Sanitary Engineering All PDF For B.E. 2075

6/1/2018
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
 Five essential requirements:
1.air 2.water 3. food 4. heat 5. light.
By:
 Contamination : health hazards to man/animals/plant
Arun Prasad Parajuli
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil  Dealt in “Environmental Engineering”.
Engineering)
 Sanitary Engineering: branch of Public Health
Associate Professor/ Head Engineering: deals with collection, conveyance, treatment
Department of Civil Engineering, and disposal of waste produced
 Concerned with safe removal of wastewater and solid
Sagarmatha Engineering College, waste without causing any nuisance
Sanepa, Lalitpur
 Our Course majority towards wastewater and
introduction to solid waste.
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Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

1.2 NECESSITY AND IMPORTANCE OF WASTE 1.3 DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS
WATER AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT A. Refuse:
• Wastewater and solid waste from the community everyday.  Rejected/left as worthless liquid, semi liquid and solid wastes.
 Classified as follows:
• Decomposes/produce bad smell/contaminate air, soil and a. Garbage:
water (surface and underground).  dry refuse including organic and putrefying (rotten)
matters
• Favorable for breeding of mosquito/flies/bacteria so  waste paper, decayed fruits and vegetables, grass, leaves,
spreading of diseases (Cholera, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice street sweepings, sweeping from markets/public places.
etc.) b. Rubbish:
 dry and combustible from offices, residences etc
• in-sanitary conditions /liable for environmental degradation.  building material wastes, broken furniture, paper etc.
c. Sullage:
• Proper, scientific and efficient wastewater and solid waste  wastewater from bathroom, kitchen, wash basins and
management is important and necessary for safe collection, other washing places
conveyance, treatment and disposal of waste products.  doesn’t create bad smell because of absence (negligible
3 presence) of organic matters. 4

 Classified as:
d. Subsoil water: i. Storm Sewage:
 portion of ground water entering into the sewer through faulty  rainwater and it is not so harmful.
joints and leakages. ii. Sanitary Sewage:
 sewage derived from residential and industrial
e. Storm water: establishments.
 rain water of the locality. Domestic Sewage:
o Wasted from lavatory basins, urinals, water closets of
f. Night Soil: residential buildings, offices, theaters and other
 human and animal excreta. institutions a
o contains human excreta and urine hence foul in nature.
g. Sewage: Industrial sewage:
 liquid wastes (called wastewater nowadays) sullage, discharge o wastewater obtained from the industrial and
from toilet, urinals, groundwater, storm water, surface water, commercial establishments
industrial wastewater etc. o contain objectionable organic compounds which
 contain disease causing bacteria malodorous gas further needs heavy treatment.
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B. Sewer:
• underground conduit (generally closed and partial flowing) e. Branch or sub main sewer:
through which sewage is carried to the point of discharge or receives sewage from a no of lateral sewers and delivers it to
disposal. main sewer.
a. Separate sewer: f. Lateral sewer:
carrying domestic and industrial sewage. receives sewage from house through house sewer and delivers
b. Storm sewer: it to a branch or sub main sewer. It indicates the first stage of
sewage collection.
carrying storm water of the locality.
g. House sewer:
c. Combined sewer:
carries sewage from house and delivers it to a street or lateral
carrying domestic, industrial and storm sewage. sewer.
d. Main or trunk sewer: h. Outfall sewer:
receives sewage from a branch or sub mains and serves as an receives sewage from collection system and delivers it to a
outlet for a large area. point of final discharge or disposal point.
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C. Invert and crown:
The lowest and topmost portion of internal cross section of a a. Collection Works
sewer or drain or tunnel or aqueduct
• includes the house drainage works and networks of sewers
D. Sewerage: laid in the town to collect the wastewater from houses,
It includes the structures, device, equipment used for removal of
sewage. industrial and public places etc.
In other word: indicates the entire science of collection and carrying
of sewage through sewers by water carriage system.
• Solid waste and refuge are collected separately into individual
or public bins
1.4 MANAGEMENT METHODS
a. Collection
b. Conveyance • wastewater is collected through house drainage system and
c. Treatment
properly laid sewer networks.
d. Disposal
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• Collection works should be carried out to:
c. Treatment Works
a. Transport waste quickly to treatment works without
causing harm to public health in affordable way for poor • Untreated wastewater and solid waste if disposed directly it
causes:
community.  Pollution of water bodies and water supply.
b. Avoid foul gases, disease causing bacteria and mosquito  Destruction of fish and other aquatic life.
 Contamination of bathing places.
breeding places.  Pollution in the atmosphere.
c. Make system self-cleaning and hydraulically tight.
• So before disposal, treatment is required so that its impacts
b. Conveyance Works are reduced.
• conveyed outside the city either by loading them into
trolleys, or trucks to treatment or disposal place. • Treatment works designed in such a way that the treated
water can be used for general purpose such as irrigation,
• Wastewater through sewer lines with the help of water to animal bathing etc.
the place where the proper treatment or disposal is done. 11 12
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1.5 OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL
d. Disposal Works • To dispose human excreta in a safe place before the start of
decomposition, to protect in-sanitary conditions to the locality.
 dispose the waste
 papers, plastics, metals etc. can be recycled or reused.
 Treated wastewater effluent is safe to use in agriculture, • To take out all wastewater from the locality immediately after
industrial cooling and ground water recharge. use so that mosquito, flies, bacteria etc. mayn't breed in it.
 Wastewater after treatment may be disposed safely in
rivers or streams or other natural watercourses. • To dispose sewage on natural water bodies after treatment so
 In hilly areas, where the conditions permit, treatment that the receiving water and land may not get polluted.
may be avoided and disposed directly to the larger
water courses
• To utilize the fertilizing value of sewage for growing crops.
 Disposal should be such that it mayn't cause harm to
Public Health.
 Solid waste may be disposed-off by sanitary landfill or • To treat and dispose-off the resulting effluent in un-sewered
incineration etc. areas in individual houses in septic tank and other suitable
means.
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• To dispose on the land after treatment so that it may not 1. Conservancy System
affect the subsoil. • very old system /called dry system and even used nowadays
in underdeveloped areas.
• To dispose sewage scientifically to protect the public and • wastes are collected, conveyed and disposed separately by
community health from bad smell, foul gases, mosquito, different methods.
bacteria etc. that reduces the dander of spreading of • Garbage or dry refuge is collected in the baskets, pans then
diseases like typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea etc. dust bins placed along the roads and conveyed by trucks,
carts and disposed-off to the disposal point.
• Non-combustible garbage such as sand, dust etc. are used in
1.6 SANITATION SYSTEM sanitary landfill
• combustible portions such as leaves, waste paper are burnt
1. Conservancy system 2. Water carriage system and the decaying matters such as fruits, vegetable wastes are
first dried then burnt to make the manure.
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• Human excreta or night soil is collected in privies or latrines Demerits

and removed by human agency and buried in the trenches • Unhygienic and chances of spreading of diseases.
• after 2 – 3 years it is used as manure.
• Difficult to construct drains in the crowded area.
• Sullage and storm waters are carried separately in closed or
open drains to the disposal point (water courses, land for • More land is required for burring human excreta.
farming).
• Latrines are to be provided away from the building hence
Merits building can't be designed as one compact unit.
• Cheap initially due to conservancy latrine and open drain for • Possibility of pollution of underground water.
storm water. • Aesthetic appearance of the city can't be improved.
• Quantity reaching to the treatment plant is low. • Decomposition of sewage causes in-sanitary conditions and
• No silting problem in open drain. danger to public health.
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2. Water Carriage System
Merits
• human agency to convey night soil should not be used and it • Hygienic because no use of human agency.
is found that water is the cheapest substance to collect and • No nuisance in streets and towns due to closed sewers.
convey the sewage, which is called water carriage system. • Less and underground space is used for sewer.
• In this system water and night soil (sewage) is mixed (99.9 • Self-cleaning velocity can be easily obtained.
% water and 0.1 % solid matters) and then conveyed • Building and latrine can be designed in one unit.
through properly designed sewerage systems then disposed- • Less land is required for disposal work.
off. • Usual water supply is sufficient and no additional water is
• All these matters remain in suspension and does not change required.
the specific gravity of water hence all the hydraulic formula • Sewage after treatment can be used for various purposes.
is used to design the sewerage system. • Labor is not required.
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Demerits 1. Combined System: both sanitary and storm sewage
• High initial and maintenance cost.
Merits
• Large quantity of sewage is to be treated during monsoon. • No problem of flush because self-cleaning velocity is
available due to more quantity of sewage.
• Rainwater dilutes the sewage so treatment process is easy

and economical.
1.7 TYPES OF SEWERAGE (WATER CARRIAGE) • No chances of choking due to larger size and availability of
SYSTEM rainwater.
1. Combined system • House plumbing is easy and economical because only one
2. Separate System set of pipe is required.
3. Partially separate system
• In congested area it is easy to lay one large sewer.
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Demerits
2. Separate System:
• High initial cost due to more depth of laying because of
two separate sewers to carry sanitary and storm sewage
large size of sewer.
• Not suitable for areas having very less rainfall because self-
Merits
cleansing velocity can't be achieved in the dry period but
may get problem of silting. • Treatment is economical due to less quantity of sewage
• Cheaper because storm sewage can be conveyed through open
• Uneconomical for such huge quantity if pumping is
required. drains and sanitary sewage only through closed drains.
• Cheaper if pumping is required.
• Rainwater is unnecessarily polluted and overflow may
occur during heavy rain which causes harm to the public • No fear of pollution created by overflow during heavy rain.
health.
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3. Partially separate System:

Demerits
• Due to small quantity of sewage, self-cleansing velocity mayn't
 If a portion of storm water is allowed to enter in the sanitary
be available in all periods hence flushing system may be
sewage-carrying sewer and remaining storm sewage into
required.
another sewer, the system is called partially separate system.
• Risk of entry of storm sewage, which may cause overflow and
 In this system, storm water from roof, pavement and yards
heavy load on treatment.
are allowed together with sewer and remaining storm water
• Maintenance cost high due to two sets of sewers and lying in
is drained off from other drain.
congested area is difficult.
 It is suitable in areas of rainfall throughout the year and
• Uneasy in house plumbing two sets of pipes for storm and
when the self-cleansing velocity is not available due to
sanitary sewage separately.
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smaller quantity of sewage. 26
Chapter 1 Introduction
COMPARISION BETWEEN SEPARATE AND COMBINED SYSTEM
Separate system Combined system
1. Less quantity / cheap. 1. High quantity costlier.
2. Suitable for more rainfall intensity 2. Suitable for area having less
area. rainfall intensity.
3. Pumping cost is low due to less 3. Pumping cost is high due to large
quantity. quantity.
THANK YOU
4. Cheaper because storm water can 4. Expensive because both storm
be conveyed in open drain and only water and sanitary sewage is
sanitary sewer is closed and under conveyed through one large closed
grounded. and under grounded.
5. Less degree of sanitation is achieved 5. High degree of sanitation can be
as storm water is directly disposed achieved.
without treatment.
6. Difficult to lay in narrow streets. 6. Suitable in narrow streets.
7. House plumbing and municipal 7. House plumbing and municipal
sewer laying is uneasy due to two sewer laying is easy due to one set
set of pipe of pipe.
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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

CHAPTER 2 QUANTITY OF WASTEWATER 2.1 INTRODUCTION
known before overestimate (uneconomical and Underestimate
designing any lack of self- cleansing velocity) (overflow)
sewerage system
Waste water
(liquid waste of the community)
By: a. Sanitary Sewage or dry b. Storm Sewage or wet

weather flow (DWF) weather flow (WWF)
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil Engineering)
flow flow of only includes additional Source: includes
Associate Professor/ Head through sanitary wastewater from flow precipitati runoff
Department of Civil Engineering, sewers sewage in residences, through the on reaching
normally the industries and sewers (quantity to the
Sagarmatha Engineering College, available absence of ground water during rainy >> sewers or
during non- storm infiltrating into season sanitary drains
Sanepa, Lalitpur rainfall water in the leaked joints sewage)
1 period dry period of sewer 2

2.2 SOURCES OF SANITARY SEWAGE 2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SANITARY SEWAGE
Municipal supply .The amount Higher the w/s rate, Higher
of water after certain losses
water from wells,
on consumption becomes the
lakes, canals etc. source of sanitary sewage.
Public water supply Rate of water supply from local and private authority
Residential/Industrial/
Higher the population, Higher Commercial
SOURCES OF
Infiltration of ground FACTORS
Private supply/sources SANITARY water
Population AFFECTING
SEWAGE
SANITARY
Type of area
SEWAGE
through leaked joints
water supply by the Unauthorized connection and any other way.
local authority
(schools, colleges,
business center, unauthorized entrance of Additions/ Subtractions
hotels cinema halls rainwater as well as
etc.) unauthorized connection  Infiltration of GW/Unauthorized Rainwater/Unauthorized connection of
wastewater
 Wastage from pipe/evaporation/cloth, road washing/garden irrigation,
3 consumption in drinking and industries 4
2.4 DETERMINATION OF QUANTITY OF SANITARY SEWAGE 2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING STORM WATER
• Characteristics/slope/shape/area of the catchment.

 Design quantity of sanitary sewage (Qsa) = Pf × DWF • Imperviousness in the catchment.
Where, peak factor (Pf) = 2 – 4 (3 in general) and
• Obstructions by trees/fields/gardens etc.
 Dry weather flow (DWF) = Population × 70 to 90% of • Initial wetness of catchment.
water supply rate
• Intensity/duration of rainfall.
• Atmospheric pressure/wind/humidity.
Qsa = (0.7 to 0.9) × (2 to 4) × P × q w/s • Number/size of depressions, water pockets and ditches
• Time required for the flow to reach the sewer.
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Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater
2.6 DETERMINATION OF STORM WATER OR WWF RATIONAL METHOD

CiA
Q St  (m3/s),
• Runoff = [Total rainfall – losses due to evaporation, 360
where,
absorption, transpiration, percolation etc.]
Qst = Quantity of storm sewage (WWF) in m3/s
• Difficult to find out the losses due to evaporation, C = Coefficient of runoff
absorption, transpiration, percolation etc. i = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr

1 ha =10000 m2
A = Area of the Catchment in ha
• So we use:
Limitations of Rational Method
(a) Empirical formulae method (not needed) and
• Useful for small catchments (< 500 ha)
(b) Rational method (concerned with this because
• exact value of ‘C’ can’t be taken so misleading for >500 ha
catchment less than 500 ha) • not consider the slope and wetness of soil.
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a. Catchment Area (A):
• From map showing streets, houses, playgrounds sewers etc.
• For different type of surface, area is determined separately
because coefficient of runoff differs for each area.
b. Coefficient of runoff or imperviousness factor or

impermeability (C):
• Runoff reaching sewers = Total rainfall - losses in E, ET, T,
percolation etc.
• Runoff depends upon porosity, ground cover materials etc.
• C = ratio of runoff to rainfall.
• C taken from table for different surfaces
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c. Intensity of rainfall (i):

• Amount of rain fall per unit time (cm/hr or mm/hr).
• Determined by:
• Rain gauge data
• Empirical formula based on long field experiences
• (British Ministry of Health Formula)
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2.7 TIME AREA GRAPH
Maximum flow occurs at ‘t = Tc’

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THANK YOU
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3.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 3 CHARACTERISTICS AND
• Sewage consists of residential, public and industrial
EXAMINATION OF SEWAGE
mixtures of wastewater
• Contain organic and inorganic materials in dissolved
or suspended, or colloidal form
• Contain various microorganisms useful and harmful to
By: human life.
• before designing any sewage treatment system to work
Associate Professor/ Head efficiently we analysis of characteristics of sewage is
Department of Civil Engineering,
needed.
Sagarmatha Engineering College,
Sanepa, Lalitpur 1 2
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE b. Odour:

1. Physical 2. Chemical and 3.Biological • Fresh sewage is of soapy or oily
• Stale sewage has offensive odour due to H2S, CH4 etc.
1. Physical characteristics: • Test by threshold odor test and measured in terms of TON as
(a) Colour (b) Odour (c) Temperature described in water supply engineering
(d) Turbidity (e) Solids c. Temperature:

a.Colour: • slightly higher temperature than the water
• Test by thermometer and measured in terms of °C as
• Due to suspended and other matters. described in water supply engineering
• Fresh has a soap solution colour (i.e. grey-brown type) but
d. Turbidity:
septic has dark grey then black colour • very turbid than water due to the presence of high suspended
and organic matters.
• Colour of industrial sewage varies
• Test by turbidity meter and measured in terms of silica scale
• Test by color test in terms of platinum cobalt scale as as described in water supply engineering
described in water supply engineering 3 4
e. Solids:
• contains >99.9% of water and 0.1% of solids.
• Classified as:
a. suspended solids: cannot be passed through filter paper
(non filterable solids) (i) settleable and (ii) non-settleable.
b. Dissolved solids: passes through filter papers (filterable
solids.
• Classified in other way as:

(a) volatile: organic (escape out when heated to 550±50C for
30 minutes)
(i) nitrogenous: urea, proteins, amines and amino acids
(ii) non nitrogenous: consists of carbohydrates, soaps
(b) fixed solids: inorganic (sand, debris, gravel etc)
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2. Chemical characteristics:
• Sewage contains complex compounds from urine, faeces,

inorganic chemicals etc.
• Chemical characteristics affects the selection and operation
of various treatment component
• pH; Nitrogen content; chloride content; fat, grease and oil
content; sulphide, sulphates and H2S; dissolved oxygen (DO);
chemical oxygen demand (COD); biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) etc.
• We are concerned with

(a) pH (b) dissolved oxygen (DO);
(c) chemical oxygen demand (COD);
(d) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
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a. pH:
• Fresh sewage is alkaline and pH is between 7.3 and 7.5. c. BOD:
• With respect to time due to the production of acids by Amount of oxygen required for the bacteria to oxidize the
bacterial action and become acidic. organic matter present in the sewage.
• After oxidation again becomes alkaline.
• Very lesser and very higher pH indicates industrial sewage.
• Test by pH meter and measured in terms of pH value as
described in water supply engineering
d. COD:
Amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic
b. DO: matters.
• amount of oxygen dissolved in wastewater.
• Presence indicates fresh sewage or oxidation after
treatment.
• 4 ppm of DO in stream for fish.
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3.3 SAMPLING OF SEWAGE

3. Biological characteristics: • process of collection of true representative sample to
determine characteristics
• Domestic sewage consists of microorganism • characteristics changes continuously with respect to time
• presence is 22 – 25 millions numbers in a liter of sewage • So 24 hours sample (100 to 150 cc) collection is done at one-
• may be pathogenic, indicator organisms etc. hour interval
• The main source of pathogenic microorganism is excreta
from sick people • sample is classified as:
• The microorganism can be classified as:
(a) Aquatic plants (b) Aquatic animals a.Grab sample:
(c) Aquatic mold (fungi), bacteria and virus.  manually collected sample taken at particular time and
• Aquatic Plants consists of waterweeds algae etc. location.
• Aquatic animals consist of fish, snails, amphibians, insects,  Suitable for testing pH, residual chlorine and dissolved
earth worms, hydra etc. These are responsible for disease. oxygen.
• various types of bacteria and virus, dealt in water supply
engineering. b. Composite sample:
• decomposition of sewage is possible due to these bacteria. Grab samples are mixed as per the weightage of sewage flow
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is called composite sample.
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3.4 COD AND BOD

Preservatives and storage:
1. Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
• amount of oxygen required for oxidation of organic matter, chemical,
carbonaceous matter and other reducing agents using potassium
• Suitable preservatives (chloroform, sulpheric acid, formaldehyde dichromate.
• BOD test requires minimum of 5 days but COD test is quick and simple.
etc) to prevent change in quality • Correlation with BOD and COD is found from both test.
• BOD is significant and computed from COD.
• for determination of alkalinity, acidity: No sulpheric acid is used
• for organic matters and grease: No chloroform used. 2. Bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD)
• amount of oxygen required for the biological decomposition of the
• for BOD: no preservatives are used. organic matter by aerobic bacteria.
• Significant in sewage analysis
• samples kept in a cool place to prevent bacterial activity • larger concentration, greater BOD and organic strength of sewage is
more
• Each sample should have label with information as under: • Oxidation occurs in two stages (figure 3.2).
1. Source 2.Date 3.Time • First stage in 7 to 10 days or more and carbonaceous oxidized and second
4. Preservatives used 5. Collector's identity stage in longer period and nitrogenous matter is stabilized.
• BOD tests at 20C for a period of 5 days is sufficient to satisfy 70 – 80%
6.Temperature 7. Atmospheric pressure
of total BOD which measures biodegradable organics.
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3.5 TESTS OF SEWAGE

L0 – Yt = Lt
1. Physical test 2. Chemical tests 3. Biological tests
1. Physical test:
Yt
Lt and
(a) Temperature: by thermometer [ordinary/digital] inC

Lt
Time ‘t’ (days)

(b) Colour: by Tintometer as described in Water Supply Engineering
Figure 3.3 First stage BOD
Figure 3.2 Stages of oxidation of organic (in platinum cobalt scale, mg/l)
matters (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
curve
(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
Expressions for BOD (c) Odour: by Threshold Odour Number as described in Water
Let,
Supply Engineering.
t = Time (days)
Lt = Amount of first stage BOD remaining or oxygen equivalent of organic
matters left after ‘t’ days (in mg/l)
L0 = Amount of first stage BOD remaining or oxygen equivalent of organic matters (d) Turbidity: by Turbidity rod or Jackson's Turbidity Meter as
present in sewage at beginning or at ‘t = 0’ in mg/l
described in Water Supply Engineering.
Yt = Amount of first stage BOD exerted or oxygen equivalent of organic matters
oxidized after ‘t’ days in mg/l 15 16
3. Biological tests: A. pH test:

• By Colorimetric or electrometric method.
• Biological/bacteriological test of sewage is not carried out • Digital pH meter is common.
• Presence of bacteria has no effect on choice of treatment method
but essential for efficient working of treatment units B. Solids test:
a. Determination of total solids (TS):
• Absence indicates presence of industrial waste harmful to bacteria.
i. Take crucible of weight 'W1' and put 'V' volume of well
• Bacteriological test: to determine the degree of pollution of water mixed sewage sample and evaporate to dryness in oven at
bodies like streams and rivers etc. 103 – 105°C for 24 hours.
ii. Cool the crucible and take weight as 'W2'.
2. Chemical tests:
• Total solid, pH test, tests for oxygen consumed; DO; oxygen iii. Then,
demand (BOD, COD); Chloride test; nitrogen test; fats and
oil test; tests for surfactants; pesticides and agriculture b. Determination of total volatile (TVS) and fixed (TFS) solids:
chemicals test etc. i. Ignite the residue obtained above at 500±50°C for 2 hours
in a muffle furnace then cool the crucible and take weight
• We are concerned with the following tests only. 'W3'.
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d. Determination of settlable solids (SES) and non settlable

ii. Then, solids (NSS):
and TFS = TS – TVS (in mg/l)
i. Total solids may be settlable and
non settlable. The SES is also
c. Determination of Total suspended or non-filterable solids called sludge and determined by
(TSS) and dissolved or filterable solids (TDS): the use of the Imhoff cone as
i. Find TS as described in 'a'. shown in figure 3.4. SES is
ii. Filter certain sample through Whatman filter paper no 44 or important in designing of Figure 3.4 Imhoff cone
sedimentation tank. (Source: Punmia and Jain 2003)
standard asbestos filter and take 'V' volume of filtered
effluent and put it into dry crucible of wt. 'W1' and ii. Determine total solids as described in 'a'
evaporate to dryness in an oven of 103 – 105° C. iii. Fill the 1-liter cone with sewage and allow it for 2 hrs for
iii. Take wt. of crucible with dry residue as 'W2'. settlement. The amount of SES can be directly read in ml/l
iv. Pour the liquid and evaporate settlable part to calculate
iv. Then, SES in mg/l.
iv. NSS = TS – SES (in mg/l).
and TSS = TS – TDS (in mg/l)
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C. Dissolved oxygen test:

D. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) test:
• Winker's method modified by Alsterberg which is an
• Take known volume of sewage sample diluted with distilled
oxidation–reduction process.
water.
• sewage is collected in special reagent bottle
• Add known quantities of standard potassium dichromate
• Add 1 ml of maganous sulphates, 1 ml alkaline potassium
solution and concentrated sulpheric acid and boil the mixture
iodide and 2 ml concentrated sulpheric acid in different
with catalyst as silver sulphates for 2 hours
stages
• Cool it and calculate the amount of potassium dichromate
• Titrate with N/40 sodium thiosulphate using starch as
remaining by titration with standard ferrous ammonium
indicator
sulphates solution
• till the colour change
• Determine COD by calculating oxygen used in oxidizing the
• DO is determined on the basis that 1 mg of N/40 sodium
sewage from potassium dichromate.
thiosulphate requires 1 mg/l of DO.
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E. Bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) test:

(a) Dilution method and (b) Direct method
• Dilute known volume of sample (Vs) to a total volume (Vd)
(a) Direct method:
• Take suitable quantity of sample of sewage in BOD bottle with this dilution water in BOD bottle and measure initial DO
and measure initial DO (DOi) (DOi).
• Keep it in incubator at standard temperature of 20°C for
standard time of 5 days • Incubate it in incubator at 20°C for 5 days
• Again measure final DO (DOf) after 5 days. • Again measure final DO (DOf) after 5 days.
• Oxygen consumed in 5 days gives the BOD directly.
Mathematically, BOD5,20 = DOi – DOf • Oxygen consumed in 5 days gives the BOD of sample
indirectly by, BOD5,20 = (DOi – DOf) × Df
(b) Dilution method:
• Common when there is little or no DO in the sample or where, Df = Dilution factor = Vd / Vs
sample has putrefied sewage.
• Take specially prepared and aerated dilution water to
saturation.
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F. Necessity of nitrogen, chlorine and chlorine demand test: 3.6 DECOMPOSITION OF SEWAGE
• Determination of chloride is necessary to indicate sewage
• Fresh sewage contains organic matters and DO (2–5 mg/l)
strength. Very high may indicates infiltration of saline water • OM decomposes by chemically, biologically and called bio-
into sewer. chemical decomposition.
• OM decomposable by bacterial action are called
biodegradable and the decomposition is biological
• Nitrogen content indicates the presence of organic matters decomposition.
• Nitrogenous and carbonaceous matters is food for bacteria,
and helps for selection of proper biological units. which spilt up in CO2, NH3, CH4.
• Classified as:
• Chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine used up in (a) Aerobic decomposition
oxidizing unstable organic matters and in killing bacteria. (b) Anaerobic decomposition
(c) Facultative decomposition
Chlorine demand gives a rough measure of strength of
sewage.
25 26
(a) Aerobic decomposition:

• Fresh sewage is decomposed by the aerobic bacteria in the
(c) Facultative decomposition:
presence of free oxygen (DO) in called aerobic decomposition.
• organic matter broken and oxidized to stable and non-
objectionable products as CO2, nitrates, sulphates etc.
• Sewage can also be decomposed by the facultative
• Occurs in aeration tanks, trickling filters, contact beds,
oxidation ponds etc. bacteria either in the presence or absence of free oxygen
(b) Anaerobic decomposition (Putrefaction): is called facultative decomposition.
• Organic matters are acted by anaerobic bacteria in absence of
• Produces similar products as in aerobic process if free
free oxygen and light. This reaction is called hydrolysis.
• Aerobic bacteria survive by extracting and consuming bounded oxygen is available and produces similar products as in
molecular oxygen present in the oxygen radicals of organic
anaerobic process if absence of free oxygen.
compounds such as nitrites, nitrates, sulphates etc.
• Organic matter broken into solids, liquids and gases such as • May occurs in trickling filters, contact beds, oxidation
CH4, H2, CO2, N2, NH3, H2S, alcohols etc and produces bad
ponds etc.
odour, toxic end products and sewage becomes septic.
• Occurs in septic tank, Imhoff tanks, sludge digestion tanks etc.
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THANK YOU
35
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Chapter 4. Design of sewers

4.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF SEWER
 Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% of solid matters
 Design similar to water supply pipes but
 Design to ensure self cleansing velocity to overcome
By: silting problems
Arun Prasad Parajuli  Design for open channel flow so laid in continuous
downward gradient
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil  Determine Q (Sanitary and Storm) as in chap 2
Engineering)  Population forecast (as described in water supply) for
Head/Associate Professor design year
Department of Civil Engineering, 4.2 SHAPES OF SEWER

Sagarmatha Engineering College,  Closed- Normally called sewer/Circular is common,
Sanepa, Lalitpur  Open- Normally called drain/ non circular is common
A. Circular Sewer
1
B. Non Circular Sewer 2
Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers
A. Circular sewer: Common

Merits:
a. Least perimeter and maximum hydraulic mean depth/
hydraulically efficient / gives higher discharge.
b. No corners/ less chance of deposition of OM
c. Easy to construct, transport and handle
d. Stable in laying and useful in separate sewers.
Demerits:
Not useful in combine system because self-cleansing velocity
cannot be maintained at DWF conditions.
3 4

B. Non-circular sewer:
• Open sewer: used for draining storm water/ may be lined (b) Egg shaped section:
with PCC, Cement soil, clay, brick, stone. • closed sewer / depth is one and half times of width.
• Closed Sewer: semi elliptical, Horse shoe, basket handle, • has smaller radius at bottom and larger at top
rectangular and egg shaped • mostly constructed with RCC.

Merits:
(a) Rectangular section:
• Closed or open • hydraulically efficient than circular.
• Constructed by concrete at the bottom/ side walls with stone or • maintains self-cleansing velocity even in DWF
brick masonry/ plastered / may have separate cover. Or • equally suitable for separate system because
constructed with RCC which may be precast or cast-insitu.
Demerits:
• Merit: It has more stability and ease in construction.
Difficult in construction / less stable hence requires good
• Demerit: It is not preferred in a sewer line because it is not so
hydraulically efficient. masonry backing.
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4.4 SEWER DESIGN CRITERIA
Sewer section should be selected in such a way that it  Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% of solid matters
 Design similar to water supply pipes
should:  Open channel flow
1. Determine Q as in chap 2
a. Develop self-cleansing velocity in minimum or dry weather 2. Select System (separate or combined or partially separate).
3. Select shape and Type of sewer
flow (DWF). (Closed/open/rectangular/circular etc)
b. Have sufficient free board during maximum discharge. 4. Size range (min 15 cm
15, 20, 25, 30 ………60 etc. Max = 3 m
c. Easy in cleaning and maintenance. 5. Sewer gradient: Min 1: 100 and Max 1:20
d. Structurally safe and stable 6. Designed for 1/2 to 2/3 full at peak or maximum discharge
7. Ensure:
a. Self-cleansing or non-silting or minimum velocity
b. Non-scouring or limiting or maximum velocity of flow
7 8

A. SELF CLEANSING VELOCITY
• 0.6 – 0.9 m/s for separate system and 0.75 m/s for
combined system
• Shield Formula:
9 10

A. LIMITING VELOCITY 4.5 HYDRAULIC FORMULA
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4.6 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS FOR CIRCULAR
SEWERS
15 16
17 18
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4.7 PARTIAL FLOW DIAGRAM
To overcome tedious nature in calculating, a graph called partial flow diagram is used.
Figure 4.8 Partial flow diagram for circular sewer

21 (Source: Modi, 2001) 22

4.8 CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
B. Second method:
1. Setting out of centerline of the sewer:
• Two vertical posts called uprights driven
• laid from the tail end
into the ground equal distance from CL peg.
• Positions of manholes are transferred to the ground from L- sections and topo maps
• The centerline marked on the ground by driving pegs at 7.5 m or 15m interval. • A horizontal wooden board called sight rail
• Following two methods are generally adopted. is fixed between these uprights at a
convenient height
A. First method: • These are placed at the suitable interval
• a offset line parallel to the CL is
marked on the ground at (2 to 3 m) such as 30m and CL is marked on the sight
or (half trench width + 0.6 m) rails
from centerline as shown in figure
4.9. • A cord is drawn between the consecutive
Figure 4.10 Fixation of sight rail
sight rails for taking level of the invert of (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
• Useful to avoid inconvenience to
traffic Figure 4.9 Setting out of sewer
the sewer line.
23 24
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2. Alignment and gradient of sewers:
• Sewers are laid at correct alignment and gradient with the help of
boning rods or travelers and sight rails or sometimes with levels.
• Modified levels of inverts are obtained by adding suitable vertical
length to the invert level marked on the L-section
• Then these modified levels are marked on the sight rails by fixing
nails or marks or by adjusting the top of the sight rails.
• The imaginary line parallel to the sewer is obtained on the ground. Isometric view
• The boning rod or traveler of same height is traveled on the cord to

Figure 4.11 Maintaining gradient in sewer construction
obtain required gradient. (Refer figure 4.11) (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
25 26

