julia daughter of Augustus .......................... 391–392
448, 450, 452, 454 Julia Drusilla, sister of Gaius Caligula .................. 393
Jonathan son of Annas (High Priest) ............... 48, 475 Julia Livilla wife of Drusus ................................. 392
Jonathan son of Joiada (High Priest) .................... 215 Julia, early Christian ..................... 487, 495–496, 511
Jorim ancestor of Jesus ...................................... 152 Julian the Apostate ........................................... 405
Josech ancestor of Jesus ..................................... 152 Jumella, sister of Cain and Abel ............................ 92
Joseph (1) son of Jacob . 90–91, 95, 126, 152, 165, 196, Junias, early Christian ....................................... 487
274 Justinian I, Byzantine Emperor ........................... 405
Joseph (4, 5) ancestor of Jesus ............................. 153 Justus (early Christian). see Titius Justus
Joseph Barsabbas, early Christian .... 465, 483–484, 493 Kabil. see Cain
Joseph brother of Herod the Great ...................... 449 Kandake, Queen of Ethiopia ............................. 472
Joseph brother of Judas Maccabeus .............. 449, 452 Karkar, Battle of .................... 291, 291, 291, 291, 291
Joseph Cabi (High Priest) ................................... 225 Kenan son of Seth ..................................... 157, 209
Joseph father of Jesus ....... 127, 129, 141, 153, 168, 440 Kenaz father of Othniel .................................... 157
Joseph husband of Salome ................................. 449 Keturah, second wife/concubine of Abraham .. 76, 157
Joseph of Arimathea ........................... 146, 483, 495 Khafre/Chephren, pharaoh ............................... 262
Joseph son of Camus (High Priest) ....................... 224 Khufu/Cheops, pharaoh ................................... 262
Joseph son of Ellem (High Priest) ........................ 222 King James Bible ............................................. 531
Joseph son of Tobias, cousin of Onias II . 218, 220, 345 Kish father of Saul ........................................... 190
Josephus, Flavius .............................................. 450 Knox, John ..................................................... 531
Joses brother of Jesus ........................................ 154 Korah, Levitical rebel ................................. 158, 175
Joshua ............................................ 24, 25, 93, 154 Laban ................................................ 91, 159, 455
Joshua (2) ancestor of Jesus ................................ 155 Labashi-Marduk .................................. 37, 298–299
Josi ben Jo‘eser, relative of Alcimus ...................... 220 Labienus, Quintius, Roman defector to Parthia 425, 429
–430

Index
Lachmann, Karl .............................................. 533 Lud son of Shem ............................................. 163

Ladan grandfather of Joshua .............................. 160 Luke the Physician/Evangelist ..................... 488, 489
Laenas, Gaius Popilius .................. 347, 359, 370, 410 Luther, Martin ................................................. 529
Lagos father of Ptolemy I .................................. 343 Lydia, early Christian ....................................... 490
Lambton (and his worm) ..................................... 29 Lysias, Claudius, Roman soldier .......................... 378
Lamech (1) descendent of Cain ........................... 160 Lysias, Seleucid noble .......................... 360–360, 451
Lamech (2) father of Noah ................... 160, 178, 209 Lysimachus brother of Menelaus the High Priest ... 220
Lamian War ...................................... 330, 336, 338 Lysimachus King of Thrace .. 330–332, 337, 337, 338–
Lancelot, Arthurian knight .................................. 29 340, 344, 354, 366
Langton, Stephen ............................................. 530 Maacah (1) mother of Absalom ..................... 84, 163
Laocoön the Trojan .......................................... 324 Maacah (2) wife of Rehoboam ....................... 75, 164
Laodice wife of Antiochus II ....................... 355–356 Maaseiah son of Ahaz ................................. 80, 164
Laodicea, foundation of ..................................... 355 Maath ancestor of Jesus .................................... 164
Lasthenes, mercenary captain under Demetrius II .. 363 Machaerus ............................................... 150, 150
Lazarus brother of Mary and Martha ... 467–468, 479– Machir son of Manasseh ................................... 164
480, 487, 488, 490–492, 519 Macrinus, Opilius ............................................ 400
Leah ................................... 455, 115, 455, 455, 161 Madai son of Japeth ......................................... 164
Lebbaeus. see Thaddaeus. See under Thaddaeus Magas of Cyrene ............................................. 355
Leo IX, Pope ................................................... 528 Magnentius, Emperor ....................................... 404
Leo X, Pope .................................................... 529 Magnesia, Battle of . 335, 346, 357, 358–359, 368, 410,
Leofric of Mercia ............................................. 163 429
Leonidas King of Sparta ............................. 321, 326 Magog son of Japheth ....................................... 165
Leontopolis, alternate Jewish temple at ... 349, 349–349 Mahalalel father of Jared ............................ 165, 209
Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius380–382, 391, 420, 422, 423, Mahalath wife of Rehoboam . 203, 203, 203, 203, 203,
424 203, 203, 203
Leuctra, Battle of ............................................. 328 Mahlon husband of Ruth .................................. 165
Levi116, 149, 161–162 Malachi the prophet ......................................... 250
Levi (2) ancestor of Jesus ................................... 162 Malchiah, killed at the fall of Jerusalem ................ 165
Levi the Apostle ................................. 470, 493, 493 Malchishua son of Saul ..................................... 165
Levi the tax collector ........................................ 470 Malthace wife of Herod the Great ......... 440, 445, 451
Licinius, Emperor ...................................... 403–403 Manaen, early Christian ............................. 488, 490
Lilith ........................................................ 78, 113 Manasseh (1) son of Joseph ......................... 153, 165
Lilitu, Babylonian goddess ................................... 78 Manasseh (2) son of Hezekiah ... 29, 36, 166, 246, 288–
Linus, Bishop of Rome ...................................... 469 289
Linus, early Christian ........................................ 488 Manasseh (3) husband of Judith .......................... 166
Livia, wife of Augustus Cæsar ............................. 392 Manasseh grandson of Eliashib, schismatic priest . 215–
Lois, early Christian ............................ 473, 488, 520 216
Loki (Norse God) ............................................... 27 Manasseh uncle of Onias II (High Priest) .............. 218
Lot nephew of Abraham ......................... 76, 90, 162 Mandane mother of Cyrus the Great ................... 319
Loyola, Ignatius ............................................... 530 Manetho ............................... 13, 261–262, 265, 269
Lucilla daughter of Marcus Aurelius .................... 398 Manius, Titus .................................................. 426
Lucius, early Christian ................................ 488, 490 Manu, Indian flood survivor ............................... 179
Lucius, grandson of Augustus ............................. 392 Manzikert, Battle of ................................... 405, 528
Lucius, Roman Senator, not otherwise identified .... 426 Marathon, battle of ............................. 303, 317, 326
Lucretia, Roman rape victim ....................... 406, 406 Marcellinus, Lentullus, governor of Syria .............. 441
Lucullus, Lucius ............................................... 417 Marcellus (procurator) ........................................ 46

