ADE 212

Adult Literacy: Methods and Practice (2 Credits -Units)

This course examines the Basic Concepts, Scope and Purpose of adult literacy education,

also included are the origin and development of adult literacy education from early times

to date. Emphasis will be laid on Levels of Literacy; Adult Functional Literacy and their

relationship to national development.

COURSE OUTLINE

1. Definition of Basic Concepts - Adult Education, Literacy and illiteracy

2. Scope and Purpose of adult literacy education.

3. Origin and development of Adult Literacy Education

4. Types of Literacy Education.

5. Levels of Literacy Education.

6. Adult Literacy education and National development

REFERENCES

1. Adult Education Practice in Nigeria; By: M.A. Omolewa

2. Philosophy and Adult Education; By: J.A. Akinpelu

3. Handbook on Adult Education Principles and Practice New Edition; By: L.S. Nzeneri

Course Lecturer: Dr. (Mrs) C.O. Olomukoro

1
ORIGIN OF ADULT LITERACY EDUCATION

The History of Literacy is long and fascinating and has been the subject of a considerable

number of scholarly studies in recent years. The origin of literacy can be traced back to

thousands of years through a multiplicity of civilization and institutions. Social Historians

of literacy have identified three (3) historical periods-Pre 1800, 1810-1860s, post 1860s.

Before 1800

Prior to 1800 - Reading skills were widespread in several Northern European Countries-

Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Scotland, Sweden & Switzerland. Literacy skills were used

by members of higher social classes and more limited among other social strata. In most

of eastern and southern Europe (Russia & Austro-Hungary empire-illiteracy was

widespread.

1810-1860

Modest progress was made in reducing illiteracy in the more advanced and industrialized

countries. By 1860 only a minority of adults in Industrializing countries lacked

rudimentary literacy skills.

 The pace of change was slow in Eastern and Southern Europe - Literacy was

restricted to certain professions and elite populations.

 By Latter decades of 19th Century, The spread of literacy was extensive in Northern

and Western Europe.

 By 1900, Literacy levels in Hungary Italy, Russia, and Spain were significantly below

the other parts of Europe.

2
 Although Literacy levels improved tremendously in much of Europe during the late

19th century, subnational disparities in literacy continued in age, gender, social class,

ethnicity and area of residence.

 During the early 20th century literacy levels increased throughout Europe. By mid

20h century; Central and Northern, Western Europe-over 80%, Austria & Hungary

Over 70%, Italy, Poland and Spain Over 50% Literacy.

 During the 19th & early 20th centuries, literacy levels increased steadily in the US

and Canada.

In the U.S. 80% of adults were already literate by 1870 & Over 95% in 1940.

In Canada - Literacy rate rose from 80% in 1901 to 95% in 1931 (UNESCO, 1957).

HISTORY OF ADULT LITERACY EDUCATION

Transition from illiterate to literate society occurred first in Europe and North America.

Transition to widespread literacy occurred first in Europe and North America. Today

more than 80% of the global population over age 15 is reported to possess at least

minimal reading and writing skills. Literacy trends in other world regions namely Africa,

Asia, Latin America and the Arab States is limited. Many of them were under colonial

rule in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Only few population censuses were carried out in the third world countries then but more

widely in Latin America. Population census is a major source of literacy data.

 Between 1900-1950: Argentina, Chile, Cuba had Literacy levels between 35% - 50%

at the Beginning of the 20th century and rose steadily during the next five decades.

 Brazil, Turkey Sri Lanka, Columbia and Mexico had lower levels.
3
 In other developing countries, the pace of change was slow - India, Egypt, Union of

South Africa had low literacy levels and progress was slow

 By 1950 - many countries had made giant strides in adult literacy Argentina

Barbados, Sir Lanka, Chile, Costa Rica, Japan Israel had achieved adult literacy rates

above 75% by the mid-century.

 Moderate Progress was made in Asia, China, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and

the rest of Latin America.

 Low Adult Literacy rates were recorded Afghanistan, India and Pakistan and

throughout Africa except (Mauritius) and Arab states.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADULT LITERACY

The evolving notion of ‘Literacy’ vis-à-vis the development of ‘Adult Literacy’.

Literacy has been internationally recognized both as a human right in itself and a crucial

instrument for the pursuit of other rights. UNESCO founded in 1946, has been at the

forefront of Literacy efforts and dedicated to keep these high on national, regional and

international educational agendas.

