POWER SYSTEMS

BEE4033/EE419
POWER FLOW ANALYSIS
MS. KALAISELVI ARAMUGAM
kalaiselvi@ucsiuniversity.edu.my
 OVERVIEW

• Introduction
• Bus Admittance Matrix
• Types of Buses

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 INTRODUCTION

• This is a steady-state analysis of an interconnected

power system in balanced condition during normal
operation, represented by a single-phase network.
• All components of the network must be specified in per
unit, on a common MVA base.
• The node-voltage method (i.e. based on KCL) is deemed
the most suitable for many power system analyses.
• The network equations are formulated using admittances
for ease of calculations.
• They are non-linear and therefore must be solved by
iterative techniques.

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 INTRODUCTION
• The meeting point various components in a power system is
called bus (or bus bar).
• The bus bar will have zero voltage drop when it conducts the
rated current.
• Let,
𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 ,…. 𝑉𝑛 = Node voltages
𝐼11 , 𝐼22 , 𝐼33 ,….. 𝐼𝑚 = Sum of current sources connected to
nodes
𝑌𝑗𝑗 = Sum of admittances connected to node-j
𝑌𝑗𝑘 = Negative of sum of admittances connected between node-j
and node-k.
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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

(a) (b)
Admittance Diagram for System (taken from, Saadat, H., (2010) Power
System Analysis, 3rd Edition, PSA Publishing)

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• In Fig. (b) the circuit of Fig. (a) has been redrawn in terms of
admittances and the voltage sources have been replaced by
their equivalent current sources.
• Node 0, which is normally ground is taken as reference.
• Applying KCL to nodes 1 to 4, we get:
𝐼1 = 𝑦10 𝑉1 − 0 + 𝑦12 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 + 𝑦13 𝑉1 − 𝑉3
𝐼2 = 𝑦20 𝑉2 − 0 + 𝑦21 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 + 𝑦23 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
0 = 𝑦31 𝑉3 − 𝑉1 + 𝑦32 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 + 𝑦34 𝑉3 − 𝑉4
0 = 𝑦43 𝑉4 − 𝑉3

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• Rearranging the equations, we get:

𝐼1 = (𝑦10 +𝑦12 + 𝑦13 )𝑉1 − 𝑦12 𝑉2 − 𝑦13 𝑉3
𝐼2 = −𝑦21 𝑉1 + (𝑦20 +𝑦21 + 𝑦23 )𝑉2 − 𝑦23 𝑉3
0 = −𝑦31 𝑉1 − 𝑦32 𝑉2 + (𝑦31 +𝑦32 + 𝑦34 )𝑉3 − 𝑦34 𝑉4
0 = −𝑦43 𝑉3 + 𝑦43 𝑉4

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX
• Defining following admittances:
𝑌11 = 𝑦10 + 𝑦12 + 𝑦13
𝑌22 = 𝑦20 + 𝑦21 + 𝑦23
𝑌33 = 𝑦31 + 𝑦32 + 𝑦34
𝑌44 = 𝑦41 + 𝑦42 + 𝑦43
𝑌12 = 𝑌21 = −𝑦12
𝑌13 = 𝑌31 = −𝑦13
𝑌23 = 𝑌32 = −𝑦23
𝑌34 = 𝑌43 = −𝑦34
• Since in the given network there are no connections between buses
1 & 4 and 2 &4,
𝑌14 = 𝑌41 = 0
𝑌24 = 𝑌42 = 0

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• Thus, the node equations reduce to:

𝐼1 = 𝑌11 𝑉1 + 𝑌12 𝑉2 + 𝑌13 𝑉3 + 𝑌14 𝑉4
𝐼2 = 𝑌21 𝑉1 + 𝑌22 𝑉2 + 𝑌23 𝑉3 + 𝑌24 𝑉4
𝐼3 = 𝑌31 𝑉1 + 𝑌32 𝑉2 + 𝑌33 𝑉3 + 𝑌34 𝑉4
𝐼4 = 𝑌41 𝑉1 + 𝑌42 𝑉2 + 𝑌43 𝑉3 + 𝑌44 𝑉4

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• Then, generalizing, we get:

𝐼1 𝑌11 𝑌12 ⋯ 𝑌1𝑖 ⋯ 𝑌1𝑛 𝑉1

𝐼2 𝑌21 𝑌22 ⋯ 𝑌2𝑖 ⋯ 𝑌2𝑛 𝑉2
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
=
𝐼𝑖 𝑌𝑖1 𝑌𝑖2 ⋯ 𝑌𝑖𝑖 ⋯ 𝑌𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝐼𝑛 𝑌𝑛1 𝑌𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑌𝑛𝑖 ⋯ 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑛

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• I.e.:
𝐈𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝐘𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝐕𝑏𝑢𝑠
• Ibus
– It is the vector of the injected bus currents (external current
sources)
– It is positive when current flows into the bus, and vice-
versa.
• Vbus
– It is the vector of bus voltages measured from the
reference node.

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• Ybus
– It is the bus admittance matrix.
– The diagonal element of each node is the sum of
admittances connected to it and is known as self-
admittance or driving point admittance.
𝑛
𝑌𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗=0 𝑦𝑖𝑗 , 𝑗 ≠𝑖
– The off-diagonal element is equal to the negative of the
admittance between the nodes and is known as mutual
admittance or transfer admittance.
𝑌𝑖𝑗 = 𝑌𝑗𝑖 = −𝑦𝑖𝑗

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• When the bus currents are known, the equation can be solved
for n bus voltages, using:
−1
𝐕𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝐘𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝐈𝑏𝑢𝑠
• The inverse of the bus admittance matrix is called the
impedance matrix, Zbus.
• The bus admittance matrix obtained with one of the buses as
reference is non-singular; otherwise it is singular.
• The bus admittance matrix is also symmetric along the leading
diagonal, thus necessitating the storage of the upper triangular
nodal admittance matrix only.

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• In a typical power system network, each bus is connected

to only nearby buses; consequently, many off-diagonal
elements are zero; such a matrix is called sparse.
• Efficient numerical techniques can thus be applied to
compute its inverse.
• By means of a triangular decomposition, the inverse of a
sparse matrix can be expressed as a product of a sparse
matrix factors.
• All above reasons give an advantage in computational
speed, storage and reduction of round-off errors.

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 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

• The bus admittance matrix of given network:

−𝑗8.50 𝑗2.50 𝑗5.00 0

𝑗2.50 −𝑗8.75 𝑗5.00 0
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑗12.50
𝑗5.00 𝑗5.00 −𝑗22.50
0 0 𝑗12.50 −𝑗12.50

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 TYPES OF BUSES
• Slack bus
– Also known as the swing bus.
– It is taken as the reference, where the voltage magnitude
and phase angle are known.
– This bus makes up the difference between the scheduled
loads and generated power that are caused by the losses
in the network.
• Load buses
– Also known as P-Q buses.
– At these buses the real and reactive powers are specified.
– The voltage magnitude and phase angle are unknown.

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 TYPES OF BUSES

• Regulated buses
– Also known as the generator buses or voltage-
controlled buses or P-V buses.
– The voltage magnitude and real power are
specified.
– The voltage phase angle and reactive power are to
be determined.

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 OVERVIEW

• Gauss-Seidel Method
• Newton-Raphson Method
• Comparison between Gauss-Seidel and Newton-
Raphson Methods

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
• It is also known as the method of successive displacements.
• To illustrate the technique, consider the solution of the non-linear
equation given by,
𝑓 𝑥 =0
• This function is rearranged and written as,
𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)
• If x(k) is an initial estimate of the variable x, the following iterative
sequence is formed:
𝑥 (𝑘+1) = 𝑔 𝑥 𝑘

• A solution is obtained when the difference between the absolute

value of the successive iteration is less than a specified accuracy,
i.e.,
𝑥 𝑘+1 −𝑥 𝑘 ≤𝜖 𝜖 is the desired accuracy

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD

Example 4.1
Use the Gauss-Seidel method to find a root of the
following equation,
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 4 = 0

Solving for , the above expression is written as

𝑥 3 6𝑥 2 4
𝑥=− + +
9 9 9
𝑥=𝑔 𝑥

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
• The Gauss-Seidel method needs many iterations to achieve
the desired accuracy.
• There is no guarantee of convergence; convergence is highly
dependent upon the initial estimate selected.
• The rate of convergence can be increased by using a suitable
acceleration factor , and the iterative sequence becomes,
𝑥 (𝑘+1) = 𝑥 𝑘
+𝛼 𝑔 𝑥 𝑘
−𝑥 𝑘
--------- (1)
• The acceleration factor must not be too large since the larger
step size may result in an overshoot, causing:
• Increased number of iterations.
• Divergence.