3. Excavation, timbering and dewatering 4. Laying and jointing of sewers:
of trenches: • Check bottom gradient with the help of set of sight rails, travelers (boning
rods) and plumb bob.
• Adjust levels by excavation or earth filling if necessary.
• Minimum depth above sewer is to be • Lay pipes so that sockets end faces at up gradient.
• Join properly and fill with cement mortar, bitumen etc. as per the type of
0.9 m and width of 0.6 m. joints.
• If depth increases to 1.5 to 2.0 m,
timbering of trenches is necessary. 5. Testing of sewer:
Sewers are tested for water tightness of joint.
• At joints the width of the trench
should be higher for ease in joining. (a) Water test:
• Plug the upper and lower end. Lower end is plugged with a provision of
• If water table is high, dewatering with funnel and upper end has a provision of air outlet with stop cock.
pumping or under gravity flow is • Pass water through the funnel and all air is released through upper end
then close the stop cock.
done. Figure 4.12 Timbering of trenches • After thirty minutes, note the water level and calculate loss of water.
(Source: Punmia and Jain)
• The loss should not be greater than 2 liters per cm diameter of pipe per
KM length.
27 28

(b) Air test:
• If there lack water and pipe is too big, air testing is preferred
• plug the sewer at the both ends.
• Provide air pressure equivalent to 100 mm of water using hand
pump from one end
• Accept if the pressure is maintained at 75 mm of water.
6. Back filling:
• Do immediately after the successful testing. If beddings are provided,
do it only after the sufficient setting time.
• Backfilling soil should be free from pebbles, large lumps, stones etc.
Backfill in every 15 cm layers with watering for 60 cm above the crown
• After one week of weathering, complete back filling 15 cm above the
ground surface.
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Chapter 4. Design of sewers
THANK YOU
39 40
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CHAPTER 5 SEWER APPURTENANCES 5.1. Introduction to sewer appurtenances

• Structure/Appliances constructed at a
suitable locations of a sewerage system is
called Sewer Appurtenances
By: • For efficient operation and maintenance

Associate Professor/ Head
Sanepa, Lalitpur
1 2
5.2. Manhole:
• A masonry or RCC chamber constructed along the sewer to provide Location of manhole:
access for inspection, testing, cleaning and removal of obstructions
• Directly over the centerline of sewer
• May be circular, • Every bend, junctions, and every change of gradient,
rectangular or square in direction, size and at other convenient locations.
shape and has a suitable
cover (generally of CI)
Spacing of manhole:
Objective of providing manhole: • depends upon size of sewer, bends and junctions and gradient
a. To provide manual access for etc.
inspection, cleaning, testing
• normal spacing with respect to diameter
b. To allow joining, changing in
directions or level or both Diameter (m) ≤ 0.3 >0.3 – 0.6 >0.6 – 0.9 >0.9 – 1.2 >1.2 – 1.5 >1.5
c. To lay sewer in convenient Spacing (m) 45 75 90 120 250 300

length (a) Circular manhole (b) Rectangular manhole
d. To achieve the ventilation of Figure 5.1 Manholes

sewers (Source: Modi, 2001)
3 4
Construction of manhole:
1. Top cover and frame:
• Frame depth = 20 – 25 cm, width = 10 cm, opening > 50 cm.
• Weight of cover with frame = 90 – 270 kg.
2. Access shaft:
• provides an access to the working chamber.
• 0.6m×0.75m (rectangular)/0.6 to 0.75m dia. (circular)
3. Working chamber:
• lower portion of manhole, provides working space
• minimum 0.9m×1.2m (rectangular)/1.2 m dia. (circular)
4. Bottom or invert or Benching:
semi-circular/U-shape concrete bed (150–300mm tk)/slope 1:6 to center
5. Side walls: minimum thickness 22.5 cm (1 brick thick). t = 10 + 4d,
t is thickness of the wall in cm and d is depth of manhole in m. (a) Circular manhole (b) Rectangular manhole
6. Steps or Ladder:
Figure 5.1 Manholes
CI/steel steps placed 30 cm apart vertically for up and down to access.
5 (Source: Modi, 2001) 6
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Classification of manhole: 5.3. Drop Manhole:

a. Shallow manhole: • Special manhole to connect branch sewer from a high-level (0.5 to
• Depth = 0.75 – 0.9 m 0.6 m) to low-level main sewer.
• constructed at the start of branch sewer with light CI • Purpose of drop

cover manhole is to avoid
b. Normal or medium manhole: splashing of
sewage as well as
• depth about 1.5 m for smooth fall of
• square (1m ×1m) or rectangular (0.8m × 1.2m) sewage.
c. Deep manhole: • May be inclined
drop type or
• depth > 1.5 m vertical drop type
• larger at bottom and reduced at top. (common) (a) With ramp or inclined drop pipe (b) With vertical pipe
Figure 5.2 Drop manhole (Source: Modi, 2001)

7 8
5.4. Lampholes: 5.5. Street Inlets:

• constructed to intercept the storm water and
• It is a small opening provided on surface wash along the street to convey it into
sewers for the insertion of lamp to the sewer by means of pipes of 25 – 30 cm
inspect sewer for the detection of diameter
obstruction useful, if there is a • provided at road junctions and at 100 – 130 m
slight curve and change in spacing
Figure 5.6 Gutter inlet
gradient and have limited space to • three types (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)
provide manhole
• consists of a vertical shaft of 20 –
30 cm diameter connected to the
sewer with a tee and the top Figure 5.3 Lamp-hole
opening is covered by CI or RCC (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)
Figure 5.7 Catch pit with
cover flush with the road level. combined inlets
(Source: Birdie and Birdie,
2001)
Figure 5.4 Street inlets Figure 5.5 Curb inlet

9 (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001) (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001) 10
5.6. Catch Basin or Pits: 5.7. Flushing Tanks:

• RCC or masonry chamber Required to clean the sewer from possible clogging due to lack
constructed below the street inlets of self cleansing velocity.
to prevent the flow of girt, sand
or debris a flushing chamber or tank is used to store the water to flush
sewers called flushing tank.
• depth of 600 to 750 mm
constructed at the head of the sewer.
• may be square, rectangular or
square of dimension 600 – 900 may be manually operated or automatic.
mm. Figure 5.7 Catch pit with inlets In manual, water is stored to certain level and opened when
(Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001)
• outlet pipe is fixed about 60 cm desired
above the bottom with trap to Automatic type is common to flush for regular intervals
prevent from out coming of normally twice or thrice in a day.
odour.
It consists of a masonry /concrete chamber provided with a
• Catch pits needs regular cleaning. inlet, an overflow and one outlet with U-tube and bell to sewer.
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5.8. Sand, Grease and Oil Trap:

• Sewage from hotels, restaurants, kitchen, automobile
workshop, garage and industries contains grease, sand oil
and fats
• Stick to the sewers and captures suspended solids and

causes obstruction in flow may cause explosion
•
• Make sewage treatment complicated
Figure 5.8 Flushing tank

• So grease and oil trap or combined sand, grease and oil trap
(Source: Modi, 2001)
is constructed.
13 14
5.9. Inverted Siphon (Depressed Sewer):
• At depressions such as to cross roads, canals etc

sewer is depressed below called depressed sewers or
inverted siphon
• Consists of an inlet and outlet chamber with cover

and three pipes of different sizes laid in parallel to
each other.
Figure 5.9 Grease and oil trap
(Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001) Figure 5.10 Sand, grease and oil trap
• At minimum flow central pipe of smaller diameter
is used and for more flow overflows to the other two
15 16
5.10. Sewer Outlet:
Figure 5.11 Inverted siphon (Source: Modi, 2001)
Figure 5.12 Sewer outlet

17 (Source: Hussain, 1998) 18
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5.11. Ventilating Shaft:

• Decomposition of OM produces explosive
and poisonous foul gases causes harm to
health and reduces life of sewers.
THANK YOU
• Provided to escape gases
• Provided at every 80m – 300 meters
• In open areas hole in the lid of MH acts as
ventilation.
• In crowded areas air tight RCC or CI
pipe (15 – 30 cm diameter with a cowl) is
provided as ventilating shaft
• Height > the tallest building in the locality
Figure 5.13 Ventilating
shaft
19 20
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CHAPTER 6 SEWAGE DISPOSAL
6.1. Introduction:
2
By:
Arun Prasad Parajuli • After the conveyance, sewage is
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil required to through with or without
Engineering) suitable treatment.
Head/Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, • The process of throwing away the
Sagarmatha Engineering College, sewage is called sewage disposal.
Sanepa, Lalitpur
6.2. Necessity and objectives of

wastewater disposal: Objectives of wastewater disposal:
3 4
Necessity of wastewater disposal:

• Because after sometimes it become
stale and cause nuisance
• Because treatment required
depends upon its disposal methods
and place
6.3. Wastewater disposal by dilution process and

6.2. Wastewater disposal methods : essential conditions for dilution :
5 6
Wastewater disposal by dilution process :

• When sewage is mixed with or without treatment (i.e. raw
sewage) in large water bodies such as rivers, streams,
Sewage is thrown into large water bodies such as
pond, lake, sea etc., it dilutes the sewage
rivers, streams, pond, lake, sea etc after or
sometimes without treatment
• Under the various actions along the flow length the
purification occurs
• This process is called the dilution method

Sewage is disposed evenly by spreading on the surface
of land with or without treatment
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Essential Conditions for dilution :

7 8
1. Where sewage is comparatively fresh i.e. of 4 to 5 6. Where diluting water has high DO content.
hrs of production.
7. Where the water body is not used as water supply
2. Where the floating and suspended maters have for at least reasonable distance on the downstream
been removed from sewage to be discharged. from the disposal point.
3. Where the natural body has large volume of water 8. Where sewage does not contain any industrial
in comparison to sewage. sewage containing toxic substances.
4. Where it is possible to thoroughly mix or diffuse 9. Where water body is not used for navigation for at
sewage through diluting water least some reasonable distance.
5. Where sufficient currents are available in diluting
water.
Table 6.1 Standards of Dilution (England) 6.4. Self -Purification of Stream:

9 10
S. Dilution Standards of purification required  Disposal of sewage in natural stream or river water make
No. factor water polluted
1 > 500 May be disposed without treatment.  After some distance of travel, purification is due to natural
forces such as dilution, sedimentation, oxidation and
Preliminary treatment as plain sedimentation is
reduction etc.
2 300 – 500 required and suspended solid content should be
 SS gradually deposited at the bottom and washed away in
≤ 150 ppm.
the course of time
Preliminary treatment including chemical
 OM is acted upon by aerobic bacteria which utilize DO
3 150 – 300 precipitation is required and suspended solid present in water and convert into simple inoffensive and
content should be ≤ 60 ppm.
stable substances.
Extensive treatment required and suspended  The deficiency of oxygen is filled up by absorbing the
4 < 150 solid content should be ≤ 30 ppm whereas 5-day oxygen from the atmosphere.
BOD should not exceed 20  Nitrogen, sulpher, carbon etc. move in natural cycles.
Dilution Factor = ratio of quantity of diluting water to that of sewage
6.5 Factors affecting Self -Purification:

11 12
 Algae and other microscopic organism eat the mineralized a) Dilution

food and supply oxygen to maintain aerobic conditions.
 The bacteria are eaten by protozoa and is the food of fish b)Current
and aquatic life.
c) Sedimentation
 The stream in course of time becomes free from organic
matters, bacteria and protozoa etc.
d)Temperature
e) Sunlight
 This phenomena, occurs in all streams and rivers, is called
self-purification of stream or river. f) Oxidation
g) Reduction 2
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a) Dilution: b) Current:
13  Rapidly disperse sewage and reduces the concentration of 14
OM and nuisance
 No current:- sewage matter deposit near the outfall
 More dilution factor, aerobic condition occur due to more
DO and self-purification is faster. causes formation of sludge bank and foul odour
 Heavy current:- sewage mixed thoroughly and prevents
 Sewage flow rate and concentration of any parameter,
= QS and CS all such nuisances but growth of algae is not possible.
Stream flow rate and concentration of any parameter,
= QR and CR  Slow current:- sedimentation takes place causing growth
The concentration of any parameter in the mix is given by, of algae resulting production of oxygen.
 Slow current is better for self-purification.
Cm refers DO, BOD, Temp., SS etc
c) Sunlight: e) Sedimentation:
 Heavier solid settle down at stream bed and separated.
 Kills pathogens
15 16
 Anaerobic decomposition of settled organic solid
 Essential for photosynthesis for algae
 Product again mixed up with water by current.
 Stimulates the growth of algae and acts as a disinfectant.
 If dilution is sufficient, no anaerobic conditions occur.
 It makes self-purification better.
f) Oxidation:
d) Temperature:  OM acted by the aerobic bacteria or chemically using
 low temperature:- activities of the organism slower. DO present in water and deficit oxygen is filled up by
 High temperature:- high rate of biological and chemical absorbing oxygen from atmosphere.
activities; capacity to maintain DO is low; rapid depletion  oxidation continues till BOD is fully satisfied.
of DO; causes anaerobic reactions  Self-purification fast even in highly polluted sewage, if
 In summer, the self-purification occurs in lesser time. stream water is capable to absorb atmospheric oxygen.
g) Reduction: 6.6 Oxygen Sag Curve:

17 18
 OM settled on the bottom reduced to liquids and gases due

to hydrolysis either chemically or biologically.
 Anaerobic bacteria split the complex organic matters to
liquids and gases for stabilization by oxidation.
 Such reduction assists the self-purification of stream.
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De-oxygenation curve (curve 2): Re-oxygenation curve (curve 3):

 Just after disposal, DO starts depletion to meet  DO of stream water is rapidly consumed and oxygen is
19 20
adsorbed from atmosphere when DO falls below its

BOD in decomposition of OM
saturation value.
 Called de-oxygenation and closely follows progress
 Oxygen is also contributed by green plants under
of BOD of polluted water so it is sometimes called
photosynthesis.
BOD reaction.  Adsorption of oxygen is called re-oxygenation or re-
 The rate of de-oxygenation depends upon amount aeration.
of organic matter remaining to be oxidized,  Rate of re-oxygenation depends upon depth of receiving
water, velocity of stream flow and deficit of DO below
temperature of diluting water and time available
saturation value.
for decomposition
Oxygen sag curve (curve 1): 6.7 Streeter Phelp’s equation:

21  Re-oxygenation & de-oxygenation occur simultaneously in 22
stream exposed to air.

 The algebraic sum of re-oxygenation and de-oxygenation
curves
 Oxygen sag curve represents the DO deficit at different
time.
 Increase in DO deficit at the beginning
 When oxygenation and de-oxygenation are equal, the
maximum deficit is obtained
 After this point oxygen deficit decreases till it becomes zero.
DO available at any time in a polluted stream or river can be
23
determined and formulated mathematically by 24
superimposing the rates of de-oxygenation and re-

oxygenation by the following Streeter Phelp’s equation.
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25 26
6.8 NUMERICALS ON SELF

PURIFICATION OF RIVERS/STREAMS:
Example 6.1
A city with a population o 120000 and a sewage flow Given,
27 of 150 lpcd is located nearby river with a flow rate of 28
0.7m3/s. The BOD of sewage is 210 mg/l. The DO and

BOD of the river above the outfall sewer are 7.8 and 1 Population (P) = 120000; Sewage flow (q) = 150 lpcd Flow in
mg/l respectively. river (Qr) = 0.7 m3/s
BOD of sewage (BODs) = 210 mg/l
A. How many kg of oxygen per day are
available above the outfall? DO of river water above outfall (DOr) = 7.8 mg/l
B. What is the BOD in the river just below the BOD of river water above outfall (BODr) = 1 mg/l
outfall? Kg of oxygen available per day above the outfall (AO) =?
C. Express the BOD in kg/day.
BOD in the river just below the outfall (BODmix) =?
BOD in kg/day =?
We have, Example 6.2

29
Sewage discharge (Qs) = P × q = 120000 × 150 30
= 18 ×106 l/d = 0.208 m3/s A wastewater effluent of 600 l/s with BOD = 60 mg/l, DO
a. Ao = DOr×Qr = 7.8 mg/l ×0.7 l/s
= 2.5 mg/l and temperature of 25°C enters a river where
7 .8 the flow is 30 m3/s and BOD = 3 mg/l, DO = 8.5 mg/l
=  0.7  10 3  60  60  24 = 471.744 kg/d
1000  1000 and temperature of 16°C. De-oxygenation constant for the
waste is 0.10/day at 20°C. The velocity of water in the
BOD s  Q s  BOD r  Q r 210  0.208  1  0.7
b. BOD mix 
Qs  Q r

0.208  0.7 = 48.93 mg/l river downstream is 0.15 m/s and depth of flow is 1.5 m.
Determine the following after mixing of wastewater with
C. BOD in kg/day = BODmix × (Qs + Qr) the river water:
= 48.93 mg/l ×(18×106 l/d + 0.7 m3/s) (i) combined discharge
48.93 (ii) BOD
=  (18  10 6  0.7  10 3  60  60  24)
10 6 (iii) DO, and
(iv) Temperature. 5
= 3840.06 kg/d
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Now,
Given, (i) Combined discharge after mixing (Q) =?
Q = Qs + Qr = 0.6 + 30 = 30.6 m3/s
31 32
(ii) Combined BOD after mixing (BODmix) =?