Before the mid-1960s, literacy was primarily understood as a set of technical skills:

reading, writing and calculating independent of the context in which they are acquired

and the background of the person who acquired them, i.e. Literacy is same across

different cultures.

During the 1960s and 1970s the concept of functional literacy was born. This was when

literacy was linked with socio-economic development. Thus the understanding of literacy

was expanded beyond the impartation of basic technical skills, (Teheran, 1965).
4
In addition to this expanded understanding, Paulo Freire (1975) located the political

dimension of literacy. His method was known as a "conscientization" that is becoming

critically aware of the social, political, economic and historical forces that shape

oppression and taking action to transform the situation. It emphasizes connection between

politically active participation activities in socio economic.

In the 1980s and 1990s, important conceptual clarification were made during this period,

in conjunction with International Literacy year (1990) and the World Declaration on

‘Education for All’ (EFA) adopted in Jointien, Thailand (1990) in which a new approach

came to distinguish between literacy as a technical skill and literacy as a set of culturally

and socially determined practices (Plural notion of literacy) Literacy as a social practice

in which people engaged in their own cultural ways. The World Declaration on Education

for All (1990) introduced the concept of "basic learning needs" featuring literacy as a

continuum encompassing formal and non-formal education for children, youth and adults.

This concept together with the "four pillars of education"-learning to know, learning to

do, learning to live together and learning to be, is solidly linked with that of lifelong

learning and foundational contribution of literacy. Subsequent international

pronouncements such as the Hamburg Declaration on Adult Learning (1997) the Dakar

Frame work for Action (2000) and the United Nations Literacy Decade (2002) portrayed

the notion of literacy as a key element of lifelong learning and as a catalyst for active

community engagement.

The international policy community, led by UNESCO, has moved from interpretations of

literacy and illiteracy as autonomous skills to an emphasis on literacy as functional,

5
incorporating Freirean principles, and more recently embracing the notions of multiple

literacies, literacy as a continuum and literate environments and societies. Multiple

Literacies-Ways of reading the world in specific contexts, (technological, health,

information, media).

History of Adult Education in Nigeria

Adult Education in Nigeria has a long history. As far back as the 14th century, itinerant

Islamic scholars and traders in the Muslim North of the country taught Arabic Literacy

through the study of the Koran. Later, Christian missionaries brought Western Education

to parts of southern and central Nigeria. Thus education however was essentially

selective and designed with specific goal of becoming literate in order to study the

scriptures. In the 20th century, deliberate efforts were made by the British colonial

government to provide some adult education in Nigeria. In its 1925 memorandum on

Education Policy, in British Tropical Africa, the British colonial office recommended the

implementation of adult education in African countries. Actual implementation of adult

education in Nigeria started in 1944 and by 1946 a national literacy programme was well

under way, although due to poor implementation. It had limited success.

Nigeria attained independence in 1960 and literacy efforts in Nigeria received a boost

when UNESCO supported the establishment of an Adult Literacy Institute in Ibadan in

1965. In 1971 the Nigerian National council for Adult Education (NNCAE) was set up

becoming a voice for adult education practice in Nigeria.

6
Definition of Literacy

Literacy is more than learning to read and write - It means that people have better access

to information regarding health, gain self-esteem, have better job prospects and are often

more likely to have a greater voice in local decision making. The value of literacy being

able to read and write lies not in itself, but in other skills and knowledge to which it

opens the way. Literacy opens the door for further education and individual advancement.

It is the foundation for further learning. Literacy has meaning only when it leads to

participation in cultural and social activities. It is empowerment which means ability to

make decision and control affairs of one's life economically, socially and politically.

The Advanced Learners' Dictionary of Current English refers to literacy as an:…

acquaintance with the alphabet and the ability to read and write. The UNESCO 1958 in

the General Conference on Education adopted this definition as a standard definition of

literacy. "A person is literate who can with understanding both read and write a short

simple statement on his everyday life. UNESCO also views literacy as the ability to read,

write and compute to an appreciable level in any language.