Index
Marcellus, besieger of Syracuse .................... 375, 409 Maximin, Emperor .......................................... 400
Marcia concubine of Commodus ........................ 399 Maximus, Emperor .......................................... 405
Marcion, early Christian heretic .......................... 524 Maximus/Pupiensis, Emperor ............................ 400
Marcius, Ancus, king of Rome ............................ 372 Medad, unsanctioned prophet ............................ 241
Marcus Aurelius ....................................... 398, 399 Megiddo, Battle of ................. 132–133, 155, 271, 297
Mardonius, Persian general ......................... 321, 326 Meherdates son of Vonones I ............................. 431
Marduk-apal-iddin. see Merodach-Baladan Mehujael descendent of Cain ............................. 169
Mariamme (3) daughter of Agrippa I ............ 436, 452 Melcha wife of Levi .......................................... 162
Mariamme I ................................. 47, 439, 444, 451 Melchi ancestor of Jesus .................................... 169
Mariamme II ..................................... 222, 452–453 Melchizedek ............................................. 179, 202
Mariamme II, wife of Herod ................ 222–223, 446 Melea ancestor of Jesus ..................................... 169
Mariamme sister of Philip the Apostle ................. 510 Memmius, Quintus .......................................... 426
Marius, Gaius ................ 377–378, 390, 414, 415–417 Menahem .................................... 65, 123, 169, 293
Marius, Gaius, the Younger ................................ 415 Menelaus, High Priest ................... 220, 360, 368, 435
Mark. see John Mark Menelaus, King of Sparta ........................... 324, 334
Mark the evangelist (see also John Mark) ............... 490 Menes, early King of Egypt ......................... 261–262
Martha of Bethany ............................. 487, 490, 492 Menkaure/Mycinerus, pharaoh .......................... 262
Marullus (procurator) ......................................... 46 Menna, ancestor of Jesus ................................... 170
Mary110, 129, 455, 455–154, 166–168, 458, 462, 526, Mephibosheth (1) son of Saul ............................. 170
534 Mephibosheth (2) son of Jonathan ................ 151, 170
Mary daughter of Cleophas ............................... 129 Merab daughter of Saul ... 193, 103–193, 193–193, 193
Mary Magdalene .................. 143, 467, 488, 491–492 Meraioth ancestor of Zadok ............................... 170
Mary mother of John Mark .................. 478, 492, 512 Merari son of Levi ........................................... 171
Mary of Bethany .................. 485, 487–488, 490, 492 Mered husband of Bithia ................................... 277
Mary the mother of James ................................. 492 Merneptah, pharaoh ........................................ 274
Mary wife of Clopas .................................. 479, 492 Merodach-Baladan of Babylon .............. 295–295, 295
Mary, another, early Christian of Rome(?) ............. 493 Mesha King of Moab ......................................... 29
Masada ............................................................ 50 Meshech son of Japheth .................................... 171
Masilia, Battle of .............................................. 380 Meshullemeth mother of Amon .......................... 171
Mattan, priest of Baal ......................................... 88 Messalina wife of Claudius ................................ 394
Mattatha son of Nathan son of David .................. 168 Mestor son of Priam ......................................... 372
Mattathias (1) ancestor of the Maccabees 41, 184, 370, Metaurus River, Battle of ................................... 410
433, 448–454, 452, 454 Methuselah ....................................... 111, 171, 209
Mattathias (2) son of Simon Maccabee ................. 452 Methushael descendent of Cain .......................... 171
Mattathias ancestor of Jesus ............................... 169 Micah the Ephraimite ....................................... 152
Matthan ancestor of Jesus .................................. 169 Micah the Prophet ........................................... 250
Matthat ancestor of Jesus .................................. 169 Micaiah Ben-Imlah .................................... 251, 258
Michael son of Jehoshaphat ............................... 171
Matthew the Apostle ............. 457–458, 488, 493, 495
Matthias son of Annas (High Priest) ..................... 475 Michal daughter of Saul ................. 82, 103–104, 171
Matthias son of Theophilus (1) (High Priest) .......... 222 Milcah wife of Nahor ....................................... 172
Matthias son of Theophilus (2) (High Priest) .......... 226 Miller, William ................................................ 533
Milo, Roman gang leader .................................. 379
Matthias the Apostle ....... 458, 462, 465, 483, 493, 495
Milvian Bridge, Battle of ............................. 402, 525
Maxentius, Emperor ......................................... 402
Maximian, Emperor .................................. 401–402 Miriam ............................................. 123, 172, 251
Maximin Daia, Emperor ................................... 402 Misphragmothosis, pharaoh according to Josephus . 265
Mithridates I of Parthia ....................... 363, 428–429

Index
Mithridates II of Parthia ................................... 429 Nebat father of Jeroboam I ................................ 177