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD
Example 4.2
Determine a root of the equation in Example 5.1, using the Gauss-Seidel method with
an acceleration factor of α = 1.25.

Starting with an initial estimate of 𝑥 (0) = 2 using Eq. (1), the first iteration is

2 3 6 2 2 4
𝑔 2 =− + + = 2.2222
9 9 9
(1)
𝑥 =2+1.25[2.2222 - 2] = 2.2778

The second iteration is

2.2778 3 6 2.2778 2 4
𝑔 2.2778 = − + + = 2.5902
9 9 9
(2)
𝑥 =2.2778+1.25[2.5902 – 2.2778] = 2.6683

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 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

• It is a successive approximation procedure based on an

initial estimate of the unknown and the use of Taylor’s
series expansion.
• Consider the solution of a one-dimensional equation
given by,
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑐
• If x(0) is an initial estimate of the solution, and ∆x(0) is a
small deviation from the correct solution, we must have,
𝑓 𝑥 0 + ∆𝑥 0 = 𝑐

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 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

• Expanding the left-hand side of the above equation in Taylor’s

series about x(0) yields,
0 2𝑓 0
0
𝑑𝑓 0
1 𝑑 0 2
𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 + 2
∆𝑥 +⋯=𝑐
𝑑𝑥 2! 𝑑𝑥
• Assuming the error ∆x(0) is very small, the higher-order terms
can be neglected, which gives,
𝑑𝑓 0
∆𝑐 0 = 𝑐 − 𝑓 𝑥 0 ≈ ∆𝑥 0
𝑑𝑥
• Adding ∆x(0) to the initial estimate will result in the second
approximation,
1 0 ∆𝑐 0
𝑥 =𝑥 + 0
𝑑𝑓
𝑑𝑥

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 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

• Successive use of this procedure yields the NR algorithm,

∆𝑐 𝑘 = 𝑐 − 𝑓(𝑥 𝑘 )
𝑘 ∆𝑐 𝑘
∆𝑥 = 𝑘 , can be rearranged
𝑑𝑓
𝑑𝑥
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
∆𝑐 =𝑗 ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑓 𝑘
𝑘
𝑗 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑘
𝑥 =𝑥 + ∆𝑥

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 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

Example 4.3
Use the Newton-Raphson method to find a root of the equation
given in Example 5.1. Assume an initial estimate of 𝑥 (0) = 6.

The analytical solution given by the Newton-Raphson algorithm is

𝑑𝑓(𝑥)
= 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9
𝑑𝑥

∆𝑐 0 =𝑐−𝑓 𝑥 0 =0− 6 3 −6 6 2 + 9 6 − 4 = −50

𝑑𝑓 (0)
= 3(6)2 −12 6 + 9 = 45
𝑑𝑥

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 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
∆𝑐 (0) −50
∆𝑥 (0) = (0)
= = −1.1111
𝑑𝑓 45
𝑑𝑥
Therefore, the result at the end of the first iteration is
𝑥 (1) = 𝑥 (0) + ∆𝑥 (0) = 6 − 1.1111 = 4.8889
The subsequent iterations result in
13.4431
𝑥 (2) = 𝑥 (1) + ∆𝑥 (1) = 4.8889 − = 4.2789
22.037

2.9981
𝑥 (3) = 𝑥 (2) + ∆𝑥 (2) = 4.2789 − = 4.0405
12.5797

0.3748
𝑥 (4) = 𝑥 (3) + ∆𝑥 (3) = 4.0405 − = 4.0011
9.4914

0.0095
𝑥 (5) = 𝑥 (4) + ∆𝑥 (4) = 4.0011 − = 4.0000
9.0126

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 COMPARISON BETWEEN GAUSS-SEIDEL &
NEWTON-RAPHSON METHODS

• Gauss-Seidel Method
– Computer memory requirement is less.
– Computation time per iteration is less.
– It requires less number of arithmetic operations to complete
an iteration and ease in programming.
– No. of iterations are more for convergence and rate of
convergence is slow (linear convergence characteristic).
– No. of iterations increases with the increase of no. of
buses.

