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2 Initiation of internationalization
Contents Learning objectives

2.1 Introduction After studying this chapter you should be able to do the
2.2 Internationalization motives following:
2.3 Triggers of export initiation (change
■ Discuss the reason (motives) why firms go international.
agents)
2.4 Internationalization barriers/risks ■ Explain the difference between proactive and reactive
2.5 Summary motives.
Case studies ■ Analyse the triggers of export initiation.
2.1 Blooming Clothing
■ Explain the difference between internal and external
2.2 Elvis Presley Enterprises Inc. (EPE)
triggers of export initiation.
■ Describe different factors hindering export initiation.
■ Discuss the critical barriers in the process of exporting.
2.1 Introduction
Internationalization occurs when the firm expands its R&D, production, selling and
other business activities into international markets. In many larger firms international-
ization may occur in a relatively continuous fashion, with the firm undertaking various
internationalization stages on various foreign expansion projects simultaneously,
in incremental steps, over a period of time. However for SMEs internationalization is
often a relatively discrete process; that is, one in which management regards each
internationalization venture as distinct and individual.
In the pre-internationalization stages SME managers use information to achieve
enough relevant knowledge to initiate internationalization (Freeman, 2002). Figure 2.1
illustrates the different stages in pre-internationalization, and the rest of this chapter
refers to the stages in Figure 2.1.
Chapter 2 / Initiation of internationalization 31
Figure 2.1 Pre-internationalization: initiation of SME internationalization
Input
Proactive internationalization Reactive internationalization
motives (Section 2.2) motives (Section 2.2)
Barriers hindering internationalization
Internal triggers
Information
Process Informed on Internationalization
source and
internationalization ready
translation
External triggers
Exit the internationalization process
Output Action: internationalization trial
Chapter 3: Internationalization theories
2.2 Internationalization motives
The fundamental reason for exporting, in most firms, is to make money. But, as in most
business activities, one factor alone rarely accounts for any given action. Usually a
mixture of factors results in firms taking steps in a given direction.
Table 2.1 provides an overview of the major motivations to internationalize. They
are differentiated into proactive and reactive motives. Proactive motives represent
stimuli to attempt strategy change, based on the firm’s interest in exploiting unique
competences (e.g. a special technological knowledge) or market possibilities. Reactive
Table 2.1 Major motives for starting export
Proactive motives Reactive motives
● Profit and growth goals ● Competitive pressures

● Managerial urge ● Domestic market: small and saturated
● Technology competenceunique product ● Overproductionexcess capacity
● Foreign market opportunities ● Unsolicited foreign orders
market information
● Economies of scale ● Extend sales of seasonal products
● Tax benefits ● Proximity to international customers
psychological distance
Source: adapted from Albaum et al., 1994, p. 31.

32 Part I / The decision whether to internationalize
motives indicate that the firm reacts to pressures or threats in its home market or in
foreign markets and adjusts passively to them by changing its activities over time.
Let us take a closer look at each export motive.
Proactive motives
Profit and growth goals

The desire for short-term profit is especially important to SMEs that are at a stage of initial
interest in exporting. The motivation for growth may also be of particular importance for
the firm’s export start.
Over time, the firm’s attitude towards growth will be influenced by the type of feed-
back received from past efforts. For example, the profitability of exporting may deter-
mine management’s attitude towards it. Of course the perceived profitability, when
planning to enter international markets, is often quite different from profitability actu-
ally attained. Initial profitability may be quite low, particularly in international start-up
operations. The gap between perception and reality may be particularly large when the
firm has not previously engaged in international market activities. Despite thorough
planning, sudden influences often shift the profit picture substantially. For example, a
sudden shift in exchange rates may drastically alter profit forecasts even though they
were based on careful market evaluation.
The stronger the firm’s motivation to grow, the greater will be the activities it gener-
ates, including search activity for new possibilities, in order to find means of fulfilling
growth and profit ambitions.
Managerial urge
Managerial urge is a motivation that reflects the desire, drive and enthusiasm of man-
agement towards global marketing activities. This enthusiasm can exist simply because
managers like to be part of a firm that operates internationally. Further, it can often
provide a good reason for international travel. Often, however, the managerial urge to
internationalize is simply a reflection of general entrepreneurial motivation – of a
desire for continuous growth and market expansion.
Managerial attitudes play a critical role in determining the exporting activities of the
firm. In SMEs export decisions may be the province of a single decision maker; in LSEs
they can be made by a decision-making unit. Irrespective of the number of people
involved in the export decision-making process, the choice of a foreign market entry
strategy is still dependent on the decision maker’s perceptions of foreign markets,
expectations concerning these markets and the company’s capability of entering them.
The internationalization process may also be encouraged by the cultural socialisation
of the managers. Managers who either were born or have the experience of living or
travelling abroad may be expected to be more internationally minded than other
managers. Prior occupation in exporting companies, or membership in trade and
professional associations, may also reinforce key decision makers’ perceptions
and evaluations of foreign environments.
Technology competenceunique product

A firm may produce goods or services that are not widely available from international
competitors or may have made technological advances in a specialised field. Again, real
and perceived advantages should be differentiated. Many firms believe that theirs are
unique products or services, even though this may not be the case in the international
market. If products or technology are unique, however, they can certainly provide a
competitive edge and result in major business success abroad. One issue to consider is
how long such a technological or product advantage will continue. Historically, a firm
with a competitive edge could count on being the sole supplier to foreign markets for
years to come. This type of advantage, however, has shrunk dramatically because of
competing technologies and a frequent lack of international patent protection.
However, a firm producing superior products is more likely to receive enquiries from
foreign markets because of the perceived competence of its offerings. Several dimen-
sions in the product offering affect the probability that a potential buyer will be
exposed to export stimuli. Furthermore, if a company has developed unique compe-
tences in its domestic market, the possibilities of spreading unique assets to overseas
markets may be very high because the opportunity costs of exploiting these assets in
other markets will be very low.
Foreign market opportunitiesmarket information

It is evident that market opportunities act as stimuli only if the firm has or is capable of
securing those resources necessary to respond to the opportunities. In general, decision
makers are likely to consider a rather limited number of foreign market opportunities
in planning their foreign entry. Moreover, such decision makers are likely to explore
first those overseas market opportunities perceived as having some similarity with the
opportunities in their home market.
From time to time certain overseas markets grow spectacularly, providing tempting
opportunities for expansion-minded firms. The attraction of the south-east Asian
markets is based on their economic successes, while the attraction of the eastern
European markets is rooted in their new-found political freedoms and desire to develop
trade and economic relationships with countries in western Europe, North America and
Japan. Other countries that are likely to increase in market attractiveness as key internal
changes occur include the People’s Republic of China and South Africa.
Specialised marketing knowledge or access to information can distinguish an
exporting firm from its competitors. This includes knowledge about foreign customers,
marketplaces or market situations that is not widely shared by other firms. Such special
knowledge may result from particular insights based on a firm’s international research,
special contacts a firm may have, or simply being in the right place at the right time (for
example, recognising a good business situation during a vacation trip). Past marketing
success can be a strong motivator for future marketing behaviour (‘logical incremen-
talism’ – see discussion in section 1.3). Competence in one or more of the major mar-
keting activities will often be a sufficient catalyst for a company to begin or expand
exports.
Economies of scale
Becoming a participant in global marketing activities may enable the firm to increase
its output and therefore climb more rapidly on the learning curve. Ever since the
Boston Consulting Group showed that a doubling of output can reduce production
costs by up to 30 per cent this effect has been very much sought. Increased production
for the international market can therefore also help in reducing the cost of production
for domestic sales and make the firm more competitive domestically as well. This effect
often results in seeking market share as a primary objective of firms. (See Exhibit 2.1 as
an example of this.) At an initial level of internationalization it may mean an increased
search for export markets; later on it can result in opening foreign subsidiaries and
foreign production facilities.
Exhibit 2.1 Global marketing and economics of scale in

Japanese firms
Japanese firms exploit foreign market opportunities by using a penetration pricing strategy –
a low-entry price to build up market share and establish a long-term dominant market
position. They do accept losses in the early years, as they view it as an investment in long-
term market development. This can be achieved because much of Japanese industry is
supported or owned by banks or other financial institutions with a much lower cost of capital.
Furthermore, because of the lifetime employment system, labour cost is regarded as a
fixed expense, not a variable as it is in the west. Since all marginal labour cost will be at the
entry salary level, raising volume is the only way to increase productivity rapidly. As a result
market share, not profitability, is the primary concept in Japanese firms, where scale of oper-
ation and experience allow economies of scale, which also help to reduce distribution costs.
The international trading companies typically take care of international sales and marketing,
allowing the Japanese firm to concentrate on economies of scale and resulting in lower cost
per unit.
Source: Genestre et al., 1995.
Through exporting, fixed costs arising from administration, facilities, equipment,

staff work and R&D can be spread over more units. For some companies a condition
for exploiting scale effects on foreign markets to the fullest extent is the possibility of
standardising the marketing mix internationally. For others, however, standardised
marketing is not necessary for scale economies.
Tax benefits
Tax benefits can also play a major motivating role. In the United States a tax mech-
anism called the Foreign Sales Corporation (FSC) has been instituted to assist exporters.
It is in conformity with international agreements and provides firms with certain tax
deferrals. Tax benefits allow the firm either to offer its products at a lower cost in
foreign markets or to accumulate a higher profit. This may therefore tie in closely with
the profit motivation.
Reactive motives
Competitive pressures
A prime form of reactive motivation is reaction to competitive pressures. A firm may
fear losing domestic market share to competing firms that have benefited from
economies of scale gained by global marketing activities. Further, it may fear losing
foreign markets permanently to domestic competitors that decide to focus on these
markets, knowing that market share is most easily retained by the firm that obtains it
initially. Quick entry may result in similarly quick withdrawal once the firm recognises
that its preparations have been insufficient. In addition to this, knowing that other
firms, particularly competitors, are internationalizing provides a strong incentive to
internationalize. Competitors are an important external factor stimulating internation-
alization. Coca-Cola became international much earlier than Pepsi did, but there is no
doubt whatever that Coca-Cola’s move into overseas markets influenced Pepsi to move
in the same direction.
Domestic market: small and saturated

A company may be pushed into exporting because of a small home market potential.
For some firms, domestic markets may be unable to sustain sufficient economies of
scale and scope, and these companies automatically include export markets as part of
their market entry strategy. This type of behaviour is likely for industrial products that
have few, easily identified customers located throughout the world, or for producers of
specialised consumer goods with small national segments in many countries.
A saturated domestic market, whether measured in sales volume or market share, has
a similar motivating effect. Products marketed domestically by the firm may be at the
declining stage of the product life cycle. Instead of attempting a push-back of the life
cycle process, or in addition to such an effort, firms may opt to prolong the product life
cycle by expanding the market. In the past such efforts were often met with success as
customers in many developing countries only gradually reached a level of need and
sophistication already attained by customers in industrialised nations. Some devel-
oping nations are still often in need of products for which the demand in the industri-
alised world is already on the decline. In this way firms can use the international
market to prolong the life cycle of their product. (See also section 15.4, ‘The product
life cycle’, for further discussion.)
Many US appliance and car manufacturers initially entered international markets
because of what they viewed as near-saturated domestic markets. US producers of
asbestos products found the domestic market legally closed to them, but because some
overseas markets had more lenient consumer protection laws they continued to
produce for overseas markets.
Another perspective on market saturation is also relevant for understanding why firms
may expand overseas. Home market saturation suggests that unused productive resources
(such as production and managerial slack) exist within the firm. Production slack is a
stimulus for securing new market opportunities, and managerial slack can provide those
knowledge resources required for collecting, interpreting and using market information.
Overproductionexcess capacity
If a firm’s domestic sales of a product are below expectation the inventory can be above
desired levels. This situation can be the trigger for starting export sales via short-term
price cuts on inventory products. As soon as the domestic market demand returns to
previous levels global marketing activities are curtailed or even terminated. Firms that
have used such a strategy may encounter difficulties when trying to employ it again
because many foreign customers are not interested in temporary or sporadic business
relationships. This reaction from abroad may well lead to a decrease in the importance
of this motivation over time.
In some situations, however, excess capacity can be a powerful motivation. If equip-
ment for production is not fully utilised firms may see expansion into the international
market as an ideal possibility for achieving broader distribution of fixed costs. Alter-
natively, if all fixed costs are assigned to domestic production, the firm can penetrate
international markets with a pricing scheme that focuses mainly on variable costs.
Although such a strategy may be useful in the short term it may result in the offering
of products abroad at a lower cost than at home, which in turn may stimulate parallel
importing. In the long run fixed costs have to be recovered to ensure replacement of
production equipment. A market penetration strategy based on variable cost alone is

therefore not feasible over the long term.
Sometimes excess production capacity arises because of changing demand in
the domestic market. As domestic markets switch to new and substitute products
companies making older product versions develop excess capacity and look for overseas
market opportunities.
Unsolicited foreign orders

Many small companies have become aware of opportunities in export markets because
their products generated enquiries from overseas. These enquiries can result from
advertising in trade journals that have a worldwide circulation, through exhibitions
and by other means. As a result a large percentage of exporting firms’ initial orders were
unsolicited.
Extend sales of seasonal products

Seasonality in demand conditions may be different in the domestic market from
other international markets. This can act as a persistent stimulus for foreign market
exploration that may result in a more stable demand over the year.
A producer of agricultural machinery in Europe had demand from its domestic market
primarily in the spring months of the year. In an attempt to achieve a more stable
demand over the year it directed its market orientation towards the southern hemi-
sphere (e.g. Australia, South Africa), where it is summer when the northern hemisphere
has winter and vice versa.
Proximity to international customerspsychological distance

Physical and psychological closeness to the international market can often play a major
role in the export activities of a firm. For example, German firms established near
the Austrian border may not even perceive their market activities in Austria as global
marketing. Rather, they are simply an extension of domestic activities, without any
particular attention being paid to the fact that some of the products go abroad.
Unlike US firms, most European firms automatically become international marketers
simply because their neighbours are so close. As an example, a European firm operating
in Belgium needs to go only 100 km to be in multiple foreign markets. Geographic
closeness to foreign markets may not necessarily translate into real or perceived close-
ness to the foreign customer. Sometimes cultural variables, legal factors and other so-
cietal norms make a foreign market that is geographically close seem psychologically
distant. For example, research has shown that US firms perceive Canada as psycholog-
ically much closer than Mexico. Even England, mainly because of similarity in lan-
guage, is perceived by many US firms as much closer than Mexico or other Latin
American countries, despite the geographic distances.
In a study of small UK firms’ motives for going abroad, Westhead et al. (2002) found
the following main reasons for starting exporting of their productsservices:
■ being contacted by foreign customers that place orders;
■ one-off order (no continuous exporting);
■ the availability of foreign market information;
■ part of growth objective of the firm;
■ export markets actively targeted by key founderownermanager.
The results in the study of Westhead et al. (2002) also showed that the bigger the firm
the more likely that it would have cited proactive stimulimotives.
Exhibit 2.2 Internationalization of Haier – proactive and reactive motives

The Chinese manufacturer of home appliances (e.g. refrigerators), Haier Group, was near bankruptcy
when Mr Zhang Ruimin was appointed plant director in 1984, the fourth one that year. It is Zhang
Ruimin who has led the company to stand up and grow to the world’s sixth largest home appliance
manufacturer.
Proactive motives
Zhang Ruimin had an internationalization mindset for the initial stage of Haier’s development. In 1984,
soon after having joined the plant, he introduced technology and equipment from Liebherr, a German
company, to produce several popular refrigerator brands in China. At the same time he actively
expanded cooperation with Liebherr by manufacturing refrigerators based on its standards which were
then sold to Liebherr, as a way of entering the German market. In 1986 the value of Haier’s exports
reached US$3 million for the first time. Zhang Ruimin later commented on this strategy: ‘Exporting to
earn foreign exchange was necessary at that time’.
When Haier invested in a plant in the United States Zhang Ruimin thought it gained location advan-
tage by setting up plants overseas to avoid tariffs and reduce transportation costs. Internalization
advantage had been attained through controlling services and marketingdistribution, and ownership
advantage had been achieved by developing design and R&D capabilities through utilising high-quality
local human resources.
Reactive motives
The entry of global home appliance manufacturers into the Chinese market forced Haier to seek interna-
tional expansion. In particular, since China joined the WTO almost every international competitor has
invested in China, establishing wholly owned companies. The best defensive strategy for Haier would be
to have a presence in its competitors’ home markets.
The saturation of the Chinese home appliance market, with intensifying competition, has been a major
motive. After the mid-1990s price wars broke out one after another in various categories of the market.
At the end of 2000 Haier’s market shares in China of refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners and washing
machines had reached 33, 42, 31 and 31 per cent, respectively. The potential for further development in
the domestic market was therefore limited.
One of the important external triggers for the internationalization of Haier has been the Chinese
government. Being an international player, Haier gained some special conditions that other Chinese
companies could not obtain. For instance, Haier had already been approved to establish a financial
company, to be the majority shareholder of a regional commercial bank, and to form a joint venture with
a US insurance company. Without its active pursuit of internationalization as well as a dominant position
in home appliance sectors it would normally be impossible for a manufacturer to get approval to enter
the financial sector.
Source: adapted from Liu and Li, 2002.
2.3 Triggers of export initiation (change agents)
For internationalization to take place someone or something within or outside the firm
(so-called change agents) must initiate it and carry it through to implementation (see
Table 2.2).
Table 2.2 Triggers of export initiation
Internal triggers External triggers
● Perceptive management ● Market demand

● Specific internal event ● Competing firms
● Importing as inward internationalization ● Trade associations
● Outside experts
Internal triggers
Perceptive management
Perceptive managements gain early awareness of developing opportunities in overseas
markets. They make it their business to become knowledgeable about these markets, and
maintain a sense of open-mindedness about where and when their companies should
expand overseas. Perceptive managements include many cosmopolites in their ranks.
A trigger factor is frequently foreign travel, during which new business opportunities
are discovered or information received which makes management believe that such
opportunities exist. Managers who have lived abroad, have learned foreign languages
or are particularly interested in foreign cultures are likely, sooner rather than later, to
investigate whether global marketing opportunities would be appropriate for their firm.
Often managers enter a firm having already had some global marketing experience
in previous jobs and try to use this experience to further the business activities of their
new firm. In developing their goals in the new job managers frequently consider an
entirely new set of options, one of which may be global marketing activities.
Specific internal event

A significant event can be another major change agent. A new employee who firmly
believes that the firm should undertake global marketing may find ways to motivate
management. Overproduction or a reduction in domestic market size can serve as
such an event, as can the receipt of new information about current product uses. For
instance, a company’s research activity may develop a by-product suitable for sale over-
seas, as happened with a food-processing firm that discovered a low-cost protein ideal
for helping to relieve food shortages in some parts of Africa.
Research has shown that in SMEs the initial decision to export is usually made by the
president, with substantial input provided by the marketing department. The carrying
out of the decision – that is, the initiation of actual global marketing activities and the
implementation of these activities – is then primarily the responsibility of marketing
personnel. Only in the final decision stage of evaluating global marketing activities
does the major emphasis rest again with the president of the firm. In order to influence
a firm internally, it therefore appears that the major emphasis should be placed first
on convincing the president to enter the international marketplace and then on con-
vincing the marketing department that global marketing is an important activity.
Conversely, the marketing department is a good place to be if one wants to become
active in international business.
In a recent study of internationalization behaviour in Finnish SMEs, Forsman et al.
(2002) found that the three most important triggers for starting up operations inter-
nationally were as follows:
■ management’s interest in internationalization;
■ foreign enquiries about the company’s productsservices;

■ inadequate demand in the home market.
In this study it is interesting to notice that companies do not regard contacts from
Chambers of Commerce or other support organizations as important for getting their
international activities going.
Inwardoutward internationalization
Internationalization has traditionally been regarded as an outward flow and most inter-
nationalization models have not dealt explicitly with how earlier inward activities, and
thereby gained knowledge, can influence later outward activities. A natural way of inter-
nationalizing would be first to get involved in inward activities (imports) and thereafter
in outward activities (exports). Relationships and knowledge gathered from import activ-
ities could thus be used when the firm engages in export activities (Welch et al., 2001).
Welch and Loustarinen (1993) claim that inward internationalization (importing)
may precede and influence outward internationalization (international market entry
and marketing activities) – see Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Inwardoutward internationalization: a network example
Country A Country B
Buyer Inward internationalization

(importer) (importing)
Supplier
Seller
(exporter)
rs
om e
D
e s ti c m
c u sto
Outward
internationalization
(exporting)
Buyer Supplier’s network