Mithridates III of Parthia .................................. 429 Nebuchadnezzar 23, 36–37, 65, 115, 132, 134, 165, 204
Mithridates VI of Pontus ........ 377–378, 414–415, 417 –204, 239–240, 271, 277, 296–299, 302–303, 313,
Mitochondrial Eve ........................................... 180 320, 436
Mizraim (Egypt) .............................................. 172 Nebuchadrezzar. see Nebuchadnezzar
Mnason, early Christian .................................... 494 Neco II, King of Egypt .. 302, 302, 302–302, 302, 302,
Moab son of Lot ......................................... 90, 173 302, 302, 302–297, 302
Monophysite heresies ........................................ 526 Nectanebo I, pharaoh ....................................... 273
Monothelite heresy ........................................... 527 Nectanebo II, pharaoh ...................................... 273
Moses ........................ 37–25, 73, 455, 455, 173–175 Nefertiti wife of Akhenaton ................................ 266
Mummius, Lucius, destroyed of Corinth ............... 376 Nefyc Nevion .................................................. 180
Munda, Battle of .......................... 379, 424, 424, 424 Nehemiah .... 38, 39, 490, 490, 215–216, 258, 304, 490
Mursa, Battle of ............................................... 404 Nehushta wife of Jehoiakim ............................... 178
Mutina, Battle of ....................................... 416, 419 Neoptolemus son of Achilles .............................. 372
Mylae, Battle of .................................. 416, 424–425 Ner father of Abner ......................................... 178
Mysenum, Treaty of ......................................... 424 Nereus, early Christian .................. 487, 495–496, 511
Na’amah, wife of Noah ..................................... 179 Nergal-ashur-usur. see Neriglissar
Naamah (1) daughter of Lamech ........................ 176 Neri ancestor of Jesus ....................................... 178
Naamah (2) mother of Rehoboam ....................... 176 Neriglissar ........................................... 37, 298–299
Naaman the Syrian ............................................ 80 Nero ... 47–50, 394–395, 421, 425–426, 441, 444, 460,
Nabal the Carmelite .................................... 74, 255 464, 503, 507
Nabo-kudurri-usur. see Nebuchadnezzar Nerva, Emperor ............................................... 397
Nabonidas .......................................... 37, 298, 303 Neshanu (Arapaho god) ..................................... 179
Nabopolassar ........................ 287, 295–298, 302, 313 Nestorian heresy .............................................. 526
Nabopolassar (I), king at the time of Tiglath-Pileser III . Nethanel brother of David .......................... 178, 494
295 Nethanel Prince of Issachar ............................... 494
Nabu-mukin-zeri of Babylon .............................. 295 Nicanor, early Christian .................................... 495
Nabuniad. see Nabonidas Nicanor, Seleucid noble ..................................... 451
Nadab (1) son of Aaron ..................................... 176 Nicea daughter of Antipater .............................. 344
Nadab (2) son of Jeroboam I .............................. 176 Nicene Creed .............................. 525–526, 528, 533
Naggai ancestor of Jesus .................................... 176 Nicias, Athenian statesman ................................ 327
Nahash King of the Ammonites ......................... 187 Nicodemus, early Christian ......................... 483, 495
Nahor (1) father of Terah ............................ 176, 209 Nicolaus, early Christian ................................... 495
Nahor (2) brother of Abraham ........................... 176 Nicomedes III of Bithynia ................................. 417
Nahshon Prince of Judah .................................. 177 Nicomedes IV of Bithynia ................................. 377
Nahum ancestor of Jesus ................................... 177 Nidintu-Bel, Babylonian rebel ............................ 300
Nahum the Prophet .......................................... 251 Niger, Pescennius ....................................... 431, 431
Naomi mother-in-law of Ruth ................ 94, 177, 189 Nikaso daughter of Sanballit ................................ 39
Naphtali ......................................................... 177 Nimrod the mighty hunter ............................ 94, 178
Naqia, mother of Esarhaddon ..................... 289–290 Nimshi father of Jehu ....................................... 178
Naram-Sin of Akkad ........................................ 282 Nineveh, destruction of .... 65, 251, 288, 293, 295–296,
Nathan son of David ........................................ 177 302, 306, 313–313
Nathan the prophet ................................... 197, 252 Ninurta, Assyrian god ....................................... 178
Nathanael the Disciple ... 178, 457, 466, 494–495, 505, Noadiah the prophetess ..................................... 252
509, 515 Noah ........................................ 455, 178–179, 209
Naulochus, Battle of ............................ 416, 424–425 Noah’s flood .................................................... 179

Index
Numerian, Emperor ......................................... 401 Papias, early Christian ....................................... 481

Nun father of Joshua ........................................ 181 Parætacene, Battle of ........................................ 337
Nuzi ................................................................ 64 Paris son of Priam ..................................... 324, 372
Nympha/Nymphas, early Christian ..................... 496 Parmenas, early Christian .................................. 497
Obadiah the Prophet ........................................ 252 Parysatis wife of Artaxerxes II ............... 310, 315, 317
Obed father of Jesse .................................... 91, 181 Paul11, 49, 193, 224, 378, 395, 442–443, 458–461, 464
Octavian. see Augustus Cæsar –465, 471–474, 477–478, 484, 487–488, 490, 493–
Oded the Prophet ............................................ 252 496, 497–503, 504, 506, 511–513, 516–518, 520–
Odysseus .......................................................... 27 522
Œdipus .......................................................... 175 Paullus, L. Sergius ..................................... 426, 513
Old prophet of Bethel ....................................... 258 Paullus, Quintus Sergius .................................... 513
Old-Man-Above (Wiyot god) .............................. 179 Paulus, Sergius. see L. Sergius Paullus
Olympas, early Christian ............... 487, 495–496, 511 Pausanias, Spartan general ................................. 326
Olympia mother of Alexander the Great . 331, 336, 338 pax Romana ..................................................... 11
Omri ....................................... 34, 79, 87, 181, 201 Peace of Augsburg ........................................... 530
Onan son of Judah ........................................... 182 Peace of Callias ............................................... 327
Onesimus, early Christian ....... 496, 501, 509, 520, 522 Peace of Dardanus .................................... 415, 417
Onesiphorus, early Christian .............................. 496 Peace of Nicias ................................................ 327
Onias I .......................................................... 217 Pedaiah .......................................................... 194
Onias II ................................................... 218, 345 Peeping Tom ................................................... 163
Onias III ........... 41, 217–219, 490–490, 370–370, 435 Peithon, Macedonian officer ........................ 331, 338
Onias IV ....................... 219, 490, 348–349, 359, 490 Pekah son of Remaliah .. 123, 169, 183, 187, 252, 280,
Orestes of Macedon ......................................... 328 293
Orestes son of Agamemnon ........................ 328, 334 Pekahiah son of Menahem .......................... 169, 183
Origen, early Christian scholar ........................... 524 Pelagian heresy ................................................ 526
Orodes II, Parthian Emperor ................ 425, 429–430 Pelagius, heretic ............................................... 526
Orodes III, Parthian Emperor ............................ 430 Peleg brother of Joktan ............................... 183, 209
Orophernes, Persian officer; see also Holophernes .. 320 Peloponnesian War ........................................... 327
Orpah ............................................................. 94 Pera, Junius, Dictator 216 B.C.E. ........................ 408
Orpah sister-in-law of Ruth ............................... 182 Perdiccas III of Macedon .................................. 328
Orpheus, minstrel ............................................ 163 Perdiccas, regent of Alexander's Empire 330, 335–337,
orpiment (pigment) ............................................ 92 338, 339
Osiris, Egyptian god ......................................... 462 Perez son of Judah ........................................... 184
Osnappar, Assyrian Emperor .............................. 287 Pericles, Athenian statesman ........................ 326–327
Osorkon IV, pharaoh ................................. 269, 275 Perseus King of Macedon ........................... 376, 412
Otanes, Persian noble ....................................... 306 Persis, early Christian ........................................ 504
Othniel ...................................... 24–25, 78, 93, 182 Pertinax, Emperor ............................................ 399
Otho, Roman Emperor ..................................... 395 Perusine War ........................ 425, 382, 425, 425, 425
Ozem son of Jesse ............................................ 183 Peter 223, 395, 436, 457–461, 465, 467–468, 469, 471,
Pacorus son of Orodes II ...................... 425, 429–430 475–477, 479, 488, 504–507, 509–510, 513–516,
Paleologos, Michael, Byzantine Emperor .............. 406 519
Pallas, freedman of Claudius ......................... 48, 444 Phanias son of Samuel (shadow High Priest) ......... 226
Palti son of Lais ............................................... 172 Pharaoh, daughter of. see Bithiah, Thermuth; also
Panion, Battle of ................................. 346, 357, 368 Solomon
Pansa, Gaius Vibius, consul .................. 380–381, 422 Pharnaces son of Mithridates VI ......................... 417
Papal Infallibility .............................................. 534 Pharsalus, Battle of ................ 379, 391, 416, 418–422

