Lesson 4 Subject and Content

` In the Philippines, which is predominantly a non-museum-going public, looking at art has

always been a tricky business. This is true not only for novices, but also at times, confronts the
long-time art aficionados. One of the major hurdles that spoils an individual's engagement with
an artwork is the notion that in order to appreciate it, one must be able to extract a specific
image, isolate the artist or maker’s intention and unearth a particular meaning. Failure to do so
automatically implies a failure comprehension and therefore, failure of the experience. This,
however, relegates art engagement and therefore appreciation to the very few who had training
and instruction in producing and in reading art. This should not be the case.

In most cases, there are clues that mediate between the artwork and the viewer allowing
the viewer to more easily comprehend what he is seeing. These dues are the three basic
components of a work of art: subject, form and content. These components are largely
inseparable from each other and usually related to each other. In this chapter, subject and content
will be discussed, while form will be better examined in Chapter 6. To differentiate them briefly,
subject refers to the visual focus or the image that may be extracted from examining the artwork,
while content is the meaning that is communicated by the artist or the artwork. Finally, the
development and configuration of the artwork—how the elements and the medium or material
are put together—is the form. In simpler terms, the subject is seen as the "what": the content is
the "why”; and the form is the "how."

Let's Get Down to Business

In the field of the sciences, experimentation is the key to proving a hypothesis or a

larger theory. Often, an experiment is done multiple times to further prove the reliability of an
outcome. Therein, empirical or observable data in the form of visible or tactile qualities, events
or occurrence, yielding an output or by-product must follow after a step or a series of processes.
In the arts, there are also observable qualities that the artwork holds that will point to its subject,
and sometimes even to its content. In order to flesh out what the subject of the artwork is, “it is
important to first look at the constituent figures that are perceivable on the surface of the
canvas or the sculpture, and the manner in which the artist chose to depict those figures.
From these, the type of subject can then be inferred.”

Types of Subject

One of the most iconic and recognizable paintings all over the world is the "Mona Lisa"
done by Leonardo da Vinci. Some questions are often raised regarding this artwork, like "Who is
Mona Lisa?" "Why was Leonardo da Vinci compelled to paint her?" But as scholars attempt to
solve the true identity of the sitter, it is relevant to note that there is a consensus that the Mona
Lisa whoever she is based on a real person.

Portraits such as the "Mona Lisa" are good examples of what is called representational
art. These types of art have subjects that refer to objects or events occurring in the real world.
Often, it is also termed figurative art, because as the name suggests, the figures depicted are
easy to make out and decipher. Despite not knowing who Mona Lisa is, it is clear that the
painting is of a woman that is realistically-proportioned; only the upper torso is shown; a
beguiling and mysterious smile is flashed; and that the background is a landscape-probably a
view from a window. Pushing it even further, one can even imagine a scene in which Leonardo
da Vinci alternates between applying dabs of paint on the canvas and looking at the sitter in
order to capture her features for the portrait.

On the other hand, seeing a painting that has nothing in it but continuous drips of paint or
splotches of colors either confounds the viewer or is readily trivialized as something that anyone
with access to materials can easily make. The works of Jackson Pollock, who is known for his
"action paintings” are often subjected to these remarks. Using large-scale canvasses that were
usually laid out on the floor or resting on a wall, Pollock tilted his paint can and allowed paint to
drip. Assisting it with movement, he used other implements such as hardened brushes, knives,
sticks, and trowels to add detail, texture, and dimension to his paintings. There were no clear
figures that jot out from the canvas; there were only drips and splashes. This kind of work can be
subsumed under the category of non-representational. As the opposite of the previously
discussed type of subject, non-representational art is also often termed non-figurative art.

Non-representational art does not make a reference to the real world, whether it is a
person, place, thing, or even a particular event. It is stripped down to visual elements such as
shapes, lines, and colors that are employed to translate a particular feeling, emotion, and even
concept. It is in this light that representational works are often favored because they are easier to
recognize. Viewers find a greater degree of comfort when what they see registers as something
familiar. They then continue to process this understanding, sometimes even becoming confident
enough to share their insights to others. It can be argued then that an artist is faced with a strong
persuasion of creating works that veers toward representational art. However, it is not simply an
issue of assumed preference: rather, it cuts across matters relating to prevailing themes, norms,
and practices of specific historical moments.