Wastewater discharge (Qs) = 600 l/s = 600 × 10-3 BODs  Q s  BOD r  Q r 60  0.6  3  30
BOD mix  
= 0.6 m3/s Qs  Qr 0.6  30
BOD of wastewater (BODs) = 60 mg/l = 4.118 mg/l
DO content of sewage (DOs) = 2.5 mg/l (iii) Combined DO (DOmix) =?
Temperature of sewage (Ts) = 25°C DO s  Q s  DO r  Q r 2.5  0.6  8.5  30
River discharge (Qr) = 30 m3/s DO mix  
Qs  Q r 0.6  30
BOD of river water (BODr) = 3 mg/l = 8.382 mg/l
DO of river water (DOr) = 8.5 mg/l
(iv) Temperature (Tmix) =?
Temperature of river water (Tr) = 16°C
Ts  Q s  Tr  Q r 25  0.6  16  30
Tmix   = 16.18 °C
Qs  Qr 0.6  30
Given,
Example 6.3
The following are the sewage and river water characteristics:
Sewage discharge (Qs) = 1.72 m3/s
33 i. Sewage discharge of a town = 1.72 m3/s; 34
Minimum river discharge (Qr) = 7.24 m3/s
ii. Minimum river discharge = 7.24 m3/s Temperature of the sewage (Ts) = 30.5°C
iii. Temperature of the sewage = 30.5°C Temperature of river water (Tr) = 17.5°C;
iv. Temperature of the river water = 17.5°C De-oxygenation constant (K)= 0.1/day at 20°C
v. De-oxygenation constant = 0.1/day at 20°C
vi Re-oxygenation constant = 0.5/day at 20°C
Re-oxygenation constant (R) = 0.5/day at 20°C
vii. BOD5 at 20°C of sewage = 225 mg/l BOD5 at 20°C of sewage (BODs) = 225 mg/l
viii. BOD5 at 20°C of river water = 1.2 mg/l BOD5 at 20°C of river water (BODr) = 1.2 mg/l
ix. Putrefied sewage is in the sewer Putrefied sewage is in the sewer means (DOs) = 0
x. DO in river water = 90% of saturation value Saturation DO of water at 20°C = 9.17 mg/l
xi. Saturation DO of water at 20°C = 9.17 mg/l
xii. Saturation DO of water at 17.5°C = 9.64 mg/l
Saturation DO of water at 17.5°C = 9.64 mg/l
xiii.Velocity of the river water = 2 km/hr Velocity of the river water (v) = 2 km/hr
Determine: Critical oxygen deficit (Dc) =?,
a. Determine the critical oxygen deficit and its location Location of critical oxygen deficit (Xc) =?;
b. Estimate the 20°C BOD5 of sample taken at the critical point BOD5 of sample taken at the critical point at 20°C =?
c. Plot oxygen sag curve
Oxygen sag curve=?
We have,
5. Initial DO deficit at 20°C
1. DO in river water at 17.5°C (D0) = Saturation DO at 20°C – DOmix = 9.17 – 7.0105
35
(DOr) = 90% of saturation value = 0.9 × 9.64 = 8.676 mg/l 36 = 2.16 mg/l
2. Temperature of mix just after outfall, 6. Ultimate 5 day BOD just after mixing at 20°C,
T  Qs  Tr  Q r 30.5  1.72  17.5  7.24 BOD mix 44.16
Tmix  s  = 19.995 ≈ 20°C L0   = 64.58 mg/l
Qs  Q r 1.72  7.24 1  10 kt 1  10 0.15
3. BOD5 of mix just after outfall, 7. Self purification constant
BOD s  Q s  BOD r  Q r 225  1.72  1.2  7.24 R 0. 5
( BOD5 ) mix   (f s )   =5
Qs  Q r 1.72  7.24
K 0. 1
= 44.16 mg/l 8. Time of critical deficit,
4. DO of mix just after outfall,  
1 D 
tc  log10 f s 1  (f s  1) 0 
DO s  Q s  DO r  Q r 0  1.72  8.676  7.24 K(f s  1)   L 0 
DO mix  
Qs  Q r 1.72  7.24 1   2.16 
 log10 51  (5  1)  = 1.59 days
= 7.0105 mg/l 0.1(5  1)   64.58  6
7/8/2018
9. The distance of critical deficit from disposal point, BOD t  BOD 5  L 0 (1  10  Kt c )  44.78 (1  10 0.15 )
Xc = v tc = 2 kmph × 1.59 days = 2 × (1.59 ×24) = 30.62 mg/l
37
= 76.32 KM 38
10. The critical DO deficit is, Hence critical DO deficit is 8.956 mg/l and location is 76.32 KM from point of
disposal. BOD5 of sample taken at critical point is 30.62 mg/l.
1 1
Dc  L 0 10  Kt c   64.58  10 0.11.59 = 8.956 mg/l
fs 5 14. Computation of points to plot oxygen sag curve:
11. DO at critical point, We have,

DOc = Satrn DO at 20°C – Dc = 9.17 – 8.956 = 0.214 mg/l Saturation DO at 20°C = 9.17 mg/l
Velocity (v) = 2 kmph = 2 ×24 = 48 Km/day;
12. BOD at this critical point, If ‘x’ is the distance below d/s from outfall,
Exerted: BOD t  L0 (1  10  Kt c )  64 .58 (1  10  0.11.59 ) = 19.80 mg/l x
c
a) Time of travel (t) =
v
Remain: Lt c  L0  BOD t c  64 .58  19 .8 = 44.78 mg/l
13. BOD5 of sample taken at critical point, (Remaining at this
b) DO deficit, Dt 
KL 0
RK
10 Kt  10 Rt   D 010 Rt
point)
Ultimate BOD for sample at critical deficit point (L0)

0.5  0.1

0.1 64.58 0.1t
10 
 10 0.5t  2.16  10 0.5t
 L t c = 44.78 mg/l
Or,  
Dt  16.15 10 0 .1t  10 0 .5t  2.16  10 0 .5t and
39 c) DO = saturation DO at 20°C – Dt = 9.17 – Dt 40
Distance, X (KM) 0 20 40 60 76.32 80 100 120 140 Oxygen Sag Curve

Time, t (days) 0.000 0.417 0.833 1.250 1.590 1.667 2.083 2.500 2.917 10
DO Saturated at 20°C =9.17 mg/l
DO Deficit, Dt (mg/l) 2.160 6.013 7.970 8.793 8.956 8.949 8.725 8.295 7.764 9
DO Available (mg/l) 7.010 3.157 1.200 0.377 0.214 0.221 0.445 0.875 1.406 8
7
Distance, X (KM) 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
DO (mg/l)
6
Time, t (days) 3.333 3.750 4.167 4.583 5.000 5.417 5.833 6.250 6.667 5
DO Deficit, Dt (mg/l) 7.195 6.624 6.072 5.550 5.063 4.612 4.198 3.819 3.473 4
DO Available (mg/l) 1.975 2.546 3.098 3.620 4.107 4.558 4.972 5.351 5.697 3
2
Distance, X (KM) 340 360 380 400 420 1
Time, t (days) 7.083 7.500 7.917 8.333 8.750 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
DO Deficit, Dt (mg/l) 3.157 2.869 2.608 2.370 2.153 Distance (KM)
DO Available (mg/l) 6.013 6.301 6.562 6.800 7.017
Disadvantages:
6.9 Wastewater disposal by land treatment: 1. Larger land
41 42
2. Ineffective is rainy season and heavy rainfall area.
3. Not suitable in clayey surface.
 Method- the sewage is evenly spread on land surface
4. Supervision to prevent sewage sickness
 OS and SS remains at the soil surface
5. Special care needed if used for agriculture (disease
 Water percolates into the ground.
spreading)
 OS partly acted by bacteria and get oxidized with the
help of heat, sunlight, air etc. 6.9.1 Suitability of land treatment:
Suitable if:
Advantages: 1. low rainfall area- used as irrigation.
1. Natural method. 2. no large water body for dilution/river is usually dry
2. Water bodies prevented from pollution. 3. quantity of sewage is more than diluting water
3. Disposal possible even absence of large water body 4. alluvial, porous and sandy soil
4. Fertilizing matters can be used 5. GWT is deep even in monsoon and free of ground
5. Cheap and not require treatment. water pollution.
6. Operation and maintenance cost is low 6. Vegetable have a good market and return.
7
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6.9.2 Methods of land treatment:

43
1. Irrigation 44
2. Overland flow
3. Rapid infiltration  controlled discharge into the land to support plant
growth
1. Irrigation  fertilizing elements and minerals are used by crops
and yield is increased (33%)
 Water percolates, evaporates and released by
evapotranspiration
 the fertilizing elements in organic matters are used by
crops.
 scientific care, precautions and supervision is
necessary for the hygienic safety to the workers to
protect against the infection by pathogens and
helminthes.
 Applied only after primary treatment.
2. Overland flow 3. Rapid infiltration

45 46
 controlled amount is discharged in a thin layer on the land

having 2 to 8% slope where it flows down the grade and  sewage is applied to spreading basins where it is allowed to
appears as a runoff which is collected and disposed off percolate down to the ground water which is helpful in
useful when land is impermeable ground water recharge.
 land is generally planted with a grass cover to provide the  effective if soils are high permeable.
habitat for the microorganism and to prevent from erosion.  Two or more basins for alternative use which gives rest to
maintain adequate infiltration capacity
6.9.4 Methods of application of sewage on

6.9.3 Broad irrigation and sewage farming:
land:
47
Broad irrigation: 48
 sewage is flooded on the vacant land having porous soil,
which acts as a filter media. 1. Flooding method
 The accumulated matters are acted by aerobic action. Below 2. Surface irrigation method
the porous soil, an under-drainage system of 15 cm 3. Basin method
diameter porous pipes network of 10 to 30 cm spacing with 4. Ridge and furrow method
open joints are laid and collected filtered sewage is 5. Sub surface irrigation method
disposed on natural water courses. 6. Sprinkler or spray irrigation method
Sewage farming:
 Sewage when used in land for irrigation, it adds fertilizing
elements and minerals which increases yield of corps
 So land treatment method of irrigation purpose is also
called sewage farming 8
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2. Surface irrigation method

1. Flooding method
49 50
 land is divided into rectangular plots of convenient (a) View

dimensions with the help of dykes
 Sewage distributed over these plots to a depth of 30 cm to
60 cm.
 subsoil drains provided to supply air to the soil and to
remove the percolated effluent through soil. (b) Sectional view
 parallel drains connected to a distributary with regulator to

control flow in the field of sloped areas. 4. Ridge and furrow method
 sewage allowed to overflow through fields from one drain
51 52
towards other
 sewage flows over the fields, its large quantity is adsorbed by
the fields and only excess quantity reaches to the drain from
which it goes to the another field or large water bodies
3. Basin method
 Big trees and plants are planted  Ridges and furrows of 15 to 30 m are formed
in isolated manner and basins
 Furrow is a small ditch 30 cm to 50 cm deep and 120 cm
are made around each tree.
 Basins are filled with sewage to150 cm wide whereas the ridge is 120 cm to 250 cm
which slowly percolates the root wide.
zones of the plant and maintains  Furrows filled with sewage up to 2/3rd of depth causes
the root zone wet. saturation of root zones of plants in ridges and some is
 Suitable for orchards and fruit percolated and evaporated.
gardens.
6. Sprinkler or spray irrigation method

5. Sub surface irrigation method
53 54
 Sewage applied at the root of the plants through the open

jointed porous drain pipes network laid about 30 cm below  sewage is filled in the tanks to settle
the ground level the solids and then sprayed under
 sewage rises up due to capillary action and utilized by pressure through pipes fitted with
plant. nozzles spaced at suitable intervals
 The excessive amount is used for other field or disposed in to cover the entire field.
natural water courses. 9
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6.9.5 Sewage Sickness and its prevention:

55 56
 Continuous application decrease the pore size of soil then

clogged and air circulation stops.
 aerobic stops - anaerobic starts producing H2S.
 treating capacity of land exhausted and called sewage
sickness.
THANK YOU
(CHAPTER 6 COMPLETED)
Prevention:
1. proper choice of land (porous)

2. pretreatment of sewage (removal of SS)
3. giving rest to the land (intermittent application)
4. Planting crops in rotation (Soyabeans etc)
5. Apply in shallow depth with under drainage system
6. frequent ploughing and rotation of soil.
10
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CHAPTER 7 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 7.1. INTRODUCTION

By: • Sewage contains impurities/disease causing bacteria
2
• Disposed by dilution/land after collection and
conveyance.
M.Sc (Environmental Engineering), B.E. (Civil • Directly disposed: harm to public
Engineering) health/nuisance/pollution of water bodies.
Associate Professor/ Head • Before Disposal in river/streams/land, generally
treated for safety.
Full Time: • Process of changing harmful substances to harmless
substance
Department of Civil Engineering, • Degree of treatment required depends upon the
Sagarmatha Engineering College (Affiliated to characteristics of sewage and disposal point.
Tribhuvan University), • Treatment: to achieve some standard that is
Sanepa, Lalitpur acceptable for disposal in the land or water without
1
causing any harm.
7.2. Objectives of Sewage Treatment:

3 4
• To reduce the strength of sewage (i.e. BOD)

• To kill pathogenic organism
• To remove nuisance causing elements
• To prevent water bodies from pollution
• To prevent sewage sickness of land
Figure 7.1 Typical layout of Sewage treatment Plant

• To utilize the fertilizing element containing in
the sewage
In another way:
7.3 TREATMENT PROCESSES AND IMPURITIES REMOVAL 1. Preliminary treatment 2. Primary treatment
3. Secondary treatment 4. Final/advance/tertiary treatment
1. Physical Process (Preliminary/primary process)
5 6
2. Chemical process (Preliminary/primary process)
3. Biological process (Secondary process) 1. Preliminary treatment:
Process Removal of a. Screening: removes bulky suspended/floating particles (dead
animals, tree branches, papers, piece of wood etc)
b. Grit removal: settable heavy and coarse inorganic solids.
c. Skimming: oils and greases.
2. Primary treatment:
a. Plain sedimentation: remove large SS in settling basin
b. Chemical precipitation: non settable SS and colloidal using
chemicals.
Preliminary /primary treatment classified under primary treatment. 1

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• Classification of biological treatment:

3. Secondary or biological treatment: Classification as per the decomposition process:
a. Aerobic process: Aerobic b. Anaerobic process: c. Facultative
• effluent from primary treatment accomplished through biological
7 8 bacteria in presence of Anaerobic bacteria in the (aerobic-anaerobic)
decomposition of organic matter under aerobic /anaerobic dissolve oxygen. (Trickling absence of dissolved oxygen. process:
condition to remove volatile organic matters using bacteria. filters, activated sludge (Anaerobic sludge digestion, Facultative bacteria
• OM converted to stable inorganic matters due to biological action process, aerobic anaerobic contact process, in presence/absence
stabilization ponds, and anaerobic filters, anaerobic of dissolved oxygen
of bacteria so it is called biological process.
aerated lagoons) logons and ponds) (Oxidation pond)
• Purpose/objective: to remove suspended/dissolved OM by utilizing

Classification as per the growth process:
bacteria of sewage for biodegradation to convert into stable
a. Suspended growth process: b. Attached growth C. Combined process:
substances. microorganism responsible for converting process: mixed (Trickling filter
OM are maintained in suspension within microorganism are activated sludge,
• Principles of biological treatment: the liquid by natural or mechanical attached to some activated sludge
mixing. (Activated sludge process, inert medium such trickling filter,
 convert volatile OM into stable inorganics through aerobic Aerated lagoons, Sludge digestion system as rock, slag, plastic facultative lagoons)
/anaerobic/facultative process using bacteria in sewage. etc.) material etc. (Filter)
 Suitable environment for growth of bacteria is needed.
Anaerobic RXN forms foul gases so aerobic should be promoted & need continuous
 Sewage must contain organic matters (food of the bacteria). supply of oxygen.
7.4 SCREENING
• first step of treatment
9 10 • process of removing the large floating and suspended matters
such as dead animals, plastics, leaves, paper etc by the use of
4. Final or advance or tertiary treatment: coarse /fine screen
• removal of organics left after secondary treatment • Matters trapped are called screenings which are disposed off by
• killing of pathogenic bacteria (disinfection) and disposed in burial, incineration or digestion in sludge digesters.
rivers/streams used for water supply.
• Objectives :
 Reduce the load on the other treatment units and to reduce the
damage to the pumps, valves, gates etc from abrasion.
 Remove any bulky and unsightly (threatening) floating matter.
 Types of screens :
1. Bar or rack screens
2. Fine screen
3. Comminuters or cutting screen
1. Bar or rack screen:

• Removes relatively larger type particle
11 • Made of circular or rectangular or square mild steel bars @ clear 12
spacing of 20 – 150 mm,