Index
Phasael son of Antipater .......... 42, 430, 433, 444, 452 Polites son of Priam .......................................... 372
Phasael son of Phasael ...................................... 452 Polypercheron, regent of Alexander's Empire 331, 336–
Pheroras brother of Herod the Great ................... 453 338
Philemon, early Christian 463–464, 471, 496, 509, 520 Pompeius Magnus, Gnaeus. see Pompey (the Great)
Philemon, husband of Baucus ............................ 178 Pompeius Strabo, father of Pompey the Great . 415, 417
Philetus, early Christian heretic ............. 474–475, 509 Pompeius, Gnaeus ............................................ 424
Philip “the Tetrarch” .. 43, 47, 346, 490, 490, 455, 445, Pompeius, Sextus .................. 351, 382, 422, 424, 425
453, 455 Pompey42, 350, 362, 365, 490–490, 490, 406, 415–416,
Philip I son of Antiochus Grypus ........................ 365 417, 490–421, 490, 490, 435, 439–490, 448
Philip II of Macedon ........................... 328–329, 336 Pompey, Sextus. see Pompeius, Sextus
Philip II, Seleucid ............................................. 365 Pompilius, Numa, king of Rome ......................... 372
Philip III Arrideus ........................ 330–338, 338, 338 Poppæa (wife of Nero) ................................ 395, 395
Philip IV son of Cassander ................................ 336 Postumus, M. Latinius ....................................... 400
Potiphar, owner of Joseph .................................. 153
Philip the Apostle ... 457, 462, 466, 484, 494, 504, 509,
Potiphera, father-in-law of Joseph .......... 111, 153, 165
510
Potter, Harry ................................................... 161
Philip the Arab, Emperor .................................. 400
Priam king of Troy ........................................... 372
Philip the Hellenist ....................... 458–459, 509–510
Priapatius of Parthia ......................................... 428
Philip V of Macedon .................... 375–376, 409–411
Prisca, wife of Aquila ............. 463–464, 498, 511–512
Philip, not “the Tetrarch” .............. 446, 452, 453, 454
Priscilla. see Prisca
Philip, Seleucid noble ........................................ 360
Priscillian, heretic and martyr ............................. 526
Philippi, Battle of ..... 380–381, 391, 416, 420–424, 429
Priscus, Tarquinius, king of Rome ....................... 372
Philippi, re-founding by Philip II ......................... 329
Probus, Emperor .............................................. 401
Philippus, Marcius, governor of Syria .................. 441
Prochorus, early Christian .................................. 512
Philologus, early Christian ............. 487, 495–496, 511
Procopius, Roman rebel .................................... 405
Phinehas (1) son of Eleazar .................. 184, 213, 452 Prometheus ..................................................... 180
Phinehas (2) son of Eli .......................... 32, 108, 185 Prophet like Moses, A ....................................... 258
Phlegon, early Christian .................................... 511 Prophet of Gideon’s Time ................................. 258
Phoebe, early Christian ..................................... 511 Protevangelium Jacobi. see the Infancy Gospel of James
Photian schism ................................................ 528 Psamtik I, pharaoh .................................... 271, 302
Phraates I of Parthia ......................................... 429 Psamtik II, pharaoh .......................................... 271
Phraates III of Parthia ...................................... 429 Psamtik III, pharaoh .................................. 271, 312
Phraates IV of Parthia ...................................... 430 Psusennes II, pharaoh, married daughter to Solomon? ..
Phraates V of Parthia ....................................... 430 268
Phraates VI of Parthia ...................................... 430 Ptolemy Alexander II ....................................... 350
Phraortes of Media .. 215, 297, 310, 313–313, 317–320 Ptolemy Apion of Cyrene ........................... 349, 376
Phygellus, early Christian ................................... 511 Ptolemy Ceraunos ........................ 338, 340, 344, 354
Piankhy, pharaoh ............................................. 270 Ptolemy I . 40, 330–332, 335–337, 338, 339, 342, 343,
Pilate, Pontius16, 495, 46, 495–495, 495, 495, 495, 495, 366–367
495, 495 Ptolemy II .................................... 40, 344, 354–356
Piso, Lucius Cornelius, consul 140 B.C.E. ............. 376 Ptolemy II Philadelphus .................................... 344
Pitoi (Pima god) ............................................... 179 Ptolemy III ..................... 40, 218, 417, 345, 349, 370
Pius IX, Pope ........................................... 168, 534 Ptolemy IV ..................... 40, 218, 345, 356–357, 368
Pius, Bishop of Rome, second century .................. 474 Ptolemy IX ................................. 349, 417, 490, 490
Plataea, Battle of ................................. 321–321, 326 Ptolemy king of Mauretania ............................... 353
Plato, philosopher ............................................ 328 Ptolemy Memphites son of Ptolemy VIII .............. 348