Non-representational Art and Abstract Art

One source of confusion is the notion that non-representational art is the same as abstract
art. This is essential to discuss because it introduces the fact that representational art and non-
representational art is not a clear-cut divide; rather, they exist in a spectrum. An abstract work of
Pablo Picasso is a great example to illustrate this. Although he is more known for his paintings,
he also dabbled into other works including sculptures. Cut metal that is hinged on a metal base,
there is a palpable distortion of the image—whatever it is-seems to be melting. Even without
reading the title from the caption, mere seconds of looking at the combination of lines, shapes,
and colors of the sculpture will point to a head of a woman. Even with the abstraction of the
image, this work is arguably representational. As a guide, an artwork, depending on the degree of
distortion or abstraction, may be judged as leaning more toward one over the other. Abstract art
is in itself a departure from reality, but the extent of that departure determines whether it has
reached the end of the spectrum, which is non-representationality-a complete severance from
the world.

A proponent of non-representational art was Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky. Although

his chosen art form was paintings, he likened non-representational art 10 music, an art form that
he was also very keen to. He asserted that with sounds, musicians are able to evoke imagery in
their listeners or audiences. Object-free, he alludes to the sounds and spiritual experiences that
music makes possible in his paintings. It is therefore not surprising that a lot of his paintings are
inspired by music and are titled as impression, improvisation, and composition.

Sources and kinds of Subject

When hit with a wall or a block, the writer is often advised to look back and take from
what he knows. From there a well and wealth of materials may be drawn But for artists, where
do they source the subjects of their paintings? What do they paint?

For non-representational art, a higher level of perceptiveness and insight might be

required to fully grasp the feeling, emotion, or concept behind the work. It is perhaps easier
to infer where the subject matter comes from if the artwork is an example of representational art.
From the figure(s) depicted in the artwork, there is already a suggestion as to its inspiration.

However, in discussing the sources and kinds of subject in artworks, it is important to

note that these two are often inextricably related. Often, even a singular source of inspiration can
yield multiple translations. A good starting point is, of course, the nature.

There is nothing more rudimentary than human interaction with the physical world
around the artist. Early childhood often revolves around getting to know not just the body and
what it can do, but also in getting accustomed to a multitude of sensory prompts around the artist
especially those situated in his environment.

Artists throughout history have explored diverse ways of representing nature: from plants
to animals; the qualities of bodies of water and the terrain of and even the perceivable cycles and
changing of seasons. Often, these depictions are seen as expressions of the sacred or the
profane, sired by reality or supplemented by the artist's imagination. One artist who was
attuned with nature was Vincent van Gogh. He saw art and nature as inseparable, often finding
solace and happiness in painting in it (working in the middle of unspoiled fields) and painting
from it (landscapes). In a letter to his brother Theo, he wrote "...if I felt no love for nature and my
work, then I would be unhappy." (Van Gogh Museum, 1882)

Other artists with a considerable number of landscapes and seascapes are Claude Monet,
Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, and JMW Turner. In the Philippines, National Artists for
Painting Fernando Amorsolo and Fabian de la Rosa gained prominence from their painted rural
scenes such as women in the fields gathering harvest. Breaking nature into smaller parts is Jan
van Kessel the Elder who did numerous still lives and small-scale, highly detailed studies, and
scientific illustrations of flowers, insects, shells, fruits, garlands, and bouquets.

Greek and Roman mythology were also ripe with references: from episodes that transport
the viewer to heroic encounters of Achilles and Aeneas; warnings about man's folly like the
vanity of Icarus; the wit and cunning of Odysseus; the beauty of Aphrodite and the athleticism of
Myron. From narrations in literature, artists, on the other hand, gave faces to Greek and Roman
deities or the gods and goddesses whose fates are seemingly as tragic as those of men. Some of
the art forms they took on were wall paintings or frescos and sculptural works such as busts,
statuaries, and ceramics and pottery, among others.

Another integral aspect of human life is the distinct relationship with a higher controlling
power. If the belief system of Greeks and Romans was polytheism with a multitude of gods and
goddesses, the Judeo-Christian tradition stems from a belief in a lone creator of the universe or
what is called monotheism. This tradition had an immense influence in Western civilization
especially in art Guided by a host of styles and techniques, various media and art forms were also
experimented with: paintings, frescos, church architecture (over-all plan of the space, stained
glass windows, tabernacles, and altars), sarcophagus, icons and other carvings, vestments,
tapestry. illuminated manuscripts, and other sacred scriptures, among others.

Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the intricate fresco that lines the Sistine Chapel was
created by Michelangelo. The immense detail and vast surface he had to cover had him working
on it from 1508 to 1512.

Unlike in Islam for example, practicing Jews and Christians were allowed to depict their
God and other important biblical figures: laying visual foundations in inculcating the faith. But
perhaps the influence of this tradition is most intriguingly manifested in the architectural marvels
that are spread out all over the world.

The formative years of church architecture can be traced in the fourth and fifth century
but different styles and plans were developed since then. Prevailing ideas and philosophies
became resources that were used by architects to reimagine what the church should look like. For
instance, Gothic churches were characterized by three things: soaring heights (ceilings), volume
(flying buttresses and ribbed vaults), and light (bright stained glass windows, airy and pleasant
interiors). Gothic style architecture is often attributed as the brainchild of Abbot Suger. There is
a definitive sense that pointed to the feeling of awe on the part of the believer and the perceived
majesty and power of God-all of which happened during the time when religion was at the heart
of everyday life. This echoes her belief that "art was central to religious experience."

Proceeding from a kind of a hybrid between literature and sacred text is India's miniature
paintings. In Central India, the kind of art that was produced was deeply rooted in Vedic texts
such as Upanishads, Puranas, and other important texts like the Sanskrit epics Mahabharata and
Ramayana Indian artists had a wide array of materials to work within showcasing not just their
artistry and skill. The significance of these paintings rests on its ability to foster devotion and the
observance of a code of ethics through the visualizations of heroic narratives. These paintings
were small but were highly pictorial, stylized, and employed a good contrast of colors. Some
artists also included verse from the epics as part of the cartouche which added interest and
meaning to the paintings.

Historically significant events particularly in the affairs of humanity are abundant

references for art production. From early breakthroughs such as the discovery of fire and the
overthrow of geocentric theory in favor of a sun-centered universe, succeeding advancements
brought about by discovery, innovation, and man's incessant search for glory plotted a dynamic
course of history.

An example is Goya's El Tres de Mayo which captures the death of Madrilenes, the local
insurgents during the Peninsular War. Former allies in the overrun of Portugal and France turned
against Spain. Napoleonic forces invaded Madrid without much difficulty and the painting
captures the dramatic demise of its people under a firing squad.

History, as a resource for artists in search of subjects, brings into consideration events
that are familiar and sometimes even common or shared in world context: the establishment of
nations and states (discovery, conquests, and colonization), and the resulting ideologies that they
breed (democracy, liberty, freedom, and rights). These works serve as documentary and
commemorative artworks that illustrate subjects such as important leaders and figures, events as
they were recorded to have happened; and representations of ideologies or values.

In the history of art, it is important to remember that the source and kind of subjects were
not merely a product of the artist's inclination and choice. A closer examination of the various art
movements and artworks created within those movements will indicate that notions of freedom
and independence, which are presumed to be enjoyed by artists, were not without limits or
restrictions. For instance, a particular kind of subject and the way it is visually translated may be
traced in relation to the art patrons (those who commission the artworks), the favored artistic
style and canons, and more Importantly, the norms and trends prevailing in the artist's milieu.

During the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, art was predominantly
representational. During the first century of their dominance art came as an aid for
communication a means of propagating religion to locals who spoke a different language. The
visual arts from paintings to early sculptures such as santos and other votive figures and icons,
were created to assist Catholic ministry Existing art and craft traditions persisted, with some
augmented and infused with foreign influences that were not limited to the Spanish culture
through contact
The momentum that secular (or non-religious) art later gained in the nineteenth century
can also be attributed to this contact with the opening of the Suez Canal and the growth of export
economy in agriculture. The consequence of these developments was the rise of the middle class.
With their new found economic and social mobility patrons of the art were no longer limited to
the clergy, but brought about a demand coming from these wealthy ilustrado families of interest
was the increase in demand for commissioned portraits (of an individual or an entire family),
finding it necessary to document themselves in light of their elevated status. Wearing the most
intricate and elaborate of garbs, significant adornments such as jewelry and embroidered
implements, among others, completed the intended narrative. This artistic trend cemented the
distinction of artists such as Simon Flores, Justiniano Ascuncion, and Antonio Malantic who
became the foremost portraitists of the time. Here, it is evident how during the Spanish colonial
period, the subjects of artworks, even the manner in which they are translated, were mostly
dictated by the patrons who commission them for religious and secular art.