• placed vertically or at 30 – 80º inclined with vertical Structure have
a by pass and a platform for removing screenings.
• Screenings are removed manually/mechanically.
• As per opening size, two types:
1.Coarse screens:
 Rack/bar screen, clear openings of >= 50 mm (generally 75 –
150)
 kept at beginning to trap larger matters.
2. Medium screens:
 Rack/bar screen, clear openings 20 – 50 mm used to trap
medium matters. Figure 7.2 Bar or rack screen
 kept at inlet of pumps. (Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001) 2
Figure 7.2 Bar or rack screen
7/8/2018
2. Perforated or fine screen 7.6 FLOTATION OR SKIMMING

• Generally not used because
of quick clogging and needs • grease, oils, wax, soap, free fatty acid and fats etc.
13 14
rapid cleaning. Used when • allowed to remain quiescent condition for certain detention time
sewage is directly disposed (normally 3 minute)
without treatment. • rise to the surface (scum) and removed by manually or mechanically is
called flotation or skimming.
• mechanically cleaned device
• Done before sedimentation.
and made of perforated plate Figure 7.3 Fine screen
(Source: Birdie and Birdie, 2001) • Main purpose:
of 0.7 – 1.5 mm diameter to remove oils, fats etc. which cause trouble in other treatment processes.
perforations. • Construction:
3. Comminuters or cutting screen:  done in a tank called skimming tank (circular/rectangular)
• In real sense, it is a cutter & cuts the  has three different compartments
 may have compressive air diffuser to aid flotation/prevent
big particles present in the sewage
suspended particles to settling.
to fine particle. • Skimming collected in the trough
• has rotating screen with cutting • disposed off by burning/burring/fuel gas.
blade Figure 7.4 A comminutor • used in the manufacture of soap, lubricants, wax
15 16
Figure 7.6 Skimming tank

7.5 GRIT CHAMBER
17 • Next after screening to remove very heavy inorganic content of 18

diameter >= 0.2 mm or more with specific gravity around 2.65
• sand, gravel, ash, clinkers, egg shells, bones and other inert matters
• allows them into a chamber for quiescent condition is called grit
chamber.
• Objective:
 Protect pumps valves etc against abrasion.
 Reduce overloading in other treatment units and clogging of sludge
pipes.
 Reduce the frequency of cleaning of sludge digestion tanks and
settling tanks.
• Construction:
. .
 RCC/masonry (random rubble or brick) chamber may have two or
more compartments in plan
 long but short in width and depth
 bottom made slope so that grit can be be collected towards the
slope end.
Figure 7.5 Grit chamber 3
• Grit disposed off by dumping, land filling or burial
7/8/2018
19 20
Example 7.1
Design a rectangular grit chamber for the following data:
Flow of sewage = 50 MLD; Specific Gravity of grit = 2.7;
21 22 Specific Gravity of organic matter = 1.2; temperature = 20°C
Size of both organic and grit particles to be removed = 0.21 mm;
K = 0.06; f = 0.03
23 24
4
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7.7 SEDIMENTATION
• process in which water is retained in a tank/basin so that the

25 26 suspended particles and organic solids present in the sewage
may be settle down under the action of gravity.
• sludge removed manually/mechanically.
• Purpose: to remove large amounts of SS & OS to reduce the

load on other units.
• One after (screening, grit removal, skimming) and before

chemical precipitation called primary settling tank.
• Other after biological treatment called secondary settling tank
• Sediment disposed by dumping/sanitary land filling/burial.

• discussed in water supply engineering hence we are not go in
detail here.
Classification of Sedimentation tanks

(details not necessary but same as described in Water Supply Engineering):
27 1. Classification based on method of operation: 28
A. Fill and draw type

B. Continuous flow type
a. Horizontal flow type
i. Rectangular with longitudinal flow
ii. Circular with radial flow
 Circular with radial feed (common)
 Circular with peripheral feed
b. Vertical flow type (Hooper bottom tank)
2. Classification based on location:

A. Preliminary sedimentation tank (grit chamber)
B. Primary settling tank Figure 7.7 Rectangular settling tank
C. Secondary settling tank (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
Principle of sedimentation:
 if sewage is retained in quiescent condition for certain period
29 30 by reducing velocity, the suspended particles will settle down
due to gravitational forces then the sediments (called sludge)
and floating matters (called scum) can be easily removed.
 The retention tank/basin is called sedimentation tank/ basin or

settling basin/tank
 the time period for which water is retained in the tank is
called retention period or detention period or detention time or
retention time.
Figure 7.8 Circular settling tank Figure 7.9 Hooper bottom settling
(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003) tank  affected by velocity of flowing sewage, size, shape and
(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003) specific gravity of particle; viscosity of water; detention time;
effective depth & length of settling zone; inlet & outlet
arrangements. 5
7/8/2018
31 32
33 34
35 36
6
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7.8 CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION

• The theory is that the ions of floc are positively charged and
• contains electrically charged colloidal particles and smaller attract negatively charged settleable suspended particles of clay,
37 suspended solids not settled down in plain sedimentation. 38 silt and colloidal matter present in sewage thus the floc becomes
heavier and settles down which is further removed by
• settling down and removal of such fine suspended particles sedimentation.
and colloidal matter can be achieved by chemically assisted
sedimentation called Chemical Precipitation. • Purpose: to remove the finely dispersed solids present in sewage.
• done before biological treatment. • aluminum sulphates or alum, Iron salts, Lime and sodium carbonate
etc are used as coagulants
• chemicals added are called coagulants; the formed insoluble
gelatinous precipitate is called floc • Alum is common and popular in water treatment because it is
cheaper and produces heavier floc in normal pH range of 6 to 8.
• the process of adding coagulants to sewage and mixing it
thoroughly is known as coagulation • Iron Salts are used in wastewater treatment
• the process of formation of floc is called flocculation. • Optimum dose is determined by jar test.
The all four process (coagulant feeding, flash mixing,

flocculation and clarification) may be done in a single unit
• Chemical precipitation is analogous to sedimentation called Dorr clariflocculator.
39 with coagulation in water treatment hence same process 40
(as described in water supply engineering) are required

as given below:
1. Feeding the coagulant using feeding devices
2. Mixing of coagulant in mixing basins with baffle walls or

in flash mixture.
3. Flocculation by the use of slow stirring device called

flocculator to permit buildup of the floc particles.
4. Sedimentation in settling tank Figure 7.10 Dorr clariflocculator

Example 7.2
Design a circular sewage sedimentation tank for a town having
population of 108000. The average water demand is 140 lpcd.
41 Assume that 70% water reaches to treatment plant. What will be 42
the size, if rectangular tank is to be designed?
Solution:
Given,
Population (P) = 10800;
Water demand (q) = 140 lpcd;
70% water reaches to TP
Sewage flow (Q) = 70% of q × P = 0.7 × 140 × 10800 =
10584000 l/d
= 0.1225 m3/s
7
7/8/2018
43 44
7.9 FILTRATION
 primary treatment effluent: 60 – 80% of unstable OM
45 46  treated by another process called secondary/biological
treatment.
 Filtration : one of the secondary/biological process
 The process in which sewage is passed through beds of
coarse/porous medium capable to passing air for growth of
aerobic bacteria and perform their functions on which the
organic matters forming a film at the top surface of filter.
 Effluent to SST for secondary settling.
 Three types of filters

1. Intermittent Sand filter
2. Contact beds
3. Trickling filter
7.9.1 INTERMITTENT SAND FILTER

Introduction and Purpose:
 Earliest type with sand as filter media
47  Purpose of the biological treatment 48
 Rarely used because larger land required
 Used in certain places such as tuberculosis hospital because it
produces highly nitrified and polished effluent.
 Various units needed/ it can’t be used continuously/needs rest and
called intermittent sand filter.
Construction:
• Similar to slow sand filter.
• Consists of a rectangular tank with bed of sand constructed
below the ground without lining.
• 1 – 1.25 m deep/ area 1000 – 4000 m2 / length width ratio 3
to 4.
• 0.15 – 0.3 m layers of filter media (sand)/effective size 0.2 –
0.5 mm/uniformity coefficient 2 – 5
• Open jointed effluent pipes in the gravel bed at bottom. Figure 7.11 Intermittent sand filter 8
• 3 – 4 beds for rotational working/a symphonic dosing tank (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003)
7/8/2018
Working and cleaning: 7.9.2 CONTACT BEDS

• sewage is applied for 3 – 10 cm depth once in 24 hours.
• Sewage percolates through the bed and suspended organic matters get Introduction and Purpose:
trapped in the voids of top portion of sand bed. • An improvement over intermittent sand filter called contact filter.
49 50
• Bed is keep at rest for some time for the action of organic bacteria • Similar to intermittent filter/used for the purpose of biological
• Effluent is stable and highly nitrified. treatment.
• At long use, the beds get clogged / scrapped sand, cleaned and reused. • Between intermittent sand filter and trickling filter/not used now.
• Rate of filtration depends upon the effective size of sand used.
Construction:
Advantages:
• Rectangular water tight tank below the ground/lined with
• No need of secondary sludge treatment /occasional scrapping/ quality
of effluent is good/ nitrogenous matters are removed. cement concrete or cement plaster on masonry both at bottom
• No chance of anaerobic condition so no foul gases and sides
• Simple operation, no need of heavy mechanical equipment • Filter media is gravel/brick ballest/broken stones of size 2 –
• High efficiency (effluent BOD < 5 mg/l; effluent SS < 10 mg/l) 2.5 cm/rate of filtration to 4500 – 6500 m3/ha/day so
• No insects are attracted. requires low area of land.
• 3 – 4 beds/depth 5 – 10 cm
Disadvantages: • A dosing tank with siphon for influent application/under
• More land is required drainage pipes in open joint
• Larger quantity of sand is required • For higher efficiency, placed in series
Working and cleaning (8 – 12 hours) :

(a) Filling: Close outlet/fill to 50 – 100 mm depth. (1–2 hrs)
(b) Contact: Close outlet for contact and filtration (1 – 2 hrs contact period)
51 52
(c) Emptying: Open outlet for emptying the effluent (1 – 2 hrs)
(d) Resting for oxidation: Left for 5 – 6 hrs/ Atmospheric oxygen enters the
void spaces of media/supply oxygen to aerobic bacteria/results oxidation
• After long use, clogged/ take filter media out, wash, dry and refill.
• Wash drain pipes once after every 4 – 5 years.
Advantages:
• Works under small heads/no nuisance of flies
• Problem of odour is less as compared to trickling filter
Figure 7.12 Contact beds
(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003) Disadvantages:
• Lesser loading rate than trickling filter
• Requires larger area of land
• Skilled supervision/cost more than trickling filter
Figure 7.13 Two contact beds in series • Requires longer rest period/high chance of clogging than other filters
7.9.3 TRICKLING FILTER 7.9.3 TRICKLING FILTER

Introduction:
53 • Called ‘Percolation Filter’ because no standing water/sewage 54 Construction:
percolates through filter medium. (A) Tank and distribution system:
• Applied by sprinkling so called Sprinkling Filter. • RCC or masonry rectangular/circular (common)
• Used for medium strong sewage. watertight tank above the ground.
• For larger BOD, trickling filter & activated sludge process kept in • Rotary distributors with distributing arms (generally 4
series. arms) rotating about central support driven by an electric
motor/by the force of reaction of sprays are provided.
Purpose:
Aerobic biological treatment process to domestic and industrial (B) Contact media or filter media:
sewage.
• coarser materials of broken stone (granite, limestone
etc.)/ gravel/coal of effective size 2.5 – 7.5 cm.
Location:
• After skimming & primary treatment so • Should be hard, durable, clean and hardly packed.
oils/fats/grease/suspended particle do not clog the filter. • Normal rate trickling filter, depth is 1.8 – 2.4 m and for
• Effluent passed to SST so settleable solids produced in filtration high rate trickling filter it is 1.2 – 1.8 m. 9
process can be removed.
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55 56
Figure 7.14 Trickling filter

(D)Ventilation:
• To provide O2 to aid in aerobic condition.
57 58 • Natural ventilation/ If the difference in temperature
between atmosphere and filter media is 6°C, air
movement rate is 0.3 m3/m2/sec.
• If temperature difference drops to 1.9°C./ no movement of
air so forced ventilation is provided in case of temperature
difference less than 6°C.
Fig 7.15 Under drainage blocks

(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003) (E) Distribution system:
• Distributor spray the influent evenly/Four arms with nozzle
(C) Under drainage system: • Arm is rotated about ½ to 2 RPM with the help of electric
• Various under drainage to collect filtered effluent power/sewage head.
• Concrete blocks placed under the filter media in slope 1 in • For sewage head, the head difference must be 80 cm.
50 – 1 in 200 towards center • Distribution system is at least at 15 – 20 cm above the
filter medium.
Working: Recirculation:
• Primarily treated sewage to • Return of a portion of treated/partly treated sewage to the
59 60
distribution system treatment process.
• Bacteria grow at surface of filter • Done in high rate trickling filter (HRTF).
media/forms microbial film/slime
layer in 2 weeks and attacks on R Recirculation
organic matters. PST TF SST
I Ce
• Bacteria use organic matters as food Ci
in presence of free oxygen in aerobic
condition and convert it into inorganic Figure 7.16 Single stage recirculation process
product.
• Slime layer increases and bacteria
below the film die and layer comes R Recirculation R Recirculation
out with flowing liquid called Figure 7.16 Diagram showing I PST
PTF
IST
I STF
SST Ce’
sloughing. biological process in trickling Ci Ce
• Effluent goes to SST for settling. filter 10
Figure 7.17 Two or double stage recirculation process
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Types of trickling filter:

61 62
1.Conventional / Ordinary/ Normal rate/

Standard rate / Low rate trickling filter
2.High rate trickling filter or High rate filter
The function/construction are same for both

except that no recirculation required in
conventional filters but requires recirculation in
high rate filters.
Table 7.3 Comparison between normal rate trickling filter (NRTF) and
high rate trickling filter (HRTF) Table 7.4 Differences between normal rate trickling Filter
(NRTF) and
Characteristics NRTF HRTF high rate trickling filter (HRTF)
1.63 Hydraulic loading 1. 22000 – 45000 m3/ha/day 1. 112000 – 335000 64
m3/ha/day NRTF HRTF

2. Organic loading 2. 925 – 2200 kg BOD5 /ha/day 2. 7400 – 18500 kg BOD5
/ha/day 1. Low hydraulic loading 1. High hydraulic loading (Q/As)
3. Depth 3. 1.8 – 2.4 m 3. 1.2 – 1.8 m 2. Low rate of filtration 2. High rate of filtration (20 – 50 times)
4. Area required 4. High 4. Less
5. Cost 5. High 5. Low 3. Low organic loading 3. Higher organic loading
6. Efficiency 6. 6. 4. Large area is required 4. Large area is not required
i. Effluent (liquid) i. BOD < 20 mg/l (highly i. BOD > 30 mg/l (lightly
oxidized) oxidized) 5. Large initial cost 5. Initial cost is low
ii. Sludge (at SST) ii. Black, nitrified and fully ii. Brown, N2 remain, partly 6. High depth is required 6. Low depth is sufficient
oxidized oxidized
7. Recirculation 7. Not necessary 7. Always necessary 7. Has high efficiency 7. Has low efficiency
8. Sloughing 8. Intermittent 8. Continuous 8. No need of recirculation 8. Due to lower efficiency, BOD removal is
9. Dosing interval 9. Not more than 5 minutes 9. Not more than 15 sec
low so to improve efficiency, recirculation
is done
Biofilters:
• If two high rate trickling filters are connected in series
65
• In the process of recirculation, the effluent can be passed 66
through same trickling filter but in Biofilters, effluent is passed
through another trickling filter.
• Two stage recirculation trickling filter is same as biofilter
R Recirculation R Recirculation
PTF I STF
I PST IST SST Ce’
Ci Ce
Humus tank:
Secondary sedimentation tank where effluent of trickling filter
is settled down
11
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67 68
Example 7.3
The effluent from a primary settling tank is applied to a standard rate
trickling filter at the rate of 3 MLD having BOD5 if 175 mg/l. Determine the
69 70
depth and diameter of the filter adopting a surface loading (hydraulic
loading) of 2000 liters/m2/day and organic loading of 150 g/m3/day. Also
determine the efficiency of the filter using NRC formula.
71 72
12
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73 74
Example 7.4
Design a two-stage high rate trickling filter for the following data:
Organic loading for both filter = 10000 kg BOD5/ha-m/day;
Flow = 4.5 MLD;
BOD of raw sewage before PST = 280 mg/l;
Recirculation ratio = 1:4 for both filters;
BOD required in final effluent ≤ 35 mg/l;
BOD removed in PST = 35%
Assume to intermediate sedimentation tank.
75 76
77 78
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7.10 OXIDATION POND:
Definition:
79 80
 Artificially constructed earthen basin/pond of controlled design
Biological or secondary treatment process. • Combined action of aerobic bacteria and algae together for
 For raw/treated sewage after sedimentation. their mutual benefit is called ‘Bacterial-algal-symbiosis’ and
 Synonymously termed as stabilization pond. responsible for satisfying BOD.
mn • Produced solids settles at the bottom and the intermediate
products lies in the liquid.
Theory: • When the accumulated sludge fills 1/3rd of the depth of pond it
• if waste water is retained in the shallow depth tank open to the should be cleaned.
atmosphere, the aerobic bacteria present in the sewage convert
into stable substances by aerobic action in the presence of free
oxygen and sunlight.
• Algae grown in the pond exerts O2 in the process of
photosynthesis in the presence of air and sunlight.
• CO2 and other elements are taken by algae whereas the O2
produced by algae is used by aerobic bacteria.
Atmosphere
Function:
81
Wind
82
To retain sewage for sufficient long time to satisfy the BOD
for change in the characteristics of the sewage into stable
substances by aerobic action of aerobic bacteria of sewage
itself and the algae in the presence of free oxygen and
sunlight.
Wind
O2 CO2 N2
O2 Algae CO2, NH3, PO4, Oxidation
H2O
Location: Pond
 Located at least 300 m far from
Earthen Dyke
the inhabitants.
Organic Aerobic Intermediate
matters Bacteria products
 No tree and buildings around Figure 7.19 Correct location of
at the 50 to 60 m distance so oxidation pond
that sunlight can reach to the
pond. Water sources should be
Figure 7.18 Symbolic representation of theory and functioning at least 15 m far
of oxidation pond  Located on the leeward side of
the building
83 84
Construction:
 Earthen dykes of 1 to 1.5 m wide on top in 1:15 to 1:3 slopes
 30 cm above and below the operation level of inner portion of
the dykes are with stone riprap or PCC or brick lining to prevent
from erosion and seepage as well as for the fluctuation of
(a) PLAN
sludge.
 Sewage is discharged at the centre of the pond from inlet
chamber through inlet pipe from bell mouth end.
 Outlet chamber for combined outlet from different units.
Figure 7.20 Oxidation Pond 14