( )
Country C
A direct relationship exists between inward and outward internationalization in the

way that effective inward activities can determine the success of outward activities,
especially in the early stages of internationalization. The inward internationalization
may be initiated by one of the following:
■ the buyer: active international search of different foreign sources (buyer initiative #
reverse marketing)
■ the seller: initiation by the foreign supplier (traditional seller perspective).
During the process from inward to outward internationalization the buyer’s role (in
country A) shifts to that of seller, both to domestic customers (in country A) and to
foreign customers. Through interaction with the foreign supplier the buyer (importer)
gets access to the network of the supplier, so that at some later time there may be an
outward export to members of this network.
Inward international operations thus usually cover a variety of different forms used
to strengthen a firm’s resources. Of course inward flows imply importing products
needed for the production process, such as raw materials and machinery. But inward
operations can also include finances and technology through different operational
forms, such as franchising, direct investments and alliances (Forsman et al., 2002). In
some cases inward foreign licensing may be followed by outward technology sales.
According to Fletcher (2001) and Freeman (2002), inward and outward activities and
the links between them can develop in different ways. The links are most tangible in
counter-trade arrangements (where the focal firm initiates exporting to the same
market from which importing takes place), but they can also be found in the networks
of relationships between subunits within a multinational enterprise and in strategic
alliances.
External triggers
Market demand
Growth in international markets also causes the demand for the products of some
companies also to grow, pushing the makers of these products into internationaliza-
tion. Many pharmaceutical companies entered international markets when growth in
the international demand for their products was first getting under way. The US-
based company Squibb entered the Turkish market before it was large enough to be
profitable; but the market was growing rapidly, which encouraged Squibb to
internationalize further.
Competing firms
Information that an executive in a competing firm considers certain international
markets to be valuable and worthwhile developing captures the attention of manage-
ment. Such statements not only have source credibility but are also viewed with a
certain amount of fear because the competitor may eventually infringe on the firm’s
business.
Trade associations
Formal and informal meetings among managers from different firms at trade association
meetings, conventions or business round tables often serve as a major change agent. It
has even been suggested that the decision to export may be made by small firms on the
basis of the collective experience of the group of firms to which they belong.
Outside experts
Several outside experts encourage internationalization. Among them are export agents,
governments, Chambers of Commerce and banks.
■ Export agents Export agents as well as export trading companies and export manage-
ment firms generally qualify as experts in global marketing. They are already dealing
internationally with other products, have overseas contacts and are set up to handle
other exportable products. Many of these trade intermediaries approach prospective
exporters directly if they think that their products have potential markets overseas.
■ Governments In nearly all countries governments try to stimulate international busi-
ness through providing global marketing expertise (export assistance programmes).
For example, government stimulation measures can have a positive influence not
only in terms of any direct financial effects that they may have, but also in relation
to the provision of information.
■ Chambers of Commerce Chambers of Commerce and similar export production
organizations are interested in stimulating international business, both exports and
imports. These organizations seek to motivate individual companies to get involved
in global marketing and provide incentives for them to do so. These incentives
include putting the prospective exporter or importer in touch with overseas business,
providing overseas market information, and referring the prospective exporter or
importer to financial institutions capable of financing global marketing activity.
■ Banks Banks and other financial institutions are often instrumental in getting com-
panies to internationalize. They alert their domestic clients to international oppor-
tunities and help them to capitalise on these opportunities. Of course, they look
forward to their services being used more extensively as domestic clients expand
internationally.
Information search and translation

Of all resources, information and knowledge are perhaps the most critical factor in the
initiation of the internationalization process in the SME (see also Figure 2.1).
Because each international opportunity constitutes a potential innovation for the
SME the management must acquire appropriate information. This is especially import-
ant to SMEs, which typically lack the resources to internationalize in the manner of
LSEs. Consequently the management launches an information search and aquires rel-
evant information from a number of sources, such as internal written reports, govern-
ment agencies, trade associations, personal contacts or the Internet, relevant to the
intended internationalization project. In the information translation stage the interna-
tionalization information is transformed by managers into knowledge within the firm.
It is through the information search and translation into knowledge that management
becomes informed on internationalization. At this stage the firm has entered a cycle of
continuous search and translation into internationalization knowledge. This cycle
continues until management is satisfied that it has sufficiently reduced the uncer-
tainty associated with the internationalization project to ensure a relatively high prob-
ability of success. Once sufficient information has been acquired and translated into
usable knowledge the firm leaves the cycle, becoming internationalization ready. It is
here that the firm proceeds to action, that is, internationalization trial. ‘Action’ refers to
behaviours and activities that management executes based on the knowledge that it
has acquired. At this stage the firm could be said to have an embedded international-
ization culture, where even the most challenging foreign markets can be overcome,
leading to further internationalization and ‘storage’ of actual internationalization
knowledge in the heads of the managers. The above description represents the firm
more or less in isolation. However, the network theory recognises the importance of
the firm’s membership in a constellation of firms and organizations. By interacting
within such a constellation the firm derives advantages well beyond what it could
obtain in isolation.
At the most fine-grained level knowledge is created by individuals. Individuals acquire
explicit knowledge via specific means and tacit knowledge through ‘hands-on’ experience.
The nature of the pre-internationalization process (illustrated in Figure 2.1) will be
unique in each firm because of several factors at the organization and individual levels
within the firm (Knight and Liesch, 2002).
Throughout the process depicted in Figure 2.1 the firm may exit from the pre-
internationalization process at any time, as a result of the barriers hindering inter-
nationalization. The manager may decide to ‘do nothing’, an outcome that implies
exiting from pre-internationalization.
2.4 Internationalization barriersrisks

A wide variety of barriers to successful export operations can be identified. Some prob-
lems mainly affect the export start; others are encountered in the process of exporting.
Barriers hindering export initiation

Critical factors hindering internationalization initiation include the following (mainly
internal) barriers:
■ insufficient finances;
■ insufficient knowledge;
■ lack of foreign market connections;
■ lack of export commitment;
■ lack of capital to finance expansion into foreign markets;
■ lack of productive capacity to dedicate to foreign markets;
■ lack of foreign channels of distribution;
■ management emphasis on developing domestic markets;
■ cost escalation due to high export manufacturing, distribution and financing
expenditures.
Inadequate information on potential foreign customers, competition and foreign
business practices are key barriers facing active and prospective exporters. Obtaining
adequate representation for overseas distribution and service, ensuring payment,
import tariffs and quotas, and difficulties in communicating with foreign distributors
and customers are also major concerns. Serious problems can also arise from produc-
tion disruptions resulting from a requirement for non-standard export products. This
will increase the cost of manufacturing and distribution.
In a study of craft micro-enterprises (less than 10 employees) in the United Kingdom
and Ireland, Fillis (2002) found that having sufficient business in the domestic market
was the major factor in the decision not to export. Other reasons of above-average
importance were: lack of export inquiries, relating to the reactive approach to business;
complicated exporting procedures; poor levels of exporting assistance and limited gov-
ernment incentives. Similar results were supported by a study by Westhead et al. (2002),
who found that for small firms ‘focus on local market’ was the main reason for not
exporting any of their products.
Barriers hindering the process of internationalization

Critical barriers in the process of internationalization may be divided into three groups:
general market risks, commercial risks and political risks.
General market risks

General market risks include the following:
■ comparative market distance;

■ competition from other firms in foreign markets;
■ differences in product usage in foreign markets;
■ language and cultural differences;
■ difficulties in finding the right distributor in the foreign market;
■ differences in product specifications in foreign markets;
■ complexity of shipping services to overseas buyers.
Commercial risks
The following fall into the commercial risks group:
■ exchange rate fluctuations when contracts are made in a foreign currency;

■ failure of export customers to pay due to contract dispute, bankruptcy, refusal to
accept the product or fraud;
■ delays andor damage in the export shipment and distribution process;
■ difficulties in obtaining export financing.
Political risks
Among the political risks resulting from intervention by home and host country gov-
ernments are the following:
■ foreign government restrictions;

■ national export policy;
■ foreign exchange controls imposed by host governments that limit the opportunities
for foreign customers to make payment;
■ lack of governmental assistance in overcoming export barriers;
■ lack of tax incentives for companies that export;
■ high value of the domestic currency relative to those in export markets;
■ high foreign tariffs on imported products;
■ confusing foreign import regulations and procedures;
■ complexity of trade documentation;
■ enforcement of national legal codes regulating exports;
■ civil strife, revolution and wars disrupting foreign markets.
The importance of these risks must not be overemphasised, and various risk-
management strategies are open to exporters. These include the following:
■ Avoid exporting to high-risk markets.

■ Diversify overseas markets and ensure that the firm is not overdependent on any
single country.
■ Insure risks when possible. Government schemes are particularly attractive.
■ Structure export business so that the buyer bears most of the risk. For example, price
in a hard currency and demand cash in advance.
In Fillis (2002) over one-third of the exporting craft firms indicated that they
encountered problems once they entered export markets. The most common problem
was connected with the choice of a reliable distributor, followed by difficulties in
promoting the product and matching competitors’ prices.
2.5 Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of the pre-internationalization process. The

chapter opened with the major motives for firms to internationalize. These were differ-
entiated into proactive and reactive motives. Proactive motives represent internal
stimuli to attempt strategy change, based on the firm’s interest in exploiting unique
competences or market possibilities. Reactive motives indicate that the firm reacts to
pressures or threats in its home market or in foreign markets and adjusts passively
to them.
For internationalization to take place someone or something (‘triggers’) inside or
outside the firm must initiate it and carry it through. To succeed in global marketing
the firm has to overcome export barriers. Some barriers mainly affect the export initia-
tion and others are encountered in the process of exporting.
CASE STUDY 2.1 Blooming Clothing
A bumpy path to exports
It was 9 o’clock on a misty morning in February

1995. Martha O’Byrne cycled down the narrow
avenue to the clothing factory of which she was
managing director and the main shareholder.
Wheeling her bicycle into her small office, she won-
dered if Janet Evans had called yet. Janet, the chief
buyer with the Mothercare chain of stores in the
United Kingdom, had promised to phone her that
morning, to let her know if she would be placing a
further order with Martha’s company. Listening to
the messages on her answering machine, Martha
remembered the path she had taken to establish her
own enterprise.
Blooming Clothing, the small company that
Martha O’Byrne owns and manages, is situated in
the Liberties, an old and historic part of Dublin,
Ireland. Established in 1985, the firm employs 70
people manufacturing maternity wear for the Irish
and export markets.
Martha O’Byrne had come to this business by an
unusual route. Having established herself as a suc-
cessful merchant banker, she had been considering
setting up her own business for some time. ‘Women,
I think, can have a mid-life crisis at the menopause,
but I got mine when I was 28,’ she recalls. In 1984 A model in materinity wear from Blooming Clothing
a shopping trip with her pregnant sister-in-law
revealed that the maternity wear available on the
Irish market was dowdy and depressing. In that
moment the idea for Blooming Clothing was con- Clothing was not alone in experiencing these trends,
ceived. Martha resigned from her position at the and along with other companies received financial
investment bank in 1985 and set up in business with assistance from a state-funded scheme designed to
two partners as a retailer of maternity wear. help exporters through this crisis. In the meantime
Her shop, called ‘Blooming’, was located on South cash flow was squeezed and the aftermath was felt for
Leinster Street, on the fringes of Dublin’s most pres- two years. The management of Blooming spent 1993
tigous shopping district. It quickly won recognition trying to generate orders to make up for the business
and sales for its more modern clothes, which proved it had lost. Martha remained optimistic. ‘There may
particularly popular with working women. ‘There be peaks and troughs in a business, but there are
was a need for a new, more vibrant look,’ comments always opportunities in any market if you look,’ she
Martha, ‘while still retaining the femininity and remarked.
mystique of the pregnant woman.’ The emphasis of In 1994 Blooming appointed an agent in Belgium.
the ‘Blooming’ label is on softly tailored separates – The agreement was signed just at the onset of a
jackets, trousers, skirts and dresses – for office wear recession, and sales did not materialise. A foray into
and special occasions. Having experienced problems the Swedish market also proved disappointing. The
with outsourcing garments Martha and her team agent selected by the firm did not generate worth-
started to manufacture their own lines in 1986. while orders and the relationship gradually faded
By 1987 Blooming Clothing had a turnover of away.
IR£250,000. The company built up further sales in The year 1995 marked a new departure. The firm
Ireland through concession outlets in department began to build up increased sales through the
stores and through a range of independent outlets. appointment of new retail outlets. The British chain
The break into exporting also came in 1987. Martha, store Mothercare, part of the Storehouse group,
herself six months pregnant at the time, made a pre- agreed to stock a range of Blooming lines.
sentation to a buyer from Harrods, the well-known Mothercare stores offer a range of nursery goods,
department store in London. The store agreed to children’s clothes and associated items, through a
carry the Blooming label in its maternity wear network of over 330 outlets in the United Kingdom
section, and has been a good customer since. Arising and international franchise operations in 25 coun-
out of this success Blooming appointed an agent, tries with nearly 130 outlets. The order, worth
Favoro & Co., to build up further business in the £100,000 initially, would give both parties a chance
United Kingdom. to evaluate the success of the label and the fit with
By 1992 the firm had a turnover of IR£1.1 million Mothercare’s existing range of maternity wear. If the
and had moved manufacturing to the current Blooming range was a success a partnership with
premises at Carman’s Hall, Francis Street. It had Mothercare would allow Blooming the opportunity
established a good sales base in Ireland and was to penetrate the European market, with access to a
selling in the United Kingdom to such prestigious broad range of outlets.
retailers, in addition to Harrods, as John Lewis and Martha gazed out of the window of her office and,
Selfridges. The firm depended heavily on a personal as she waited in anticipation for a telephone call, she
approach to secure orders. It did not have a full-time wondered what the future held for Blooming and
salesperson as such or attend trade fairs. Would-be more particularly for the company’s export sales.
buyers would receive a presentation on the Blooming
range from Martha O’Byrne herself or from Barbara Questions
Connolly, the firm’s part owner and chief designer.
1. What could be the motives behind the start-up of
However, 1992 saw the UK economy go into deep
exporting activities?
recession, and clothing was one of the first industries
to feel the pinch. As if this was not enough, 19923 2. What do you think have been the main triggers for
also saw the development of a major currency crisis Blooming Clothing’s export initiation?
for the Irish pound vis-à-vis the pound sterling. The 3. The telephone rings. Janet Evans from Mothercare
Irish pound, which had been trading at a rate of is on the line. What do you think is the outcome of
96–98 pence to the pound sterling, rapidly appreci- the call?
ated in value, eventually trading at IR£1.10 to £1 ster-
ling. Irish exporters, for whom the United Kingdom is International activities
the single most important market, found their prices From start-up, management at Blooming was aware
increased and their customers falling away. Blooming of the need to seek new markets, and the relatively
small size of the Irish market was also a strong which some years ago would have stocked only the
impetus to move abroad. Like most other Irish Blooming brand as their range of maternity wear,
companies, Blooming initially looked at the United were now stocking two or three European labels
Kingdom market, and in addition to England was alongside it. These European chains usually locate
actively seeking agents in Scotland and Northern their purchasing function in their home country
Ireland to develop its business there. The United offices. They rely on global sourcing and large
Kingdom’s non-participation in the euro currency volumes to keep prices down. For Irish suppliers
was however causing problems in price negotiations such as Blooming Clothing access to these buying
and profit forecasts for that market. centres, and low-cost production capacity, is very
Blooming had searched for further international difficult.
business. In 1995 orders were filled from a Japanese Also the day-to-day management of operations
agent, but there were major differences in sizing gave rise to several difficulties. The issues involved
that took some time to sort out. The slide in the in keeping the Blooming factory going – sourcing
value of the yen made the market unattractive, and supplies, filling orders and dealing with customers –
Blooming did not pursue further business there. took up a lot of Martha’s time. The necessity to
In January 1999 the company took a stand at a travel and be away from her desk for a couple of days
specialist European clothing trade fair in Cologne. It at a stretch meant that, on her return, there was a list
had two objectives: to generate orders and to take a of problems pressing for the Martha’s attention.
look at the European competition. En route to the During the first months of 2000 she established
trade fair, disaster struck, with half of the collection contact with some low-cost production places in
being stolen. Undeterred, the company exhibited Eastern Europe. Blooming had earlier turned down
at the show and came away with a strong positive offers to produce private label lines for other
feeling that its designs could match any of the retailers and manufacturers, but maybe it was time
European competitors regarding style and design. to do something about it now.
Source: prepared by Edel Foley and Eibhlin Curley, College of
Increasing international competition in the Marketing and Design, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland.
Information from company interviews and C. Flynn, ‘A 40-some-
Irish market thing crisis’, Irish Independent, 5 October 1995. The updating of the
During spring 2000 Martha saw that Blooming case to Spring 2000 is based on different sources.
Clothing had increasing difficulties in keeping up

sales of maternity wear in the Irish market. Chain Question
stores from the United Kingdom and mainland 4. Evaluate the business situation regarding Blooming
Europe had made significant inroads in the Irish Clothing in spring 2000 and make recommenda-
market. The Irish department stores and boutiques, tions for Martha O’Byrne to pursue.
CASE STUDY 2.2 Elvis Presley Enterprises Inc. (EPE)
Internationalization of a ‘cult icon’
Even more than 25 years after his death

Elvis Presley has one of the most lucra-
tive entertainment franchises in the
world. Despite the sorry state of his
affairs in 1977 the empire of Elvis has
thrived due in large part to the efforts of
the people who handled his estate after
his grandmother died in 1980, including
his ex-wife Priscilla Beaulieu Presley,
his daughter Lisa Marie and Jack Soden,
the CEO of Elvis Presley Enterprises Inc.
(www.elvis.com), the company that
© Elvis Presley Enterprises, Inc. Used by permission.
handles all the official Elvis properties.
Priscilla Presley was involved in the
master-stroke decision to open Elvis’s mansion, future royalties from the songs he had recorded up
Graceland, to the public in 1982. Graceland gets to that point for a measly $5.4 million – half of
more than 600,000 visitors per year, according to which he had to give to Parker.
EPE’s website. Over half of Graceland’s visitors are In 2000, the 25th anniversary was an inter-
under the age of 35. The visitors come from all parts national spectacle. A remix of the 1968 Elvis song ‘A
of the world; however, the majority of the visitors little less conversation’ became a global hit single.
still come from different parts of the United States. Furthermore the CD ‘Elvis: 30 #1 Hits’ went tripple
The Graceland tour costs US$25, which means that platimum. In August 2002, Priscilla Presely also
EPE makes US$15 million on those tickets alone, unveiled plans to turn her romance with Elvis into a
plus what it receives from photographs, hotel guests, musical.
meals and souvenirs.
Source: money.cnn.com/2002/08/15/news/elvis
EPE’s other revenue streams include a theme
restaurant called Elvis Presley’s Memphis; a hotel,
Questions
down at the end of Lonely Street, called Heartbreak
1. What are the main motives for the internationaliza-
Hotel; licensing of Elvis-related products, the devel-
tion of EPE?
opment of Elvis-related music, film, video, TV and
stage productions; and more. 2. What can EPE do to maintain a steady income
Ironically, EPE gets very little money from Elvis’s stream from abroad?
actual songs, thanks to a deal Elvis’s infamous 3. What are the most obvious assets for further inter-
former manager, Colonel Tom Parker, made with nationalization of EPE?
RCA in 1973, whereby Elvis traded the rights for all
For further exercises and cases, see this book’s website at

www.booksites.net/hollensen
Questions for discussion
1. Export motives can be classified as reactive or proactive. Give examples of each group
of export motives. How would you prioritise these motives? Can you think of motives
other than those mentioned in the chapter? What are they?
2. What is meant by ‘change agents’ in global marketing? Give examples of different types
of change agent.
3. Discuss the most critical barriers to the process of exporting.
4. What were the most important change agents in the internationalization of Haier
(Exhibit 2.2)?
5. What were the most important export motives in Japanese firms (Exhibit 2.1)?
References
Albaum, G., Strandskov, J., Duerr, E. and Dowd, L. (1994) International Marketing and Export
Management (2nd edn), Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
Fillis, I. (2002) ‘Barriers to internationalization: an investigation of the craft microenterprises’,
European Journal of Marketing, vol. 7–8, pp. 912–27.
Fletcher, R. (2001) ‘A holistic approach to internationalization’, International Business Review,
vol. 10, pp. 25–49.
Forsman, M., Hinttu, S. and Kock, S. (2002) ‘Internationalization from an SME perspective’, Paper
presented at the 18th Annual IMP Conference, September, Lyon, pp. 1–12.
Freeman, S. (2002) ‘A comprehensive model of the process of small firm internationalization: a
network perspective’, Paper presented at the 18th Annual IMP Conference, September, Dijon,
pp. 1–22.
Genestre, A., Herbig, D. and Shao, A.T. (1995) ‘What does marketing really mean to the
Japanese?’, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, vol. 13 (9), pp. 16–27.
Knight, G.A. and Liesch, P.W. (2002) ‘Information internalization in internationalizing the firm’,
Journal of Business Research, vol. 55, pp. 981–95.
Liu, H. and Li, K. (2002) ‘Strategic implications of emerging Chinese multinationals: the Haier
case study’, European Management Journal, vol. 20 (6), pp. 699–706.
Welch, L.S., Benito, G.R.G., Silseth, P.R. and Karlsen, T. (2001) ‘Exploring inward–outward link-
ages in firms’ internationalization: a knowledge and network perspective’, Paper presented at
the 17th Annual IMP Conference, September, Oslo, pp. 1–26.
Welch, L.S. and Loustarinen, R.K. (1993) ‘Inward–outward connections in internationalization’,
Journal of International Marketing, vol. 1 (1), pp. 44–56.
Westhead P., Wright, M. and Ucbasaran, D. (2002) ‘International market selection strategies
selected by “micro” and “small” firms’, Omega – The International Journal of Management Science,
vol. 30, pp. 51–68.
Further reading
Craig, S.C. and Douglas, S.P. (2000) ‘Configural advantage in global markets’, Journal of
International Marketing, vol. 8 (1), pp. 6–26.
Czinkota, M.R. (2002) ‘Export promotion: a framework for finding opportunity in change’,
Thunderbird International Business Review, vol. 44 (3), pp. 315–24.
Halme, M., Park, J. and Chiu, A. (2002) ‘Managing globalization for sustainability in the 21st
century’, Business Strategy and the Environment, vol. 11, pp. 81–9.
Schindehutte, M., Morris, M.H. and Kuratko, D.F. (2000) ‘Triggering events, corporate entre-
preneurship and the marketing function’, Journal of Marketing – Theory and Practice, Spring,
pp. 18–30
5 Global marketing research