Content in Art

As outlined in the beginning, in discussing works of art, the subject may simply be
referred to as the "what"-what is readily seen and relates to the artwork, its inspiration, and the
many kinds of translation. But apart from what is made explicit, to recognize and grasp the
message of the artwork, the viewer may sometimes need to go beyond what is visible. Why was
the artwork created in the first place? When this question is asked, we are after the meaning or
message that is expressed or communicated by the artwork. One of the foremost scholars that
expounded on content analysis or how meaning is arrived at is art historian Erwin Panofsky in
his seminal work Meaning in the Visual Arts (1983). His methodology will be later identified as
Iconology through the interpretation of iconography.
To take on the challenge of understanding the content of art, it must be reiterated that
there are various levels of meaning. Perhaps the most common is what we call factual meaning.
This pertains to the most rudimentary level of meaning for it may be extracted from the
identifiable or recognizable forms in the artwork and understanding how these elements relate to
one another. Conventional meaning, on the other hand, pertains to the acknowledged
interpretation of the artwork using motifs, signs, symbols and other cyphers as bases of its
meaning. These conventions are established through time, strengthened by recurrent use and
wide acceptance by its viewers of audience and scholars who study them. Finally, when
subjectivities are consulted, a variety of meaning may arise when a particular work of art is read.
These meanings stem from the viewer's or audience's circumstances that come into play when
engaging with art. When looking at a particular painting for example, perception and meaning
sro always informed (and even colored) by a manifold of contexts: what we know what we
learned; what we experienced; and the values we stand for. It is therefore expected that meaning
may not be singular, rather, a painting may communicate multiple meanings to its many viewers.
This is what we call subjective meaning of art.

Michelangelo, "Creation of Adam from the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel Michelangelo's
"Creation of Adam" can be read using various levels of meaning previously discussed. There,
Adam is figured with an aged God, both of them with an arm stretched and their respective index
fingers appearing to be fixed at an impending contact. Apart from God who is wearing a tunic,
everyone else is in the nude. God is afloat, surrounded by drapery and figures presumed to be
angels and cherubs. Adam on the other hand is earth-bound, sitting and reclined, positioned
diagonally parallel to that of God. From a factual perspective, Michelangelo depicted a scene
from the Creation Story, in particular, the creation of man. Apart from being a key element of
Michelangelo's fresco at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the subject matter suggests that this is
an example of biblical art.

This work is indeed iconic, and this is asserted by the conventional meanings attached to
it Here, the specific poses of God and Adam (convex and concave postures, respectively) allude
to the correspondence of the body and the commonly held belief that man was created in the
image and likeness of God. During this time, the ideals of humanism were underscored and
the arts and sciences were furthered. It is therefore understandable that the classical
canons of the form of the body (ideally proportioned and muscular) are portrayed,
especially by Michelangelo who was first and foremost a sculptor. Here, the view is that the
greatness of old civilizations such as that of the Greeks and the Romans may not only be
replicated, but even surpassed. Some art scholars noted how Michelangelo exhibited just
that-an elevated artistry in that the dynamism and energy of the figures in the frescoes in
the Sistine chapel are unlike the works of predecessors.

An interesting overlap between the conventional and subjective meanings is the

proposal from gynecologist Frank Lynn Meshberger, whose published essay appeared in
the October 1990 issue of the Journal of American Medical Association. Written was his
theory that an image and a message were hidden in plain sight: how the silhouette of God,
the shroud and the drapery that trail behind, all seemingly align with the shape of the
human brain. According to Meshberger, the work can also be aptly called "The
Endowment of Adam" for it brought to light that as God's creation, the most important
qualities imparted to man was intellect. Like most Renaissance artists, Michelangelo
unlocked the secrets and precision of human anatomy assisting in dissections during his
time. For Meshberger, it was with his medical background and perhaps exposure to art
and history that allow him to catch the symbol, hidden in Michelangelo's work.