Index
Ptolemy son of Abubus ................. 364, 447, 453, 455 Rhesa ancestor of Jesus ..................................... 188
Ptolemy V ............................. 40, 218, 417, 357, 368 Rhoda, early Christian ...................................... 512
Ptolemy VI ................... 347, 348, 490, 362, 370, 417 Rizpah concubine of Saul ................................. 189
Ptolemy VII ............................................. 347–348 Roman Republic, government of .......................... 16
Ptolemy VIII ........................ 490, 348, 365, 490, 417 Rome, legendary founding of .............................. 372
Ptolemy X ................................................ 349, 438 Romulus founder of Rome .......................... 175, 372
Ptolemy XI ..................................................... 415 Rosetta Stone ........................................... 261, 346
Ptolemy XII ......................... 350, 490, 490, 490, 490 Rotheus father of Bilhah and Zilpah .................... 207
Ptolemy XII ................................................... 490 Roxane wife of Alexander ............. 329, 331, 336, 445
Ptolemy XIII ..................................... 350–351, 391 Rubicon, Crossing of by Cæsar .................... 379, 391
Ptolemy XIV ............................................ 350–351 Rufus, Annius (procurator) ................................... 44
Ptolemy XV Cæsarion ................................ 351–352 Rufus, early Christian ....................................... 512
Pudens, early Christian ............................... 469, 512 Rufus, Minucius, Master of Horse 217 B.C.E. ....... 408
Pul king of Assyria. see Tiglath-Pileser III Russell, Charles Taze ........................................ 534
Put son of Ham ............................................... 185 Ruth ................................. 29, 91, 94, 455, 455, 189
Pydna, Battle of .................................. 412, 412, 412 Sacherdonos of Assyria ..................................... 289
Pyrrha ........................................................... 179 Sadyattes of Lydia ............................................ 320
Pyrrhus I of Epirus ............................. 337, 339, 375 Saguntum, Siege of .......................................... 407
Pythagoras, partner of Nero ............................... 395 Sala. see Salmon
Salamis, Battle of ................................ 321–321, 326
Quartodeciman sect ......................................... 146
Salampsio daughter of Herod the Great ............... 454
Quartus, early Christian .................................... 512
Salathiel. see Shealtiel
Quirinius, Publius Sulpicius ...... 223, 45, 223–223, 223
Salma. see Salmon
Rachel ..................... 90–455, 455, 455, 455, 455, 185 Salmah. see Salmon
Raddai brother of David ................................... 186 Salmon son of Nahshon .................................... 189
Rahab mother of Boaz ..................................... 186 Salome (1) sister of Herod .................... 436, 449, 454
Ram son of Hezron ................................... 120, 186 Salome (2) daughter of Herodias ... 441, 446–447, 453,
Ramses I, pharaoh ........................................... 267 454
Ramses II, pharaoh ................................... 267, 274 Salome, midwife to Mary .................................. 168
Ramses III, pharaoh ......................................... 268 Salome, woman at the foot of the cross . 476, 479, 482,
Raphia, Battle of ................... 335, 346, 356–357, 368
493, 512
Raven, ravens ........................................ 73, 92, 180
Samael (demon) ................................................. 92
realgar (pigment) ............................................... 92
Samaria, destruction of 23, 35, 118, 123, 289, 291–292
Rebecca. see Rebekah
Sammuramat. see Semiramis
Rebekah ...................................... 26, 112, 455, 186
Samson ............................................. 25–27, 30, 94
Rehoboam23, 33, 78, 91, 106, 455–139, 147, 164–455,
Samuel .................. 23, 25, 32–33, 167, 490, 227, 253
187, 198, 258, 276
Sanabassar (Sheshbazzar) .................................. 189
Remaliah father of Pekah .................................. 187
Sanballat the Horonite .................... 38, 215–216, 252
Remus brother of Romulus ................................ 372
Sapphira wife of Ananias ..................... 506, 506, 513
Rephah ancestor of Joshua ................................ 187
Sarah ........................... 455, 455, 124, 417, 185, 190
Resheph ancestor of Joshua ............................... 188
Sarai. see Sarah
Reu son of Peleg ....................................... 188, 209
Sargon II ................................... 284, 289, 455, 490
Reuben .............................................. 91, 188, 196
Sargon of Akkad ....................................... 175, 282
Reuel father-in-law of Moses .............................. 188
Saturninus, Lucius Appuleis ............................... 377
Reynard the Fox ................................................ 27
Saturninus, Sentius, legate of Syria ................. 45, 140
Rezin of Damascus ............................. 183, 280, 293
Rezon of Damascus ............................ 277, 279–280