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 COMPARISON BETWEEN GAUSS-SEIDEL &
NEWTON-RAPHSON METHODS
• Newton-Raphson Method
– Superior convergence because of quadratic convergence.
– It has an 1:8 iteration ratio compared to GS method.
– More accurate.
– Smaller no. of iterations and used for large size systems.
– It is faster and no. of iterations is independent of the no. of buses.
– Technique is difficult and calculations involved in each iteration are
more and thus computation time per iteration is large.
– Computer memory requirement is large, as the elements of Jacobian
matrix are to be computed in each iteration.
– Programming logic is more complex.

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 OVERVIEW

• The Objectives of Load Flow Studies

• Power Flow Equation
• Line Flows and Losses
• Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Solution
• Newton-Raphson Power Flow Solution

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 OBJECTIVES OF LOAD FLOW STUDIES

• Load flow studies are carried out for the following purposes:-
– They are necessary for planning, operation, economic
scheduling and exchange of power between utilities.
– They are necessary for transient stability analysis.
– They are necessary for contingency studies.
– They are necessary for future expansion of the power
system.
– They are necessary for determining equipment rating like
transformers, cables, protective switchgears etc.

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 POWER FLOW EQUATION

L5-Fig. 5.2 : A typical Bus of the Power System

(taken from, Saadat, H., (2010) Power System Analysis, 3rd Edition, PSA
Publishing)

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 POWER FLOW EQUATION
• For the bus in Fig. 5.2, applying KCL to this bus gives,
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖0 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖1 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉1 + 𝑦𝑖2 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑛
= 𝑦𝑖0 + 𝑦𝑖1 + 𝑦𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖1 𝑉1 − 𝑦𝑖2 𝑉2 − ⋯ − 𝑦𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑉𝑖 𝑗=0 𝑦𝑖𝑗 − 𝑗=1 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑗≠𝑖
Eq. 4.1
• The real and reactive power at bus i is,
𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖 *
Eq. 4.2
𝑃𝑖 −𝑗𝑄𝑖
∴ 𝐼𝑖 =
𝑉𝑖 ∗
• Combining the above equations we get,
𝑃𝑖 −𝑗𝑄𝑖 𝑛 𝑛 Eq. 4.3
= 𝑉𝑖 𝑗=0 𝑦𝑖𝑗 − 𝑗=1 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 𝑗≠𝑖
𝑉𝑖 ∗

• From the above equation, the mathematical formulation of the power flow
problem results in a system of algebraic non-linear equations which must
be solved by iterative techniques.
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 LINE FLOWS AND LOSSES

L5-Fig. 5.3 : Transmission Line Model for Calculating Line Flows (taken from,
Saadat, H., (2010) Power System Analysis, 3rd Edition, PSA Publishing)

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 LINE FLOWS AND LOSSES
• Consider the 2-bus network in Fig. 5.3; line current Iij,
measured at bus i and defined positive in the direction shown,
and is given by,
𝐼𝑖𝑗 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑖0 = 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑗 + 𝑦𝑖0 𝑉𝑖 Eq. 4.4

• Then, line current Iji measured at bus j, is given by,

𝐼𝑗𝑖 = −𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑗0 = 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 − 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗0 𝑉𝑗 Eq. 4.5

• The complex powers Sij from bus i to bus j and Sji from bus j to
bus i are given by,
∗
𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖𝑗 Eq. 4.6
∗
𝑆𝑗𝑖 = 𝑉𝑗 𝐼𝑗𝑖 Eq. 4.7
• Then, the power loss in line i-j is given by,
𝑆𝐿 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑖𝑗 + 𝑆𝑗𝑖
Eq. 4.8

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW
SOLUTION
• The Gauss-Seidel algorithm for calculating a bus
voltage,
𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ −𝑗𝑄𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ 𝑛
∗(𝑘) + 𝑗=1 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 (𝑘)
𝑉𝑖 (𝑘+1) = 𝑉𝑖
𝑛 j≠i Eq. 4.9
𝑗=0 𝑦𝑖𝑗

Pisch = net real power expressed in p.u.

Qisch = net reactive power expressed in p.u.
yij = actual admittance expressed in p.u.