LESSON PROPER (Addition)

• The primary stage of engaging with art is its perception.
• Subjectivity is illustrated in the way that selective perception renders one or two details more
prominent than others, prompting the viewer to focus on some details as essential or as
standouts.
• In the arts, there are also observable qualities that the artwork holds that will point to its
subject, and sometimes even to its content.
Types of Subject:
• Representational art – have subjects that refer to objects or events occurring in the real world.
• Non-representational art – does not make a reference to the real world, whether it is a person,
place, thing, or even a particular event. It is stripped down to visual elements such as shapes,
lines, and colors that are employed to translate a particular feeling, emotion, and even concept.
Sources and Kinds of Subject:
• Often, even a singular source of inspiration can yield multiple translations.
Content in Art:
• To recognize and grasp the message of the artwork, the viewer may sometimes need to go
beyond what is visible.
• There are various levels of meaning – factual, conventional, and the possibility of a variety of
meanings.

LESSON 5 ARTIST AND ARTISAN

In the advent of technology, it is remarkable what has now been made possible with a
click of a button, an array of overwhelming information is made available, informing every
aspect of human life. In the fast-paced and highly complex twenty first century, there is a real
and nagging fear that soon, everything may very well be replaced by computers and robots that
can arguably do things with more precision, at a shorter amount of time and less capital in the
long term. This nihilist notion is contested by what are arguably the most resilient qualities of
man, which is his creativity and imagination. And as long as there is a cultivation of both of
these qualities, no robot or artificial intelligence can replace man just yet.

The arts is one of the most significant ways in which we try to grapple with how the
present unfolds. In Robert Henri's The Art Spirit (1923), he stated that "Art when really
understood is the province of every human being. It is simply a question of doing things,
anything, well. It is not an outside, extra thing. When the artist is alive in any person,
whatever his kind of work may be, he becomes an inventive, searching, daring, self-
expressing creature. He becomes interesting to other people. He disturbs, upsets,
enlightens, and he opens ways for a better understanding. Where those who are not artists
are trying to close the book he opens it shows there are more pages possible." There is a gap
when one continues to persist with the idea that art is something that is detached from the every
day. In what has been reduced to a blur, it became more integral that man pursues a better
understanding of the world where he lives. One of the avenues that makes this both possible and
exciting is the engagement with art and culture.

Let's Get Down to Business

In Peter Drucker's seminal book Post-Capitalist Society (1993), he stated that "the
real controlling resource and the absolutely decisive factor of production is neither capital
not land nor labor. It is knowledge. Instead of capitalists and proletarians, the classes of the
post capitalist society are the knowledge workers and the service workers." Arguably, one
type of knowledge that fuels the twenty-first century is creativity. This is evident in the
recognition that professionals in the creative sector are integral drivers and movers in society and
an integral segment of this sector are artists. But who are they?
Artists have treaded a long history. Their roots can likewise be traced in one of the
major milestones in human civilization. In the first episode of the video series "New Ways of
Seeing," a project by The New York Times' T Brand Studio and jewelry giant Tiffany & Co., jart
critic Jerry Saltz (2016) underscored the significance of not only the discovery of the cave
paintings, but also the paintings themselves. He asserted that "these first artists invented a way to
get the three-dimensional world into two dimensions and attach value to their own ideas. And all
of the history of art flows forth from this invention." He is apparently referring to the drawings
and painted images of animals, hunting scenes, and a variety of symbolic figures created during
the Stone Age. Examples of these are scattered all around the world, from France, Spain,
Namibia, Australia, and Argentina to name a few. Of course, these works were not yet subsumed
in the highly systematized art world, let alone considered as "art."

Out of the shadows of these caves, astounding headway was seen moving down history
from Bronze Age down to the Middle Ages in terms of how man continued to utilize his
surroundings to create varying expressions of his ideas and feelings. Through the exploration of
his immediate environs, trade, and other experimentations, new modes, media, and techniques
brought to light a wide array of artworks that instantiate the wealth that can be done when the
artist's vision is tapped, harnessed, and realized. But the most integral development that allowed
this identity of an "artist" to fully emerge is the systematization and sophistication that his
world--the art world has become.

The impulse to create is at the core of human civilization, much like the impulse to
communicate through language. Early on, artists were embedded in the development of culture,
and in turn, art was nurtured by the varying cultures in which it existed. The works produced
varied from the prosaic to those that explored a wide range of aesthetic possibilities. Seen every
day, the interaction with these objects was intimate in the sense that their presence was
experienced in a multitude of ways and in all of the affairs of man: ornamentations in tools and
other surfaces, weaving patterns in textiles, visual features and the design/plan for architectural
structures, and ritual and burial implements, among others. Artists even created places and
spaces where communities may gather. There are numerous monuments and memorials that are
plotted over the world such as the infamous Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington DC.
There are others like the cave paintings that have an aura of mystery like the Pyramids of Giza,
or have alluded comprehension like the Stonehenge.