5.2 The changing role of the international following:
researcher
■ Explain the importance of having a carefully designed
5.3 Linking global marketing research to
the decision-making process
international information system.
5.4 Secondary research ■ Link global marketing research to the decision-making
5.5 Primary research process.
5.6 Online (Internet) primary research ■ Discuss the key problems in gathering and using
methods
international market data.
5.7 Other types of marketing research
■ Distinguish between different research approaches,
5.8 Summary
data sources and data types.
Case studies
5.1 Teepack Spezialmaschinen GmbH ■ Discuss opportunities and problems with qualitative
5.2 Tchibo market research methods.
■ Understand how online surveys are carried out.
■ Understand the relevance of the World Wide Web as an
important data source in global marketing research.
5.1 Introduction
Information is a key ingredient in the development of successful international marketing

strategies. Lack of familiarity with customers, competitors and the market environment
in other countries, coupled with the growing complexity and diversity of international
markets makes it increasingly critical to collect information in relation to these markets.
In contrast to a researcher concerned with only one country, an international market
researcher has to deal with a number of countries that may differ considerably in a
number of important ways. Therefore many international marketing decisions are
concerned with priorities and allocation of resources between countries.
The prime function of global marketing is to make and sell what international
buyers want, rather than simply selling whatever can be most easily made. Therefore
what customers require must be assessed through marketing research andor through
136 Part II / Deciding which markets to enter
establishing a decision support system, so that the firm can direct its marketing
activities more effectively by fulfilling the requirements of the customers.
The term ‘marketing research’ refers to gathering, analysing and presenting in-
formation related to a well-defined problem. Hence the focus of marketing research is
a specific problem or project with a beginning and an end.
Marketing research differs from a decision support system (DSS), which is informa-
tion gathered and analysed on a continual basis. In practice, marketing research and
DSS are often hard to differentiate, so they will be used interchangeably in this context.
5.2 The changing role of the international researcher
The role of international market research is primarily to act as an aid to the decision
maker. It is a tool that can help to reduce the risk in decision making caused by the
environmental uncertainties and lack of knowledge in international markets. It ensures
that the manager bases a decision on the solid foundation of knowledge and focuses
strategic thinking on the needs of the marketplace rather than the product.
Earlier marketing research was regarded as a staff function and not a line function.
Marketing researchers had little interaction with marketing managers and did not
participate in marketing decision making. Likewise, external providers of marketing
research had little interaction with marketing managers. However, as we have moved
into the new millennium this line of demarcation between marketing research and
marketing, and thus the distinction between marketing researchers and marketing
managers, is becoming thinner and thinner.
As the line and staff boundary blurs marketing managers are becoming increasingly
more involved in marketing research. This trend towards making marketing research
more of a line function, rather than a staff function, is likely to continue and even accel-
erate in the near future where ‘sense and respond’ will increasingly characterise firms’
approach to business. Thus the traditional marketing researcher in a commercial firm
narrowly focused on the production of presentations and reports for management will
become a rare breed. The transition of marketing researchers to researchers-cum-decision
makers has already begun. Indeed some of the most effective researchers of customer satis-
faction are not only participating in decision making but are also deployed as part of the
team to implement organizational changes in response to customer satisfaction surveys.
The availability of better decision tools and decision support systems is facilitating
the transition of research managers to decision makers. Senior managers can now
directly access internal and external secondary data from computers and Internet sites
around the world.
In this millennium good marketing researchers will be good marketing managers,
and vice versa.
5.3 Linking global marketing research to the

decision–making process
Global marketing research should be linked to the decision-making process within
the firm. The recognition that a situation requires action is the initiating factor in the
decision-making process.
Chapter 5 / Global marketing research 137
Even though most firms recognise the need for domestic marketing research this
need is not fully understood for global marketing activities. Most SMEs conduct no
international market research before they enter a foreign market. Often decisions con-
cerning entry into and expansion in overseas markets and the selection and appoint-
ment of distributors are made after a subjective assessment of the situation. The
research done is usually less rigorous, less formal and less quantitative than in LSEs.
Furthermore, once an SME has entered a foreign market, it is likely to discontinue any
research of that market. Many business executives therefore appear to view foreign
market research as relatively unimportant.
A major reason that firms are reluctant to engage in global marketing research is a
lack of sensitivity to cross-cultural customer tastes and preferences. What information
should the global marketing researchDSS provide?
Table 5.1 summarises the principal tasks of global marketing research, according to
the major decision phases of the global marketing process. As can be seen, both internal
(firm-specific) and external (market) data are needed. The role of a firm’s internal
information system in providing data for marketing decisions is often forgotten.
How the different types of information affect the major decisions are thoroughly
discussed in the different parts and chapters of this book. Besides the split between
Table 5.1 Information for the major global marketing decisions
Global marketing decision phase Information needed
1. Deciding whether to internationalize Assessment of global market opportunities (global demand)

for the firm’s products
Commitment of the management to internationalize
Competitiveness of the firm compared to local and
international competitors
Domestic versus international market opportunities
2. Deciding which markets to enter Ranking of world markets according to market potential of
countriesregions
Local competition
Political risks
Trade barriers
Culturalpsychic ‘distance’ to potential market
3. Deciding how to enter foreign markets Nature of the product (standard versus complex product)
Size of marketssegments
Behaviour of potential intermediaries
Behaviour of local competition
Transport costs
Government requirements
4. Designing the global marketing Buyer behaviour

programme Competitive practice
Available distribution channels
Media and promotional channels
5. Implementing and controlling the Negotiation styles in different cultures

global marketing programme Sales by product line, sales force customer type and
countryregion
Contribution margins
Marketing expenses per market
internal and external data, the two major sources of information are primary data and
secondary data:
■ Primary data. These can be defined as information that is collected first-hand, gener-
ated by original research tailor-made to answer specific current research questions.
The major advantage of primary data is that the information is specific (‘fine
grained’), relevant and up to date. The disadvantages of primary data are, however,
the high costs and amount of time associated with its collection.
■ Secondary data. These can be defined as information that has already been collected
for other purposes and is thus readily available. The major disadvantage is that the
data are often more general and ‘coarse grained’ in nature. The advantages of sec-
ondary data are the low costs and amount of time associated with its collection. For
those who are unclear on the terminology, secondary research is frequently referred
to as ‘desk research’.
The two basic forms of research (primary and secondary) will be discussed in further
detail later in this chapter.
If we combine the split of internalexternal data with primarysecondary data, it is
possible to place data in four categories. In Figure 5.1 this approach is used to categorise
indicator variables for answering the following marketing questions. Is there a market
for the firm’s product A in country B? If yes, how large is it and what is the possible
Figure 5.1 Categorisation of data for assessment of market potential in a country
Internal data External data
Firm general data Macroeconomic

(firm-context) data for country B
• Size • GNP
• Product lines • Stability of
Industry
• Financial currency
• Growth patterns
situation • Inflation
Secondary of sectors Secondary
etc. etc.
data • Analysis of data
imports
• Characteristics
Problem of competition
• Is there a market for etc.
the firm’s product A in
country B?
• If yes, how large is it
and what is the Competitors
possible market share Specific
strategies
Primary Primary
data Strengths–weaknesses Intermediaries data
profile (benchmarking) End customers • Purchasing
Compared to main Buying behaviour behaviour
competitors: • Threat of using • Financial
• Corporate level substitute capabilities
• Product-line level products • Access to
(SBU level) • Consumption distribution
• Specific product level patterns channels
etc. etc. etc.
Internal data External data

market share for the firm? Note that in Figure 5.1 only a limited number of indicator
variables are shown. Of course the one-market perspective in Figure 5.1 could be
expanded, to cover not only country B (as in Figure 5.1) but a range of countries, e.g.
the EU.
As a rule, no primary research should be done without first searching for relevant sec-
ondary information, and secondary data should be used whenever available and appro-
priate. Besides, secondary data often help to define problems and research objectives.
In most cases, however, secondary sources cannot provide all the information needed
and the company must collect primary data.
In Figure 5.1 the most difficult and costly kind of data to obtain is probably the
strengths–weaknesses profile of the firm (internal and primary data). However, because
it compares the profile of the firm with those of its main competitors, this quadrant is
a very important indicator of the firm’s international competitiveness. The following
two sections discuss different forms of secondary and primary research.
With many international markets to consider it is essential that firms begin their
market research by seeking and utilising secondary data.
5.4 Secondary research
Advantages of secondary research in foreign markets

Secondary research conducted from the home base is less expensive and less time con-
suming than research conducted abroad. No contacts have to be made outside the
home country, thus keeping commitment to possible future projects at a low level.
Research undertaken in the home country about the foreign environment also has the
benefit of objectivity. The researcher is not constrained by overseas customs. As a pre-
liminary stage of a market-screening process secondary research can quickly generate
background information to eliminate many countries from the scope of enquiries.
Disadvantages of secondary research in foreign markets

Problems with secondary research in foreign countries are as follows:
■ Non-availability of data. In many developing countries secondary data are very scarce.
These weak economies have poor statistical services – many do not even carry out a
population census. Information on retail and wholesale trade is especially difficult to
obtain. In such cases primary data collection becomes vital.
■ Reliability of data. Sometimes political considerations may affect the reliability of
data. In some developing countries governments may enhance the information to
paint a rosy picture of the economic life in the country. In addition, due to the data
collection procedures used, or the personnel who gathered the data, many data lack
statistical accuracy. As a practical matter, the following questions should be asked to
judge effectively the reliability of data sources (Cateora, 1993, p. 346):
– Who collected the data? Would there be any reason for purposely misrepresenting
the facts?
– For what purpose was the data collected?
– How was the data collected (methodology)?
– Are the data internally consistent and logical in the light of known data sources or
market factors?
■ Data classification. In many countries the data reported are too broadly classified for
use at the micro level.
■ Comparability of data. International marketers often like to compare data from dif-
ferent countries. Unfortunately the secondary data obtainable from different coun-
tries are not readily comparable because national definitions of statistical phenomena
differ from one country to another. The term ‘supermarket’, for example, has a variety
of meanings around the world. In Japan a supermarket is quite different from its UK
counterpart. Japanese ‘supermarkets’ usually occupy two- or three-storey structures;
they sell daily necessities such as foodstuff, but also clothing, furniture, electrical
home appliances and sporting goods, and they have a restaurant.
In general the availability and accuracy of recorded secondary data increase as the
level of economic development increases. However, there are many exceptions: India is
at a lower level of economic development than other countries but has accurate and
complete development of government-collected data.
Although the possibility of obtaining secondary data has increased dramatically the
international community has grown increasingly sensitive to the issue of data privacy.
Readily accessible, large-scale databases contain information valuable to marketers but
considered privileged by the individuals who have provided the data. The international
marketer must therefore also pay careful attention to the privacy laws in different
nations and to the possible consumer response to using such data. Neglecting these
concerns may result in research backfiring and the corporate position being weakened.
In doing secondary research or building a decision support system there are many
information sources available. Generally these secondary data sources can be divided
into internal and external sources (Figure 5.1). The latter can be classified as either
internationalglobal or regionalcountry-based sources.
Internal data sources

Internal company data can be a most fruitful source of information. However, it is
often not utilised as fully as it should be.
The global marketing and sales departments are the main points of commercial inter-
action between an organization and its foreign customers. Consequently a great deal of
information should be available, including the following:
■ Total sales. Every company keeps a record of its total sales over a defined time period:
for example, weekly records, monthly records and so on.
■ Sales by country. Sales statistics should be split up by countries. This is partly to
measure the progress and competence of the export manager or the salesperson
(sometimes to influence earnings because commission may be paid on sales) and
partly to measure the degree of market penetration in a particular country.
■ Sales by products. Very few companies sell only one product. Most companies sell a
range of products and keep records for each kind of product or, if the range is large,
each product group.
■ Sales volume by market segment. Such segmentation may be geographical or by type of
industry. This will give an indication of segment trends in terms of whether they are
static, declining or expanding.
■ Sales volume by type of channel distribution. Where a company uses several different
distribution channels it is possible to calculate the effectiveness and profitability of
each type of channel. Such information allows marketing management to identify
and develop promising channel opportunities, and results in more effective channel
marketing.
■ Pricing information. Historical information relating to price adjustments by product
allows the organization to establish the effect of price changes on demand.
■ Communication mix information. This includes historical data on the effects of adver-
tising campaigns, sponsorship and direct mail on sales. Such information can act as
a guide to the likely effectiveness of future communication expenditure plans.
■ Sales representatives’ records and reports. Sales representatives should keep a visit card
or file on every ‘live’ customer. In addition, sales representatives often send reports
to the sales office on such matters as orders lost to competitors and possible reasons
why, as well as on firms that are planning future purchasing decisions. Such infor-
mation could help to bring improvements in marketing strategy.
External data sources

A very basic method of finding international business information is to begin with a
public library or a university library. The Internet can also help in the search for data
sources. The Internet has made available thousands of databases for intelligence
research (i.e. research on competitors). In addition, electronic databases carry mar-
keting information ranging from the latest news on product development to new
thoughts in the academic and trade press and updates in international trade statistics.
However, the Internet will not totally replace other sources of secondary data. Cost
compared to data quality will still be a factor influencing a company’s choice of
secondary data sources.
Internationalglobal sources (web addresses)

The links to the international data sources may be reached at www.booksites.net/
hollensen
Secondary data used for estimation of foreign market potential

Secondary data are often used to estimate the size of potential foreign markets. In
assessing current product demand and forecasting future demand reliable historical
data are required. As previously mentioned, the quality and availability of secondary
data are frequently inadequate. Nevertheless estimates of market size must be
attempted in order to plan effectively. Despite limitations there are approaches to fore-
casting future demand in a market with a minimum of information. A number of tech-
niques are available (see Craig and Douglas, 2000), but here only two are further
explained: lead–lag analysis and estimation by analogy.
Lead–lag analysis
This technique is based on the use of time-series data from one country to project sales
in other countries. It assumes that the determinants of demand in the two countries are
the same, and that only time separates them. This requires that the diffusion process
and specifically the rate of diffusion is the same in all countries. Of course this is not
always the case, and it seems that products introduced more recently diffuse more
quickly (Craig and Douglas, 2000).
Figure 5.2 shows the principle behind the lead–lag analysis with an illustrative
example in the DVD market. By the end of 2003 it is assumed that 55 per cent of the
Figure 5.2 Lead–lag analysis of penetration of DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs) in the
USA and Italy (illustrative examples)
100 USA
90
% of households with DVD player
Realised sales figures

80
Italy
70
60 2 years
50
40
30
20
10 Forecast by lead–lag analysis
0
1990 1995 2000 2003 2010
US households will have at least one DVD in their home, whereas it is assumed that
‘only’ 20 per cent of the Italian households will have a DVD. We define the time-lag
between the American and the Italian DVD market as two years. So if we were to esti-
mate the future penetration of DVDs in Italian households (and as a consequence also
demand) we could make a parallel displacement of the S-formed US penetration curve
by two years, as illustrated in Figure 5.2. This also shows how rapidly new products
today are diffused from market to market. The difficulty in using the lead–lag analysis
includes the problem of identifying the relevant time lag and the range of factors that
impact future demand. However, the technique has considerable intuitive appeal to
managers and is likely to guide some of their thinking.
When data are not available for a regular lead–lag analysis, estimation by analogy
can be used.
Estimation by analogy
This is essentially a single-factor index with a correlation value (between a factor and
demand for a product) obtained in one country applied to a target international
market. First a relationship (correlation) must be established between the demand to be
estimated and the factor, which is to serve as the basis for the analogy. Once the known
relationship is established the correlation value then attempts to draw an analogy
between the known situation and the market demand in question.
Example
We want to estimate the market demand for refrigerators in Germany. We know the
market size in the United Kingdom but we do not know it in Germany.
As nearly all households in the two countries already have a refrigerator, a good
correlation could be number of households or population size in the two countries.
In this situation we choose to use population size as the basis for the analogy:
Population size in the United Kingdom: 60 million
Population size in Germany: 82 million
Furthermore we know that the number of refrigerators sold in the United Kingdom
in 2002 was 1.1 million units.
Then by analogy we estimate the sales to be the following in Germany:

(8260) " 1.1 million units # 1.5 million units
Generally caution must be used with ‘estimation by analogy’ because the method
assumes that factors other than the correlation factor used (in this example population
size) are similar in both countries, such as the same culture, buying power of con-
sumers, tastes, taxes, prices, selling methods, availability of products, consumption
patterns and so forth. Despite the apparent drawbacks to analogy it is useful where
international data are limited.
5.5 Primary research
Qualitative and quantitative research

If a marketer’s research questions are not adequately answered by secondary research it
may be necessary to search for additional information in primary data. These data can
be collected by qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative and qualitative tech-
niques can be distinguished by the fact that quantitative techniques involve getting
data from a large, representative group of respondents.
The objective of qualitative research techniques is to give a holistic view of the
research problem, and therefore these techniques must have a large number of vari-
ables and few respondents (illustrated in Figure 5.3). Choosing between quantitative
and qualitative techniques is a question of trading off breadth and depth in the results
of the analysis.
Figure 5.3 The ‘trade-off’ in the choice between quantitative and qualitative research
Quantitative research Qualitative research

Variable no. Variable no.
1 2 3 4 - - - 1 2 3 4 - - -
1 1
2 2
3 3
Respondent Respondent
4 4
no. no.
- -
- -
- -
Other differences between the two research methodologies are summarised in

Table 5.2. Data retrieval and analysis of quantitative respondent data are based on a
comparison of data between all respondents. This places heavy demands on the mea-
suring instrument (the questionnaire), which must be well structured (with different
answering categories) and tested before the survey takes place. All respondents are given
identical stimuli: that is, the same questions. This approach will not usually give any
problems, as long as the respondent group is homogeneous. However, if it is a hetero-
geneous group of respondents it is possible that the same question will be understood in
different ways. This problem becomes especially intensified in cross-cultural surveys.
Table 5.2 Quantitative versus qualitative research
Quantitative research Qualitative research

Comparison dimension (e.g. a postal questionnaire) (e.g. a focus group interview or the case method)
Objective To quantify the data and generalise To gain an initial and qualitative understanding
the results from the sample to the of the underlying reasons and motives
population of interest
Type of research Descriptive andor casual Exploratory
Flexibility in research design Low (as a result of a standardised and High (as a result of the personal interview,
structured questionnaire: one-way where the interviewer can change questions
communication) during the interview: two-way communication)
Sample size Large Small
Choice of respondents Representative sample of the Persons with considerable knowledge of the
population problem (key informants)
Information per respondent Low High
Data analysis Statistical summary Subjective, interpretative
Ability to replicate with High Low

same result
Interviewer requirements No special skills required Special skills required (an understanding of
the interaction between interviewer and
respondent)
Time consumption during Design phase: high (formulation of Design phase: low (no ‘exact’ questions
the research questions must be correct) are required before the interview)
Analysis phase: low (the answers to Analysis phase: high (as a result of many
the questions can be coded) ‘soft’ data)
Data retrieval and analysis of qualitative data, however, are characterised by a high
degree of flexibility and adaptation to the individual respondent and his or her special
background. Another considerable difference between qualitative and quantitative
surveys is the source of data:
■ Quantitative techniques are characterised by a certain degree of distance as the con-
struction of the questionnaire, data retrieval and data analysis take place in separate
phases. Data retrieval is often done by people who have not had anything to do with
the construction of the questionnaire. Here the measuring instrument (the question-
naire) is the critical element in the research process.
■ Qualitative techniques are characterised by proximity to the source of data, where
data retrieval and analysis are done by the same person, namely, the interviewer.
Data retrieval is characterised by interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent, where each new question is to a certain degree dependent on the pre-
vious question. Here it is the interviewer and his or her competence (or lack of the
same) which is the critical element in the research process.
Qualitative techniques imply a less sharp separation between data retrieval and
analysisinterpretation, since data retrieval (for example the next question in a per-
sonal interview) will be dependent on the interviewer’s interpretation of the previous
answer. The researcher’s personal experience from fieldwork (data retrieval) is generally
a considerable input into the analysis phase. In the following section the two most
important qualitative research methods are presented.
Triangulation: mixing qualitative and quantitative research methods

Quantitative and qualitative research methods often complement each other.
Combined use of quantitative and qualitative research methods in the study of the
same phenomenon is termed triangulation (Denzin, 1978; Jick, 1979). The triangula-
tion metaphor is from navigation and military strategy, which use multiple reference
points to locate an object’s exact position. Similarly, market researchers can improve
the accuracy and validity of their judgements by collecting both quantitative and quali-
tative data. Sometimes qualitative research methods explain or reinforce quantitative
findings and even reveal new information.
Sometimes it is relevant to use qualitative data collected by, for example, in-depth
interview of a few key informants as exploratory input to the construction of the best
possible questionnaire for the collection of quantitative data. In this way triangulation
can enrich our understanding of a research question before a structured and formalised
questionnaire is designed.
Research design
Figure 5.4 shows that designing research for primary data collection calls for a number
of decisions on research approaches, contact methods, sampling plan and research
Figure 5.4 Primary data collection: research design
Research problem/objectives
Determine the information requirements
Research approaches
Observation Surveys Experiments
Contact methods
Mail/Internet Telephone Personal
Sampling plan
Sampling Sampling Sample

unit procedure size
Contact medium
Design of a Formulation of
questionnaire questions
Pretesting/data collection/data analysis

instruments. The following pages will look at the various elements of Figure 5.4 in
further detail.
Research problemobjectives
Companies are increasingly recognising the need for primary international research. As
the extent of a firm’s international involvement increases, so does the importance and
complexity of its international research. The primary research process should begin
with a definition of the research problem and the establishment of specific objectives.
The major difficulty here is translating the business problem into a research problem
with a set of specific researchable objectives. In this initial stage researchers often
embark on the research process with only a vague grasp of the total problem.
Symptoms are often mistaken for causes, and action determined by symptoms may be
oriented in the wrong direction.
Research objectives may include obtaining detailed information for better penetrat-
ing the market, for designing and fine-tuning the marketing mix, or for monitoring the
political climate of a country so that the firm can expand its operations successfully.
The better defined the research objective is, the better the researcher will be able to
determine the information requirement.
Research approaches
In Figure 5.4 three possible research approaches are indicated: observation, surveys and
experiments.
Observation
This approach to the generation of primary data is based on watching and sometimes
recording market-related behaviour. Observational techniques are more suited to
investigating what people do than why they do it. Here are some examples of this
approach:
■ Store checks: a food products manufacturer sends researchers into supermarkets to
find out the prices of competing brands or how much shelf space and display support
retailers give its brands. To conduct in-store research in Europe, for example, store
checks, photo audits of shelves and store interviews must be scheduled well in
advance and need to be preceded by a full round of introductions of the researchers
to store management and personnel.
■ Mechanical observations are often used to measure TV viewership.
■ Cash register scanners can be used to keep track of customer purchases and inventories.
Observational research can obtain information that people are unwilling or unable
to provide. In some countries individuals may be reluctant to discuss personal habits or
consumption. In such cases observation is the only way to obtain the necessary infor-
mation. In contrast, some things are simply not observable, such as feelings, attitudes
and motives, or private behaviour. Long-term or infrequent behaviour is also difficult
to observe. Because of these limitations, researchers often use observation along with
other data collection methods.
Experiments
Experiments gather casual information. They involve selecting matched groups of sub-
jects, giving them different treatments, controlling unrelated factors and checking for
differences in group responses. Thus experimental research tries to explain cause-and-
effect relationships.
The most used marketing research application of experiments is in test marketing.