Index
Saul23, 32–33, 98–99, 102–104, 113, 455, 455, 190, Serug grandfather of Terah ......................... 193, 209
254, 255, 551 Servilia, mother of Brutus and sister of Cato ......... 420
Scaurus, Marcus Aemilius ........................... 417, 441 Sesostris I, pharaoh .................................... 263, 268
Schism of Catholic and Orthodox Churches ......... 528 Seth ..................................... 78, 160, 179, 193, 209
Schism, Great Schism — Papacy split .................. 528 Seti I, pharaoh ................................................ 267
Scipio Aemilianus Africanus, Publius Cornelius .... 412 , Seti II, pharaoh ............................................... 267
414, 419 Severus Alexander ............................................ 400
Scipio Africanus, Publius Cornelius 359, 375, 407, 409– Severus, Emperor ............................................. 402
410, 412–413 Shabaka, pharaoh ..................................... 275, 278
Scipio Asiaticus, Lucius Cornelius .......... 357, 368, 410 Shallum (1) father of Hilkiah .............................. 193
Scipio Nasica, Publius Cornelius .................. 412–413 Shallum (2) son of Jabesh ..................... 126, 292, 292
Scipio the Younger. see Scipio Aemilianus Shallum (3) son of Josiah ................................... 194
Scipio, Gnaeus Cornelius .................................. 407 Shalman King of Assyria ................................... 292
Scipio, Metellus ............................................... 420 Shalmaneser I ............................................ 24, 283
Scipio, Publius Cornelius, father of Africanus . 407, 409 Shalmaneser III ................................. 280, 291, 455
Scipio, Q. Cæcilius Metellus, loser at Thapsus ........ 379 Shalmaneser IV ............................................... 291
Scopas, Egyptian general ................................... 346 Shalmaneser V ..................... 123, 284, 490, 291, 490
Scyld Scefing ................................................... 175 Shamashshumukin ................ 287, 289, 292, 295, 302
Second Macedonian War .................................. 411 Shamgar, minor Judge ................................... 26, 30
Second Punic War ................ 376, 406, 407–410, 411 Shammah son of Jesse ................................. 98, 194
Second Syrian War .................................... 344, 355 Shammah, Israelie champion ............................... 31
Second Triumvirate .. 380–381, 391, 419, 421–423, 425 Shamshi-Adad I ............................................... 282
Second Vatican Council .................................... 535 Shamshi-Adad V ...................................... 455, 292
Secundus, early Christian .................................. 513 Shapur I, Sassanid Emperor ............................... 400
Segor, pharaoh ................................................ 278 Sharezer son of Sennacherib .............................. 292
Sejanus, Tiberius’s Praetorian Prefect ....... 392, 46, 392 Shealtiel (1) son of Jehoiachin ............................. 194
Seleucus I . 40, 331–332, 335–338, 339, 342, 344, 354, Shealtiel (2) ancestor of Jesus .............................. 194
356, 366–367 Shecaniah, descendent of Zerubbabel ................... 39
Seleucus II ............. 332, 345, 417, 356, 357, 370, 429 Shechem son of Hamor ....................... 107, 153, 161
Seleucus III.............................................. 356, 368 Shelah (1) son/grandson of Arpachshad .......... 93, 194
Seleucus IV .................... 41, 218, 358, 358, 360, 370 Shelah (2) son of Judah .......................... 90, 194, 209
Seleucus Nicanor. See Seleucus IV Shelomith son of Rehoboam .............................. 195
Seleucus V ...................................................... 364 Shem son of Noah ................................ 76, 195, 209
Semein ancestor of Jesus ................................... 193 Shemaiah, prophet of the time of Rehoboam ........ 256
Semiramis wife of Shamshi-Adad ....................... 290 Shemariah son of Rehoboam ............................. 195
Sempronius Longus, consul 281 B.C.E. ................ 407 Shenazzar son of Jehoiachin .............................. 195
Seneca the Elder .............................................. 426 Shennima (Hurrian husband) ............................. 116
Seneca, tutor of Nero ....................................... 426 Shephatiah (1) son of David ............................... 195
Sennacherib ......................... 284, 455–455, 290, 490 Sheshbazzar ........................................ 37, 195, 243
Senosret I, pharaoh .......................................... 263 Sheshonk I, pharaoh .................................. 268, 275
Septimius Severus ..................................... 399, 431 Shimeah son of Jesse. see Shammah
Shimei son of David. see Shammah
Seraiah father of Ezra ....................................... 193
Shishak, pharaoh. see Sheshonk I
Seraiah, High Priest when Jerusalem fell ............... 214
Siamun, pharaoh, married daughter to Solomon? .. 268
Seron, Seleucid noble ....................................... 451
sicarii (Jewish assassins) .......................... 49, 224–225
Sertorius, Roman rebel ............................... 378, 417
Sidon son of Canaan ........................................ 196

Index
Silas, early Christian 378, 477–478, 484, 507, 513, 518, Sosthenes, early Christian ........................... 471, 516
520 Southern Baptist Convention ............................. 533
Silvanus. see Silas Spanish-American War ..................................... 199
Simeon ................................................... 107, 196 Sparta
Simeon (2) ancestor of Jesus ............................... 197 Social hierarchy of ......................................... 325
Simeon Niger, early Christian ............... 488, 490, 514 Victorious army at Plataea .............................. 326
Simmons, Menno ............................................. 531 Spartacus, Roman slave and rebel .......... 378, 416–417
Simon brother of Jesus ...................................... 197 St. Andrew’s Cross ........................................... 462
Simon brother of Onias III ......................... 218, 220 Stachys, early Christian ..................................... 516
Simon Cantheras son of Boethus (High Priest) ....... 224 Stephanas, early Christian .................... 473, 499, 516
Simon I, High Priest ......................................... 217 Stephen the protomartyr 458–460, 495, 497, 510, 514,
Simon II, High Priest .......................... 218, 220, 346 516
Simon Maccabee41, 363, 433, 435, 447–448, 450–453, Stephen, Pope ................................................. 525
454 Suetonius, Claudius 25 ...................................... 511
Simon Magus ....................... 465, 471, 507, 510, 514 Sulla, Lucius Cornelius .. 377–378, 390, 414, 415, 416–
Simon of Cyrene ............................................. 512 418
Simon Peter. see Peter Superbus, Tarquinius, king of Rome .................... 373
Simon son of Boethus (High Priest) ............... 222, 452 Suppiluliumas, Hittite King ............................... 266
Simon son of Camithus (High Priest) ................... 224 Suri father of Joab ............................................ 147
Simon the Canaanite. see Simon the Cananaean Susanna, early Christian .................................... 517
Simon the Cananaean, Apostle .................... 457, 515 Syllabus of Errors ............................................ 534
Simon the Just .......................................... 216–218 Symeon son of Clopas ......................... 475, 475, 485
Simon the Tanner, early Christian ....................... 516 Synod of Dort ................................................. 531
Simon the Zealot, Apostle ........................... 457, 516 Synod of Whitby ............................................. 527
Sin-shar-ishkun (Sarakos) ........ 288–289, 292, 293, 302 Syntyche, early Christian ...................... 469, 473, 517
Sin, Mesopotamian moon goddess ...................... 201 Tabitha, early Christian .............................. 506, 517
Sinites son of Canaan ....................................... 197 Tabrimmon of Damascus .................................. 279
Sinon, Greek spy in Troy ................................... 372 Tachos, pharaoh .............................................. 273
Sisera, general of Hazor ............................... 26, 240 Tacitus, Emperor ............................................. 401
Sitri son of Miriam ........................................... 172 Tafnakhte, pharaoh ............................. 269, 275, 278
Sixtus V, Pope .................................................. 531 Tahan ancestor of Joshua .................................. 199
Smendis, pharaoh ............................................ 268 Taharqa, pharaoh ..................................... 270, 276
Smenkhare, pharaoh ........................................ 266 Takelot II, pharaoh .......................................... 269
Smerdis .......................... 14, 303, 312, 455–455, 320 Talmai king of Geshur ...................................... 163
Smith, Joseph .................................................. 533 Tamar (1) concubine of Judah ......... 90, 182, 184, 199
So, pharaoh ................................ 269–270, 275, 278 Tamar (2) daughter of David ................... 77, 84, 200
Social War .................................. 377–378, 414, 417 Tamar (3) daughter of Absalom ..................... 75, 200
Socrates, philosopher ........................................ 326 Tantalus and the House of Tantalus .................... 334
death of ....................................................... 328 Taphath daughter of Solomon ........................... 198
Sogdianus son of Artaxerxes I ................. 39, 321, 322 Tarquinius Superbus, Roman King ............... 373, 406
Solomon .............. 12, 23, 33, 455, 106, 197–199, 280 Teacher of Righteousness ........................... 435–436
Solon of Athens ............................................... 312 Telah ancestor of Joshua ................................... 200
Sopater, early Christian ..................................... 516 Terah father of Abraham ........................... 200, 209
Sophocles, dramatist .................................. 326, 328 Tertius, early Christian ...................................... 518
Sosipater, early Christian ................................... 516 Textus Receptus ............................................... 529
Sosius, Gaius, Roman general ...................... 421, 439 Thaddaeus the Apostle ........... 486–458, 486–486, 518