The Concept of Literacy

As a concept, literacy itself has many dimensions and its meaning varies according to

context (Windham, 1991). Literacy as a concept is complex, dynamic and slippery on

which so much has been written and continues to be written. In spite of the volumes

already written, the meanings and connotations will continue to change with time and

circumstances (Akinpelu 2002). In other words, literacy is much more complex than meet

the eye and it tends to change its meaning overtime, as societies and individuals within

7
them change as well. The common understanding of literacy is that, it is a set of tangible

skill particularly the cognitive skills of reading and writing and are independent of the

context in which they are acquired and the background of the person who acquires them

(EFAGMR; 2006). The ordinary meaning of literacy is associated with the ability to read,

write and compute with figure. The definitions and understanding of literacy have

broadened considerably over the past five decades. Therefore, the definition of literacy as

merely the ability to read, write and compute is no longer adequate. Akinpelu (2002)

noted that by literacy we mean more than the ability to read and write alphabets, words

and simple statements in that order, which Dian Wagner calls "native or low literacy" But

it is the inevitable foundation for most other forms or type of literacy. Akinpelu (2008)

further remarked that to be literate is not just to master the skills of reading, writing and

computing with numbers, but more than that, it is to be able to use those skills effectively

for communications in all aspects of one's life in social, cultural, economic and political.

The most important thing is for the literacy skills to be acquired permanently and

functionally and to be able to apply those skills in the pursuit of everyday activities. To

be literate is to be equipped to perform in all areas where literacy is required in the

society.

The concept of literacy is relative and varies largely with time and from one place to

another. For Okedara, the concept of literacy can be examined in relation to time, place

and culture. The objective is to demonstrate that literacy is not a static but a dynamic

concept. It has to be regarded as a dynamic and continuous process in the life of every

8
recipient and every nation. In a bid to resolve the controversy associated with the

definition of literacy, UNESCO in 1962 defined literacy as:

“a person is literate when he has acquired the essential knowledge and skills which
enable him to engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective
functioning in his group and community, and whose attainments in reading, writing and
arithmetic make it possible for him to continue to use these skills towards his own and
the community development”.

The Concept of Education

Education is the total learning process by which knowledge is imparted, faculty

trained and skill developed. Education involves a process of passing across to another

person a body of knowledge, skills and attitudes that must lead to a change in behaviour

of the recipient; irrespective of age, sex, level of developmental task. Education can be

obtained in three forms-formal, non- formal and informal. Fafunwa (1974) describe

education as a combination of physical training, with character building and manual

activity with intellectual training. Education is summarily defined as the transmission of

values and accumulated knowledge of society from one generation to another. Thus,

Education in this regard is an instrument for the expansion of human culture through

formal, non-formal, informal educational programmes and activities. Education is a life-

long process. Education is more than instruction, teaching and information. Education is

developing knowledge, skills and attitudes. Education is not synonymous with literacy.

Education and Literacy

Literacy is concerned with the traditional 3R's, that is reading, writing and

arithmetic. It is related to acquiring knowledge of some subjects. Education on the other

9
hand, is related to the 7R's, that is reading, writing, arithmetic, rights, responsibilities,

relationships and recreation. Literacy is mainly concerned with theoretical knowledge

which can be evaluated through different types of questions:- essay type, short answer

type ad objective type. Education cannot be evaluated through these techniques.

Education provides a way of light. It develops certain values. Education is concerned

with the development of character and personality.

The Concept of Adult Education

Adult Education has been variously defined by many authors, only a few definitions will

be considered here for the purpose of this course. Most writers seem to agree that Adult

education is the education geared towards the adults. Dave () thus contends that adult

education seeks to redress the imbalance of education received during childhood ad

youth. He considers the earlier education as "inadequate to save oneself from professional

as well as cultural obsolescence during the later period in life. By this definition, it seems

that any set of instructions given to the adults would constitute adult education

(Omolewa, 1981). Adult Education has a very rich meaning. It is defined as the provision

of all forms of education to the adult, and is obtainable in both formal, informal and non-

formal situations. Today, adult education embraces the learning of reading and writing,

primary and post-primary education and all forms of extension work. The greatest value

of Adult education is that it provides an avenue for bringing about change in individuals,

communities, societies and nations.

10
Adult Education does the following:

 provides a fresh beginning in learning

 builds on what has been learnt

 promotes recurrent, continuing and lifelong learning

Adult education is the education of persons physiologically mature and socially and

economically responsible (Bown, 1979).