This is a research technique in which a product under study is placed on sale in one or
more selected localities or areas, and its reception by consumers and the trade is
observed, recorded and analysed. In order to isolate, for example, the sales effects of
advertising campaigns, it is necessary to use relatively self-contained marketing areas as
test markets.
Performance in these test markets gives some indication of the performance to be
expected when the product goes into general distribution. However, experiments are
difficult to implement in global marketing research. The researcher faces the task of
designing an experiment in which most variables are held constant or are comparable
across cultures. To do so represents a major challenge. For example, an experiment that
intends to determine a casual effect within the distribution system of one country may
be difficult to transfer to another country where the distribution system is different.
As a result experiments are used only rarely, even though their potential value to the
international market researcher is recognised.
Surveys
The survey research method is based on the questioning of respondents and represents,
both in volume and in value terms, perhaps the most important method of collecting
data. Typically the questioning is structured: a formal questionnaire is prepared and the
questions are asked in a prearranged order. The questions may be asked verbally, in
writing or via a computer.
Survey research is used for a variety of marketing issues, including the following:
■ customer attitudes;
■ customer buying habits;
■ potential market size;
■ market trends.
Unlike experimental research, survey research is usually aimed at generating descrip-
tive rather than casual data. Unlike observational research, survey research usually
involves the respondent.
Because of the importance and diversity of survey research in global marketing, it is
on this particular aspect that we now concentrate.
Contact methods
The method of contact chosen is usually a balance between speed, degree of accuracy
and costs. In principle there are three possibilities when choosing a contact method:
personal (face-to-face) interviews, telephone interviews and mail surveys. Each method
has its own strengths and weaknesses. Table 5.3 gives an overview of these.
MailInternet surveys
These can collect a large amount of data that can be quantified and coded into a com-
puter. A low research budget combined with a widely dispersed population may mean
that there is no alternative to the mailInternet survey. However, the major problem is
its potentially low response rate.
Telephone interviews
In some ways these are somewhere between personal and mail surveys. They generally
have a response rate higher than mail questionnaires but lower than face-to-face inter-
views, their cost is usually less than with personal interviews, and they allow a degree
Table 5.3 Strengths and weaknesses of the three contact methods
Questions/questionnaire Mail/Internet Telephone Personal
Flexibility (ability to clarify problems) Poor Good Excellent
Possibility of in-depth information (use of open-ended questions) Fair Fair Excellent
Use of visual aids Good Poor Good
Possibility of a widely dispersed sample Excellent Excellent Fair
Response rates Poor Good Good
Asking sensitive questions (anonymity of respondent is assumed) Good Poor Fair
Control of interviewer effects (no interviewer bias) Excellent Fair Poor
Speed of data collection Poor Excellent Good
Costs Good Excellent Poor
of flexibility when interviewing. However, the use of visual aids is not possible and
there are limits to the number of questions that can be asked before respondents either
terminate the interview or give quick (invalid) answers to speed up the process. With
computer-aided telephone interviewing (CATI), centrally located interviewers read
questions from a computer monitor and input answers via the keyboard. Routeing
through the questionnaire is computer controlled, helping the process of interviewing.
Some research firms set up terminals in shopping centres, where respondents sit down
at a terminal, read questions from a screen and type their answers into the computer.
Personal interviews
Personal interviews take two forms – individual and group interviewing. Individual
interviewing involves talking with people in their homes or offices, in the street or in
shopping arcades. The interviewer must gain the cooperation of the respondents. Group
interviewing (focus-group interviewing) consists of inviting 6 to 10 people to gather for a few
hours with a trained moderator to talk about a product, service or organization. The mod-
erator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some understanding
of group and consumer behaviour. The participants are normally paid a small sum for
attending.
Personal interviewing is quite flexible and can collect large amounts of information.
Trained interviewers can hold a respondent’s attention for a long time and can explain
difficult questions. They can guide interviews, explore issues and probe as the situation
requires. Interviewers can show subjects actual products, advertisements or packages,
and observe reactions and behaviour.
The main drawbacks of personal interviewing are the high costs and sampling prob-
lems. Group interview studies usually employ small sample sizes to keep time and costs
down, but it may be hard to generalise from the results. Because interviewers have more
freedom in personal interviews the problem of interviewer bias is greater.
Thus there is no ‘best’ contact method – it all depends on the situation. Sometimes it
may even be appropriate to combine the three methods.
Sampling plan
Except in very restricted markets it is both impractical and too expensive for a
researcher to contact all the people who could have some relevance to the research
problem. This total number is known statistically as the ‘universe’ or ‘population’. In
marketing terms, it comprises the total number of actual and potential userscustomers
of a particular product or service.
The population can also be defined in terms of elements and sampling units. Suppose
that a lipstick manufacturer wants to assess consumer response to a new line of lipsticks
and wants to sample females over 15 years of age. It may be possible to sample females
of this age directly, in which case a sampling unit would be the same as an element.
Alternatively, households might be sampled and all females over 15 in each selected
household interviewed. Here the sampling unit is the household, and the element is a
female over 15 years old.
What is usually done in practice is to contact a selected group of consumerscus-
tomers to be representative of the entire population. The total number of consumers
who could be interviewed is known as the ‘sample frame’, while the number of people
who are actually interviewed is known as the ‘sample’.
Sampling procedure
There are several kinds of sampling procedure, with probability and non-probability
sampling being the two major categories:
■ Probability sampling. Here it is possible to specify in advance the chance that each
element in the population will have of being included in a sample, although there is
not necessarily an equal probability for each element. Examples are simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling and cluster sampling (see
Malhotra (1993) for more information).
■ Non-probability sampling. Here it is not possible to determine the above-mentioned
probability or to estimate the sampling error. These procedures rely on the personal
judgement of the researcher. Examples are convenience sampling, quota sampling
and snowball sampling (see Malhotra (1993) for more information).
Given the disadvantages of non-probability samples (results are not projectable to
the total population, and sampling error cannot be computed) one may wonder why
they are used so frequently by marketing researchers. The reasons relate to the inherent
advantages of non-probability sampling:
■ Non-probability samples cost less than probability samples.
■ If accuracy is not critical non-probability sampling may have considerable appeal.
■ Non-probability sampling can be conducted more quickly than probability
sampling.
■ Non-probability sampling, if executed properly, can produce samples of the popula-
tion that are reasonably representative (e.g. by use of quota sampling) (Malhotra,
1993, p. 359).
Sample size
Once we have chosen the sampling procedure the next step is to determine the appro-
priate sample size. Determining the sample size is a complex decision and involves finan-
cial, statistical and managerial considerations. Other things being equal the larger the
sample, the less the sampling error. However, larger samples cost more money, and the
resources (money and time) available for a particular research project are always limited.
In addition the cost of larger samples tends to increase on a linear basis, whereas the
level of sampling error decreases at a rate only equal to the square root of the relative
increase in sample size. For example, if sample size is quadrupled data collection costs
will be quadrupled too, but the level of sampling error will be reduced by only one-half.
Among the methods for determining the sample size are the following:
■ Traditional statistical techniques (assuming the standard normal distribution).
■ Budget available. Although seemingly unscientific this is a fact of life in a business
environment, based on the budgeting of financial resources. This approach forces the
researcher to consider carefully the value of information in relation to its cost.
■ Rules of thumb. The justification for a specified sample size may boil down to a ‘gut
feeling’ that this is an appropriate sample size, or it may be a result of common
practice in the particular industry.
■ Number of subgroups to be analysed. Generally speaking the more subgroups that need
to be analysed, the larger the required total sample size.
In transnational market research, sampling procedures become a rather complicated
matter. Ideally a researcher wants to use the same sampling method for all countries in
order to maintain consistency. Sampling desirability, however, often gives way to prac-
ticality and flexibility. Sampling procedures may have to vary across countries in
order to ensure reasonable comparability of national groups. Thus the relevance of a
sampling method depends on whether it will yield a sample that is representative of a
target group in a certain country, and on whether comparable samples can be obtained
from similar groups in different countries.
Contact mediummeasurement instrument

Designing the questionnaire
A good questionnaire cannot be designed until the precise information requirements
are known. It is the vehicle whereby the research objectives are translated into specific
questions. The type of information sought, and the type of respondents to be
researched, will have a bearing upon the contact method to be used, and this in turn
will influence whether the questionnaire is relatively unstructured (with open-ended
questions), aimed at depth interviewing, or relatively structured (with closed-ended
questions) for ‘on the street’ interviews.
In cross-cultural studies open-ended questions appear useful because they may help
to identify the frame of reference of the respondents. Another issue is the choice
between direct and indirect questions. Societies have different degrees of sensitivity to
certain questions. Questions related to the income or age of the respondent may be
accepted differently in different countries. Thus the researcher must be sure that the
questions are culturally acceptable. This may mean that questions which can be asked
directly in some societies will have to be asked indirectly in others.
Formulation (wording) of questions

Once the researcher has decided on specific types of questions the next task is the
actual writing of the questions. Four general guidelines are useful to bear in mind
during the wording and sequencing of each question:
■ The wording must be clear. For example, try to avoid two questions in one.
■ Select words so as to avoid biasing the respondent. For example, try to avoid leading
questions.
■ Consider the ability of the respondent to answer the question. For example, asking respon-
dents about a brand or store that they have never encountered creates a problem.
Since respondents may be forgetful, time periods should be relatively short. For
example: ‘Did you purchase one or more cola(s) within the last week?’
■ Consider the willingness of the respondent to answer the question. ‘Embarrassing’ topics
that deal with things such as borrowing money, sexual activities and criminal records
must be dealt with carefully. One technique is to ask the question in the third person
or to state that the behaviour or attitude is not unusual prior to asking the question.
For example: ‘Millions of people suffer from haemorrhoids. Do you or does any
member of your family suffer from this problem?’
The impact of language and culture is of particular importance when wording ques-
tions. The goal for the global marketing researcher should be to ensure that the poten-
tial for misunderstandings and misinterpretations of spoken or written words is
minimised. Both language and cultural differences make this issue an extremely sensi-
tive one in the global marketing research process.
In many countries different languages are spoken in different areas. In Switzerland
German is used in some areas and French and Italian in others. And the meaning of
words often differs from country to country. For example, in the United States the
concept of ‘family’ generally refers only to the parents and children. In the southern
part of Europe, the Middle East and many Latin countries it may also include grand-
parents, uncles, aunts, cousins and so forth.
When finally evaluating the questionnaire, the following items should be considered:
■ Is a certain question necessary? The phrase ‘It would be nice to know’ is often heard,
but each question should either serve a purpose or be omitted.
■ Is the questionnaire too long?
■ Will the questions achieve the survey objectives?
Pretesting
No matter how comfortable and experienced the researcher is in international research
activities, an instrument should always be pretested. Ideally such a pretest is carried out
with a subset of the population under study, but a pretest should at least be conducted
with knowledgeable experts andor individuals. The pretest should also be conducted
in the same mode as the final interview. If the study is to be ‘on the street’ or in the
shopping arcade, then the pretest should be the same. Even though a pretest may mean
time delays and additional cost the risks of poor research are simply too great for this
process to be omitted.
Data collection
The global marketing researcher must check that the data are gathered correctly, effi-
ciently and at a reasonable cost. The market researcher has to establish the parameters
under which the research is conducted. Without clear instructions the interviews may
be conducted in different ways by different interviewers. Therefore the interviewers
have to be instructed about the nature of the study, start and completion time, and
sampling methodology. Sometimes a sample interview is included with detailed infor-
mation on probing and quotas. Spot checks on these administration procedures are
vital to ensure reasonable data quality.
Data analysis and interpretation

Once data have been collected the final steps are the analysis and interpretation of
findings in the light of the stated problem. Analysing data from cross-country studies
calls for substantial creativity as well as scepticism. Not only are data often limited, but
frequently results are significantly influenced by cultural differences. This suggests
that there is a need for properly trained local personnel to function as supervisors and
interviewers; alternatively international market researchers require substantial advice

from knowledgeable local research firms that can also take care of the actual collection
of data. Although data in cross-country analyses are often of a qualitative nature the
researcher should, of course, use the best and most appropriate tools available for
analysis. On the other hand, international researchers should be cautioned against
using overly sophisticated tools for unsophisticated data. Even the best of tools will not
improve data quality. The quality of data must be matched with the quality of the
research tools.
Problems with using primary research

Most problems in collecting primary data in international marketing research stem
from cultural differences among countries, and range from the inability of respondents
to communicate their opinions to inadequacies in questionnaire translation (Cateora
et al., 2000).
Sampling in field surveys

The greatest problem of sampling stems from the lack of adequate demographic data
and available lists from which to draw meaningful samples. For example, in many
South American and Asian cities street maps are unavailable, and streets are neither
identified nor houses numbered. In Saudi Arabia, the difficulties with probability sam-
pling is so acute that non-probabilistic sampling becomes a necessary evil. Some of the
problems in drawing a random sample include:
■ no officially recognised census of population;
■ incomplete and out-of-date telephone directories;
■ no accurate maps of population centres, therefore no area samples can be made.
Furthermore, door-to-door interviewing in Saudi Arabia is illegal.
Non-response
Non-response is the inability to reach selected elements in the sample frame. As a result
opinions of some sample elements are not obtained or properly represented. A good sam-
pling method can only identify elements who should be selected; there is no guarantee
that such elements will ever be included.
The two main reasons for non-response errors are as follows:
■ Not being at home. In countries where males are still dominant in the labour force it
may be difficult to contact a head of household at home during working hours.
Frequently only housewives or servants are at home during the day.
■ Refusal to respond. Cultural habits in many countries virtually prohibit communica-
tion with a stranger, particularly for women. This is the case in the Middle East,
much of the Mediterranean area and throughout most of south-east Asia – in fact
wherever strong traditional societies persist. Moreover, in many societies such
matters as preferences for hygienic products and food products are too personal to
be shared with an outsider. For example, in many Latin American countries a
woman may feel ashamed to talk with a researcher about her choice of brand of
sanitary towel, or even hair shampoo or perfume. Respondents may also suspect
that the interviewers are agents of the government, seeking information for the
imposition of additional taxes. Finally, privacy is becoming a big issue in many
countries: for example, in Japan the middle class is showing increasing concern
about the protection of personal information.
Language barriers
This problem area includes the difficulty of exact translation that creates problems in
eliciting the specific information desired and in interpreting the respondents’ answers.
In some developing countries with low literacy rates written questionnaires are com-
pletely useless. Within some countries the problem of dialects and different languages
can make a national questionnaire survey impractical – this is the case in India, which
has 25 official languages.
The obvious solution of having questionnaires prepared or reviewed by someone
fluent in the language of the country is frequently overlooked. In order to find possible
translation errors marketers can use the technique of back translation, where the
questionnaire is translated from one language to another, and then back again into the
original language. For example, if a questionnaire survey is going to be made in France,
the English version is translated into French and then translated back to English by a
different translator. The two English versions are then compared and, where there are
differences, the translation is checked thoroughly.
Measurement
The best research design is useless without proper measurements. A measurement
method that works satisfactorily in one culture may fail to achieve the intended purpose
in another country. Special care must therefore be taken to ensure the reliability and
validity of the measurement method.
If we measure the same phenomenon over and over again with the same measure-
ment device and we get similar results then the method is reliable. There are three types
of validity: construct, internal and external.
Construct validity
Construct validity establishes correct operational measures for the concepts being
studied. If a measurement method lacks construct validity it is not measuring what it is
supposed to.
Internal validity
Internal validity establishes a causal relationship, whereby certain conditions are
shown to lead to other conditions.
External validity
External validity is concerned with the possible generalisation of research results to
other populations. For example, high external validity exists if research results obtained
for a marketing problem in one country will be applicable to a similar marketing
problem in another country. If such a relationship exists it may be relevant to use the
analogy method for estimating market demand in diffrent countries. Estimating by
analogy assumes, for example, that the demand for a product develops in much the
same way in countries that are similar.
The concepts of reliability and validity are illustrated in Figure 5.5. In the figure, the
bull’s eye is what the measurement device is supposed to ‘hit’.
Situation 1 shows holes all over the target, which could be due to the use of a bad
measurement device. If a measurement instrument is not reliable there are no circum-
stances under which it can be valid. However, just because an instrument is reliable, the
instrument is not automatically valid. We see this in situation 2, where the instrument
Figure 5.5 Illustrations of possible reliability and validity situations in measurement
Situation 1 Situation 2 Situation 3
Neither reliable Highly reliable Highly reliable

nor valid but not valid and valid
Source: McDaniel and Gates, 1993, p. 372.
is reliable but is not measuring what it is supposed to measure. The shooter has a steady
eye, but the sights are not adjusted properly. Situation 3 is the ideal situation for the
researcher to be in. The measurement method is both reliable and valid.
An instrument proven to be reliable and valid in one country may not be so in
another culture. The same measurement scales may have different reliabilities in dif-
ferent cultures because of various levels of consumers’ product knowledge. Therefore it
may be dangerous simply to compare results in cross-country research. One way to
minimise the problem is to adapt measurement scales to local cultures by pretesting
measures in each market of interest until they show similar and satisfactory levels of
reliability.
However, as different methods may have varying reliabilities in different countries, it
is essential that these differences can be taken into account in the design of a multicul-
tural survey. Thus, a mail survey could be most appropriate to use in country A and
personal interviews in country B. In collecting data from different countries it is more
important to use techniques with equivalent levels of reliability than to use the same
techniques across countries.
Exhibit 5.1 Gathering and interpreting information in Asia-Pacific

The Asia-Pacific market has been highlighted as a key market area for this decade, so obtaining reliable
information in the region is of crucial importance to companies wishing to develop these markets.
However, a recent survey by Lasserre (1993), with results from 167 European marketing and planning
executives operating in the Asia-Pacific region, found that only in Japan, Singapore and Hong Kong
were companies able easily to access data that were viewed as being of good quality (see Figure 5.6)
Vietnamese data, in particular, are not trusted by researchers. The fact that Vietnam is characterised
by an almost total lack of reliable data on virtually every aspect of doing business is confirmed by
Dang and Speece (1996). The infrastructure to support marketing research is very bad in Vietnam. For
example, telephones are rare and government development plans hope to reach a telephone density of
5 per cent by the year 2002. As mail is also a very difficult and slow contact method face-to-face
interviews seem to be the only way to learn something about what potential Vietnamese customers think
and want.
The most important data sources in Asia-Pacific are the personal sources of companies (primary
research, whether from customers, from other business relations or from their own in-house surveys).
The importance of primary research confirms the widely held opinion that business in Asia-Pacific
depends more heavily on the network of personal relationships than on analysis of hard data (secondary
research).
Figure 5.6 Information base in Asia-Pacific
Quality
Japan
Singapore Accessibility
Malaysia
Hong Kong
Philippines
Korea Thailand
Indonesia
China Taiwan
Vietnam
Source: Lasserre, 1993, p. 57.
This pattern is valid from country to country, with the exception of Japan, where secondary data are
both accessible and of good quality. The only problem for western firms here seems to be the cost of
acquiring it. Government data sources are also important in Singapore. Generally, however, personal
contacts and in-house surveys are very important data sources in Asia-Pacific.
Source: Reprinted from Long Range Planning, Vol. 26, No. 3, Lasserre, P. (1993) ‘Gathering and interpreting strategic intelligence in Asia Pacific’,
p. 57, Copyright 1993, with permission from Elsevier.
5.6 Online (Internet) primary research methods
Although the Internet is still confined to the boundaries of the personal computer
screen this will soon be a thing of the past; it is now clear that the Internet is definitely
going to be a medium for the masses. Many researchers are amazed at how efficiently
surveys can be conducted, tabulated and analysed on the Web. Additionally, online
data collection lets marketers use complex study designs once considered either too
expensive or too cumbersome to execute via traditional means. While initial forays
were fraught with technical difficulties and methodological hurdles recent develop-
ments have begun to expose the medium’s immense potential.
The earliest online tools offered little more than the ability to deploy paper-based
questionnaires to Internet users. Today, however, online tools and services are available
with a wide range of features at a wide range of prices.
For the international market researcher the major advantages and disadvantages of
online surveys are the following (Grossnickle and Raskin, 2001).
Advantages of online surveys

