Electronic stability control

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ESC control light

Electronic stability control (ESC), also referred to as electronic stability program (ESP)

or dynamic stability control(DSC), is a computerized technology[1][2] that improves a vehicle's
stability by detecting and reducing loss of traction(skidding).[3] When ESC detects loss of steering
control, it automatically applies the brakes to help "steer" the vehicle where the driver intends to go.
Braking is automatically applied to wheels individually, such as the outer front wheel to
counter oversteeror the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce
engine power until control is regained. ESC does not improve a vehicle's cornering performance;
instead, it helps to minimize the loss of control.
According to the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the Insurance Institute for
Highway Safety in 2004 and 2006 respectively, one-third of fatal accidents could be prevented by
the use of the technology.[4][5]

Effectiveness[edit]
Numerous studies around the world confirm that ESC is highly effective in helping the driver
maintain control of the car, thereby saving lives and reducing the severity of crashes. [32] In the fall of
2004 in the U.S., the National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration confirmed the international
studies, releasing results of a field study in the U.S. of ESC effectiveness. The NHTSA in United
States concluded that ESC reduces crashes by 35%. Additionally, Sport utility vehicles (SUVs) with
stability control are involved in 67% fewer accidents than SUVs without the system. The United
States Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) issued its own study in June 2006 showing that
up to 10,000 fatal US crashes could be avoided annually if all vehicles were equipped with ESC.
[33]
 The IIHS study concluded that ESC reduces the likelihood of all fatal crashes by 43%, fatal single-
vehicle crashes by 56%, and fatal single-vehicle rollovers by 77–80%.
ESC is described as the most important advance in auto safety by many experts, [34] including Nicole
Nason,[35] Administrator of the NHTSA,[36] Jim Guest and David Champion[37] of Consumers Union[38] of
the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), E-Safety Aware,[39] Csaba Csere, editor of Car
and Driver,[40] and Jim Gill, long time ESC proponent of Continental Automotive Systems.[36] The
European New Car Assessment Program (EuroNCAP) "strongly recommends" that people buy cars
fitted with stability control.
The IIHS requires that a vehicle must have ESC as an available option in order for it to qualify for
their Top Safety Pick award for occupant protection and accident avoidance. [41][42]
Components and design[edit]
ESC incorporates yaw rate control into the anti-lock braking system (ABS). Yaw is a rotation around
the vertical axis; i.e. spinning left or right. Anti-lock brakes enable ESC to brake individual wheels.
Many ESC systems also incorporate a traction control system (TCS or ASR), which senses drive-
wheel slip under acceleration and individually brakes the slipping wheel or wheels and/or reduces
excess engine power until control is regained. However, ESC serves a different purpose from that of
ABS or Traction Control.[29]
The ESC system uses several sensors to determine what the driver wants (input). Other sensors
indicate the actual state of the vehicle (response). The control algorithm compares driver input to
vehicle response and decides, when necessary, to apply brakes and/or reduce throttle by the
amounts calculated through the state space (set of equations used to model the dynamics of the
vehicle).[43] The ESC controller can also receive data from and issue commands to other controllers
on the vehicle such as an all wheel drive system or an active suspension system to improve vehicle
stability and controllability.
The sensors used for ESC have to send data at all times in order to detect possible defects as soon
as possible. They have to be resistant to possible forms of interference (rain, holes in the road, etc.).
The most important sensors are:

 Steering wheel angle sensor: determines the driver's intended rotation; i.e. where the driver
wants to steer. This kind of sensor is often based on AMR-elements.
 Yaw rate sensor: measures the rotation rate of the car; i.e. how much the car is actually
turning. The data from the yaw sensor is compared with the data from the steering wheel angle
sensor to determine regulating action.
 Lateral acceleration sensor: often an accelerometer
 Wheel speed sensor: measures the wheel speed.
Other sensors can include:

 Longitudinal acceleration sensor: similar to the lateral acceleration sensor in design, but can
offer additional information about road pitch and also provide another source of vehicle
acceleration and speed.
 Roll rate sensor: similar to the yaw rate sensor in design but improves the fidelity of the
controller's vehicle model and correct for errors when estimating vehicle behavior from the other
sensors alone.
ESC uses a hydraulic modulator to assure that each wheel receives the correct brake force. A
similar modulator is used in ABS. ABS needs to reduce pressure during braking, only. ESC
additionally needs to increase pressure in certain situations and an active vacuum brake booster unit
may be utilized in addition to the hydraulic pump to meet these demanding pressure gradients.
The brain of the ESC system is the electronic control unit (ECU). The various control techniques are
embedded in it. Often, the same ECU is used for diverse systems at the same time (ABS, Traction
control system, climate control, etc.). The input signals are sent through the input-circuit to the digital
controller. The desired vehicle state is determined based upon the steering wheel angle, its gradient
and the wheel speed. Simultaneously, the yaw sensor measures the actual state. The controller
computes the needed brake or acceleration force for each wheel and directs via the driver circuits
the valves of the hydraulic modulator. Via a Controller Area Networkinterface the ECU is connected
with other systems (ABS, etc.) in order to avoid giving contradictory commands.
Many ESC systems have an "off" override switch so the driver can disable ESC, which may be
desirable when badly stuck in mud or snow, or driving on a beach, or if using a smaller-sized spare
tire which would interfere with the sensors. Some systems also offer an additional mode with raised
thresholds so that a driver can utilize the limits of adhesion with less electronic intervention.
However, ESC defaults to "On" when the ignition is restarted. Some ESC systems that lack an "off
switch", such as on many recent Toyota and Lexus vehicles, can be temporarily disabled through an
undocumented series of brake pedal and handbrake operations. [44] Furthermore, unplugging a wheel
speed sensor is another method of disabling most ESC systems. The ESC implementation on newer
Ford vehicles cannot be completely disabled even through the use of the "off switch". The ESC will
automatically reactivate at highway speeds, and below that if it detects a skid with the brake pedal
depressed.

Availability and cost[edit]

ESC is built on top of an anti-lock brake system, and all ESC-equipped vehicles are fitted with
traction control. The ESC components include a yaw rate sensor, a lateral acceleration sensor, a
steering wheel sensor, and an upgraded integrated control unit. In the US, Federal regulations
require that ESC be installed as a standard feature on all passenger cars and light trucks as of the
2012 model year.[45] According to National Highway Traffic Safety Administration research, ABS in
2005 cost an estimated US$368; ESC cost a further US$111. The retail price of ESC varies; as a
stand-alone option it retails for as little as $250 USD.[46] ESC was once rarely offered as a sole
option, and was generally not available for aftermarket installation. Instead, it was frequently bundled
with other features or more expensive trims, so the cost of a package that included ESC was several
thousand dollars. Nonetheless, ESC is considered highly cost-effective [47] and it might pay for itself in
reduced insurance premiums.[48]
Availability of ESC in passenger vehicles varies between manufacturers and countries. In 2007, ESC
was available in roughly 50% of new North American models compared to about 75% in Sweden.
However, consumer awareness affects buying patterns so that roughly 45% of vehicles sold in North
America and the UK were purchased with ESC,[49] contrasting with 78–96% in other European
countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. While few vehicles had ESC prior to 2004,
increased awareness will increase the number of vehicles with ESC on the used car market.
ESC is available on cars, SUVs and pickup trucks from all major auto makers. Luxury cars, sports
cars, SUVs, and crossovers are usually equipped with ESC. Midsize cars were also gradually
catching on, though the 2008 model years of the Nissan Altima and Ford Fusion only offered ESC
on their V6 engine-equipped cars; however, some midsize cars, such as the Honda Accord had it as
standard equipment by then. While ESC includes traction control, there are vehicles such as the
2008 Chevrolet Malibu LS, 2008 Mazda6, and 2007 Lincoln MKZ that have traction control but not
ESC. ESC is rare among subcompact cars as of 2008. The 2009 Toyota Corolla in the United States
(but not Canada) has stability control as a $250 option on all trims below that of the XRS which has it
as standard.[46] In Canada, for the 2010 Mazda3, ESC is as an option on the midrange GS trim as
part of the moonroof package, and is standard on the top-of-the-line GT version. [50] The 2009 Ford
Focus has ESC as an option for the S and SE models, and standard on the SEL and SES models [51]
In the UK, even mass-market superminis such as the Ford Fiesta Mk.6 and VW Polo Mk.5 come
with ESC as standard.
ESC is also available on some motor homes. Elaborate ESC and ESP systems (including Roll
Stability Control[52]) are available for many commercial vehicles,[53]including transport trucks, trailers,
and buses from manufacturers such as Bendix Corporation,[54] WABCO[55] Daimler, Scania AB,
[56]
 and Prevost,[57] and light passenger vehicles.[19][58]
The ChooseESC! campaign,[59] run by the EU's eSafetyAware! project,[60] provides a global
perspective on ESC. One ChooseESC! publication shows the availability of ESC in EU member
countries.
In the US, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety website [61] shows availability of ESC in
individual US models and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration website [62] lists US
models with ESC.
In Australia, the National Roads and Motorists' Association NRMA shows the availability of ESC in
Australian models.[63]