Illiteracy

Illiteracy is the exact opposite of literacy. It simply means inability to read, write

and numerate. It means in ability to use symbols to encode or decode messages. An

illiterate is a person who cannot communicate through the alphabet. Illiteracy is generally

understood as a state of "being cut off from the written world that is unable to read and

write. Illiteracy may be defined in general terms as the in ability to read and write a

simple message in any language. In developed countries, illiterate are in the minority, the

reverse is the case in developing countries. That is, it is far more pronounced in the

developing world than the developed. Asiedu and Oyedeji (1985) firmly assert that

illiteracy has been recognized as a world problem. They maintain that no nation can be

said to have established successful conditions, for development until at least 40% of her

people are literate. Anyanwu (1987) describes illiteracy as a disturbing impediment to

national development. UNESCO (1968) describes illiteracy as an isolation from the

world, that illiteracy is an impediment to development n all its ramifications. Illiteracy is

11
closely related to underdevelopment, poverty, ignorance and retardation argued Omoruyi

and Egbadon (1994).

An illiterate has been defined as one who lives in a state of 'primary consciences' in

ignorance, one who exists but does not participate in the world. To become literate,

therefore, an illiterate will need to start from his state of primary consciousness so that he

can appreciate more clearly the dimensions of the problem he faces, and how to satisfy

his individual and societal needs. Literacy is to allow him to reach a higher level of

consciousness. In other words, it is to help him to know the world and to express himself

in the world.

Semi-literate:

As the name suggests, it is a partial acquisition of literacy skills. It is the situation of

being literate either in one or two of the skill of reading, writing and computation, e.g. A

person can be literate in reading and not in writing and computation, or literate in

reading, writing and not in computation. Cipolla () makes a distinction between the

illiterates and semi-illiterates: Between the totally illiterate and the literate, there is the

intermediate army of semi-illiterate: They are those groups of people that can read but

cannot write. He further stated that, apart from those who are unable to write, semi-

literates also include those who can both read and write but can hardly understand what

they read, and can hardly write anything besides their signatures. Between the two

extremes are the semi-literates.

Neo-literate:

12
A neo literate refers to an individual; a group or a society who has just acquired literacy

skills or a person who has just completed a basic literacy programme. One who has newly

possessed the ability to read, write and numerate. Basic literacy is concerned with

individual that has just acquired the basic skill of reading, writing and numeracy.

At the post literacy level, the learners can learn independently, use materials, information,

textbooks in searching for more knowledge. The post literacy stage helps the individual

to master and reinforce all the acquired skills in order that they will not relapse into

illiteracy. It is the process whereby an individual maximizes his/her intellectual or

cognitive ability towards self development and national development.

TYPES OF LITERACY

Traditional Literacy/Basic/Fundamental

Basic Literacy is also described as conventional literacy or fundamental or traditional

literacy. It is simply the ability to read and write simple words and sentences like one's

name and address, recognition of simple words and sentences for communication

purposes. Okedara (1981) describes traditional literacy as literacy that aims at imparting

proficiency in reading, writing and elementary arithmetic. This approach is diffusive and

non-intensive in its character and tends towards literacy for its own sake or end in itself

and not a means to an end. It is confined to simple survival skills. A person without these

skills has been designated as an illiterate or a non-reader. In places where minimum

literacy is practiced, the trainees are likely to reverse to their pre-literate condition.

The traditional literacy focuses on the teaching of literacy skills of reading, writing and

calculating without any attention to the subject matter or contents.

13
According to Akinpelu (2002) Fundamental literacy or what Wagner (1991) so calls

"native or low literacy is the inevitable foundation for most other forms of literacy. He

further stated that alphabetic literacy can be described as the most fundamental

foundation and tool for all forms of worthwhile and sustainable development.

Traditional Literacy is a method used decades ago to teach reading, writing and

arithmetic. This method was adopted in 1940swhen an attempt to eradicate illiteracy

began.

Functional Literacy

The definition of functional literacy varies from place to place and with the types of

tasks. Functional literacy according to Asiedu and Oyedeji (1985) combines the skill of

reading, writing and computing with social, technical and occupational training. It treats

illiterates in a group context within the view to satisfying the collective and individual

needs of the group. Functional literacy is an intellectual equipment for the individual to

enable him become not only literate but perform other tasks that are of benefit to him and

to the society in which he lives. In this wise, functional literacy must be extended to

include all its dimensions: Political, economic, social and cultural.