■ Low financial resource implications: The scale of the online survey is not associated
with finance, i.e., large-scale surveys do not require greater financial resources than
small surveys. Expenses related to self-administered postal surveys are usually in the
form of outward and return postage, photocopying, etc., none of which is associated
with online surveys.
■ Short response time: Online surveys allow questionnaires to be delivered instantly to
their recipients, irrespective of their geographical location. Fast survey execution
allows for most interviews to be completed within a week or so.
■ Saving time with data collection and analysis: The respective questionnaire can be pro-
grammed so that responses can feed automatically into the data analysis software
(SPSS, SAS, Exel, etc.), thus saving time and resources associated with data entry
process. Furthermore, this avoids associated data transcription errors.
■ Visual stimuli can be evaluated, unlike CATI.
Disadvantages of online surveys

■ Respondents have no physical addresses: The major advantage of postal over online
surveys is that respondents have physical addresses, whereas yet not everyone has an
electronic address. Especially is this an international marketing research problem in
geographical areas where the penetration of the Internet is not as high as in Europe
and North America. For cross-country surveys the multimode approach (i.e. a com-
bination of online and postal survey) compensates for the misrepresentation of the
general population.
■ Guarding respondents’ anonymity: Traditional mail surveys have advantages in
guarding respondents’ anonymity. Sensitive issues, which may prevent respondents
from giving sincere answers, should be addressed via the post rather than online.
■ Time necessary to download pages: Problems may arise with older browsers, which
failed to properly display HTML questionnaires, with the appearance of the ques-
tionnaires in different browsers (Internet Explorer, Netscape)
Online quantitative market research (e-mail and Web-based surveys)

Online surveys can be conducted through e-mail or they can be posted on the Web and
the URL provided (a password is optional depending on the nature of the research) to
the respondents who have already been approached. When a wide audience is targeted
the survey can be designed as a pop-up survey, which would appear as a Web-based
questionnaire in a browser window while users are browsing the respective websites.
Such a Web-based survey is appropriate for a wide audience, where all the visitors to
certain websites have an equal chance to enter the survey.
However, the researcher’s control over respondents entering the Web-based surveys is
lower than for e-mail surveys. One advantage of Web-based surveys is the better display
of the questionnaire, whereas e-mail software still suffers from certain limitations in
terms of design tools and offering interactive and clear presentation. However, these two
modes of survey may be mixed, combining the advantages of each (Ilieva et al., 2002).
Online qualitative market research

There are many interesting opportunities to conduct international qualitative market
research quickly and at relatively low cost, without too much travelling involved
(Scholl et al., 2002).
■ Saving money on travelling costs, etc: Many qualitative researchers often have to travel
to countries in which research is conducted, briefing local moderators and viewing
some groups or holding interviews to get a grasp of the local habits and attitudes.
This leads to high travelling costs and increases the time needed to execute the field-
work. It usually takes one or two weeks to recruit the respondents, and one or two
weeks before the analysis can start. In online research the respondents can be
recruited and interviewed from any computer anywhere in the world. Nearly
everyone who is connected to the Internet knows how to use chat rooms and they
speak English. Fieldwork may start two days after briefing, and the analysis may start
right after the last interview on the basis of complete and accurate transcripts, with
each comment linked to the respective respondent.
■ Cross-country qualitative research: International online research is particularly inter-
esting for multinational companies that sell their products on a global scale and are
afraid to build the global marketing strategy on research which has been conducted
in only a few of these countries. Online qualitative research could serve as an addi-
tional multicountry check. This is not intended to give insight into the psychology
of customers but rather to check whether other countries or cultures may add to
the general picture, which has been made on the basis of qualitative face-to-face
research.
One of the limitations with, e.g., online focus groups is that they seem to generate less
interaction between members than the face-to-face groups. Discussions between
respondents occur, but they are less clear and coherent.
5.7 Other types of marketing research
A distinction is made between ad hoc and continuous research.
Ad hoc research
An ad hoc study focuses on a specific marketing problem and collects data at one point
in time from one sample of respondents. Examples of ad hoc studies are usage and atti-
tude surveys, and product and concept tests via custom-designed or multiclient studies.
More general marketing problems (e.g. total market estimates for product groups) may
be examined by using Delphi studies.
Custom-designed studies
These are based on the specific needs of the client. The research design is based on the
research brief given to the marketing research agency or internal marketing researcher.
Because they are tailor-made such surveys can be expensive.
Multiclient studies
These are a relatively low-cost way for a company to answer specific questions without
embarking on its own primary research. There are two types of multiclient study:
■ Independent research studies. These are carried out totally independently by research
companies (e.g. Frost and Sullivan) and then offered for sale.
■ Omnibus studies. Here a research agency will target specified segments in a particular
foreign market and companies will buy questions in the survey. Consequently
interviews (usually face to face or by telephone) may cover many topics. Clients will
then receive an analysis of the questions purchased. For omnibus studies to be of use
the researcher must have clearly defined research needs and a corresponding target
segment in order to obtain meaningful information.
Delphi studies
This type of research approach clearly aims at qualitative rather than quantitative mea-
sures by aggregating the information of a group of experts. It seeks to obtain answers
from those who possess particular in-depth expertise instead of seeking the average
responses of many with only limited knowledge.
The area of concern may be future developments in the international trading en-
vironment or long-term forecasts for market penetration of new products. Typically
10–30 key informants are selected and asked to identify the major issues in the area of
concern. They are also requested to rank their statements according to importance and
explain the rationale behind the ranking. Next the aggregated information is returned
to all participants, who are encouraged to state clearly their agreements or disagree-
ments with the various rank orders and comments. Statements can be challenged and
then, in another round, participants can respond to the challenges. After several
rounds of challenge and response a reasonably coherent consensus is developed.
One drawback of the technique is that it requires several steps, and therefore
months may elapse before the information is obtained. However the emergence of
e-mail may accelerate the process. If done properly the Delphi method can provide
insightful forecast data for the international information system of the firm.
Continuous research (longitudinal designs)

A longitudinal design differs from ad hoc research in that the sample or panel remains
the same over time. In this way a longitudinal study provides a series of pictures that
give an in-depth view of developments taking place. The panel consists of a sample of
respondents who have agreed to provide information at specified intervals over an
extended period.
There are two major types of panel:
■ Consumer panels. These provide information on their purchases over time. For
example, a grocery panel would record the brands, pack sizes, prices and stores used
for a wide range of supermarket brands. By using the same households over a period
of time measures of brand loyalty and switching can be achieved, together with a
demographic profile of the type of person or household who buys particular brands.
■ Retailer panels. By gaining the cooperation of retail outlets (e.g. supermarkets) sales of
brands can be measured by laser scanning the bar codes on goods as they pass
through the checkout. Although brand loyalty and switching cannot be measured in
this way retail audits can provide accurate assessments of sales achieved by store. A
major provider of retail data is the A.C. Nielsen company.
Sales forecasting
A company can forecast its sales either by forecasting the market sales (called market
forecasting) and then determining what share of this will accrue to the company or by
forecasting the company’s sales directly. Techniques for doing this are dealt with later
in the chapter. The point is that planners are only interested in forecasts when the fore-
cast comes down to individual products in the company.
We shall now examine the applicability and usefulness of the short-, medium- and
long-term forecasts in so far as company planners are concerned and shall then look at
each from individual company departmental viewpoints.
■ Short-term forecasts. These are usually for periods up to three months ahead, and as
such are really of use for tactical matters such as production planning. The general
trend of sales is less important here than short-term fluctuations.
■ Medium-term forecasts. These have direct implications for planners. They are of most
importance in the area of business budgeting, the starting point for which is the sales
forecast. Thus if the sales forecast is incorrect the entire budget is incorrect. If the
forecast is over-optimistic then the company will have unsold stocks which must be
financed out of working capital. If the forecast is pessimistic then the firm may miss
out on marketing opportunities because it is not geared up to produce the extra
goods required by the market. More to the point is that when forecasting is left to
accountants they will tend to err on the conservative side and will produce a forecast
that is less than actual sales, the implications of which have just been described. This
serves to re-emphasise the point that sales forecasting is the responsibility of the sales
manager. Such medium-term forecasts are normally for one year ahead.
■ Long-term forecasts. These are usually for periods of three years or more depending on
the type of industry being considered. In industries such as computers 3 years is con-
sidered long term, whereas for steel manufacture 10 years is a long-term horizon. They
are worked out from macroenvironmental factors such as government policy, econ-
omic trends, etc. Such forecasts are needed mainly by financial accountants for long-
term resource implications, but such matters of course are boards of directors’
concerns. The board must decide what its policy is to be in establishing the levels of
production needed to meet the forecast demand; such decisions might mean the con-
struction of a new factory and the training of a workforce. Forecasts can be produced
for different horizons, starting at an international level and then ranging down to
national levels, by industry and then by company levels until we reach individual
product-by-product forecasts. This is then broken down seasonally over the time span
of the forecasting period, and geographically right down to individual salesperson
areas. It is these latter levels that are of specific interest to sales management, or it is
from this level of forecasting that the sales budgeting and remuneration system stems.
Figure 5.7 shows an example of trend forecasting.
Figure 5.7 An example of trend forecasting
1200
1100 Forecast trend
1000
Sales
900
Trend
800
Unit sales
700
600
500
400 Forecast sales
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Quartes
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year
The unit sales and trend are drawn in as in Figure 5.7. The trend line is extended by
sight (and it is here that the forecaster’s skill and intuition must come in). The devia-
tions from trend are then applied to the trend line, and this provides the sales forecast.
In this particular example it can be seen that the trend line has been extended slowly
upwards, similar to previous years. The technique, as with many similar techniques,
suffers from the fact that downturns and upturns cannot be predicted, and such data
must be subjectively entered by the forecaster through manipulation of the extension
to the trend line.
Scenario planning
Scenarios are diverging – but plausible – views of the future. They differ from forecasts
in that they explore possible futures rather than predict a single point future. Figure 5.8
shows two different scenarios – A and B – where the outcome – measured on two
dimensions – is influenced by both convergent and diverging forces.
Figure 5.8 shows that the diverging and converging factors have to be balanced. Time
flows from the left to the right. The courses of the scenarios pass through a number
of time windows, each made up of the key dimensions the scenario writers want to
highlight. In Figure 5.8 two ‘time windows’ are shown: One in two years from now and
another one in five years from now. The two dimensions could be e.g. ‘worldwide
market share’ and ‘worldwide market growth’ for one of the company’s main product.
The ‘convergent forces’ would mean that Scenario A and B would come nearer to each
other over time. The ‘divergent forces’ would have the opposite effect.
Examples of convergent forces would be:
■ High degree of macroeconomic stability in key international markets.
■ Increasing standardization of product across borders.
Scenario planning allows us to consider a range of ‘alternative futures’, each of which
is dramatically different from the other and from the current operating environment.
Rather than rely on a single ‘most likely’ forecast it is possible to compare and contrast
alternative opinions on how your industry may evolve.
Figure 5.8 Development of scenarios A and B over time
‘Convergent’ and ‘divergent’ forces To + 5 years

influence the outcome of the scenario
Scenario A
Convergent
To + 2 years Dimension
two
Divergent
Scenario B
Time Dimension
To one
Now Time
Since it is externally oriented scenario planning is very effective at identifying

growth strategies for the company as well as potential threats to its market position.
Scenarios can also help to identify the specific external industry changes that are
causing falling market share or margins.
Guidelines for scenario planning

■ Establish a core planning team. Analysing the strategic implications of scenarios is best
done in teams. The creative dynamics of an effective group are likely to provide the
types of breakthrough that will make the scenario process worthwhile. What seems
obvious to one person will be surprising to another. A good rule of thumb is to have
five to eight people in the planning group.
■ Get a cross-section of expertise. Include the heads of all functional areas – sales,
marketing, operations, purchasing, information technology, personnel, etc. We also
recommend including individuals beyond the top executives. This injects new
perspectives on your company or your line of trade. This is a great time to involve the
rising stars and innovative thinkers in the organization.
■ Include outside information and outside people. Focus on injecting interesting and chal-
lenging perspectives into the discussion. In a group composed solely of insiders it
will be hard to achieve breakthrough insights. Outsiders may be customers, suppliers
or consultants. If possible, involve an executive from another line of trade or even
from outside wholesale distribution. However, many executives feel uncomfortable
letting outsiders participate in the planning process of their companies.
5.8 Summary
The basic objective of the global marketing research function is to provide manage-
ment with relevant information for more accurate decision making. The objective
is the same for both domestic and global marketing. However, global marketing is
more complex because of the difficulty of gathering information about multiple and
different foreign environments.
In this chapter, special attention has been given to the information collection
process and the use of marketing information. This coverage is far from being exhaus-
tive, and the reader should consult marketing research textbooks for specific details
related to particular research topics.
An international marketer should initiate research by searching first for any relevant
secondary data. Typically a great deal of information is already available, and the
researcher needs to know how to identify and locate the international sources of
secondary data.
If it is necessary to gather primary data the international marketer should be aware
that it is simply not possible to replicate elsewhere the methodology used in one
country. Some adaptation of the research method to different countries is usually
necessary.
The firm should set up a decision support system to handle the gathered information
efficiently. This system should integrate all information inputs, both internal and
external. However, in the final analysis, every international marketer should keep in
mind that an information system is no substitute for sound judgement.
CASE STUDY 5.1 Teepack Spezialmaschinen GmbH
Organizing a global survey of customer satisfaction
Teepack (www.teepack.com) is a specialised

manufacturer of tea bag machines for the world’s
best-known brands of tea and herbs and fruit
teas, such as Lipton, Pickwick, Twinnings and
LyonsTetley.
Teepack is a sister company of Teekanne,1 the
leading tea, herb, and fruit tea packing company
in Germany, with the Teefix, Pompadour and
Teekanne brands.
The invention of the automatic tea bag-pack-
aging machine by Teepack in 1949 revolu-
tionised the tea market with the double-chamber
tea bag. It meant that production volumes could
be increased dramatically. Today the latest gener-
ation of these machines is capable of production
speeds of almost 400 tea bags per minute, i.e.
some 4 billion per year.
The tea bag produced on Teepack machines is
the most sold double-chamber tea bag in the
world. Important benefits are that it has consid-
erably larger space between the two bag chambers Technical innovation resulted in Teepack engin-
and offers maximum tea bag stability and durability eers developing a new, even more efficient machine
without adding glue or heat sealing. – ‘Perfecta’. Since 1990 more than 200 ‘Perfecta’
The popularity of this practical tea bag has con- machines have been sold worldwide.
tinued to grow, for example in Germany 82 per cent Today Teepack has a market share of about 70 per
of tea sales are in double-chamber tea bags; in the cent of the global double chamber tea bag machine
United States the figure is about 90 per cent and in market.
Europe, if you omit the United Kingdom, the figure
is close to 100 per cent. Even in the former UK Questions
colony, Australia, the double-chamber tea bag has (Please visit www.teepack.com before you answer
almost convinced the consumers. ‘Down under’, the questions.)
sales of UK tea bags and the double-chamber tea bag
1. How would you forecast worldwide demand for tea
more or less balance themselves out.
bag machines?
For over 50 years Teepack GmbH has been the
2. Argue the case for the market analysis method you
number one producer of double-chamber tea bag
would choose if you had to evaluate the competi-
packaging machines in the world and has sold more
tiveness of Teepack Spezialmaschinen on the
than 2,000 of its packaging machine ‘Constanta’.
global tea bag packaging machine market.
Thanks to Teapack’s packaging machines Lipton is
the market leader of the international tea market. 3. In order to achieve better customer feedback, the
Up to 1957 Teepack had sold more than 100 tea bag top management of Teepack is interested in
learning how to measure customer satisfaction.
packaging machines in the United States.
Propose a questionnaire design that contains some
of the themes which it would be relevant to include
in the questionnaire.
4. How would you organise the internal database with
1
The Teekanne Group has production and sales subsidiaries in
the customers’ responses and the feedback of the
several countries. There are about 1,300 employees in the Group. questionnaire results to the customers?
CASE STUDY 5.2 Tchibo
Expanding the coffee shops’ business system in the

United Kingdom and the rest of Europe
Tchibo Frisch-Röst-Kaffee GmbH

(Hamburg, Germany) was founded in
1949 by Max Herz. Tchibo was originally
set up as a mail order company. At that
time Tchibo sent coffee by post. The orig-
inal mail-order coffee company has
grown into a multinational enterprise,
active in many more sectors than just tra-
ditional coffee retailing. For example, at
the end of 2003 Tchibo was one of the top
two online shops in Germany.
The first Tchibo specialist coffee shop
in this business system is being developed on a con-
with coffee counter service opened in Hamburg in
tinual basis and expanded by offering innovative
1955. The idea was that customers would have the
weekly changing new products. Tchibo’s uniqueness
chance to try the coffee before they bought a whole
is emphasized by the fact that not all products are
packet. This idea has been consistently developed
offered at the same time but that the assortment
ever since.
changes 52 times a year. The motto ‘A new experi-
The retailing concept typical of Tchibo combines
ence every week’ enables Tchibo to surprise its cus-
sales of roasted coffee with counter sales of coffee
tomers every Wednesday with introduction of a new
specialities, surrounded by an attractive merchan-
theme, made of around 25 products.
dise world that changes every week.
Table 1 shows the Tchibo coffee shops in Europe In the United Kingdom, Tchibo has success-
Tchibo is market leader in the German, Austrian, fully opened about 30 coffee shops mainly in the
Czech, Hungarian and Polish household roasted Greater London area.
coffee market with its coffee brands Tchibo, Gala Tchibo is planning to expand its business
von Eduscho and local brands. This success is partly system in the United Kingdom. However, in order
based on the systematic development of a business to develop the right promotion to the right cus-
‘system’, which combines Tchibo roasted coffee and tomer group, Tchibo asks you as an international
coffee bar sales with a rich variety of innovative con- marketing consultant to answer the following
sumer merchandise and services. The product range questions.
Questions
Table 1 Tchibo Coffee shops in Europe in 2003 1. Which market analysis should be made in the
Country Number of coffee shops United Kingdom in order to target the right promo-
tion campaign to the right customer group?
Germany around 250
United Kingdom around 30 2. How would you estimate the potential market for
Switzerland around 20 coffee shops (in general) in Europe?
Austria around 160 3. How will you use market analysis methods for esti-
Poland around 10
mating the possible European market share of
Source: Tchibo. Tchibo coffee shops?
1. Explore the reasons for using a marketing information system in the international
market. What are the main types of information you would expect to use?
2. What are some of the problems that a global marketing manager can expect to
encounter when creating a centralised marketing information system? How can these
problems be solved?
3. What are the dangers of translating questionnaires (which have been designed for one
country) for use in a multicountry study? How would you avoid these dangers?
4. Identify and classify the major groups of factors that must be taken into account when
conducting a foreign market assessment.
5. A US manufacturer of shoes is interested in estimating the potential attractiveness of
China for its products. Identify and discuss the sources and the types of data that the
company will need in order to obtain a preliminary estimate.
6. Identify and discuss the major considerations in deciding whether research should be
centralised or decentralised.
7. Distinguish between internal and external validity. What are the implications of external
validity for international marketers?
8. Would Tokyo be a good test market for a new brand planned to be marketed
worldwide? Why or why not?
9. If you had a contract to conduct marketing research in Saudi Arabia what problems
would you expect in obtaining primary data?
10. Do demographic variables have universal meanings? Is there a chance that they may
be interpreted differently in different cultures?
11. In forecasting sales in international markets, to what extent can the past be used to
predict the future?
12. How should the firm decide whether to gather its own intelligence or to buy it from
outside?
References
Cateora, P.R. (1993) International Marketing (8th edn), Irwin, Homewood, IL.
Cateora, P.R., Graham, J.L. and Ghauri, P.N. (2000), International Marketing, European Edition,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, England.
Craig, S.C. and Douglas, S.P. (2000), International Marketing Research, (2nd edn) John Wiley &
Sons, England.
Dang, T. and Speece, M. (1996) ‘Marketing research in Vietnam’, Journal of International Marketing
and Marketing Research, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 145–61.
Denzin, N.K. (1978) The Research Act (2nd edn), McGraw-Hill, New York.
Grossnickle, J. and Raskin, O. (2001) ‘What’s ahead on the Internet: new tools, sampling
methods, and applications help simplify Web research’, Market Research, Summer, pp. 9–13.
Jick, T.D. (1979) ‘Mixing qualitative and quantitive methods: triangulation in action’,
Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 24, December, pp. 602–11.
Ilieva, J., Baron, S. and Healey, N.M. (2002) ‘Online surveys in marketing research: pros and cons’,
International Journal of Market Research, vol. 44, quarter 3, pp. 361–76.
Lasserre, P. (1993) ‘Gathering and interpreting strategic intelligence in Asia Pacific’, Long Range
Planning, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 55–66.
Malhotra, N.K. (1993) Marketing Research: An applied orientation, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ.
McDaniel, C. Jr. and Gates, R. (1993) Contemporary Marketing Research (2nd edn), West Publishing
Co., Minneapolis, MN.
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world at a fingertip’, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, vol. 5, no. 3,
pp. 210–23.
Further reading
Brown, J., Culkin, N. and Fletcher, J. (2001) ‘Human factors in business-to-business research over
the Internet’, International Journal of Market Research, vol. 43, quarter 4, pp. 425–40.
Chowdhury, S. (2003) ‘Databases, Data Mining and beyond’, Journal of American Academy of
Business. March, pp. 576–580.
Craig, C.S. and Douglas, S.P. (2000), International Marketing Research, Wiley, Chichester.
Demirdjian, Z.S. (2003) ‘Marketing Research and Information systems: the Unholy Seperation of
the Siamese Twins’, The Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, pp. 218–23.
Kumar, K. (2000), International Marketing Research, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
McPhee, N. (2002) ‘Gaining insight on business and organizational behaviour: the qualitative
dimension’, International Journal of Market Research, vol. 44, quarter 1, pp. 53–70.
Severson, J. (2002) ‘What every manager needs to know about consumer research’, Management
Quarterly, Summer, pp. 17–35.
Vyas, R. and Souchon, A.L. (2003) ‘Symbolic use of export information’, International Marketing
Review, vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 67–94.
14 Global e-marketing