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Commissioning:
 Way to start the new pond after construction Operation and maintenance:
 Two methods.
85 (a) Culture method (b) Natural Method 86
 Does not require equipment and skilled personals but time to time
(a) Culture method: the fallen leaves, papers should be removed
 Sewage is first filled to a depth of 15 cm and the seeds of algae is grown
 Grass should be removed daily.
 Every day portion of decreased sewage is refilled and pond should turn
completely green (1 week).  Fish farming is done so that the larva of mosquito and flies are
 Sewage is applied to the operation level. fed by fish.
 For 2 – 3 days the algae growth should be let to grow to top.  Settled sludge should be removed from time to time.
 Inlet and outlet are opened and works are carried out.  If the depth of pond is 120 cm, then the sludge can be removed
only once in 6 years. For 150 cm depth it cm be done once in 12
(b) Natural Method: years.
• Algae are made to grow naturally.
 Sewage after primary treatment should be discharged in the
• Sewage is kept to operation level and inlet and outlet are closed.
• The reduced amount is added daily. pond.
• Growth of algae in 2 weeks itself.  It removes BOD > 90%; SS > 90% and coliform bacteria > 99%.
• Inlet and outlet are opened and works are carried out.
Advantages:
87 88
 Low initial cost where lands are cheap.
 No equipment required.
 Low maintenance cost.
 No skilled persons required.
 Efficiency is high.
 Can be used as fish farming.
Disadvantages:
 Larger area of land is required.
 Creates mosquito nuisance.
 Creates foul nuisance.
 Not suitable for that place where high rainfall occurs.
Example 7.5
Design an oxidation pond for treating domestic sewage from a
community having 1000 populations with water supply of 200
89 90
lpcd. Permissible organic loading for the pond is 500 kg/ha/day.
BOD in the influent is 300 mg/l. Required BOD reduction in the
pond is 90%. Assume any other data suitably.
15
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91 92
7.11 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
93 94 Definition and theory:

 Biological treatment is the process
 Non-settleable colloidal solids are removed after converting it into
stabilized organic matter with the help of living organism
(bacteria) containing in the sewage itself.
 Microorganisms maintained in suspension
 ASP: aerobic suspended growth biological treatment process
Theory:
 Aerobic bacteria are maintained in suspension within the liquid.
 Provides an excellent method of treating raw/settled sewage.
Process:
 Sewage from Primary sedimentation tank (PST) is mixed with
95
20 – 30% of own volume of returned activated sludge 96
 The mixture to an aeration tank where microorganisms coated Returned activated sludge
Raw sewage
around the sludge solids and the sewage are mixed together settled in SST (20 – 30%)
with large quantity of air for about 4 – 8 hours. Effluent

Aeration
 Organisms kept in moving state oxidizes the organic matter Tank Mix SST
(disposed with
PST or without
then the suspended and colloidal matter tend to coagulate liquor
chlorination)
and form a precipitate which settles down in SST Activated sludge
 This aerated settled sludge containing microorganisms called (70 – 80%)
Sludge
activated sludge and recycled to the head of aeration tank treatment
 New activated sludge is continuously being produced by this Sludge disposal
process
 A portion sent back to the aeration tank whereas excess is Figure 7.21 Flow diagram of activated sludge process
disposed off
16
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 Sludge is called returned sludge and fresh sewage in aeration Advantages:

tank is called Mix Liquor (ML) and the suspended solid in the  Effluent high quality that TF
tank is called Mix Liquor Suspended Solid (MLSS).  80 – 95% BOD removal and bacteria removal is 90 – 95%
97 98
 Land area lesser than that for TF.
 Designed unit made compact for industrial use.
 Initial cost lower than TF.
Principle or action of Activated sludge process has:  Process is free from foul and insect nuisance.
 Sludge has a high fertilizing value/the effluent can be used for
 Physical action: irrigation.
After aeration, small particles combine to form bigger flocs
and settled down easily. Disadvantages:
 Skilled persons required.
 Biochemical action:  Operation cost high.
 Flocs contain bacteria and organic matter.  Sludge produced may create problem on sludge disposal.
 Bacteria use organic matter and convert it to inorganic  Sensitive: temperature is more or low, bacteria may die.
products.  Requires more oxygen supply
 New plant requires seeding
 Requires four weeks if not seeding is done.
Aeration tanks of an activated sludge plant:

 3 – 4.5 m deep, 4 – 6 m wide and 20 – 200 m long usually
rectangular tanks
99 100  Detention time: 4 – 8 hrs
Operations and units required:
 Types of aeration tanks:
1. Diffused aeration unit
1. Primary treatment units
2. Mechanical aeration units
2. Aeration tanks
3. Combined diffused and mechanical aeration units
3. Secondary sedimentation tank
4. Sludge treatment and disposal 1. Diffused aeration unit:
 size 30 m × 5 m × 3 m to 120 m × 10 m × 5 m.
• Primary treatment unit consists of screening/ grit chamber/ PST  Compressor is used to pass air through diffusers (plates or
before aeration tanks. tubes having nozzles) under pressure from atmosphere.
• SST required after the AT  Air passed at a pressure of 0.55 – 0.7 kg/cm2 whereas
• Sludge treatment and disposal is described in chapter 6 velocity be 60 – 90 cm/minute.
 There are two types of diffused aeration tanks
(a) Ridge and furrow type aeration unit
(b) Spiral flow type aeration unit
(a) Ridge and furrow type aeration unit: (b) Spiral flow type aeration unit:
 Rectangular channels of 30 – 120 m length, 4.5 – 9 m wide and 3
– 4.5 m deep laid parallel to each other.
101
 Diffuser plates are fixed in the furrow portion. 102
Figure 7.22 Ridge and furrow type Figure 7.23 Spiral aeration tanks using diffusers
aeration tank (Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003) 17
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2. Mechanical aeration unit:

(a) Simplex aeration unit
(b) Link-Belt aeration unit
103 (c) Kessner Brush aeration unit 104
Figure 7.24 Simplex type mechanical aerator Figure 7.25 Link-Belt type mechanical aerator (Source:
(Source: Punmia and Jain, 2003) Punmia and Jain, 2003)
3. Combined diffused and mechanical aeration unit:

When strength of sewage is high
105 106
Figure 7.26 Kessner Brush type mechanical aerator

Figure 7.27 Dorr aerator
a. Sludge volume index (SVI):

107 • indicate the physical state of the sludge
108
• Degree of concentration of sludge in the system

• Ratio of volume of sludge in ml to the dry weight of the
sludge in gm.
V
• Mathematically, SVI  s (ml/gm)
Xt
Where,
Vs = Volume of sludge in ml and
Xt = Mix liquor suspended solids (MLSS) in gm/ml.
SVI is determined practically as follows:

1. Take 1000 ml imhoff cone/ fill with mix liquor
2. After 30 minutes, record the volume of settled sludge (Vsl) in ml.
3. Remix and test for MLSS concentration as ‘Xt’ in gm/ml
4. Use above formula to find SVI.
18
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b. Sludge Density Index (SDI):

Given by,
100
SDI  (gm/ml)
109 SVI 110
Where, SVI is sludge volume index in ml/g.
c. Sludge age or sludge retention time (SRT):

 Called mean cell residence time (MCRT)
 The time spend by MLVSS or VSS or activated sludge in
aeration tank.
X t .V
 Mathematically, θ c 
Q w .X r  (Q  Q w ) .X e
d. Recycle ratio or return sludge ratio (r):

 Ratio of returned sludge flow rate to the influent sewage flow rate.
 Mathematically,
Qr Xt
r  Where,
Q  1  Xt in mg/l and SVI in l/mg.
 SVI  X t 
 
111 112
4. Ratio of MLVSS to MLSS (X/Xt) = 0.8 – 1

• MLSS may be assumed as 1000 – 4000 mg/l.
• Higher value desired for higher efficiency but not exceeding 5000 mg/l.
Figure 7.29 Chart for determination of Aeration tank capacity

113 114
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Example 7.7
115 116
Design a conventional activated sludge plant to treat domestic

sewage with diffused air aeration system with the following data:
Population = 120000;
Per capita sewage flow = 160 l/d;
BOD5 of sewage = 200 mg/l;
F/M ratio = 0.2/day ;
MLSS = 3000 mg/l;
SVI = 100 ml/g;
Effluent BOD5 required = 15 mg/l
117 118
119 120
20
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121 122
THANK YOU
21
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CHAPTER 8 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND 1
DISPOSAL 8.1. Source of sludge:

2
By:  Sewage treatment produces:

 Effluent and
 Sludge and screening, grit and scum.
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil  Effluent: disposed in water bodies or land.
Engineering)  Screenings: buried or incinerated,
Head/Associate Professor  Grit: dumped or disposed by sanitary landfill
Department of Civil Engineering,  Scum: burial or burning
Sagarmatha Engineering College,  Sludge: disposed only after certain treatment.
 Sources: the components of treatment plant i.e grit chamber,
Sanepa-2, Lalitpur primary settling tanks, secondary settling tank, septic tanks,
chemical precipitation, activated sludge unit, trickling filter
etc.
8.2 Necessity/objective of sludge treatment:

(a) Characteristics of Sludge from Primary settling tank (plain
(a) To reduce large bulk volume by dewatering for easy sedimentation):
3 transportation, handling and disposal 4  Gray colour, greasy, odourous slurry of settleable solids
(b) To digest decomposable substances to stable substances. containing 50 to 60% of suspended solid applied and
skimming.
(c) To kill bacteria and pathogens for the safety of the public
 Contains fine silt, vegetable matters and faecal matter
health.
 Solid content = 6 – 8% in which 60 – 80% are volatile.
(d) To recover and reuse oils, grease due to its industrial value.
 Quantity about 20 m3 per million liters of sewage.
8.3 Characteristics of sludge: (b) Characteristics of Sludge from chemical precipitation (primary
 Characteristics and quantity depends upon the treatment):
characteristics of raw sewage, process and the degree of the  Precipitated chemicals entangled with solids
treatment.  Colour from the coagulants added.
 Generally liquid or semi-solid liquid containing 0.25–12% of  Generally contains about 70 – 90% SS and 10 -30% water
solid mostly putrescible organic substances needs further  Slightly heavier than PST sludge.
treatment  Quantity about 20 m3 per million liters of sewage.
8.4 Determination of sludge volume:

(c) Sludge from activated sludge process (secondary treatment):
5 6
 Golden brown colour, inoffensive at fresh but septic after

biological activity.
 Rich in organic matter.
 Voluminous and contains 0.5 – 2% of suspended solids but 98 –
99% of water. Volatile matters as 70 - 80 % of SS.
 Quantity about 35 - 30 m3 per million liters of sewage.
(d) Sludge from trickling filter (secondary treatment):

 Dark brown colour, less offensive when fresh, contains humus
with dead worms so produces offensive gases after some time
 Contains dissolved OM and some settlable solids with 50 –
60% of non-settlable SS 1
 Quantity about 5 m3 per million liters of sewage.
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7 8
Volume Moisture relationship: 8.5 Sludge Treatment Methods:
9 10
Include all or a combination of the following unit operations

and process.
(A) Grinding and blending
(B) Thickening or concentration
(Commonly by Gravity thickening)
(C) Digestion or stabilization
a. Conventional or low rate digester
b. High rate digester
(D) Dewatering
a. Drying Beds
b. Mechanical Method
(E) Incineration (taken as separate process)
(F) Composting (taken as separate Process)
8.5.1 Grinding and blending: Gravity thickening:

 Preliminary operation done to produce homogenous and  Most common and least expensive because it uses the forces
uniform size sludge by grinding machine. of gravity.
11 12
 Blending is done in blending tank to mix sludge of different  Adopted for primary as well as combined primary and
character. This operation is optional. activated sludge or combined sludge having greater than
40% of activated sludge.
8.5.2 Thickening or concentration:  Done in a circular tank called gravity thickener
 Process used to increases the solid content of the sludge by  Simple open circular tank, similar to a conventional
removing the liquid fraction sedimentation tank but deep with heavier but slowly rotating
 Purposes: To : racking mechanism like deep truss.
 Reduce the capacity of sludge tank  It has steeply sloping floor.
 Use small size equipment/less chemicals  Bridge fastened to the tank wall supports the truss type
 Minimize the land use and save fuel to burn the sludge scraper arm mounted on a pipe shaft equipped with a power
lift device for open up channels for water to escape and
 Done by gravity thickening, floatation thickening and
promoting densification. 2
centrifugation but most common is gravity thickening and
dealt here.
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13 14
 The slow motion of the scraper removes the gas bubbles.

 Dilute sludge is entered in the center feed well where it is
allowed to settle and compact whereas thickened sludge is
withdrawn from bottom sump in the tank.
 Diameter should not exceed 60 m, depth 3m and a free board
of 0.5 – 1m, detention period of 3 -4 hours
 Surface loading @ 15 – 35 m3/day of sludge/m2 area of tank
may be used.
Gravity thickener
8.5.3 Digestion or stabilization:

(a) Aerobic digestion:
15 16
 A biological process, in which the organic matters present in  Degradation of organic matter by the aerobic bacteria in the
sludge is decomposed by microorganism and convert it into presence of free oxygen is called aerobic digestion.
simple stable compound.  More reduction of volatile solids in aerobic digestion then
 The volume of sludge is reduced by 60 to 75%. anaerobic digestion.
 Removes the coli forms by 99.8% after 30 days digestion at  Supernatant from this process has low BOD.
95 – 100°F.
 Digested sludge has good fertilizing value.  Requires one or more tanks provided with diffused aeration
 Digestion can be achieved by the following: system for the supply of air necessary for digestion.
(a) Anaerobic digestion (b) Aerobic digestion  Requires high oxygen supply and has high operating cost
and no methane gas can be recovered as byproduct. So it is
 Done after thickening and is the biochemical process of never done for sludge digestion.
breaking down of organic matters using bacteria.  Hence sludge digestion is meant for anaerobic digestion.
Anaerobic Digestion Process:

(b) Anaerobic digestion: Three stages/periods:
17 18
 The biological degradation of organic matter by the

i. Acid production stage
anaerobic bacteria in the absence of free oxygen.
ii. Acid regression stage
 Most of the organic matter is converted into methane,
carbon dioxide and water. iii. Alkaline fermentation stage
 Anaerobic digestion is a net energy producer.
i. Period of acid production (acid fermentation stage):
 Digestion is normally done in anaerobic condition  Anaerobic and facultative bacteria act on the easily available
foods (non-nitrogenous organic matters) as sugar, cellulose,
sugar etc
 Produce volatile organic acids, acid carbonates,CO2, CH4 and
H2S.
 pH decreases to less than 6 due to production of acid
 This period is called period of acid production which requires 3
15 days or so in ordinary condition of about 21°C.
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ii. Period of acid regression: iii. Period of intensive digestion (Methane or alkaline
19 20
fermentation stage):
 It is called intermediate stage in which the volatile acids and
nitrogenous compounds are attacked by bacteria  The final stage of anaerobic digestion, bacteria acts on more
 Produces acid carbonates, ammonia compounds as well as resistant materials like protein and organic acids
smaller amount of CO2 and H2S.  Breaks into simple substances as Ammonia, organic acid,
 The products are still acid but weaker and lesser in amount larger amount of CH4, some CO2 and other gases
than the period of acid production.  pH of over 7 (about 7.5)
 This period is called the period of acid regression.  Takes about 1 month or at 21°C.
 pH increases from 6 - 6.8.  Huge amount of CH4 produced and recovered for other use.
 Takes about 3 months or so at 21°C.
(a) Conventional or low rate Digesters

Digesters
 Digestion, thickening and supernatant formation is carried out
21 22 simultaneously in a tank.
 Complete anaerobic digestion process takes about 4 and half  may be of
months at 21°C on controlled conditions. • Floating cover type in which anaerobic digestion, gravity
 Sludge digestion is done in a closed tank called digesters thickening and storage may be done
which are of two types: • Fixed roof digester.
(a) Conventional or low rate digester
(b) High rate digester  Fixed roof digester is circular in plan and hopper bottom in
section, top cover is cylindrical and made of RCC.
 Sludge is fed from center and the mixing device mixes sludge.
 Solid particle settles at the bottom and the gases are collected
in the gas chamber from where gas is released.
 To remove liquids, openings at different levels are provided
 Solid particles are removed by gravity or pumping.
 Manhole is for maintenance
 Lightening rod is kept to protect it from thundering.
(b) High rate Digesters

23 24
 Solid loading rate is higher.