It was in this light that artists worked and most of the time, the products were considered
not as artworks at all but rather as craft or placed under some other category. The use of the word
"embedded" may be taken to mean that what was created automatically circulated in the
operations of society and was not integral to an art object that the identity of its maker be known.
It did not take long before this changed. The Artisan and the Guilds Have you ever wondered
why some examples of artistic and creative production have survived to this day? Museums are
packed with numerous artifacts and interesting objects from all over the world that have survived
centuries for us an 10 see. Magnificent structures that are often appreciated not only for their
historical significance but more so for their aesthetic characteristics that render them unique,
become tourist destinations for those who wish to explore and see the remarkable façade,
interior, and even the minutest of details up close. Perhaps what made the difference was the
materials, medium, and the principles behind the process of their creation. Another
contributory factor is the emergence of technology and knowledge in managing and
conserving all of these objects and structures, enabling the retention of the integrity of the
artwork and the intention of the artist in terms of the design and overall aesthetic.

Consider the Gothic cathedrals and other mega structures that were built all over Europe
during the Middle Ages. Craftsmen and builders in the past did not have sophisticated
terminologies and principles that architects and engineers abide by today. Yet, they fulfilled
overlapping roles such as the draftsman, architect, engineer and even as the builder. What they
had was a sense on how materials behaved, how the environment, light, and weather patterns
affected structures, and other more intuitive principles of creation. Experimentation and luck
must not also be forgotten. Gothic cathedrals along with other structures inspired by its
architectural tenets have survived through time, not only by their sheer durability, but more so
through the articulation of the processes that they followed. An example of this would be the
Cologne Cathedral. In Germany, it is but one of the many examples of early Gothic architecture.
The account was that master mason Gerhard Ryle started the project in 1248 but was only
completed roughly 600 years later, claiming the record as one of the longest construction
projects to date.

What is meant here is a kind of formalization of craft education in which regulation was
set in place. Here, skills qualification was needed for an apprentice to register under a particular
craft guild. These guilds were prevalent during the Middle Ages particularly during the
thirteenth to fifteenth century, where towns had formalized groups of artisans or craftsmen
who took on a particular specialization or trade: shoemaker textile and lass worker, carpenters,
carvers, masons, armorers, and weapon-makers, among others. Here, the practice of artists was
not grounded on the idea of individual capacities or success; rather, in the commitment to work
together 3s a collective, Guilds were a type of social fellowship, an association structured with
rules, customs, rights, and responsibilities. With a lifetime commitment to a particular trade, an
artisan develops immense skill and expertise in his craft.

A master artisan or craftsman would then be open to hiring apprentices who would be
under his tutelage and instruction. In these guilds, artistry and technology flourished under one
roof. In the context of the cathedral construction site, the master mason oversaw the work by
numerous men of varying artistic proclivities and skills, from the smiths (metal work),
carpenters, carriers, and glaziers (stained glass artists), among others.

This brought to light various ways of thinking about transferring knowledge and skills by
visualizing and articulating the principles, processes, and tricks of the trade both in words and in
print through manuals and publications. Of course, these printed publications were done cheaply
and did not have the same thoroughness as with handbooks and manuals of biblical proportions.
Aside from funds, another hurdle was the fact that some of the knowledge that went into
production was difficult to put into words. This can be attested in a way that often, we find
ourselves at a loss when tasked with explaining a particular step or process in something that we
created. Consider this, in addition to the fact that receiving the explanation of how something is
made does not automatically make us impresarios who can carry out the task bump-free.

In the visual arts, an example of an artist strongly influenced by this was Albrecht Dürer.
Born in 1471, his father was a goldsmith; that is why he also apprenticed as such. Later on, he
shifted to the visual arts. During that time, it was customary to travel after completing an
apprenticeship to gather more experience and knowledge elsewhere. His life was ripe with
travels, fame, and fortune. One of the biggest credits to his practice was his dedication and
interest in scholarship with his attendance to a close friend's meetings of artists and scholars. He
also published quite a number of books and treatises including those that talked about practical
skills as an artist which would be useful to other artisans and craftsmen who dared to read it.
Mostly on perspective and human proportion, his works were written in the first-person singular
format, practical in the way it was written and was supported by illustrations. It also helped that
his illustrations were laid out opposite the text that explains it. Although he was caught between
the time when canons were still being followed, he suggested to his readers that his was merely
recommendations, and that if they found a better way to go about it, then one should depart from
what he had learned.