14.2 Types of products following:
14.3 Types of e-marketing – defining new
■ Describe the development of Internet and e-marketing
business models
in the main regions of the world.
14.4 Exploring buying behaviour in e-marketing
14.5 Disintermediation in e-marketing – ■ Explain the reasons for the rapid development of
myth or reality? e-marketing.
14.6 Developing dynamic global ■ Explore how e-marketing functions in the two main
e-marketing
market types: B-t-B, B-t-C, C-t-B, C-t-C.
14.7 The legal environment of e-marketing
■ Discuss the reality behind ‘disintermediation’
14.8 A global strategy for Internet marketing
(bypassing resellers).
14.9 International mobile marketing
14.10 Summary ■ Discuss alternative routes of global e-marketing
Case studies strategies.
14.1 Sonic Innovations ■ Discuss the global marketing opportunities with
14.2 Auto-by-Tel ‘mobile’ marketing (m-marketing)
14.1 Introduction
In the past few years there has been an explosion of online commercial activity enabled
by the Internet or World Wide Web. This is generally referred to as electronic
marketing (e-marketing), with a major component of e-marketing being electronic
transactions taking place on Internet-based markets (electronic markets or e-markets).
The development of the Internet as a ‘new’ distribution channel will result in a shift
of power from the manufacturers and the traditional retail channels to the consumers.
This increasing consumer power can be explained in the following ways:
1. The search for convenience. The Internet gives people a new tool to gather informa-
tion and purchase more easily than do traditional channels.
2. The incorporation of the net into the purchase process. Pre-purchase and post-sale use of
the net is exploding, regardless of where the product is bought.
Chapter 14 / Global e-marketing 373
3. A shift in loyalties. Consumers reward online merchants with higher repeat-purchase

behaviour.
4. Future buying plans. Survey results indicate an increasing consumer disposition to
buy online (Boston Consulting Group, 2000; IDC, 2000a).
Today’s technology only scratches the surface of efficient comparison shopping and
product search. The development of automated buying profiles, networked buying
clubs and online auctions will bring greater price competition to the Internet.
Merchants must be prepared to live up to ‘We will match any price’ marketing guaran-
tees (see also Chapter 16, Pricing decisions).
Competing on the Internet is different from the traditional industrial world.
Competition no longer takes place in the physical marketplace, but in the market space
(Rayport and Sviokla, 1996). This computer-mediated environment has profound impli-
cations for how business is transacted between buyer and seller. The nature of transac-
tion is different in that it is based on information about the product or services rather
than on its physical appearance or attributes. The context of the transaction is different;
instead of taking place in a physical world it occurs in a computer-mediated environ-
ment with the buyer conducting the transaction from a personal computer screen.
Consequently, to be a player in many industries does not require a physical infrastruc-
ture such as buildings and machinery; a computer and communications platform are
sufficient.
Like so many ‘buzz words’ in use today, e-marketing tends to mean different things to
different people. For the purpose of introducing the subject, e-marketing is defined in
this way: The enablement of a business vision supported by advanced information technology
to increase the effectiveness of the business relationships between trading partners.
Examples of e-marketing transactions are:
■ An individual purchases a book on the Internet.
■ A government employee reserves a hotel room over the Internet.
■ A business calls a toll-free number and orders a computer using the seller’s interactive
telephone system.
■ A retailer orders merchandise using an EDI network or a supplier’s extranet.
■ A manufacturing plant orders electronic components from another plant within the
company using the company’s intranet.
■ An individual withdraws funds from an automatic teller machine.
14.2 Types of products
The products sold in e-marketing markets can roughly be grouped into two categories:
physical products and purely digital goods and services.
Physical products
Marketing physical products over the Web has led to some of the biggest success stories
in e-marketing. The key to success is marketing that takes advantage of the interface
and the networked environment. Transferring a conventional mail-order business to
the Web adds little value.
The potential advantages of the Internet include the scope for real-time interaction
within a vast networked community, the possibility of using sophisticated market
374 Part III / Market entry strategies
mechanisms, and the illusion of almost infinite inventory (when an intermediary acts
for many suppliers). Businesses that exploit these opportunities, such as Amazon.com
and eBay, have been very successful.
Digital goods and services

This category includes information goods and services, such as financial information,
news services, reference and learning material, entertainment and multimedia prod-
ucts, software distribution services, distributed database services and remote computa-
tion services. In addition, the Internet has spawned innovative digital products such as
online gaming, chat rooms, search engines, online advertising, yellow pages and certi-
fication services. These products are characterised by being difficult to value and easy
to copy.
Companies use different strategies to price and market these goods. They include
customisation and bundling, bundling valuable content with advertising to provide
‘free’ goods, introducing different versions of the same product to suit different
users, charging subscriptions and, most important, using market mechanisms to help
set prices.
The individualisation of goods

The digital world, in which information can be acquired and processed with ease, lets
sellers tailor their products to individual customers. Further, the electronic environ-
ment allows companies to respond quickly to consumer feedback.
The ease of customisation, and the ability to adapt to variations in consumer prefer-
ences, lead to the possibility of individualising goods in the electronic markets. As each
consumer will prefer (and be offered) a different version of the basic product, the total
perceived value of the same (basic) product may be higher than with only one version
of the product.
Comparison between the industrial economy (the physical

marketplace) and the digital economy (the market space)
Electronic commerce is more than home shopping. It encompasses a range of
electronic interactions between organizations and their up- and downstream
trading partners. Many of their transactions have been occurring for quite some
time, long before the Internet opened to commercial traffic. Platforms for elec-
tronic commerce that precede the Internet include the use of the Teletel in France for
inter-organizational commercial transactions, as well as the use of EDI over private
networks.
The Internet has become a powerful business tool. This new approach to the commu-
nication and distribution of information and services has transformed the fundamental
dynamics behind many social and business interactions. The barriers and obstacles that
often accompanied traditional commerce are giving way to new business approaches.
Consumers, producers and distributors now all have flexible, fast and inexpensive ways
of participating in the market for products and services around the world. Individual
and corporate customers can approach the marketplace differently as the variety and
depth of information on products and services speed up decision-making processes.
Moreover, this new virtual marketplace is providing a significant boost to economic
activity.
The Internet’s unprecedented impact on the way the world does business stems from
the way it has altered basic business dynamics. The dynamics that have shaped markets
and market leaders since the nineteenth century – dynamics rooted in an industrial
economy – have been replaced with a new set of fundamental principles based on a
digital economy (Figure 14.1).
Figure 14.1 The new business dynamics
Industrial economy Digital economy

(Marketplace = physical products) (Marketplace = e-marketing)
• Manufacturing dominates • Knowledge and relationships dominate
• Barrier: physical distribution • E-distribution is the new barrier
• Barrier: lack of capital • Capital is a commodity
• First-mover advantage was years • First-mover advantage is months
• Innovative ideas contained internally • Innovation is the public domain
• Relationships constrained by human capital • Relationships can be established electronically
In the industrial economy, manufacturing dominates. The physical production of

goods is the principal driver of economic activity. In the digital economy, knowledge
and relationships dominate. It is a world where information and ideas are becoming
more important than physical objects.
In the industrial economy, the most serious market barriers were lack of a physical
distribution infrastructure and lack of capital. These significant barriers to entry
in the physical world meant first-mover advantage could typically be measured in
years. The Internet, however, has turned traditional distribution models upside
down. With distribution models changing and capital roadblocks removed, markets
are wide open and first-mover advantage is now measured in months. The new dis-
tribution roadblock is ‘e-distribution’, or the first-mover advantage earned by
companies that are able to lock up exclusive business relationships with the new
e-business drivers, such as the leading Web portals. Becoming an exclusive retail
partner of a portal such as AOL, for example, would enable a retailer to leapfrog
ahead of its competition.
14.3 Types of e-marketing – defining new business models
The impact of e-marketing on the economy extends far beyond the dollar value of
e-marketing activity. Businesses use e-marketing to develop competitive advantages by
providing more useful information, expanding choice, developing new services,
streamlining purchasing processes and lowering costs. The Internet also imposes price
discipline as customers have access to price and product information from many
sources.
The different e-marketing markets may be divided into four categories. In the fol-
lowing the four markets shown in Table 14.1 will be further discussed.
Today the market volume in the B-t-B is much bigger than in the B-t-C market – five times
more, according to Forrester (www.forrester.com/).
Table 14.1 Four different e-marketing markets
Business Consumer
B-t-B B-t-C
• EDI relation • Dell
Business • GM, Ford and DaimlerChrysler • amazon.com
join forces in sourcing of • eToys
autoparts in e-markets • Cdnow
C-t-B (reverse auctions) C-t-C (traditional auctions)

• Priceline • eBay
Consumer
• MobShop (formerly Accompany) • QXL
• LetsBuyIt
Business-to-business (B-to-B) e-marketing

Electronic-based commerce is not a new phenomenon in the B-to-B market. Instead of
Internet-based solutions many industries have been using electronic data interchange
for years to streamline business processes and reduce the cost of doing business.
Suppliers, manufacturers, wholesalers, distributors and retailers share inventory infor-
mation and send orders, invoices and shipping data electronically. EDI enhances the
flow of information and goods through the supply chain and eliminates a manual re-
entry of data, thereby eliminating errors and costly delays.
EDI is used for the exchange of structured data between the computer systems of
trading partners. It is frequently used as an electronic replacement for traditional
‘paper’ documents such as the order form or invoice but EDI is developed also in the
world of finance, administration, etc. In essence EDI is used for the exchange of struc-
tured data between originators and recipients of such information. EDI can be defined
as the transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards, from one computer system to
another by electric means.
A brief definition of the terms used in this definition will help readers understand the
concept, which is also known as ‘paperless trading’:
■ The use of structured data refers to a precise, recognised method of assembling data.
Such data items as item code, customer reference, delivery point and limit price all
come together to form a purchase order invoice, packing list, acknowledgement of
order, etc.
■ The phrase by agreed message standards implies that such discrepancies between doc-
uments (an invoice is one such message) will be minimised by providing a fixed and
agreed method of specifying and presenting the data. Much effort has been expended
by respected national and international bodies (ISO bodies) in producing standards
for presenting the data, via syntax rules and message guidelines.
■ The definition also uses the phrase from one computer system to another, and implies
that the two systems belong to distinct organizations. However, EDI can be used for
both intra-company and inter-company communications.
■ The phrase by electronic means implies no human intervention. In Table 14.2 a com-
parison between the traditional EDI and the Internet is made.
Table 14.2 A comparison between EDI and the Internet
Traditional EDI Internet
Proprietary, dedicated network Open network

Highly structured, machine-readable data E-mail, video, voice, image
High cost Low cost
More secure Less secure
Traditional EDI, however, is expensive and time consuming to implement. Many

smaller companies simply cannot justify the price of entry. According to Business Week,
adding a single trading partner to an EDI network can cost up to $50,000. In contrast,
some Internet-based EDI links cost less than $1,000, making them affordable for a
much broader audience.
EDI on the Web supports much richer information exchange. Traditional EDI sup-
ports only highly structured documents such as purchase orders and invoices. The
Internet supports the exchange of multimedia information, including engineering
drawings, full-colour photographs, audio and even video clips. As a result, Internet-
based EDI fosters much tighter relationships among participants, providing a sense
of teamwork and shared goals, and enabling all components and systems of a value
chain to communicate with each other. Today, EDI has further developed and hybrid
solutions are now available, most of them based on Web technology.
Many of the same advantages that arise from retail e-marketing hold for business-to-
business e-marketing. For example, e-marketing can permit businesses to increase ser-
vices they can offer their business customers. By opening an immediate and convenient
channel for communicating, exchanging and selecting information, e-marketing is
allowing firms to reconsider which functions they should perform ‘in-house’ and
which are best provided by others. The new technology has helped to create new rela-
tionships and to streamline and augment supply chain processes. As these changes are
occurring the roles of logistic and financial intermediaries (e.g. FedEx, UPS, American
Express) are expanding.
These changes will result in aggressive growth rates during the next few years: in
January 2000 Gartner Group forecast the worldwide B-t-B market would grow from
$145 billion in 1999 to $7.29 trillion in 2004. (Gartner Group, 2000.)
The catalyst for B-t-B e-marketing is e-market maker activity. E-market makers are
projected to facilitate $2.71 trillion e-marketing sales transactions in 2004, representing
37 per cent of the overall B-t-B market. (See also Figure 14.2 for the illustration of the
principle behind e-markets.)
Boston Consulting Group’s (BCG’s) research shows that the size of the business-to-
business e-marketing is far greater than is commonly reported, in part because it recog-
nises the establishment of EDI over private networks and its extensions to the
Internet. While EDI over private networks represented the biggest share of 1998
volume (86 per cent), nearly all of the additional volume until 2003 (90 per cent, or
$2.0 trillion) will be Internet-based transactions. BCG predicts that business-to-
business e-marketing will account for 24 per cent of total business-to-business com-
merce by 2003.
Figure 14.2 illustrates the shift from EDI to Internet-based B-t-B e-marketing.
While business-to-business e-marketing is a global phenomenon, the North
American market currently dominates. The $700 billion North American market is
twice the size of business-to-business e-marketing in the rest of the world combined
Figure 14.2 The development of B-t-B e-marketing
Until end Seller EDI: Buyer

1990s: Firm A Private networks Firm B
Documents and goods exchanged
From end Sellers Buyers

1990s:
Firm A Firm 1
Firm B Internet-based Firm 2

e-marketing
Firm C marketplace Firm 3
Firm D Firm 4
Internet-based e-marketplace, which is created by e-market makers,

(e.g. Chemdex, Vertical Net, etc., which develop e-marketplaces of
buyers and sellers with a particular industry or geographic region).
($330 billion). North America will likely retain its significant lead over the next few
years, but the global dynamics of business-to-business e-marketing will shift. In western
Europe, which lags 18 months behind North America in e-marketing adoption, several
countries have accelerated their e-marketing investments and will significantly close
this gap. Asia and Latin America remain further behind, but this may change rapidly as
global supply chains go online. For local suppliers in local markets, business-to-busi-
ness e-marketing presents significant growth opportunities, as they expand their net-
works and customer bases by accessing new export markets.
Business-to-consumer (B-t-C) e-marketing

Many of the advantages of e-marketing were first exploited (in the mid-1990s) by retail
‘e-businesses’ such as Amazon.com, eTrade, and Auto-by-tel that were created as
Internet versions of traditional bookstores, brokerage firms and auto dealerships. Freed
from the geographic confines and costs of running actual stores, such firms could
deliver almost unlimited content on request and could react and make changes in close
to real time. Compared to traditional retail or catalogue operations, this new way of
conducting business is changing cost structures. The emergence of these e-businesses
has made their competitors consider their own e-marketing strategies, and many now
operate their own online stores (e.g. Barnes and Noble, Merrill Lynch).
E-marketing does more than simply provide alternative shipping sites to real-world
stores; it can also expand existing markets and even create new ones. Not included in
the cost savings listed above are the additional value that Internet-based businesses can
provide in terms of increased information and choice and time savings. These advan-
tages make it possible for buyers and sellers to come together in significantly more effi-
cient ways than would otherwise be possible. For example, musicfile.com serves as a
clearing house where music collectors and retailers can post their out-of-print vinyl
records and CDs, and buyers can post their ‘wants’.
The move towards providing goods and services through a digital medium does not
need to be ‘all or nothing’. In the retail business the Web store and the physical store
can support each other in many different ways, capitalising on natural complement-
arities. These include cross-promotions, joint-service provisions and value-added ser-

vices. Cross-promotions are perhaps the most straightforward example of a natural
complementarity. Web stores may provide the bargains that people may expect when
shopping on the Internet, but also offer coupons for in-store purchases. Marketers are
accustomed to the use of ‘loss-leaders’ as an approach to increasing store traffic, and
realise that once in the store other purchases for non-discounted merchandise are more
likely. A physical store can use its website to highlight local events, such as a reading or
performance at the store, helping to bring in traffic. The Web store may also provide
information about additional services, available at the store, that add value to products
purchased online. A company might use electronic mail for direct marketing not only
to advertise the website, but also to provide information about in-store products and
services. Some services might be provided jointly, leveraging the investment in
physical and Web presence. A good example would be when a computer store offers a
product online, but provides installation and repair services at its premises for cus-
tomers purchasing from their website. Finally, the Web store may function as a source
of value-added service for customers who have purchased or plan to purchase goods at
the physical store.
With the emergence of Web-based grocery sites customers gain convenience by
shopping online. A local grocery store then delivers the chosen items. Finally, a
number of stores have initiated in-store Web kiosks as a means of lowering costs and
improving service. In-store shoppers gain the ability to search for products not on
display, gather in-depth information without taking up the salesperson’s time, and
even purchase or pay for products for immediate or subsequent delivery. These various
complementary approaches represent a sampling of strategies a retailer might use to
leverage its investment in physical and Web distribution channels.
Exhibit 14.1 Priceline.com – consumer-to-business e-marketing

Priceline.com has a type of e-marketing known as a ‘demand collection system’ that enables
consumers to use the Internet to save money on a wide range of products and services while
enabling sellers to generate incremental revenue. Using a simple and compelling consumer
proposition – ‘name your price’ – Priceline.com collects consumer demand (in the form of indi-
vidual customer offers guaranteed by a credit card) for a particular product or service at a
price set by the customer and communicates that demand directly to participating sellers or
to their private databases. Consumers agree to hold their offers open for a specified period of
time to enable Priceline.com to fulfil their offers from inventory provided by participating
sellers. Once fulfilled, offers generally cannot be cancelled. By requiring consumers to be flex-
ible with respect to brands, sellers andor product features, they enable sellers to generate
incremental revenue without disrupting their existing distribution channels or retail pricing
structures
Let us say that a customer wants a hotel room in San Francisco on a certain date, but only
wants to pay $100 per night. Priceline will take this offer to its participating, name-brand
hotels in San Francisco to see if any will agree to the price. If they are successful, the cus-
tomer has the room they want at the price they want to pay! Since airlines fly with many
empty seats every day, and thousands of hotel rooms go unsold every night, it is easy to
understand why companies would be willing to consider the offer from a potential customer.
Consumer-to-business (C-t-B) e-marketing

This type of e-marketing is a kind of ‘reverse auction’ where the buyer (consumer)
rather than the seller initiates the transaction.
Exhibit 14.1 illustrates an example where Priceline.com collects demand for a
product at a price set by the customer. The ‘reverse auction’ also covers cases where a
buyer sends out a tender and invites suppliers to put in bids. An example is Sainsbury,
which has tendered a contract for a three-month supply of mild Chedder cheese, in a
retail e-marketplace.
Consumer-to-consumer (C-t-C) e-marketing

This e-marketing type covers the new fashion for consumer-to-consumer auctions.
They are not so much a new marketplace as a new form of entertainment. Auctions did
not develop by chance; for many products they suit both buyers and sellers. Fixed
prices did not develop by chance; for many (standardised) products they suit both
buyers and sellers. However, despite these reservations, the new auction-pricing portals
will not disappear, because they are great fun for many people. The bidding and close
interaction between buyers and sellers promotes a sense of community – a near addic-
tion that keeps them coming back.
The US-based eBay Inc. is the world’s largest and most popular person-to-person
trading community on the Internet. eBay pioneered online, person-to-person trading
by developing a Web-based community in which buyers and sellers are brought
together in an efficient and entertaining auction format to buy and sell personal items
such as antiques, coins, collectibles, computers, memorabilia and toys. The eBay service
permits sellers to list items for sale, buyers to bid on items of interest and all eBay users
to browse through listed items in a fully automated, topically arranged, intuitive and
easy-to-use online service that is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
The eBay user spends 130 minutes a month at the site – 10 times more than the
typical Amazon user. Of all consumer e-marketing spending in 1998 some 15 per cent
came through auctions (Business Week, 1999b).
Amazon’s response to this development came on 12 April 1999 when it announced its
plans to acquire the Internet-based auction company, LiveBid.com Inc., after eBay also
approached the company about a possible buyout. In Business Week (1999b) Amazon’s
founder Jeff Bezos was asked if he thought that the dynamic pricing of auctions would
come to other products of Amazon.com. Bezos answered (Business Week, 1999b):
No, no, no. Auction pricing is most useful when it’s hard to assess a fair value. So that means
either that the thing you are selling is unique, or maybe it’s not unique, but its value fluctuates
rapidly. Stock prices are sort of like that. For most things, fixed prices are more efficient. The
reason is that you don’t have to negotiate. You don’t want to negotiate the price of simple
things you buy every day.
This answer is in line with the principles of the transactions cost analysis model,
which implies that transaction costs increase when the transactions are characterised
by a high degree of complexibility (see the TCA approach in Chapter 3).
QXL.com is eBay’s direct European competitor. It is a pan-European auction com-
munity, conducting consumer-to-consumer and business-to-consumer auctions across
seven countries in western Europe.
14.4 Exploring buying behaviour in e-marketing
This section deals with buying behaviour on the two main markets: the business-to-
consumer (B-t-C) market and the business-to-business (B-t-B) market.
Segmenting and exploring consumer behaviour in the