 Sludge is mixed and heated to achieve optimum digestion
rates. Consists of two tanks in series.
 First is used for mixing, heating for anaerobic digestion
 Other is used for separation of supernatants, thickening and
storage.
Typical fixed roof conventional digester 4

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Factors affecting digestion b. pH:

 pH is due to acid formation.
25 26  If 4 > pH > 10, bacteria dies but acts normally at pH of 7.2 –
a. Temperature: 7.4. pH should be checked and maintained.
 Higher is the temperature,  Addition of lime is done to make pH in range.
rate of digestion is higher c. Seeding with digested sludge:
 Up to 40°C the mesophilic  At first operation, seed with digested sludge from the another
organism acts and called tank for proper and quick operation
mesophilic digestion
 Above 45°C the thermophilic
d. Mixing and stirring of the raw sewage with
bacteria acts and called
thermophilic digestion. digestive sludge:
 Operated normally in a  Fresh sewage is mixed with digested one to make a
mesophilic range in which homogenous mass for uniformly distribution of bacterial
25°C to 40°C gives enzymes for effective digestion.
reasonably short period. Temperature effect on  Done by stirring with slow stirring mechanical device
digestion period  Excessive stirring may kill bacteria.
f. Volume of digester:
Digester Design Criteria
27 28
a. Maximum capacity of flow:

 1 unit, 20MLD for high rate digester
 1 unit; 4MLD for normal rate flow
b. Shape:
Circular of maximum diameter 55 m and
minimum diameter 6 m
c. Depth: Minimum 4 m and maximum 9m
d. Free board: 0.4 – 0.8 m
e. Bottom slope: 1:12
Example 8.1
The following data is given for sludge produced by primary settling tank
and secondary settling tank of a trickling filter:
29 30
i. A normal flow of sewage = 20MLD

ii. BOD5 of raw sewage = 210 mg/l
iii. Suspended solids in raw sewage = 260 mg/l
iv. Primary sedimentation tank removes 30% of BOD and 60% of
Suspended solids
v. Specific gravity of inorganic solids = 2.65
vi. Specific gravity of organic solid = 1.02
vii.Water content of fresh sludge = 95%
viii.Water content of digested sludge = 87% and
ix. Digestion period = 30 days.
Assume other necessary data suitably.
(a) Determine the volume of sludge produced by PST as well as SST.
(b) Design a conventional sludge digestion tank for treating sludge from
5
PST and SST.
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Let us assume that the moisture content in sludge

Solution: from PST and SST after TF be as that of total fresh
31 32
sludge as m1 = 95%. Now,
Given for PST and SST;
A normal flow of sewage (Q) = 20MLD = 20 ×106 liters
BOD5 of raw sewage (BOD5) = 210 mg/l
Suspended solids in raw sewage (SS) = 260 mg/l
PST removes 30% of BOD and 60% of Suspended solids
Specific gravity of inorganic solids (Sf) = 2.65
Specific gravity of organic solid (Sv) = 1.02
Water content of fresh sludge (m1) = 95%
Water content of digested sludge (m2) = 87% and
Digestion period (Td) = 30 days.
Sludge volume produced by PST and SST (Vf) =?
Dimension of tank =?
33 34
35 36
6
7/8/2018
8.5.4 Dewatering:
37 38
 Done after digestion

 Process of removal of water from the digested sludge.
 Purpose: to remove water from sludge after digestion
 Reduces the volume and cost of subsequent process as well
as transportation and protects landfill site from lechate
formation.
 Done by air drying on open sludge drying beds or by
mechanical method
A) Sludge drying Beds:

 Sludge can be dried in an open atmosphere where
39
temperature is higher. 40
 Consists of specially prepared beds on land
 Consists of sloping bottom layer of gravel over which bed of
clean sand with effective size of 0.3 – 0.75 m and coefficient
of uniformity less than 4 is laid.
 Open jointed under drains laid in the gravel to drain off the
liquid passed from sand and then gravel.
 Sludge is partly dried by evaporation in sunlight and
infiltration of water to under drains through sand and gravel
beds.
 Drying takes place in about 2 – 3 weeks.
 Should be located 100 m far from the inhabitants
 Should be covered by glass roofing where rainfall is high.
 Dried sludge cakes can be removed for disposal.
Drying Beds
B) Mechanical Method:
 Various mechanical methods but Vacuum filter method is
41
common 42
 Consists of a cylindrical drum whose outer surface is of
copper mesh over which a filter cloth is stretched and
wired.
 Inner space between the solid shell and outer shell is
subdivided into various compartments
 Each compartment is connected to a vacuum pump and the
drum is suspended horizontally so that one quarter of its
diameter is submerged in the tank containing sludge.
 On immersion, the vacuum is created inside of filter
compartments and the pump sucks out the water from the
sludge.
 The sludge blanket made at the surface of drum is scraped Vacuum filter 7
by means of scraper from the rotating drum just before it
enters above scraper for re-submersion.
7/8/2018
8.5.5 Incineration (also discussed in chap 10):

(b) Multiple Hearth type incinerator
 A most hygienic method in which sludge is changed into
 Consists of furnace with series of circular hearths
ashes.
43 44
(fireplace) one upon another.
 Raw or digested wet sludge may be treated and disposed off
 Equipment/structure for burning is called incinerator  Wet sludge cake placed on the top hearth and
 Two Types:
passed through five/six successive hearth
(a) Flash type incinerator  Useful for large quantity of sludge.
(b) Multiple hearth type incinerator  High cost due to fuels so not used in developing
countries.
(a) Flash type incinerator  Drying zone: dried at 550°C,
 A tower first heated by burning fuel then wet  Burning zone: burnt at 1000°C
sludge is thrown from top.  Cooling zone: cooled to 300°C.
 Hot gases from the bottom removes the moisture
 Smoke released to atmosphere through chimney
 Dried sludge collected at the bottom and used as
burning material for the same tower.  Ash disposed off by sanitary land filling.
8.6 Sludge Disposal Methods:

8.5.6 Composting (also discussed in chap 10):
45 46
 Destroy organic matters present by aerobic decomposition

through a biochemical process (a) Dumping
 Converts into stable mineral compounds which can be used (b)Spreading on the land
as a fertilizer. (c) Land filling
 Done in thermo filling zone and to develop thermo filling (d)Lagooning
range
 Sludge is mixed with dry organic mix and water content is
reduced. different methods of composting is discussed in
chapter 10.
8.6.1 Dumping: 8.6.3 Landfilling:

 If disposed off in an abandoned mine/quarry/depressions/  Hygienic method
47
water by throwing away, called dumping. 48
 Both raw and stabilized sludge after dewatering can be
 Suitable for stabilized sludge disposed off by filling in low lying areas in scientific way is
 adopted for digested sludge, clean grit and incinerator called land filling.
residue.
 Not hygienic method.  Dewatering is necessary to reduce hauling cost
 The following are important for land filling.
i. Covering to protect from foul gases /odour.
8.6.2 Spreading on Land: ii. Maintain surface topography for proper draining of
runoff.
 Stabilized or digested sludge spreading over farm /land as a
fertilizer for raising crops iii. Monitoring and control of lechate to protect water
pollution.
 After application , land ploughed before raising crops
iv. Control of erosion by planting.
 Applied to 2 – 4 cm depth per year 8
v. Ash from incineration of sludge also disposed in land
 Not suitable for larger quantity sludge.
filling.
7/8/2018
8.6.4 Lagooning:
 If disposed into the lagoons/ pond, called Lagooning.
49  Lagoon: a shallow earth basin used for storage/digestion/ 50
dewatering and first disposal of dried sludge adopted for  Organic matters: stabilized by aerobic/anaerobic actions so
untreated as well as digested sludge objectionable odour may risen
 Natural depressions can be used as lagoons.  Located in porous soil and away from locality.
 Located at such place where there is no chance of ground
water pollution.
 Lagoon is of fill and draw type
 Detention period of 1 to 2 months after stabilization of
sludge
 Water is drained/evaporated
 The dried contents can be used as good manure.
 Runoff water is abrupt by banks of lagoon
Sludge lagoon
51
THANK YOU
9
7/8/2018
CHAPTER 9 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE FROM 1 OFFSITE DISPOSAL SYSTEM OF WASTEWATER

ISOLATED BUILDINGS
2
By:
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil
Engineering)
Head/Associate Professor
Sanepa-2, Lalitpur
ONSITE DISPOSAL SYSTEM OF WASTEWATER 9.1 Introduction and Necessity of disposal of

sewage from isolated buildings
3 4
Off-site sewage disposal

Sewage is collected, conveyed using water carriage system then treated in
massive amount and disposed far from source
On site sewage disposal
Sewage is collected and disposed off at the generation site
Necessity
 Off site method: not possible in unsewered towns, villages
and cities due to high cost and difficulty in construction
 In such isolated built up area and unsewered area sewage is
not transported but disposed in the site of generation
 In rural areas, construction of bathrooms and latrines are
neglected.
 So different method is necessary to dispose off sewage in
such areas.
9.2 On site sanitation- Definition and Types 9.3 Pit Privy (vfN6] rkL{)
Definition
5
method of sanitation system where, sewage are collected and 6
disposed off at the generation site in the scientific way  Widely used in developing country
 Pit is made inside the latrine to collect and disposal of human
Types excreta
1. Privies:  Purpose: To collect and safe on site disposal of human
 Commonly underground chamber or pit excreta
 May be of masonry or just pit only with or without super
 Construction:
structure.
 Various types available but in Nepal following are common: * A pit of (90 – 120 cm diameter) or (1m ×1m)
(a) Pit privy (vfN6] rkL{) in plan and (2 – 3 m depth)
(b) VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) latrine(;'wfl/Psf] vfN6] rkL{) * May be lined or unlined
(c) Pour flush latrine (;'ne zf}rfno) * Covered with a squatting plate seat slab with a cover in
2. Septic Tank with Soak Pit/other effluent disposal methods hole
3. Imhoff Tank * Temporary foundations and superstructure to protect from rain
and for privacy 1
We are concerned with 1and 2 only
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7 8
Pit Privy (vfN6] rkL{)

 When digested sludge reaches to the level 50 cm below the top, pit
is filled with a 50 – 75 mm thick earth layer
 Super structure and squatting plate is shifted to the next position
(i.e. next pit).
 The filled pit can be re used after 2 years
9.4 VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) latrine

(;'wfl/Psf] vfN6] rkL{)
9 10
 Pit privy: unhygienic and dangerous for children

 Improvement over pit privy by a vent pipe is called VIP latrine
 Slightly offset superstructure
 Purpose: To collect and dispose of human excreta for maintaining hygienic
conditions
 Construction:
 12 – 15 m away from the buildings
 A lined or unlined 1.2 m diameter and 1.5 m deep pit
 Liquid absorption by the surrounding soils
 A concrete or timber squatting plate (pan) with a hole with two footrests
and a cover.
 A 90 mm diameter vent pipe to escape foul gases
 Top of vent pipe with wire net or cowl to prevent flies and other insect
 Vent pipe painted black and more height than building at the locality.
 Superstructure for maintaining privacy and to protect from rain.
 Use of local materials (brick, stone masonry, straw and bamboo etc.
 Lined pits can be cleaned after fill

 Unlined pit is covered with thick layer of soil and
 Another hole is constructed nearby. Design criteria for VIP
 Types: single pit, double pit, multiple pits One pit for at least 2 years and two pits for alternate use
11 12
Vent pipe minimum 90 mm diameter.

Circular pit
GWT at least 2 m below from the bottom of pit
No Large depth for unlined pits.
The effective volume of pit is given by:
V = NRT,
where,
N = No. of users;
R = digested sludge accumulation rate taken as 0.04 to
0.05 m3/person/year
T = Design period or filling periods in years (minimum 2
years)
VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) latrine
(;'wfl/Psf] vfN6] rkL{)
One pit for 100 students and for each 50 students, 1 pit is 2
added.
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Example 9.1
Design a VIP latrine for a family of 8 persons. Assume
9.5 Pour flush latrine (;'ne zf}rfno)
necessary data.
13 14 VIP latrine built outside the house
Given, Pour flush latrine built inside the house.
Number of users (N) = 8; Dimension of pit =? Ventilation pipe is not necessary
Cleaned by pouring about 1.5 to 2 liter of water hence it
Assuming digested sludge accumulation rate (R) = 0.05 m3/person/yr
is called pour flush latrine.
and desludging period (T) = 2 years, Volume (V) = NRT = 8 × 0.05 × 2
Purpose: To collect and disposal of human excreta for
= 0.8 m3
hygienic conditions
Assume effective depth (d) = 1m;  Construction:
 A water seal pan
V 0 .8
Then top area of pit (A) =  = 0.8 m2  Pipe 1 in 5 to 1 in 15 (pan to junction chamber to pits)
d 1  A brick masonry junction chamber of minimum clear size 300 mm ×
If Φ is diameter of pit, then 300 mm
 For loose soil, pit lined with brick or cement masonry or honey
 2 4A 4  0 .8 combed brick wall or perforated concrete ring
A     = 1.009 ≈ 1 m
4    The pit is covered with a RCC slab.
Provide, free board (FB) = 0.5m, then overall depth  If one pit is filled, next pipeline is opened for another pit and after 3
(D) = d + FB = 1 + 0.5 = 1.5m years the old pit can be reused.
Adopt 1 pit of 1m diameter and 1.5m deep.  A brick or stone masonry superstructure inside or outside the house
Pour flush latrine

(;'ne zf}rfno)
15 16
Design criteria:
same as VIP latrine
require no vent pipe
minimum diameter of pipe is 100 mm
9.6 SEPTIC TANK

Construction
17 18
 Sedimentation cum digestion tank

 Rectangular watertight chamber
 Brickwork or stone masonry or RCC
 Built underground to collect the human excreta (sometimes
other sewage also) in the un-sewered area
 Much more costly than pit latrines hence used by not poor
people in semi-urban areas.
 Purpose:
To collect the sewage, settle the solid matters, create the
digestion process effective and dispose effluent in the safe
way.
3
Septic tank for 25 users
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Design Criteria
Working 1. Sewage flow: Dry sludge = 70g/d/person
19 20
 Anaerobic digestion Probable peak discharges (Q) in liter/minute (Indian Condition)

 Settling Small Residential Housing Eating establishment
 Floating of lighter fats etc (domestic)tanks colonies as Boarding schools etc
 Gas escape from vent No of No of
 Effluent proper disposal Q Q No of users Q
users users
5 10 100 240 50 84
10 20 150 360 100 168
Maintenance 15 20 200 480 150 266
20 30 300 720 200 350
 No disinfectants, soap water, paper, kitchen water,
25 40 300 518
garbage and surface water are allowed 30 40
 The digested sludge is withdrawn from septic tank at 35 50
least in 6 months to 3 years and properly disposed off 40 60
45 60
50 70
Digested sludge rate (Cds) for different cleaning period ‘T’