Functional Literacy education according to Okedara (1981) deals with selective and

intensive literacy education that is tailored to a particular need. He categorized functional

literacy into two aspects. The first aspect is known as work oriented functional literacy

which deals with the teaching of literacy in the context of vocational knowledge and

technical skills while the second aspect is known as socio-cultural functional literacy.

14
This deals with the teaching of literacy in the context of socio-cultural matters such as

family life, sanitation, nutrition, religion and civics.

Anyanwu (1987) noted that functional literacy is an educational activity which combines

socioeconomic and vocational training within the framework of a development

undertaking. The focus here is relevance and utilization of skills for self group and

community development. In this context, the absence of functional literacy deprives one

of power, right, responsibilities and authorities.

UNESCO General Conference in' 1978 adopted a definition of functional literacy still in

use today: "a person is functionally literate who can engage in all those activities in

which literacy is required for effective functioning of his (or her) group and community

and also for enabling him (or her) to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for

his/or own and the community's development”.

It was at the world congress on the eradication of illiteracy in 1965, held in Teheran that

literacy came to be viewed as a necessary condition for economic growth and national

development. It was stressed here for the first time the interrelationship between literacy

and development. During the 1960s and 1970s, UNESCO was involved in the

Experimental World Literacy Programme (EWLP) conducted in conjunction with the

United Nations first Development Decade, for which literacy was valued as a technical

solution to socio-economic problems. Despite the fact that this programme was

discontinued, the fact remains that functional literacy marked a turning point in the

modern history of education. It linked education and especially literacy with socio and

15
economic development and expanded the understanding of literacy beyond the

impartation of basic technical skills with a view to increased productivity.

LEVELS OF LITERACY

UNESCO (1989) categorized literacy into:

Level I: Basic

Level II: Middle

Level III: Self learning

Miller (1974) on his part divides literacy into three levels and identified:

a. Basic Literacy

b. Comprehension

c. Functional or practical literacy

Wagner's (1991) classification of Literacy includes:

a. Native or low literacy

b. Moderate Literacy - Moderately literate

c. Highly literacy - Highly literate

Basic or Minimum Literacy - A person is considered literate who can with understanding

both read and write a short simple statement on his or her everyday life - semi literate;

who can read with understanding,, but cannot write a short simple statement on his

everyday life.

Murphy () defines literacy as: “the ability both to read and write at least a simple

message, illiteracy conversely is the lack of such ability”.

16
According to Imhabekhai (1998) literacy has tended to dominate the programmes of adult

education agencies from early time and perhaps this is why most members of the society

including the very articulate and educated members see adult education basically as

synonymous with literacy. Literacy according to UNESCO (1989) as cited in Imhabekhai

(1998) can be categorized into:

i. Level I: Basic

ii. Level II: Middle

iii. Level III: Self learning

The basic literacy level involves adults who have had no formal learning at all and those

who had a little formal education but dropped out before they could acquire sufficient

literacy skills for their day to day activities. The middle level involves adults who have

completed the basic level or possess basic literacy skills and enrolled in the programmes

to develop some abilities and proficiency in using reading, writing and numeracy skills.

The self-learning level consists of learners who have completed the middle level or can

study independently and who are willing to use books and other materials in search of

new knowledge. Miller (1974) divides literacy into three levels: basic literacy,

comprehension and functional or practical literacy. Miller (1974) defines basic literacy as

the ability to use correspondences of visual shapes to spoken sounds in order to decode

written materials and to translate them into oral language. Comprehension means ability

to understand the meaning of verbal materials. Functional or practical literacy means

ability to read (decode and comprehend) materials needed to perform every day

vocational tasks. UNESCO Institute of Education in Hamburg, defines basic literacy as

17
“the ability to read and write in one's own language and do simple arithmetic in order to

enable more relevant and functional in their individual to do simple business

transactions easily and competently without belong exploited”.

From the above definition, it becomes clear that literacy at the basic level translates to the

possession of the skills of reading, writing and calculating in one is mother tongue. Also

that the level of such literacy does not go beyond carrying out daily activities in an

elementary form. Further, the concept confers on us the notion that one can be literate in

his language but illiterate in other languages, since he does not speak, write or read them.