Index
Thales of Miletus ............................................. 306 Tirhakah, pharaoh. see Taharqa

Thapsus, Battle of ........................ 379, 391, 416, 420 Tiridates I of Parthia ........................................ 428
Thecla, heroine of the Acts of Paul . 472, 474, 503, 522 Tiridates II of Parthia ....................................... 430
Thekemz sister-in-law of Jeroboam I ................... 139 Tiridates III of Parthia ...................................... 430
Themistocles, Greek general ........................ 321, 326 Titius Justus, early Christian ........................ 474, 521
Theodora, wife of Constantius I ......................... 404 Titus, early Christian .................... 458, 499, 521, 522
Theodosius I, Emperor ............................... 405, 526 Titus, Emperor....................... 50, 397, 442, 484, 488
Theophilus son of Annas (High Priest) ................. 475 Tiy, wife of Amenhotep III ................................ 266
Theophilus, early Christian ......................... 458, 518 Tobiah the Ammonite ......................... 215, 220, 252
Thermopylæ, Battle of (Antiochus III's) ......... 412, 412 Tobias son of Tobit .......................................... 190
Thermopylæ, Battle of (Greek vs. Persians) ..... 321, 326 Tola, minor Judge .............................................. 28
Thermuth, daughter of Pharaoh who adopted Moses ... Toutmaios, pharaoh according to Josephus ........... 265
277 Trajan ............ 397, 398, 401, 425, 428, 431, 469, 482
Thessalonica daughter of Philip II ...................... 336 Transubstantiation, Catholic doctrine of ............... 528
Thessalonika, city, founded by Cassander .............. 336 Trasimene, Battle of Lake .................... 410, 410, 410
Theudas ..................................................... 44, 47 Treaty of Westphalia ........................................ 531
Third Macedonian War .................................... 412 Trebia River, Battle of the ........................... 408–408
Third Punic War ....................................... 376, 412 Trebonius, Gaius, murderer of Cæsar ............ 380, 420
Third Syrian War ...................................... 345, 356 Triparadeisus Peace Conference ............ 331, 338, 344
Thirty Years War ............................................. 531 Trito-Isaiah ..................................................... 256
Thomas the Apostle ....... 129, 457–458, 504, 518–519 Trophimus, early Christian ................................ 521
Thucydides, historian ........................................ 326 Troy, Trojan War .................... 29, 107, 324, 334, 372
Thutmosis I, pharaoh ................................. 174, 265 Tryphena, early Christian .................................. 522
Thutmosis II, pharaoh ...................................... 265 Trypho, Seleucid noble ........... 363–364, 429, 448, 455
Thutmosis III, pharaoh ..................................... 265 Tryphosa, early Christian .................................. 522
Thutmosis IV, pharaoh ...................................... 266 Tubal son of Japheth ........................................ 201
Thyestes brother of Atreus ................................. 334 Tubal-Cain .............................................. 160, 201
Tiberius......... 16, 44, 46, 490, 392, 393, 426, 436, 461 Tukulti-Ninurta I ....................................... 178, 283
Tiberius Gemellus grandson of Tiberius ............... 393 Tukulti-Ninurta II ..................................... 283, 294
Tibni son of Ginath ................................... 181, 201 Tullius, Servius, king of Rome ............................ 372
Ticinus, Battle of the ........................................ 408 Tutankhamon, pharaoh ..................................... 266
Tiglath-Pileser I ............................................... 283 Tychicus, early Christian ................................... 522
Tiglath-Pileser II .............................................. 283 Tyndale, William, Bible translator ....................... 530
Tiglath-Pileser III ....... 65, 80, 280, 284, 455, 293, 417 Urbane. see Urbanus
Tigranes I, King of Armenia .............................. 365 Urbanus, early Christian ................................... 522
Tigranes IV, King of Armenia ............................ 437 Uriah of Gibeah, father of Maacah ..................... 164
Tigranes V, King of Armenia, great-grandson of Herod Uriah son of Shemaiah ..................................... 256
47, 437 Uriah the Hittite ........................................... 28, 89
Till Eulenspiegel ............................................... 27 Uriah, priest under Ahaz ............................ 212, 214
Timon, early Christian ...................................... 520 Urim and Thummim ........................................ 447
Timotheus, regent of Gordian III ........................ 400 Utnapishtim .................................................... 180
Timothy, early Christian . 472–473, 488, 496–497, 512, Uzzi (High Priest preceding Eli) ................... 108, 201
514, 520 Uzziah. see Azariah (4)/Uzziah
Timothy, Seleucid noble .................................... 451 Uzziel son of Izhar ........................................... 158
Tiras son of Japheth ......................................... 201 Uzziel, uncle and husband of Miriam .................. 172
Tirawahat (Pawnee god) .................................... 179 Valens, Arian Bishop of Mursa ........................... 404