Although the timeline is a bit skewed, the culture of artisans became prevalent in the
Philippines as well, particularly during the Spanish colonial period. Formerly done with the spirit
of the communal and the everyday, patronship changed the way art was perceived. This was both
the case for religious and secular art, wherein the existence of artisans proved to be of immense
use. It was through mimesis or copying that artisans first learned to depict religious images and
scenes. Friars, being non-artists themselves, provided the references that artists could use. During
the propagation of the faith, Spanish friars commissioned a lot of artisans to carve, paint, and
engrave images for churches and public sites. Each locality had a characterizing style or feature
in the way their depictions were made the manner in which Boholano artists would paint saints
and scenes were different from those of Rizal or in Laguna Like other Baroque churches that
benefitted from the talents of artists, Spanish colonial churches were also lined with frescos and
ceiling paintings, with a number of them undergoing restoration in the early 1900s. Proiect
Kisame is a collective endeavor amongst enthusiasts and advocates who aimed to promote this
art form through documentation, engagement, and appreciation of surviving ceiling paintings in
more than 60 churches in the Philippines. Technology and heritage conservation occupied a
substantial part of this project.

The Artist and His Studio

 Moving back to Europe, the big shift that propelled the evolution of the pivotal role of the
artist in the arts started during the Middle Ages up to the Renaissance period. Most pivotal
developments included the transformation of the craftsman to an artist or an independent artist;
the widespread patronization of secular art (alongside the continuous production of works with
religious subjects); and the assertion of cognition, the will, and individuality. Before the
Renaissance Period, artworks were left unsigned. Artists claiming authorship for their works by
affixing their mark onto the surfaces of their paintings were a big milestone in the history of the
artist. Combined, these resulted in a wider variety of artworks, not just in form, but more so in
style and technique. The site that saw this shift was a very personal space for the artist himself,
which is the studio.

Today, artist studios have been a place of interest for the public. It is interesting to see
and learn where creativity manifests itself, especially since an artist’s studio is an extension of
the artist himself. The studio model dates back from the Renaissance. Therein, artists flexed
their relationship with their patron as a site where negotiations and works were made. There were
those whose work stations were segmented into two, the studiolo and the bottega; the latter is
where the work usually happened. Apprentices studied under masters, assisting with menial tasks
or the preparation of the painting surfaces. In the seventeenth century, these demarcations
became lose, eventually merging together, This was especially true with artists who explored oil
painting techniques whose long process can be described by cycles of mixing, layering, and
drying of paint. This format remained throughout the latter part of the 1800s

In France, on the other hand, academies and art salons became popular as they did not
only support the production of at but also the discourse around them. Criticism and analysis were
highlighted as integral aspects of art engagement and therefore the display of the artworks
through official art salons was sought for. To be included in the exhibition was deemed an honor,
especially since it did not take a while before it was considered an arbiter of standards and taste.

The beginnings of Industrial Revolution had an interesting ramification for artists. A

compendium of events released the artists from the limitations that affected the way in which
they produced their works. These included the availability and portability of materials (i.e.,
foldable easels and paint in tubes) and the reliance on the wealthy patrons to place a commission.
More painters enjoyed painting on their own behalf creating works they wanted to create. It was
during this time that a host of styles developed side-by-side, allowing artists to fully grasp the
potential of artistic license, with minimal (o no) consideration for the prevailing tastes and
stylistic preferences. During the latter part of the 1800s, artists began to question the merits of
stringent artistic training and education, but it was during the 1900s that art was truly liberated
from the traditions of the past. Perhaps, it was then that artists found freedom to articulate their
distinct aesthetic way of creative production.
 Other players in the World of Art.

The terrain in which the artist traverses is becoming increasingly complex. In the last
century, some of the roles that have been existent since the beginning of art history have been
properly dealt with-ascribed with a name and legitimized into a sophisticated network of
relationships and exchanges. This network is what we call the art world.