It does mean that literacy could be language and culture bound.

The concept of literacy at the minimum level is far from being adequate to equip a person

to function effectively in a modern complex society. Many nations have based their

literacy programmes on minimum standards. As Okedara (1981) observes adults have

been taught how to read and write, without relating the acquired skills to practical uses.

This inadequacy lends support to the concept of post-literacy, especially in the

developing world. It is in this context that Okedara (1981) defines post-literacy skills as

those that can be applied in solving day-to-day problems. In this respect, while basic

literacy deals with the acquisition of skills of reading, writing and numeracy in a

particular mother tongue, post literacy concentrates on an advanced knowledge of mother

tongue as well as on the learning of English or French as a second language. The period

devoted to each programme varies depending on objectives of sponsoring agency. Post-

literacy programmes begin after basic literacy. We can equate basic literacy with the

primaries one and two of the formal school system while post-literacy will be equivalent

18
of anything from primary three and above. Men and women who have acquired basic

literacy skills deserves varieties of skills, knowledge and attitudes that could assist them

in becoming more relevant and functional in their society.

APPROACHES/STRATEGIES TO ERADICATION OF ILLITERACY

Illiteracy is both a global and local problem. In Nigeria, the government is facing the

harrowing experience of making about 56 million Nigerians literate within a ten-year

period beginning from 1990 to the year 2000 (Omolewa, 1990) poverty and other signs of

underdevelopment can only be eradicated or minimized by finding a way of equipping

our people with the abilities of reading, writing and counting as measures to combat daily

problems confronting them. Illiteracy is a problem. Literacy is the solution and a gateway

to development. Given the realities of the trend of illiteracy, the world must re-double its

efforts in tackling both child and adult illiteracy. Part of the solution should be on

refurbishing the approaches that have been adopted in eradicating illiteracy. The most

prominent approaches in combating illiteracy, especially among adults include:-

1. Each One Teach One or Laubach Approach.

2. Each One Fund the Teaching of One

3. Each One Find a Teacher

4. Conscientization or Freirean Approach

5. Ashton-Warner or Organic Appraoch

6. Learn and Teach Approach

7. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

8. AFFRELA approach

19
9. Real Literacy Material (RLM) and Learner Generated Material (LGM)

10. REFLECT approach The Policy of Each-one-teach-one or fund the teaching of one

1. Each:- One-Teach - One or Lauback Approach:

Laubach approach is known as Each-One-Teach - One and named after Frank C.

Laubach, the father of literacy an American Episcopal Minister of God. He was sent from

America to the Phillipines to propagate the Gospel of Jesus Christ in the early 1930's,

from 1935 to 1948. Laubach discovered on arrival that he could to reach the Philippines

with the word of God because the majority of them were illiterates. He therefore,

embarked on the 'Gospel of Literacy' by teaching the Philippines how to read and write

when Laubach was faced with the problem of dwindling resources, he wanted to stop the

campaign, but a chief at the meeting exclaimed, I'll make everybody who knows how to

read teach someone else and Each-One-Teach-One (EOTO) became his motto. That

marked the beginning of an approach that has made impact on world literacy.

The basic philosophy of the Lauback approach is centred on the teaching of Christ which

revolves on love among mankind, the idea of kindness and sharing would be entrenched

in human activities. Love of one another teaches that a literate should be able to extend

his love to the latter and wish to make him literate. The process of making him literate is

a way of showing kindness to a fellow human being. Laubach's approach is hanged on

love of one another which calls for sharing of one's knowledge with one another.

The Laubach method has two essential bases. One was the campaign approach of each-

One-Teach-One and the other involved the use of specially prepared cards, each

depicting a familiar everyday object with the name of the object printed on it. Early cards

20
in a series showed objects were each related to a letter of alphabet. The learner would

thus associate that letter with that picture and be reminded of the relevant word and

sound. The cards more progressively onto words of two, three and more syllables. Such

word-pictures proved a useful way of enabling adults to learn easily and quickly on how

to read and write. The method of building up from single syllable words to longer ones is

called synthetic or phonic. This method falls under the psychophonetic category and it

combines the stage of the letter with a typical symbol. It is based on the keyword method.

In the teaching of literacy, the Laubach method emphasizes repetition in the

pronunciation and identification of letters and other elements of language being taught.