Future[edit]
The market for ESC is growing quickly, especially in European countries such as Sweden, Denmark,
and Germany. For example, in 2003 in Sweden the purchase rate on new cars with ESC was 15%.
The Swedish road safety administration issued a strong ESC recommendation and in September
2004, 16 months later, the purchase rate was 58%. A stronger ESC recommendation was then given
and in December 2004, the purchase rate on new cars had reached 69% [64] and by 2008 it had grown
to 96%. ESC advocates around the world are promoting increased ESC use through legislation and
public awareness campaigns and by 2012, most new vehicles should be equipped with ESC.
Just as ESC is founded on the Anti-lock braking system (ABS), ESC is the foundation for new
advances such as Roll Stability Control [19][58] or Active rollover protection that works in the vertical
plane much like ESC works in the horizontal plane. When RSC detects impending rollover (usually
on transport trucks[55] or SUVs[65]), RSC applies brakes, reduces throttle, induces understeer, and/or
slows down the vehicle.
The computing power of ESC facilitates the networking of active and passive safety systems,
addressing other causes of crashes. For example, sensors may detect when a vehicle is following
too closely and slow down the vehicle, straighten up seat backs, and tighten seat belts, avoiding
and/or preparing for a crash.

Regulation[edit]
While Sweden used public awareness campaigns to promote ESC use,[66] others implemented or
proposed legislation.
The Canadian province of Quebec was the first jurisdiction to implement an ESC law, making it
compulsory for carriers of dangerous goods (without data recorders) in 2005. [67]
The United States was next, requiring ESC for all passenger vehicles under 10,000 pounds
(4536 kg), phasing in the regulation starting with 55% of 2009 models (effective 1 September 2008),
75% of 2010 models, 95% of 2011 models, and all 2012 models. [62]
Canada requires all new passenger vehicles to have ESC from 1 September 2011. [68][69][70]
The Australian Government announced on 23 June 2009 that ESC would be compulsory from 1
November 2011 for all new passenger vehicles sold in Australia, and for all new vehicles from
November 2013.[71] The New Zealand government followed suit in February 2014 making it
compulsory on all new vehicles from 1 July 2015 with a staggered roll-out to all used-import
passenger vehicles by 1 January 2020. [72]
The European Parliament has also called for the accelerated introduction of ESC. [73] The European
Commission has confirmed a proposal for the mandatory introduction of ESC on all new cars and
commercial vehicle models sold in the EU from 2012, with all new cars being equipped by 2014. [74]
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe has passed a Global Technical Regulation to
harmonize ESC standards.[75] Global Technical Regulation No. 8 ELECTRONIC STABILITY
CONTROL SYSTEMS was sponsored by the United States of America, [76] and is based on Federal
Motor Vehicle Safety Standard FMVSS126.
Product names[edit]
Electronic stability control (ESC) is the generic term recognised by the European Automobile
Manufacturers Association (ACEA), the North American Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, and other worldwide authorities. However, vehicle
manufacturers may use a variety of different trade names for ESC:[77]