B-t-C market
Hofacker (1999) divides Internet users into two main segments:
1. Hedonic surfers. Hedonic surfers use a website by experiencing it in the same way
they do movies and sports events. Often there is a strong non-verbal aspect to the
hedonic experience – the images are quite important. Surfers are relatively unfo-
cused and their browsing is spontaneous. The goal is escapist, to achieve immersion
in the site, or at least a high degree of personal enjoyment either through arousal or
pleasure or both. The idea is to gather interesting and exciting experiences from
the Web.
A unique site works best for these surfers, one which is novel and interesting.
They can be drawn into a website via links everywhere and ad banners on other
sites.
2. Utilitarian searchers. In contrast to hedonic surfers, utilitarian searchers are on a
mission and they have a work mentality. The utilitarian searcher uses the Web in a
way that is instrumental and rational. Such a visitor is looking for some kind of spe-
cific information. A well-organised and searchable site works best for these seekers.
Utilitarian searchers often use search engines and they can often find a Web
address that is easy to guess.
In the following we will further discuss consumer buying behaviour in the B-to-C
market. Despite the fundamental difference between the ‘physical marketplace’ and the
‘virtual market space’, one principle still holds true in both worlds: the marketer must
understand how the consumer makes decisions as to purchase choice before they can
effectively respond to these demands.
Figure 14.3 provides an overview of the main differences between ‘marketplace’ and
‘market space’ in the consumer decision process. Of course, iteration exists between the
different stages.
Each of these stages is now examined in turn and compared in the context of the
marketplace and the market space.
Problem recognition
The first stage, consumer decision, triggers all subsequent activity. The consumer is
compelled to fill the gap between the actual and the desired state. When problem
awareness is reached problem recognition may be triggered by a number of external
and internal factors.
In traditional markets, conventional marketing communications stimulate demand
via conventional media, e.g. an advertisement on television. However, on the Internet
the medium is new, and so new kinds of communications are required. In the tra-
ditional mass marketing approaches much of the audience will not be interested,
and there is considerable wastage. But new information technologies fundamentally
change that. Computer-mediated environments enable identification of individual
Figure 14.3 Consumer purchasing decision process: the marketplace vs market space
MARKETPLACE MARKET SPACE

Consumer issues: Marketing issues: Marketing issues:
• Database to know
• Need awareness • Consumer identification Problem customer better
• Problem definition • Problem recognition recognition • Anticipate needs/wants
• Problem articulation • Stimulate search interest
• Response to problems
• Advertising in the
• Sources of information marketplace media
• Attract searchers Information
• Accessibility of information • Links from other sites
• Provide information search
• Reliability of information • Quality of information
• Push technologies
• Comprehensiveness of • Influencing purchase • Virtual communities and

information criteria Evaluation of user groups
• Trust and confidence in • Provide testing/sampling alternatives endorsements
information opportunities • Simulation and testing
• Trial and sampling • Build brand preference opportunities
• Management of the • Ease of ordering and

• Negotiation process Choice/
exchange process delivery, payment,
• Transaction process purchase
• Management of supply security, conditions
• Online support
• Service support
• After-sales support Post-purchase • Relationship building with
• Problem recovery
• Relationship support behaviour consumer, user groups
• Relationship management
and virtual communities
Source: Butler and Peppard, 1998, p. 603.
consumer needs and wants, and subsequent design and delivery of individual and
customised communications.
Information search
The information gathered, be it from internal sources (e.g. memory) or external sources
(e.g. discussions, brochures, sales promotions) provides the basis for this stage. The
physical marketplace imposes limitations on information. Economic and access bar-
riers constrain what can efficiently be known, and consequently what can realistically
be evaluated. On the Internet, however, intelligent shopping agents can scan the entire
Web to find the data necessary for comparison. The relevant criteria can be presented
and explained and can be ordered to suit individual needs.
The management of information is the primary role of the agent or broker in the
marketplace. The intermediary function is here largely based on information provision
and exchange. This is the effective function of travel agents, for instance. But, in the
market space, when an airline sets up its own website with interactive flight informa-
tion and booking facilities, for example, then the traditional intermediary is bypassed
in a classic case of disintermediation. As channel disintermediation and re-intermedia-
tion become important, a match between information content and consumer require-
ments also becomes important. As individuals come to utilise the Internet for
consumer purchases a situation of perfect information is almost attainable. However, it
must be noted that consumers’ sense of uncertainty can actually increase as they
gain more information. Information ‘overload’ occurs when we learn more about the
alternatives available to us, and the search becomes ‘psychologically costly’.
Evaluation of alternatives
In the marketplace word-of-mouth communication, the references of family, col-
leagues and friends, are a central influence at this stage. In the market space, new
reference groups appear. The virtual community, consisting of discussion groups of
interested parties, can have the power of the traditional reference groups, but with even
greater quality and quantity of evaluative information. A simple version of a virtual
community is Amazon.com’s open book reviews, whereby a potential buyer can read
book reviews by other website visitors.
Purchase decision
This stage involves decisions on where and how to buy. Where to buy is a decision
regarding the choice of seller. Competition on the Web is driven by sellers attempting to
build more exciting and interesting sites than their competitors, attracting the right cus-
tomers to those sites, and providing superior shopping experiences to induce purchase.
How to buy concerns the nature of the transaction and contract. Many of the products
and services currently available to individual consumers on the Internet are digital, e.g.
software and upgrades, or easily physically transported, e.g. music CDs and books. The
future broadening of the base will require particular analysis of physical delivery issues.
The actual delivery routines for such a service are probably more complex than the
ordering, packing and payment routines. Whereas the order can be met within the one
organization and under one roof, the logistics of physical delivery of relatively bulky but
relatively low-value grocery orders is an entirely different proposition.
Post-purchase behaviour
In this stage the actual sale should be perceived as a starting point rather than an end.
How the customer takes delivery of the product, how the product is used, the degree
and satisfaction, quality of the service dimensions, customer complaints and sugges-
tions are all critical to understanding consumer behaviour. This, of course, applies both
in the marketplace and in the market space.
The main difference between relationship development in the two types of markets
is that the market space emphasises ‘high-tech’, and is more characterised by the power
of information and communication technologies to satisfy customer needs and thereby
continue business relationships. For the seller in the market space the big issue is to
update the website continuously. Post-purchase activity involves consumers returning
to the seller’s site with queries, for new information, and to repurchase.
Finally, how do features from marketplace retail stores relate to market space retail
stores? Table 14.3 illustrates analogies between physical stores (also called ‘bricks-and-
mortar’) and online retail stores. Obviously some features such as atmosphere are diffi-
cult to measure and characterise in online retail stores. Other features such as store
promotions are less difficult to measure in online retail stores.
Exploring business behaviour in the B-t-B market

Web information systems hold great potential to streamline and improve business-to-
business transactions. Instead of regarding the Internet as a mere sales channel,
companies also utilise emerging technologies to cut costs out of the supply chain by
streamlining procurement processes and improving collaboration. In times of intense
competition and increasingly open markets the ability to achieve efficiency improve-
ments can become key to commercial success.
Table 14.6 Differences between physical and online stores
Physical store: marketplace Online retail store: market space
Salesclerk service Product descriptions, information pages, gift services, search

function, clerk on the phonee-mail
Store promotion Special offers, online games and lotteries, links to other sites of
interest, appetiser information
Store window displays Home page
Store atmosphere Interface consistency, store organization, interface and graphics
Aisle products Featured product on hierarchical levels of the store
Store layout Screen depth, browse and search functions, indices, image maps
Number of floors in the store Hierarchical levels of the store
Number of store entrances and Number of links to a particular online retail store
store outletsbranches
Checkout cashier Online shopping basket andor order form
Look and touch of the Limited to image quality and description, potential for sound and
merchandise visual applications
Number of people entering Number of unique visits to the online retail store
the store
Sales per period Sales per period
Source: Lohse and Spiller, 1999, p. 4.
In the following we will look at how businesses make buying decisions and how
they can be supported by an e-marketing information system. A conceptual frame-
work is introduced in Figure 14.4. The interorganisational transactions are analysed
from a process-oriented perspective. We distinguish between four phases: information,
negotiation, settlement, and after-sales and transaction analysis.
Participants
Transactions usually involve three categories of participants: buyers, sellers and inter-
mediaries. Buyers and sellers are the active groups in terms of exchanging goods and
services (sellers) for some form of compensation (buyer). Regarding the third group,
Figure 14.4 The buyerseller transaction process model
Information
Buyer
Choice of 3. Settlement
1. Information Contract Close order
partners of transaction 4. After-sales
search and 2. Negotiation
+ Monitoring support
evaluation
performance
Seller
Information
E-marketing information systems

intermediaries, we will expand the role from a traditional distributor of goods as

described in Chapters 10 and 11. The intermediaries are supposed to offer a variety of
services to support and facilitate transactions. This includes financial institutions such
as banks, credit card companies and insurance brokers; providers of shipping, logis-
tics and warehousing services; and consultants, industry associations and market
researchers offering advice, product data or market information. Providers of informa-
tion technology to automate transactions or to help set up electronic marketplaces can
be characterised as intermediaries as well.
In the case of business-to-business transactions, both buyers and sellers are business
organizations, whereas business-to-consumer and consumer-to-consumer transactions
involve end consumers or private households as buyers or sellers, respectively.
In the following we refer to the four phases of the buyerseller transaction process
model (Figure 14.4). In particular the role of the e-marketing information system will
be described.
Phase 1: Information search and evaluation

In the information phase of a transaction both buyers and sellers reach out to the world
in search of information. In the physical world (marketplace), buyers locate informa-
tion sources such as product catalogues, use them to scan product listings, obtain
offerings from prospective suppliers and gather additional information about products,
vendor or transaction-specific requirements. Before a purchasing transaction can be per-
formed internal approval frequently has to be obtained from upper-level management.
The information phase comprises both searching for a particular electronic catalogue
or source of information and locating required information and commodities within
the information repository. In this phase buyers and sellers are not yet focused on spe-
cific transaction partners. Information gathering and knowledge creation are the centre
of attention, and information is the primary object of exchange between prospective
transaction partners.
A variety of Web-based information systems and other applications are available to
provide support for the information phase of a transaction. Electronic catalogues, for
example, feature comprehensive product descriptions and search tools, configuration
support for complex purchases, workflow routing for approval processes, and access to
additional information such as market research data and product review. Catalogues
can be provided by suppliers, set up by the buyer, or developed by a third party. They
can be hosted on the supplier’s Web server, or be integrated into internal systems. Links
to back-end systems provide access to human resources data, as they are required to
manage purchasing authorisation.
Phase 2: Negotiation
Of all transaction phases, the negotiation phase shows the broadest range of variations,
from simple processes where price is the most important factor (‘always-a-share’), to very
complex arrangements where the buyer–seller relationship is regarded as a long-term
strategic partnership (‘lost-for-good’), according to Jackson (1985). Negotiations are often
perceived as processes where a small number of prospective customers and sellers (often
only one participant on each side) bargain on product prices and other terms of a deal.
The parties jointly identify possible solutions with the goal of reaching a consensus,
usually in the form of a contract. Bargaining processes alter with decisions whether to
accept or reject the offering, and with the outlining of counter-suggestions until a mutu-
ally satisfactory agreement is reached. As prospective buyers and sellers start commu-
nicating directly with each other interaction is the centre of attention. In this phase influ-
ence is the primary object of exchange between the transaction partners. Not every trans-
action process features such complex negotiations. In fact the negotiation phase is very
often quite simple or even non-existent, such as in the case of retail buys and
pre-negotiated contracts.
Negotiations can range from a single transaction to multiple-year contracts. The
longer the time span that is covered, the more complex the structure of the bargaining
process tends to be. In the following, we focus on complex forms of negotiations (be it
for one transaction or a large number), but acknowledge the simpler forms as well.
Information systems support negotiations in a number of ways. They can provide
transaction information and decision support by assessing the value of specific offer-
ings, by identifying new bargaining options, and by increasing the negotiation’s pro-
ductivity. Participants may improve their bargaining positions through additional
online information, such as the volume of previous business, supplier performance or
spending patterns.
Phase 3: Settlement of transaction ! monitoring performance

Upon execution of the contract the objects of the transaction are exchanged according
to the conditions previously stipulated. In addition, the settlement phase regularly
includes some form of mutual performance monitoring. After the rather unstructured
negotiation phase the process of executing a transaction can be relatively straightfor-
ward. It is formally initiated as soon as a purchase order is confirmed by the supplier.
The supplier ships the goods (often in collaboration with a third party, for example a
local provider of logistic services), announces the shipment, and sends out a corre-
sponding invoice. On the buyer side, orders are tracked, items are received, and
payment is initiated after matching the invoice with the delivery. Naturally there are
many variations of this standard scenario. Consider, for example, the differences
between the shipment of physical goods and the online delivery of information goods.
In the settlement phase of a transaction activities and procedures are comparatively
well defined, as they are part of the contract. Thus attention centres on execution
and efficiency. At this point the main objects of exchange are goods and services.
Information technologies to support transaction settlement may include EDI systems
on the Web and various tools to process orders internally and between transaction part-
ners, facilitate order tracking and support payment processes.
Phase 4: After-sales analysis

After a transaction has taken place both sellers and buyers store the transaction data to
provide after-sales support (seller), or to assess supplier performance and analyse
internal buying patterns (buyer). On the buyer side the information flow is often split.
While the purchase data is stored with central procurement, the end user keeps the
product-related documentation. In case of unexpected irregularities it is often the end
user who contacts the supplier (e.g. to request a repair). Without proper access to the
transaction file communication problems and delays can occur. Capturing, storing and
managing data are vital at this point. Similar to the first phase (information), it is
mainly information that is being exchanged between buyer and seller.
The electronic support of after-sales activities ranges from simple electronic mail
services to automated help desks and sophisticated electronic maintenance manuals.
Ideally systems to support after-sales and transaction analysis provide central access
to the transaction information. Data warehousing applications support the storing,
accessing and processing of large amounts of data. They allow the firm to assess sup-
plier performance, analyse internal buying patterns, provide the basis for consolidation
corporate buys, and improve future bargaining positions with suppliers. On the sup-
plier side, data about past transactions – including information of system configura-
tions, preferred payment options and so forth – support the maintenance process and
subsequently improve the quality of the information phase of future transactions.
14.5 Disintermediation in e-marketing – myth or reality?
According to transaction cost analysis firms will choose the entry and distribution
mode that economises on transaction cost, e.g. in particular the coordination cost
between producer and intermediaries.
Today, as information technology continues its rapid cost performance, information
infrastructures are extending to reach individual consumers. The potential for transfor-
mations in the value chain of many firms is thus far greater now than it has been in the
past, as technology begins to enable producers to interact directly with consumers. It
has been noted that intermediaries add significant costs to the value chain, which are
reflected in a higher prices of products or services to the end customers. One funda-
mental question, therefore, is to what extent producers would take advantage of direct
electronic links with consumers, and whether, in the process, intermediaries will be
eliminated from the value system.
The essential argument is that the use of IT allows manufacturers to internalise activ-
ities that have been traditionally performed by intermediaries. Producers will ‘capture
value’ and in the resultant redistribution of profits along the value system traditional
intermediaries will disappear. Benjamin and Wigand (1995) argue that if transactions
take place directly between manufacturers and consumers both manufacturers and
consumers will benefit: the manufacturers will try to retain a higher portion of surplus
value or profits that are generated along the value system, while the consumers will
benefit from both a larger choice and lower prices. In other words the network’s ability
to support direct exchanges efficiently will increase both producer and consumer
welfare. Thus it is predicted that manufacturers will sell directly to consumers, and con-
sumers will prefer to buy directly from manufacturers.
Thus the myth has been that the Internet will eliminate the need for intermediaries.
Early predictions called for disintermediation (e.g. Wunderman, 1998), that is, the dis-
appearance of physical distribution chains as people moved from buying through dis-
tributors and resellers to buying directly from manufacturers. The reality is that the
Internet may eliminate the traditional ‘physical’ distributors, but in the transformation
process of the value chain new types of intermediaries may appear. So the disinterme-
diation process has come to be balanced by a re-intermediation force – the evolution of
new intermediaries tailor-made for the online world (Figure 14.5).
The transformation of any industry structure in the Internet economy is likely to go
through the intermediation–disintermediation–reintermediation (IDR) cycle – as
shown in Figure 14.5. The IDR cycle will occur because new technologies are forcing
change in the relationships among buyers, suppliers and middlemen. Intermediation
occurs when a firm begins as a middleman between two industry players (e.g.
buyer–supplier, buyer–established intermediary or established intermediary–supplier).
Disintermediation occurs when an established middleman is pushed out of the
value chain. Reintermediation occurs when a once disintermediated player is able to re-
establish itself as an intermediary. Exhibit 14.2 and Case Study 14.2 give two examples
of dis- and reintermediation.
Reintermediation occurs when new intermediaries use electronic networks to add
Figure 14.5 Disintermediation and reintermediation
No disintermediation
Wholesalers/
Increasing Manufacturers Retailers Buyer
Distributors
disintermediation
Increasing Wholesalers/
Manufacturers Retailers Buyer
inefficiency Distributors
(the buyer has to
visit many different
manufacturers to Wholesalers/
decide on the best Manufacturers Retailers Buyer
Distributors
price and offer)
High degree of
disintermediation
New situation: Reintermediation E-retailer/Infomediary

reintermediation: Manufacturers Buyer
(Aggregator of information)
value to the intermediation electronic networks to add value to the intermediation

process. In the IDR cycle some elimination of traditional intermediaries may occur in the
short run, but the disintermediated players could also fight back and reintermediate
themselves. The IDR cycle can react differently based on the structure of the marketplace.
The traditional distribution model is linear. The manufacturer builds products.
Wholesalers and distributors aggregate products from multiple manufacturers and
Exhibit 14.2 Dell – an example of disintermediation

Disintermediation is not a new phenomenon. As far as Dell is concerned it began in 1983 when Michael
Dell used the direct sales model, first by telephone and catalogue via Dell Direct, then, in July 1996, via
its electronic site, Dell online. Founder Michael Dell’s original idea was simple: sell computers directly,
bypassing IT distributors. This disintermediation meant the company could avoid retail margins, make
computers on demand, and lower the costs of stocking the finished product. Cutting the time lapse
between production and delivery to the end customer is an undeniable advantage in an area where
prices for components change rapidly and innovation seems ever present and exponential. If this new
configuration gives Dell a key cost advantage and greater flexibility in terms of its formula, other factors
reinforce its capacity to compete. Dell’s virtual integration combines the wise use of IT with the system-
atic subcontracting of low added-value elements of the business. This combination has enabled it to
gain from the dual advantages of coordination among the links of the value chain and a level of flexibility
that comes with a virtual company.
Dell Computers as a manufacturing company gains efficiency by working closely with key suppliers to
eliminate having to carry any inventory. Dell requires its suppliers of PC components to locate their
inventory within 15 minutes of its factory. Dell also outsources with third-party warehouses that spe-
cialise in running technology-driven supply chains. On the logistics side, Dell links with UPS to store and
deliver a specified monitor with the computer. Dell computer targets large corporate customers that
order large quantities of PCs frequently, and the second and third time buyers of household PCs who do
not need extensive sales information.
Source: adapted from www.dell.com; Jallat and Capek, 2001; Morris and Morris, 2002.
bring them through several levels of distribution in small lots to resellers who deal
directly with consumers. The value added of the distribution chain lies in shipping,
warehousing and delivering products.
With the Internet, value chains are being deconstructed and reconstructed in dif-
ferent ways – into value webs. This process has given rise to a new class of intermediary.
Companies such as Yahoo! aggregate information and make it easier to access informa-
tion and see new possibilities of doing business. The value added is no longer in logistic
aggregation but rather in information aggregation – or eyeball aggregation. Consumers
come to these sites looking for information and opportunities to purchase.
Companies such as Amazon.com and E(Trade are dramatically changing traditional
models of selling goods and services by acting as a new type of intermediary. These new
types of intermediary offer new opportunities for existing companies as well as start-ups.
Companies need to examine their current value chain and determine how the Internet
might change it. Then they can adapt their business processes to take advantage of the
new model – protecting their major sources of revenue and also developing new ones.
As an example, consider the airline industry. In the physical economy, who are the
distributors of travel tickets? Thousands of travel agents, spread around the world. In
the online economy, who are the distributors? Travel-related websites such as
Microsoft’s Expendia, among others. Consider another data point: in some big cities of
the United States various reports indicate that almost 30 per cent of automobile sales
take place on Internet sites. The distribution channels have not gone away; they have
simply shifted to new intermediaries (see Case Study 14.2).
14.6 Developing dynamic global e-marketing
Many commercial websites have moved from providing basic company and product
information to becoming an integral part of product and service launch strategies. Yet
many firms are realising that even this more coordinated approach is not taking full
advantage of the Internet environment.
Figure 14.6 explores the development of a firm’s Web strategy from a low-level
strategy with the same one-way communication to a fully integrated e-marketing
strategy, where the customer feels that they are treated on a one-to-one interactive
basis. The following discusses the three commitment levels in detail.
Level 1: One-to-many broadcast (‘use Internet representation as

a company and product brochure’)
Companies use the Internet for something that could be considered little else than a
formal presence. These companies feel that they have to be present on the Web, but
do not follow any concrete marketing objectives with the establishment of their
website.
The motivation of the management in establishing such a page is most probably
mainly reactive: as competitors move on to the Web it is felt that a presence has
become necessary. Often, however, management will doubt that few if any customers
or prospects will ever care to go near the page. The only tangible benefit from the
Web is seen in the ability to use the website in traditional marketing channels in
order to project a ‘high-tech’ image, an image of a company that keeps abreast of the
latest developments. Although such an Internet ‘strategy’ will certainly not double
Figure 14.6 Increasing commitment to e-marketing
High Level 3:
One-to-one interactive
e-commerce
Suppliers Company Customer