With the constant repetitions and identification, the learner is made to remember what is

taught. Presently, our approach to literacy promotion in Nigeria, is a fusion of functional

literacy with Laubach's each-one-teach-one. Many countries have used a fusion of two or

more approaches depending on the magnitude of illiteracy and other factors.

Each-One-Find a Teacher: This approach is addressed to the wealthy illiterate citizens

who may not be willing to be recognized as illiterates and so may be shy of going all out

to embrace literacy. Such people are required under this approach to find a teacher to do

the job of making them literate. In recent times, such wealthy people have also provided

service to their neighbours.

Conscientization or Freirean Approach

This approach was initiated by a famous Brazilian educator called Paulo Freire. Fie

advocated "conscientization" as a process of freeing man from the ties of negatively

functioning cultures. This approach is based on education which will help adults to

21
become effective in taking their own decision and therefore becoming responsible for

their own well-being. Freire believes that the essence of man is his ability to make his

own judgment in things that affect him. He condemned the oppressive system of

education where illiterates did not participate in making decisions regarding what they

must learn. Freire condemned what he described as a banking system of education

whereby learner are mere depositories and collectors of information. (Containers,

reservoirs) and collectors of information. He advocates conscientization, a process in

which the learners are engaged actively in the learning process through meaningful

dialogue. Freire's conscientization involves dialogue, reflection and communication.

These enable the adult to discuss his problem with the facilitator, help him to think

critically about it and finally share his reactions with others. The end result is action

geared towards the solution of the identified problem. This approach is problem solving,

approach, the one in which participants and the facilitators engage in meaningful

dialogue. The facilitator is not a custodian or resipotory of knowledge, but lets the

participants discuss their problems and take their own decisions.

The teaching-learning process begins with the class discussing the theme. Ideas which

emanate from the group are built into a reading lesson which is taught, using whole

sentence technique. Freire insists that the sentences written on the chalkboard and read,

must be those uttered by the participants. Freire's approach summarizes the relationship

that ought to exist in an adult education class. Learners stand to benefit more in that the

educator would use adult experiences to mutually find solutions to their identified

problems. The media used in the Freirean method are usually printed cards or primers;

22
for, functional literacy, each stage in the primer also represents a stage in the economic

task which the learners is being helped to understand and perform better. A good example

of such primers is the series prepared at the University of Ibadan for a work oriented

literacy project for tobacco farmers. Adult educator should exercise caution is using this

method so as not to be accused of inciting the public against constituted authorities;

because it has been seen as a revolutionary approach to literacy education. Freirean

method differs from the synthetic Laubach method in that it is eclectic. The learner first

becomes familiar with the look of a word representing something important to him

(election) which he can later break into parts and from which he can learn other words.

Ashton-Warner or Organic Approach

This is another form of traditional method. This approach was developed by Miss Sylvia

Ashton-Warner while she was teaching Maori children in New Zealand. This approach

calls for the choice of key words from each of the learners, which will them form the

basis of their reading lesson. They should not be ordinary words but words that have

emotional appeal to the learners; words that connote such emotions as love, hate, fear,

desire etc. They must be words that unlock the learner and set him on the road to finding

out more about himself and his circumstances.

In using this method, the education asks each individual participant what word he wants

to learn for the day. The card is given to him and later writes it in his notebook and on the

chalkboard. The chief learner then helps the learners to make sentences out of the word

and then stories which the class may discuss. This approach is based on self expression.

This approach has been successfully used in Cuba to fight against illiteracy and to appeal

23
to the emotion of people on economic, political and social issues. It can be used to write

primers for all categories of people in different occupations.

Learning and teach Approach: This is a relatively new approach in literacy education.

The method originated and is being used in South Africa. Learn and Teach is a foreign

funded, non-governmental literacy project in Johannesburg, South Africa. This approach

is seen as a solution to the problem faced by illiterate people within an industrial urban

environment and their vulnerability to exploitation. In its approach to literacy teaching,

learn and teach has been strongly influenced by the teachings of Paulo Freire. Basically,

the approach is a commitment experiential learning. The assumption is that learning is

being done and most useful when linked to real life situations. In using this method,

picture codes which are familiar to the lives of the learners are employed. The method is

useful in teaching local language e.g. Yoruba as well as a foreign language like English

Language.