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW
SOLUTION
• Current entering bus I is taken as positive.
• For generator buses, since real & reactive powers are injected
into the bus, Pisch and Qisch have positive values.
• For load buses, since real & reactive powers flowing away
from the bus, Pisch and Qisch have negative values.
• Solving equation for apparent power, Sij, gives,
𝑛 𝑛

𝑃𝑖 (𝑘+1) = 𝑅𝑒*𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑘 ,𝑉𝑖 (𝑘) 𝑦𝑖𝑗 − 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 (𝑘) -+ 𝑗≠𝑖

𝑗=0 𝑗=1 Eq. 4.10
𝑛 𝑛

𝑄𝑖 (𝑘+1) = −𝐼𝑚*𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑘 ,𝑉𝑖 (𝑘) 𝑦𝑖𝑗 − 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 (𝑘) -+ 𝑗≠𝑖

𝑗=0 𝑗=1 Eq. 4.11

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 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW
SOLUTION
• The power flow equation is usually expressed in terms of the
elements of the bus admittance matrix.
• We know, Yij = -yij, and Yii = ∑yij
• Then we get,
𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ −𝑗𝑄𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ
∗(𝑘) − 𝑗≠1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 (𝑘)
𝑉𝑖 (𝑘+1) = 𝑉 𝑖
Eq. 4.12
𝑌𝑖𝑖
𝑛

𝑃𝑖 (𝑘+1) = 𝑅𝑒*𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑘
,𝑉𝑖 𝑘
𝑌𝑖𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 (𝑘) -+ 𝑗≠𝑖 Eq. 4.13
𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖
𝑛

𝑄𝑖 (𝑘+1) = −𝐼𝑚*𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑘 ,𝑉𝑖 𝑘 𝑌𝑖𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 (𝑘) -+ 𝑗≠𝑖 Eq. 4.14

𝑗=1
𝑗≠1

BEE4033/EE419 - Power Systems L4-Power Flow Analysis 38

 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW
SOLUTION
• At the load buses (i.e. PQ buses), the real and reactive
powers, Pisch and Qisch are known; taking an initial voltage
estimate of (1.0 + j0.0), and using eq. 5.12, the real &
imaginary components of the unknown voltage are
computed.
• At the voltage controlled buses (i.e. PV buses), Pisch and
|Vi| are known; using eq. 5.14, Qi(k+1) is computed, and
using eq. 5.12, Vi(k+1) is computed.

BEE4033/EE419 - Power Systems L4-Power Flow Analysis 39

 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW
SOLUTION
• However, since |Vi| is specified, only the imaginary part of
Vi(k+1) is retained, the real part is selected such that,
(𝑒𝑖 (𝑘+1) )2 + (𝑓𝑖 (𝑘+1) )2 = 𝑉𝑖 2

𝑒𝑖 (𝑘+1) = 𝑉𝑖 2 − (𝑓𝑖 (𝑘+1) )2 Eq. 4.15

where ei(k+1) and fi(k+1) are the real and imaginary

components of the voltage Vi(k+1) in the iterative
sequence.

BEE4033/EE419 - Power Systems L4-Power Flow Analysis 40

 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW
SOLUTION
• The updated voltages immediately replace the previous
values in the solutions of the subsequent equations.
• The process is continued until changes in the real and
imaginary components of the bus voltages between
successive iterations are within a specified accuracy, i.e.
𝑒𝑖(𝑘+1) − 𝑒𝑖 (𝑘) ≤ 𝜖
𝑓𝑖 (𝑘+1) − 𝑓𝑖 (𝑘) ≤ 𝜖

BEE4033/EE419 - Power Systems L4-Power Flow Analysis 41

 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW
SOLUTION
• For the power mismatch to be reasonably small and
acceptable, a very tight tolerance must be specified on
both components of the voltage; an accuracy in the range
of 0.00001 to 0.00005 pu is satisfactory.
• In practice, completion of solution is based on an
accuracy index set up on the power mismatch; a typical
power mismatch accuracy is 0.001 pu.
• Once the solution is converged, using eqs. 5.13 and 5.14,
the net real and reactive powers at the slack bus are
computed.

BEE4033/EE419 - Power Systems L4-Power Flow Analysis 42