 Acura: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA) (formerly CSL 4-Drive TCS)

 Alfa Romeo: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
 Audi: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Bentley: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 BMW: Co engineering partner and inventor with Robert BOSCH GmbH and Continental
(TEVES) Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic Traction Control)
 Bugatti: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Buick: StabiliTrak
 Cadillac: StabiliTrak" and "StabiliTrak3.0 with Active Front Steering (AFS)
 Chery: Electronic Stability Program
 Chevrolet: StabiliTrak; Active Handling (Corvette & Camaro only)
 Chrysler: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Citroën: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Daihatsu: Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)
 Dodge: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Daimler: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Fiat: Electronic Stability Control(ESC) and Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
 Ferrari: Controllo Stabilità (CST)
 Ford: AdvanceTrac with Roll Stability Control (RSC) and Interactive Vehicle Dynamics
(IVD) and Electronic Stability Program (ESP); Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (Australia
only)
 General Motors: StabiliTrak
 Honda: Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA) (formerly CSL 4-Drive TCS)
 Holden: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Hyundai: Electronic Stability Program (ESP), Electronic Stability Control
(ESC) and Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)
 Infiniti: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
 Isuzu: Electronic Vehicle Stability Control (EVSC)
 Jaguar: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
 Jeep: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Kia: Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Lamborghini: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Land Rover: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
 Lexus: Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) with Vehicle Stability Control
(VSC)
 Lincoln: AdvanceTrac
 Maserati: Maserati Stability Program (MSP)
 Mazda: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) (including Dynamic Traction Control)
 Mercedes-Benz (co-inventor) with Robert BOSCH GmbH: Electronic Stability Program
(ESP)
 Mercury: AdvanceTrac
 MINI: Dynamic Stability Control
 Mitsubishi: Active Skid and Traction Control MULTIMODE and Active Stability Control
(ASC)
 Nissan: Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)
 Oldsmobile: Precision Control System (PCS)
 Opel: Electronic Stability Program (ESP) and Trailer Stability Program (TSP)[78]
 Peugeot: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Pontiac: StabiliTrak
 Porsche: Porsche Stability Management (PSM)
 Proton: Electronic Stability Control (ESC) or Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)
 Renault: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Rover Group: Dynamic Stability Control (DSC)
 Saab: Electronic Stability Program (ESP) or StabiliTrak
 Saturn: StabiliTrak
 Scania: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)[79]
 SEAT: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Škoda: Electronic Stability Program (ESP) and Electronic Stability Control (ESC)
 Smart: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Subaru: Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC)
 Suzuki: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Tata: Corner Stability Control (CSC)
 Toyota: Either Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) or Vehicle Dynamics Integrated
Management (VDIM)
 Tesla: Electronic Stability Control (ESC)
 Vauxhall: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)
 Volvo: Dynamic Stability and Traction Control (DSTC)
 Volkswagen: Electronic Stability Program (ESP)

System manufacturers[edit]
ESC system manufacturers include:

 Fujitsu Ten Ltd.[80]

 Robert Bosch GmbH
 Aisin Advics[81]
 Bendix Corporation
 Continental Automotive Systems
 BeijingWest Industries
 Hitachi
 ITT Automotive, since 1982 part of Continental AG
 Johnson Electric[82]
 Mando Corporation
 Autoliv Nissin Brake Systems (former Nissin Kogyo, which owns 49% of the company)
 Teves, now part of Continental AG
 TRW
 WABCO[83]
 Hyundai Mobis
 Knorr-Bremse[84]