2. Tank dimension
6 months 1 yrs 2 yrs 3 yrs
Desludging period (T)
21 22
Digested sludge rate
N = no of users and Q = sewage flow rate 0.0283 0.0490 0.0708 0.0850
(Cds) in m3/ person
a) Detention time (t) = 1 – 3 days
b) Minimum width (Bmin) = 0.75 m
c) Free board (FB) = 0.3 – 0.45 m
d) Minimum effective depth (dmin) =1m 9.7 Septic tank effluent disposal methods
e) Length width ratio (L:B) =2–4
f) Volume (V): It is the summation of following;  Effluent: septic and malodorous containing organic
So, Effective Volume (V) = V1 + V2+ V3 matters and pathogens
 Volume for settling of sewage (V1) = Q × t  Nuisance and hazard on public health
 Volume for sludge digestion (V2) = 0.0425 N (in m3) [i.e. 0.0425  Properly disposed off
m3/person]  By various methods
 Volume for storage of digested sludge (V3) = Cds × N, a) Drain field
Where, b) Evapo-transpiration mound
Cds = digested sludge rate which depends upon cleaning period ‘T’ and c) Leaching cesspool
given in table below
d) Soak pit
9.7.1 Drain field or dispersion trenches

Construction: (Drain field)
23 24
 Shallow and narrow but long trenches in the ground

 A trench constructed  15 to 30 m long, 30 cm to 1m wide and effective depth of
on the land and filled 1m with 0.25% slope
with coarse materials.  80 to 100 mm diameter earthenware or concrete perforated
 Also called soakage pipes are laid over 15 to 25 cm gravel
pits or dispersion  Then trench is filled with gravel and soil,
trench.  Turfing and finishing is done to protect from rain.
 Purpose:  more dispersion trenches may be used according quantity
To provide the wider of effluent.
area to adsorb sewer  If more than one trench is used it is called drain field.
effluent by the soil  Spacing between two dispersion trenches should be 2 times
and evaporation the depth or 2 m whichever is greater. 4
Fig 9.5 Drain field or dispersion trenches
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Design criteria: (Drain field) 9.7.2 Evapo-transpiration mound

25 26  Used if very high GWT and in rocky areas,
 The base of trench is responsible for infiltration
 Effluent is applied over sand and gravel laid on ground
 Minimum depth of 1 m is provided,
 Purpose:
 Minimum depth taken is 1m
To provide the wider
 Length ‘L’ is given by;
Q area and artificial
L
BI absorption to
Q = rate of flow of effluent (m3/d); B = Width (m) adsorb sewer
I = Infiltration capacity of soil (m3/m2/d) effluent and
evaporation
Infiltration Capacity (I)
Type of soil in liter/m2/day
Coarse or medium sand 50
Fine sand, Loamy sand 33
Sandy loam, loam 25
Porous silty clay & silty clay loam 20 Evapotranspiration mound
Construction : 9.7.3 Leaching cesspool

 Circular or rectangular underground chamber or tank
27 28
whose top portion acts as an absorption field and bottom
as a septic tank.
 15 cm thick sand layer is laid over the top soil 60 cm of  Both collection and disposal of sewage is done.
gravel is kept over sand media. Called combination of septic tank and soak pit.
 Inside the gravel layer perforated pipes are laid in open  Purpose:
joints. To collect and dispose sewage effluent by settlement of
 Over the gravel, moist straw of 10 cm depth is kept heavier particles whereas the liquid is absorbed by the
 slope 1 in 3 and depth of 2 to 5 m surrounding soil.
 Water and nutrients are absorbed by the plants  Construction:
 Evaporation and transpiration takes place.  At least 1 m diameter
 Watertight bottom (if the cesspool bottom is above
water table) or mayn’t with watertight bottom (if the
cesspool bottom is below the water table)
 Retain the heavier sludge for digestion.
9.7.4 Soak pit or seepage pit

29 30
 The circular (more common) pit preferred to disposed

effluent by soaking in the surrounding soil.
 Preferred when water table is sufficiently below GL
and land available is low
 It is economical, stable and high efficient if soil is
porous
 Purpose: To dispose the septic tank effluent by absorption in
the surrounding soil.
 Construction:
 Unlined pit is filled with bricks, stone aggregate and sand
and cover is not necessary
 Lined soak pit is empty inside but filled with sand, gravel
and stone in outside shell and a cover is required 5
Leaching cesspool  Lined pit wall may be honey combed and aid dry.
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Design criteria:
The minimum diameter 0.9 m
31 32
Maximum diameter 3.5 m
Depth as per GWT
Effective depth (depth below invert of inlet) > 100 m.
No ground water sources with in the radius of 60 m.
Design formula:
Q
π d 
Where,
I
Φ = Diameter in m; d = Effective depth in m;
Q = Effluent discharge in m3/d and
I = infiltration capacity of soil in m3/m2/d
If more than one soak pits are designed then the clear distance
between the two pits should be kept 3 times the diameter of the
largest diameter pit.
130
Infiltration rate is computed as: I (liters/m2/day)
where Tr depends upon soil type. Tr
Soak pits In absence of data Tr = 25 min/cm may be taken
Example 9.2 Here,

Design a septic tank for a house having 8 persons. The rate Sewage discharge (Q) = q × N = 100 × 8 = 800 l/d = 0.8 m3/d
33 of sewage is 100 lpcd. Assume sludge is cleaned from ST 34
Septic tank
once in 3 years. If percolation rate is 25 min/cm, design the
Assume detention period (t) = 1 day and
drain field to dispose the effluent. If soak pit is used, what
sludge digestion volume rate = 0.0425 m3/person
will be the dimension of soak pit. Given that GWT is 4.5 m
below ground surface. Volume for settling of sewage (V1) = Q × t = 0.8 × 1 = 0.8 m3
Given, Volume for sludge digestion (V2) = 0.0425 N = 0.0425 × 8

Number of users (N) = 8; = 0.34 m3
Rate of sewage flow (q) = 100 lpcd; Volume for storage of digested sludge (V3) = Cds × N
Desludging period (T) = 3 yrs; From Table 9.2, for T = 3 yrs,
Infiltration rate of soil (Tr) = 25 min/cm; Digested sludge rate (Cds) = 0.085 m3/person
GWT = 4.5 m below GL; So, V3 = Cds × N = 0.085 × 8 = 0.68 m3
Dimension of ST =?;
Dimension of DF =?; Total effective volume (V) = V1 + V2 + V3
Dimension of SP =? = 0.8 + 0.34 + 0.68 = 1.82 m3
Assume effective depth (d) = 1m; Drain field

V 1.82 130 130
35
Then top area of tank (A) =  = 1.82 m2 36 Soil infiltration capacity (I) = l / m2 / d 
d 1 Tr 25
Taking< Length width ratio (L/B) = 3 , = 26 l/m2/d
A = L × B = 3B × B = 3B2
Q 800
B
A

1.82 Area required for infiltration (A) =  = 30.77 m2
= 0.77 ≈ 0.8 m > 0.75 m, hence ok. I 26
3 3
Assume width of trench (B) = 0.6 m and 1m deep, then,
Now, length (L) = 3B = 3 × 0.8 = 2.4 m
length of trench, A 30 .77
taking free board (FB) = 0.4m, L=  = 51.28 m;
then overall depth (D) = d + FB = 1 + 0.4 = 1.4m B 0 .6
If two trenches are used, length of each trench,
Adopt 2.4m × 0.8m × 1.4m Septic tank
L 51.28
l  = 25.64 ≈ 26 m
2 2
6
Adopt 2 nos of 26m × 0.6m × 1m trench with clear spacing of 2 m.
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Soak Pit
We know, GWT should lie 2m below the bottom of SP, then,
37 Maximum depth of soak pit = 4.5 – 2 = 2.5 m 38
130 130
Soil infiltration capacity (I) = l / m2 / d  = 26 l/m2/d
Tr 25
Q 800
Area required for infiltration (A) = 
THANK YOU
= 30.77 m2
I 26
Assuming number of circular pits (n) = 2 of diameter ‘Φ’
and effective depth (d) = 2 m, We have,
A A 30.77
πΦd=   
n nd 2   2 (CHAPTER 9 COMPLETED)
= 2.448 ≈ 2.5 m (>0.9 and <3.5 ok)
Provide, free board (FB) = 0.5m,
then overall depth (D) = d + FB = 2 + 0.5 = 2.5m
Adopt 2 nos of 2.5m diameter 2.5m deep circular SP
7
7/8/2018
CHAPTER 10 SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL 10.1. Characteristics of Solid Waste:

2
By:  Contains dry state waste matters produce in the

Arun Prasad Parajuli community
(M.Sc Environmental Engineering, B.E. Civil  May be organic and inorganic
Engineering)  May be combustible or non combustible
 Consists of following:
Associate Professor/ Head a. Garbage
Department of Civil Engineering, b. Ash
Sagarmatha Engineering College, c. Rubbish
Sanepa, Lalitpur
A. Garbage: C. Rubbish:
3 4
 All putrescible organic wastes from kitchen, hotels,  All non-putrescible waste excluding ashes
restaurants etc.  All combustible and non-combustible wastes such
 Waste food, vegetable and fruit peelings, grass, as paper, broken furniture, glass, plastic bottles,
leaves, animal and bird excreta. card board, dismantled building materials etc.
 Decomposes by producing foul gases and creates  Sources: house, street and trade centers
health hazard.  House refuse: vegetable and animal wastes, ashes,
 Leads to breeding of flies, mosquitoes and insects. debris, garbage etc.
 Street refuse: empty bottles, cigarette box, match
B. Ash: box, fruit peels, tree leaves, street sweepings etc.
 Incombustible waste obtained from house,  Trade refuse: refuse produced from commercial
industries and furnaces areas, factories etc.
10.2. Quantity of Solid Waste: 10.3. Collection and transportation of

5 6 solid waste:
 Quantity of solid waste production varies from place to
place, season to season, living standard and food habitat of  Collected in individual house in small covered
containers or bins and removed by scavengers.
people, type of area, availability of food etc.
 Sometimes public dust bins by the municipality at
 Average production = 0.5 to 0.8 kg/capita/day (45%
suitable location where the individual householder
inorganic and 55% organic) throws.
 Less in developing country and high in developed country.  Solid wastes on the road collected once or twice a day
 Developed country (Europe and USA) = 2 kg/capita/day by scavengers.
 Developing country = 0.3 – 1 kg/capita/day  Handcarts may also be used for collection and
 Kathmandu = 0.8 kg/person/day removal
 Most of all in Nepal is dust, rotten food, papers etc.  Collected solid waste is transported manually or by
 If not properly disposed-off, create foul gases and diseases, trucks, tractors, auto-rikshaw, trailers etc. 1
 Developed countries: truck with compressor is used.
nuisance and damages aesthetic appearance of the city.
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Collection Vehicle Collection

7 8
TRANSFER STATION
9 10
10.4. Solid waste disposal methods:

1. Dumping 2.Sanitary landfill
11 12
3. Incineration 4.Composting
10.4.1. Dumping:
 Throwing away method to fill low lying areas.
 Normally waste without garbage is thrown so that
no nuisance is produced.
 It is common in developing country.
 Advantages: Cheaper in construction
2
 Disadvantages: Unhygienic
7/8/2018
10.4.2. Sanitary Landfill:

13 14
 Improvement of dumping method

 Hygienic method.
 Solid wastes dumped into low lying areas of the
locality.
 Dumping in layer of 1 to 2 m, covered by min of 20 cm
good earth to prevent from exposure to avoid nuisance
of flies and vermin.
 Next layer is added after 1 wk.
 All the layers are compacted
Advantages:
i. Simple, no costly plants and equipment required
15 16
ii. Separation is not needed.
iii. No residue left for further disposal.
iv. Pits of low lying land are reclaimed.
Disadvantages:
i. Requires more land
ii. Creates foul gases and nuisance near site.
iii. Difficult to get good earth for covering.
iv. Lechate in rainy season may pollute surface/ ground
water
v. Insecticides required to prevent fly nuisance.
17 18
3
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19 20
21 22
23 24
4
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10.4.3. Incineration:
25 26
 Most hygienic method

 Separated into combustible and non-combustible.
Combustible are burnt into furnace or incinerator.
 Several types of incinerator but a simple
incinerator may be used
 Hospital wastes are incinerated in B&B hospital,
Patan hospital, TU teaching hospital, Bir hospital
etc.
Advantages:
i. Hygienic/completely destroys pathogens and insects.
27 28
ii. No odour and dust nuisance
iii.The heat produced may be used for other purposes
Multiple hearth TYPE iv.Clinker may be used in road construction.
INCINERATOR
v. Lesser space requirement and
vi.not affected by adverse weather condition.
Disadvantages:
i. Improper incineration: air pollution (high chimneys
required.
ii. Large initial cost
FLASH TYPE (SIMPLE)
INCINERATOR iii.Residue obtained further needs to be disposed-off.
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10.4.4. Composting: A. Composting by trenching:

 Useful only for putrescible organic matters so  Trenches of (L=3 to 12 m, B= 2 to 3 m D=1 to 2 m)
31 32
separation is a must excavated with a clear spacing of 2 m

 Decomposed aerobically or anaerobically  Organic solid waste is filled in 15 cm layers with 5 cm
 Converts into humus rich in nitrogen and stable thick night soil or animal excreta for adding bacteria.
mineral compounds having high fertile value and  Covered by 10 cm layer (30 cm above the ground
called compost is used as a fertilizer. surface) of good earth
 Three methods:  After 2 or 3 days biological action starts/temp rises to
(a) Composting by trenching 75°C.
(b) Open windrow composting  After 4 to 6 months it changes into brown and odourless
powder called humus, called ‘compost mal’ is obtained
(c) Mechanical composting
B. Open windrow Composting:

• Organic and putrescible matters is dumped on the ground at
33 34
D = 0.6 to 1 m L = 6 m and B=1 to 2 m wide piles at about
60% moisture content.
• Covered with animal dung, cattle urine, night soil etc.
• aerobic reaction, the temp rises to 75°C.
• Arrangement to pass air (inserting bamboos) and temperature
is measured by inserting thermometer.
• The temperature <70°C, pH between 7.2 to 7.4 otherwise
bacteria dies.
• If temp rises to 70°C, pile is overturned and the moisture
content/pH is adjusted.
• When temperature do not increase (the indication of
completion of bacterial activity) it means composting is
completed.
• takes about 7 to 10 weeks
• Compost can be used as a fertilizer.
35 36
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7/8/2018
C. Mechanical Composting:
37 38
 Other methods of composting require larger area of

land so Mechanical composting is useful in that case.
 Principle is same but composting is carried out in a
closed room.
 Solid waste stabilizes within 3 – 7 days.
 Sprayers are used to adjust moisture content /coils are
used to adjust temp constant at 70°C for bacterial work
 Costlier and done in large scale.
C. Mechanical Composting:
39 40
 Processes are:
i. Reception of refuse
ii. Segregation of paper, rags, card boards, bottles ferrous
and other larger objects either manually or mechanically.
iii. Shredding and pulverizing of remaining matters.
iv. Digestion and stabilization
v. Market preparation for manure by packing.
41 42
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7/8/2018
43 44
45
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6/1/2018

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

• Human excreta or night soil is collected in privies or latrines Demerits

Merits building can't be designed as one compact unit.

storm water. • Aesthetic appearance of the city can't be improved.

• No silting problem in open drain. danger to public health.

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

• Rainwater dilutes the sewage so treatment process is easy

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction

3. Partially separate System:

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

By: a. Sanitary Sewage or dry b. Storm Sewage or wet

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

• Characteristics/slope/shape/area of the catchment.

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

2.6 DETERMINATION OF STORM WATER OR WWF RATIONAL METHOD

absorption, transpiration, percolation etc. i = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

b. Coefficient of runoff or imperviousness factor or

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

c. Intensity of rainfall (i):

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

2.7 TIME AREA GRAPH

Maximum flow occurs at ‘t = Tc’

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

Chapter 2 Quantity of Wastewater

3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE b. Odour:

(d) Turbidity (e) Solids c. Temperature:

• Classified in other way as:

• Sewage contains complex compounds from urine, faeces,

• We are concerned with

3.3 SAMPLING OF SEWAGE

3.4 COD AND BOD

3.5 TESTS OF SEWAGE

1. Physical test 2. Chemical tests 3. Biological tests

(a) Temperature: by thermometer [ordinary/digital] inC

Time ‘t’ (days)

3. Biological tests: A. pH test:

d. Determination of settlable solids (SES) and non settlable

C. Dissolved oxygen test:

E. Bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) test:

(a) Aerobic decomposition:

Chapter 4. Design of sewers

Department of Civil Engineering, 4.2 SHAPES OF SEWER

Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

A. Circular sewer: Common

Chapter 4. Design of sewers Chapter 4. Design of sewers

rectangular and egg shaped • mostly constructed with RCC.