Participatory Approaches

Participatory approaches in Adult literacy is relatively new in Nigeria but it has been in

use for over 30 years in other countries all over the world including Africa. The goal is to

promote sustainable rural and urban development. All the participatory techniques

emphasize the involvement of individuals that make-up the community. These

individuals are involved at the planning, executing monitoring, management, evaluation

and celebration of the success using locally available materials to promote sound respect

and commitment to the priorities of the people which enhances the sustainability of

interest and the programme. The approaches include:

24
1. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

2. Participatory Learning and Action (PLA)

3. Real Literacy Materials (RLM)

4. Learners Generated Materials (LGM)

5. REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community

Techniques.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

PRA is a process that involves the local people and all the external facilitators working

together as equal partners towards the realization of a vision that the local people

consider their own symbol or indictor of development. PRA practitioners start from the

recognition that poor communities have a wealth of local technical and social knowledge.

The non-illiterate needed techniques to articulate their knowledge. They have

environment with limited resources, what is needed are the techniques to enable non-

literate people to articulate their knowledge - as building on this knowledge and the

reality of the poor must be the starting point of any effective development programme.

PRA techniques are based on the idea that visualization can help participation. The

starting point is the collective construction of maps, matrices, calendars and diagrams on

the ground using whatever materials are locally available. The practitioners must have a

real respect for, and a real commitment to the priorities of the poor. PRA is usually done

only on a short term basis say two to three weeks and usually done only in selected

communities. It justifies the pedagogical rule in education, start with what the student

know not with what you know.

25
REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community

Techniques).

Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques

(REFLECT) is a new approach to adult literacy which fuses the theory of Paulo Freire

and the practice of participatory Rural appraisal. In the REFLECT programme there is no

textbook, no literacy (primer, no pre-printed materials other than a guide for the literacy

facilitators (produced locally by the facilitators themselves) Each literacy circle develops

its own learning materials through the construction of maps, matrices, calendars and

diagrams that represent local reality, systematize the existing knowledge of the learners

and promote the detailed analysis of local issues. These graphics can include maps of

households, land use or land tenancy, calendar of a gender workload, illness, disease or

income. It can also include matrices to analyze local crops and credit sources uses. The

graphics are used to stimulate discussions, participant - generated writing, related

numeracy work and action to address local problems.

By the end of the REFLECT process, each code circle would have produced enough

maps, matrices, calendars or diagrams representing a detailed analysis of their

community. They now have a permanent record which can be used for planning their

own local development initiatives. Each participant has a copy of each graphic together

with their phrases and sentences, amounting to a real document, a small book which they

themselves produced. This* has led to local action and a strong link between the literacy

programmes and other development activities.

26
REFLECT started in October 1993 in three pilot programmes were evaluated in 1995

(compared to other literacy approaches using traditional methods) and found REFFLECT

more effective in teaching people to read and write much more effective in linking

literacy to wider development.

Method and techniques of teaching literacy and Numerous Skills

Methods are ways in which people are organized in order to conduct an educational

activity. Methods can be divided into two:- general and specific. Some of the general

methods of teaching adult include lecture method, discussion, demonstration, role-play,

drama, use of games, story telling and use of proverbs and poems. On the other hand,

there are some specific teaching methods which the facilitator may adopt. They are:

Analytic Method

Synthetic Method

Eclectic Method

While methods describe how learners are organized, the term 'techniques describes the

way in which the teacher helps the adult learner to establish a link between himself and

the material to be learned. The important thing in literacy teaching is the ability to know

or determine which methods and techniques are most suitable for a given learning

situation. A combination of techniques that will enhance learning process should be

employed in any learning situation.

Specifically, there are three main ways of teaching reading, and writing in basic literacy

class. These are the synthetic, the analytic and the eclectic ways.

27
The synthetic Method: This method utilizes the alphabet of the language involved to

teach reading to beginners. The method comprises the alphabetic, phonic and syllabic

approach to teaching, when the alphabetic approach is used, letters of the alphabet are

first taught e.g. Abcdef etc.

Then syllables are built by combining vowels with consonants, e.g ba, ge, fe, etc.

Next, syllables are joined to other syllables to make meaningful words, e.g. Baba from

monosyllabic words, we move to B1 - syllables and then sentences e.g. a/bulle

balballalwo.

28