Index
Valens, Emperor .............................................. 405 Zare son of Esau, father of Job ........................... 112
Valentinian I, Emperor ..................................... 405 Zebadiah son of Asahel ...................................... 86
Valentinian II, Emperor .................................... 405 Zebidah wife of Josiah ...................................... 203
Valerian, Emperor ............................................ 400 Zebulun son of Jacob ........................................ 203
Vardanes I of Parthia ........................................ 430 Zechariah (1) son of Jeroboam II ........................ 203
Varro, Terentius ........................................ 406, 408 Zechariah (2) son of Jehoshaphat ........................ 203
Vashti, supposed queen of Persia .................. 306–307 Zechariah (3) son of Jehoiada ................ 204, 214, 256
Ventidius Bassus, Publius ................ 43, 425, 430, 439 Zechariah (4) son of Berechiah son of Iddo ........... 256
Verus, Lucius, co-emperor ................................. 398 Zechariah (5) father of John the Baptist. see Zacharias
Vespasian, Emperor . 450, 450, 450, 450, 450, 450, 450 Zedekiah king of Judah ......................... 37, 204–204
Vindex, Julius, rebel against Nero ........................ 395 Zedekiah son of Chenaanah ........................ 258, 257
Vitellius, Aulus, emperor .................................... 396 Zela, Battle of .................................... 379, 391, 416
Vitellius, Lucius, father of the Emperor Vitellius ..... 46 , Zemarites son of Canaan .................................. 205
224, 396 Zenas, early Christian ................................ 521–522
Vologeses I of Parthia ....................................... 431 Zeno, Byzantine Emperor .................................. 527
Volusian, co-Emperor ....................................... 400 Zenobia of Palmyria ......................................... 400
Vonones I of Parthia .................................. 430–431 Zephaniah mother of Abner .............................. 192
Vonones II of Parthia ....................................... 431 Zephaniah the prophet ............................... 205, 257
Waldo, Peter ................................................... 528 Zerah son of Judah ........................................... 205
Wesley, John .................................................... 533 Zerah the Ethiopian ................................... 269, 275
Westcott and Hort, Greek New Testament of ......... 534 Zerahiah ancestor of Zadok ............................... 205
Wicked Priest .................................................. 435 Zeror ancestor of Saul ...................................... 205
Willow tree, folktales of ..................................... 154 Zerubbabel .. 38–39, 115, 119, 205, 243, 250, 257, 304
Wycliffe, John .................................................. 528 Zerubbabel (2) ancestor of Jesus .......................... 206
Xenophon, soldier and writer ............................. 326 Zeruiah ............................................ 455, 455, 207
Xerxes I ..... 38, 273, 304, 455–307, 315, 321, 326, 367 Zeus .............................................................. 179
Xerxes II ............................................ 39, 321, 322 Ziba servant of Saul ......................................... 170
Xisuthrus, Sumerian flood hero .......................... 180 Zibiah wife of Ahaziah ..................................... 207
Y chromosome Adam ....................................... 180 Zilpah concubine of Jacob207, 207, 207, 207, 159, 207,
yellow lead (pigment) .......................................... 92 207
yodh, Hebrew letter, makes request to God ........... 154 Zimri king of Israel ................................... 108, 207
Zacchaeus, tax collector .................................... 494 Zimri son of Salu ............................................. 184
Zacharias father of John the Baptist .............. 168, 202 Zimri-lim of Mari ............................................ 282
Zadok ................................ 131, 197, 202–202, 213 Zipporah wife of Moses .................................... 207
Zadok (2), descendant of Zadok the High Priest ..... 203 Ziusudra, Sumerian flood hero ........................... 180
Zadok (3) ancestor of Jesus ................................. 203 Ziza son of Rehoboam ...................................... 208
Zaham son of Rehoboam .................................. 203 Zophar the Naamathite ..................................... 551
Zama, Battle of .................................. 375, 407, 410 Zwingli, Huldreich ........................................... 530

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The Bible in History

A chronological and biological guide

©2013 by Robert B. Waltz

4 The Bible in History

6 The Bible in History

The Maccabean and Herodian Families .................................................................................... 432

The Bible in History 7

8 The Bible in History

33. The Text of ന52 .............................................................................................................. 481

The Bible in History 9

10 The Bible in History

The Bible in History 11

12 The Bible in History

The Bible in History 13

14 The Bible in History

The Bible in History 15

16 The Bible in History

Symbols in the Charts

How to Interpret an Entry

The Bible in History 17

If You Like This Book

18 The Bible in History

The History and Rulers

The Bible in History 19

Outline of Judean History

20 The Bible in History

553 Cyrus of Persia conquers the Median Empire

The Bible in History 21

37 Parthians expelled from Judah. Herod son of Antipater made King

22 The Bible in History

The Rulers of Judah

The Bible in History 23

Date Ruler & Biography

24 The Bible in History

Excursus: Judging the Judges

The Bible in History 25

26 The Bible in History

The Bible in History 27

28 The Bible in History

Excursus: Jephthah’s Only Daughter and Her Sisters

1.!Perhaps on the basis of graphic similarity; “Ibzan” is ‫ אבען‬and “Boaz” is ‫ּבעז‬.

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to the myth of Hercules.1 My personal hypothesis is that the legend of Samson

Excursus: Representative Democracy

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south under Rehoboam.1 Rehoboam’s reign, in addition to witnessing the division

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1.!For Quirinius see the excursus below, “Quirinius de Bergerac?”

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