Level 2: Customers
Commitment to e-marketing
Direct targeting
1
Company 2
Level 1: Customers
One-to-many
3
1
Company 2
Low
t
the company’s turnover it can nonetheless be an economically plausible move

because investments are low.
The Web representation is regarded as an additional tool to channel information on
a firm’s products or services to potential and existing customers. Companies following
this strategy do consider the World Wide Web a useful tool, but perceive it more or less
as no different from the traditional one-to-many marketing channels. The focus of such
a Web presence will therefore lie in the firm providing as much information as possible
through the Web rather than establishing a dialogue with the customer. Consequently
these companies will spend considerable time designing their website and ensuring the
information is complete, accurate and kept up to date. The site will be easy to access,
quick to load, and easily found using search engines. Products or services may be dis-
played in great detail in this virtual showroom to enhance their visibility and exposure
in the marketplace and thus increase purchase probability.
However, these sites will not be designed as a communication device. The site will
not explicitly encourage customer feedback such as service requests or complaints
beyond product enquiries. Moreover, if a customer wants to purchase a product they
will often have to use the traditional channels to do so. In summary, these informa-
tional sites represent company and product brochures. Economically speaking this is a
valid strategy for companies that rely heavily on mass communication. The Web pres-
ence will allow these firms to keep their customers and prospects constantly up to date.
It will also decrease the amount of printed information and the likelihood of having
boxes full of outdated brochures awaiting disposal.
Level 2: Direct targeting

For the firms on this level the key difference between traditional marketing media and
the new cyber marketing is the degree of interactivity. Communication is no longer
based on businesses feeding information to customers. Rather, the customers play an

active role not only in looking for information relevant to the specific product and
service needs in their buying process, but also in communicating these needs to the
company. Hence some degree of segmentation is possible. In some cases the customers
can also buy standard products on the website. The interaction (feedback) is still not on
the highest level, as the basic exchange of information takes place through e-mails.
The most fundamental capability of a website is the presentation of information
about products, services, people, events or ideas. Websites with a strategic orientation
emphasise both the gathering (feedback) and diffusion of information. It is possible to
evaluate the extent to which an organization fulfils the informing function by exam-
ining the efforts to exchange information with key stakeholders. These stakeholders
are customers, investors, suppliers, affiliates, employees, managers and community
members. In addition to providing information on the company’s vision, history,
products and services, many websites include information on organizational structure,
financials, recruiting, executive teams and customer surveys.
After establishing a presence on the Internet one of the primary objectives of a new
website is to attract a variety of interested parties to visit the company’s online pres-
ence. This is done in a variety of ways. It may simply be a matter of mentioning the
address of the firm’s home page in all possible connections. On the other hand, the
company may have found differences among the customers and have differentiated
the home page to its different customer groups around the world.
Many companies try to duplicate their US e-marketing strategy in European coun-
tries, but it is not as easy as it might seem. Companies cannot create a single website
and expect to reach customers and distributors around the world.
Global e-marketing with one worldwide standardised website will probably not be
successful in the long run, but for the small company (‘Born Global’) it may be the
only way to get started in global e-marketing, without using too many resources. The
moment a company has to deliver physical goods it is up against every piece of legisla-
tion that exists in the real world (e.g. tariff barriers, VAT). Not to mention every cul-
tural, legal, ethical and language barrier.
Let us further explore the language barrier. Today there are only seven countries
where English is the primary language spoken and where the combined economies rep-
resent 30 per cent of the world’s economy. The combined population of these countries
(some half a billion people) represent 8 per cent of the world’s population. Companies
that continue to target this small fraction of the world market will miss out on
capturing a large potential market.
An example of the use of multilingual websites is Eastman Kodak, which has region-
specific versions of its Kodak.com websites in 16 countries. Also, search engines such as
Yahoo! and Alta Vista have country-specific websites, at least in their major markets.
Level 3: One-to-one interactive e-marketing strategy

This is the final level, where we see a high degree of interaction between buyer and
seller. Here the company is moving from providing company and product information
to becoming an integral part of the whole vertical value chain from supplier to end
consumer. This virtual integration works faster than Level 2 (direct targeting) by blur-
ring traditional boundaries between suppliers, manufacturers and customers in the
value chain. Dell Computers gained the position as a market leader in the personal
computer industry by using this model (Magretta, 1998).
A website that supports e-marketing can provide an important strategic asset for a
business. A successful site has many benefits:
■ It tightens relationships with existing customers and business partners.

■ It offers new revenue-generating opportunities – through new channels as well as
new business models.
■ It offers opportunities to reduce costs by streamlining processes.
■ It provides a competitive advantage.
Building a site can represent a significant investment in time and resources. A hap-
hazard approach often results in wasted money and lost opportunity. To be success-
ful companies must integrate e-marketing into their overall business strategies and
processes. They must understand the role of e-marketing in the context of other
revenue-generating channels as well as re-engineering and cost-reduction initiatives.
Companies must also recognise that e-marketing may have a dramatic impact on
existing business models and distribution channels. It may be necessary to redefine the
current business model and perhaps modify relationships with the current channel or
supply chain – or develop entirely new relationships or supply chains. Some industries
will be more affected than others by the supply chain transformation that the Internet
is causing. In some industries a complete redefinition of the business model may be
the only way to maintain a competitive edge. As a result, a careful examination of the
existing business model and how e-marketing may affect it is essential for success in
the online arena.
The following phases are involved in developing and implementing a successful
e-marketing strategy:
1. Identification of the process, product or business area that is most applicable for an
e-marketing initiative.
2. The company’s e-marketing goods. Questions that need to be answered include:
(a) What portion of the business will e-marketing represent in 12 months, two
years and five years?
(b) What volume of business does the company expect over the next five years?
(c) What level of return on investment does the company expect?
(d) How will return on investment be measured?
(e) What cost savings can the company realise through e-marketing?
(f) Will online sales reduce the sales volumes in existing channels? If so, what will
be the impact on each channel?
3. Definition of ‘internal’ and ‘external’ actors. Defining the audience or customer is one
of the primary tasks because it determines how and when internal and external
actors should be involved. This includes identifying internal audiences such as mar-
keting, sales, channel sales, finance, IT and other internal groups, as well as external
customers, suppliers, vendors, resellers and other business partners. This element of
the overall plan affects many other aspects of the e-marketing system, from site
design to online marketing techniques.
4. Evaluation of competitor strategies. The company’s traditional competitors may
already have an e-marketing initiative. It is essential to identify what these com-
petitors are doing. Are they aggressively pursuing an e-marketing strategy or are
they taking a wait-and-see approach? Are they extending their existing offerings to
the new channel or are they creating an entirely new business? Although current
competitors are a threat, non-traditional competitors often represent the biggest
competitive risk. These are the companies that find new ways to reconstruct tradi-
tional value chains into value webs – gaining a significant head-start over compa-
nies that simply move existing business processes to the Internet.
5. Integration of e-marketing with existing distribution channels and partners. E-marketing
is one component of an overall business value chain. It integrates with existing busi-
ness processes and systems, and should complement existing channels rather than
compete with them.
6. Putting the right internal competencesskills in place. Moving into the electronic com-
merce area requires new skills, knowledge and expertise in the three areas of
strategy, technology and creativity:
(a) Strategy: Strategic planning must be approached in a totally different way
because of the dynamic nature of the Internet. Therefore the time perspective of
strategic plans in the ‘physical’ firms (e.g. five years) should normally be short-
ened to maybe one year in ‘virtual’ firms.
(b) Technology: Internet technologies are rapidly evolving, and keeping pace with
the new breakthroughs is difficult. Technological expertise involves in-depth
understanding of current hardware and software solutions, new technologies,
site development, systems integration and security issues.
(c) Creativity: Creative skills involve more than just basic website design. This disci-
pline encompasses the entire user experience – what users see, how they navi-
gate, how they obtain information and how they conduct transactions. It also
encompasses the audience development activities that drive traffic to the site.
Marketing and promotional techniques that are effective in traditional media do
not always translate well into the online marketplace.
After considering these phases the company may go on to the phase with design and
implementation of the desired e-marketing system.
Companies that conduct e-marketing are subject to the same laws, regulations and
taxes that govern operations of all businesses. Companies operating on the Web face at
least one complicating factor as they try to follow the laws. A company that uses the
Web immediately becomes an international business, and as such the company can
become subject to many more laws, more quickly, than it would if it had been a tradi-
tional bricks-and-mortar company tied to one specific physical location. Furthermore,
any country’s legal issues are difficult to interpret and follow because of the newness of
electronic commerce and the unsettled nature of the laws. Some of the legal issues
14.7 The legal environment of e-marketing
(in different countries) on which companies might need to seek specific legal advice
are: ownership of company’s domains (URLs), advertisingmarketing standards and
taxation on e-marketing.
If the Internet is used to promote and sell product overseas the company has to be
aware of various marketing legislation in the different countries; for example, Germany
has specific laws that prohibit explicit comparisons between products.
One interesting issue is the data protection and privacy laws. The European Union’s
comprehensive privacy legislation, the Directive on Data Protection (the Directive),
became effective on 25 October 1998. It requires that transfers of personal data take
place only to non-EU countries that provide an ‘adequate’ level of privacy protection.
The United States and the European Union have been trying to set common rules on
data privacy. The former is concerned that strict EU laws would stop companies from
sending some data to the United States from the European Union. The United States
also says the EU rules are likely to give US consumers a false sense of security because
such rules are impossible to enforce. In November 1999 the Commerce Department
released a plan to issue ‘safe harbor’ regulations that would protect US companies
operating in Europe from sanctions under a new EU law as long as they meet certain
guidelines. The European Union, meanwhile, is concerned that the United States may
not enforce privacy guidelines strictly enough. It also wants the United States to set
clear rules that allow consumers access to their own personal information that has
been collected by businesses.
14.8 A global strategy for Internet marketing
The Internet was often seen as an embodiment of globalization and terms such as ‘bor-
derless cyberspace’ were previously used to refer to it. It was hailed as a space where
individuals and firms could escape the control of nation-states. Governments would
not be able to effectively regulate the Internet and such regulation could even be con-
sidered illegitimate, so there would be unlimited freedom of speech, no taxes and no
government regulation.
But maybe the World Wide Web is not so global after all. When Theodore Levitt
wrote his influential article ‘The globalization of markets’ (1983) he proposed that
companies standardise their approach to foreign markets, emphasising the similarities
rather than the differences. Although current technological, economic and demo-
graphic changes give some credence to Levitt’s view it is not clear that a global strategy
always delivers the highest profits. In fact, depending on the nature of the product and
the industry, local adaptation may be a better way of making money. Contrary to con-
ventional wisdom, local responsiveness may contribute to sustainable profitability for
certain types of goods or services, and in certain Internet markets. Globalization and
the net are not simply and not always about standardisation and homogenisation.
Businesses are finding it hard to service the global e-market as if it were of one piece.
Different national regulations, local consumer preferences and habits, currencies, lan-
guages, user demographics and attitudes toward pricing and quality militate against
global Internet strategies that approach all national markets as if they were the same. At
long last (measured in Internet time) companies such as Yahoo!, Amazon and eBay are
recognising that some measure of local adaptation to each specific national market is a
hallmark of a successful, and profitable, Internet strategy. Yahoo!, for instance, operates
in 22 country-specific portals in 13 different languages (Guillen, 2002).
Vast differences in online behaviour, connectivity, platforms, regulatory conditions
and cultural aspects have emerged as Internet use increases worldwide. The different
dominant delivery platforms in many countries suggest that online experiences are
very diverse. Europe and Japan are already experiencing a wireless-based online experi-
ence. A dial-up experience is prevalent in Mexico and Brazil. European and Japanese
users prefer wireless or Internet services to PC-based access, given the high cost of com-
puters and small home environments. German online top sites are those that offer
financial reports, whereas UK top sites are sports and entertainment. Brazilian Internet
use is dominated by chat room activity (Robles, 2002).
Although there are substantial differences in online use and experience worldwide,
there are a few similarities that are worth mentioning. Online user concerns for privacy
and security seem to be important across countries and cultures. Another universal trait
is the emergence of particular clusters of users with common interests and online use.
The culture of intense online socialisation using multiple platforms seems common to
youth in Japan or England. Others include the emergence of female and senior users.
In the following we discuss some of the factors influencing the creation of a global
e-marketing strategy.
Diversity of regulations
Online regulations such as privacy laws, taxes or commerce have a direct impact on
online providers, and thus shape usage behaviour in a given country. The type of com-
petition emerging in a given country or region depends on the type of regulatory
framework. Strict European privacy guidelines prohibit the transfer of data across
borders. In fact the transfer of any data requires the customer’s permission. In Italy
bank regulations require customers to open accounts in person, forcing online banking
providers to establish an offline presence.
Furthermore, as the consumers may come from many different jurisdictions with dif-
ferent consumption tax regimes, the administration of tax is particularly complex in
e-marketing. It is also more difficult to locate the place of consumption and the place
of origin of the delivered goodservice for tax purposes, particularly with regard to ‘all-
digital’ transactions such as the purchase of music files on the Internet using electronic
cash (Frynas, 2002).
Infrastructure
Telecommunication and Internet infrastructures differ markedly from country to
country. Perhaps two aspects are especially relevant to strategy formulation. First,
installed international bandwidth sets limits on the speed at which information flows
back and forth between a foreign website and a local buyer. One way a firm can react
to these slow speeds is by redesigning its website to make downloading pages less time-
consuming. The number of ‘click-throughs’ necessary to complete a purchase may also
have to be reduced. Second, there are stunning differences between countries in terms
of the proportions of users accessing the Web through a PC, their TV set or a mobile
phone.
Geographical distance
The world may have shrunk as a result of globalization and the net, but distance is still
an issue. It is hard to underestimate the need for smooth and cost-effective distribution
logistics when it comes to fulfilling international orders for tangible goods. The ability
to deliver physical products on a timely basis is not the only challenge to online mar-
keters, however. Processing and restocking product returns can be a nightmare, espe-
cially given widely different cross-national regulations and customer preferences on
returns policies.
Language
The world would be very simple (though perhaps boring) if English were the only
language. Too many an e-company has ignored the golden rule of marketing: that
marketing activities should always take place in the language of the customer. Buyers
like to purchase products and services in their own language, especially if the
purchasing process requires understanding contractual clauses.
User demographics
Although online populations are growing rapidly throughout the world no one should
assume that they are homogeneous. For instance, only 10 per cent of Internet users in
most Latin American countries are women, whereas women represent close to 50 per
cent in the United States and Europe. Companies looking to sell, say, health care goods
and services online will find it hard to grow sales in countries with few women Web
surfers, since it is women who make most of the family decisions on health care.
Similarly, in some countries most Internet users are located in the major metropolitan
areas, which considerably simplifies distribution logistics.
Buyer behaviour
As if language were not enough of a complication, there are countless differences in
tastes and preferences. These are especially pronounced in the case of ‘cultural’ goods,
such as food, wine and entertainment. Even consumer durables are subject to tremen-
dous cross-national variations in taste. Companies need to consider customer tastes
and preferences when it comes to merchandise selection and stocking. Portals with
online stores are now offering different selections and special discounts in each
country.
Payment systems
Payment methods and customs vary widely from country to country. Much e-mar-
keting growth has been based on the assumption that people have credit cards, but rare
is the country in which most adults have one. In most countries more than 75 per cent
of the adult population does not. In many countries even people with a credit card are
reluctant to use it online for security reasons.
The challenges to credit-card-based e-marketing are enormous even in affluent
western Europe. Many buyers and sellers alike prefer bank transfers and cash on
demand. But let us not forget that legal and cultural norms of credit vary significantly
throughout the world.
Currency
Many Internet companies are also stymied by how difficult it is to decide the currency
in which to quote prices when buyers from different countries can visit the website; for
example, eBay alienated many foreign customers by quoting prices only in dollars.
Some sites therefore offer currency conversion engines, but that may just add to the
customer’s frustration when the exchange rate applicable to a particular purchase
depends on the payment method used. It seems that e-companies may have to accept
the reality of multiple currencies and try to leverage it as a price discrimination tool.
They should also keep an eye on currency fluctuations, since the time lag between
order and payment exposes them to exchange rate risk.
Firms that perceive a high level of pressure to respond to local needs use a nationally
responsive strategy. Localisation strategy of global portals is challenging because of lack
of local content, the diversity of platforms, regulations, and lack of flexibility of off-the-
shelf operational programs. The areas of the portal architecture that require substantial
localisation are content, commerce and connectivity platforms. Content needs to be
adapted to local user culture in terms of language, formats and iconography. For
instance, content adaptation of interfaces and applications features should support
local data formats such as dates, currencies, numbers and addresses. This localisation
effort requires the redesign of forms and dynamic content generation and even back-
office support systems such as help and customer support. The commerce architecture
also needs to be localised to support different payment mechanisms, tax systems,
currencies, fulfilment options and compliance with privacy and decency regulations. A
third important area of localisation is the connectivity platforms in the local market.
The local telecommunication options and capacity will determine the mix and richness
of text, graphics, voice and video that can be delivered online.
To reduce the local responsiveness pressure some global e-marketers have concen-
trated on particular niches. These niches are either language based (Chinese or Spanish
language portals) or business-segment based (sports, entertainment, financial infor-
mation). For instance, an online financial portal has developed a successful business
model, focused on the needs of Latin American investors.
Development of a global portal strategy

An international expansion strategy triggers a number of questions that the Internet
portal needs to address. The decisions at the early stage include which markets or
regions to enter first, whether or not to use local partners, what functions of the portal
architecture to offer on international sites, what to host in the home base and abroad,
and how to develop local content, commerce and connectivity. Robles (2002) found
that the Internet firms’ global portal strategy develops through different stages.
Stage 1: Translation of content (from home base)

The first stage of internationalization implies the translation of content and other rel-
evant information to the language of the visitor. At this early stage of international-
ization traffic to the portal and information thereon is given to international visitors
from home-based operations.
Stage 2: Presence in international markets

At the second stage the portal establishes a presence in international markets in a
variety of ways. Portals moved first to countries with large online populations through
joint ventures and partnerships with local media companies or telecommunications
firms. The local site at this stage was a copy of the home-based portal. The portal trans-
ferred the basic functionality (technology) of the site while keeping some of the most
advanced back-end systems at home and also providing host services for the new
venture while it took off. The local partner contributed with marketing, promotion and
customer service, local network and connectivity, billing, securing local content,
and recruiting local commerce partners.
Stage 3: Extensive localisation

At the third stage extensive localisation and local development of services and tools
took place. Alliances with local firms to provide local language search engines, local
directories and more local content were central at this stage. An important effort at
this stage was to increase the depth of local commerce. As part of the localisation,
portals leveraged the information captured from visitors to fine-tune the local inter-
face. This decentralised approach resulted in a variety of interfaces, sites and connec-
tivity platforms in national markets, but kept a uniform template for all. At this stage
innovation and upgrading of services took place on the home site. Some, but not all,
of these innovations were transferred to international sites.
Stage 4: A common global platform

As international expansion gains momentum Internet firms may reconsider the diver-
sity of local strategies, by attempting to consolidate and introduce efficiencies. The
pressure for consistency and universal architecture stems from the challenge of rivals,
whether global or local portals. Most firms realise that only one or two viable global
portals will remain so in the long run. Several strategies emerge at this stage. The most
common approach is to develop a common global platform and a distributed archi-

tecture that make sense on grounds of efficiency. Under this strategy the portal firm
seeks global partnerships with content, commerce and infrastructure providers.
Another strategy is to focus on a region, seeking to dominate a particular geography.
The regional strategy allows firms to become highly focused on a given community by
aggregating commerce and media to a target segment, based on culture and language.
Robles (2002) uses the international expansion of AOL to illustrate this global portal
evolution framework.
The global evolution of portals seems to fit the theory of stages of internationaliza-
tion described in Chapter 3 of this book. The main differences seem to be explained by
the nature of the technology. In the early stages portal firms export the service and
enter international markets without committing large resources or taking large risks. As
they learn, they replicate the portal infrastructure for local markets and provide shared
services to national operations. Later stages require a greater degree of control and inte-
gration. At this stage global portals may either try to integrate by acquiring full control,
such as AOL’s evolving European strategy, or develop a web of national partnership
such as MSN is using.
In global portals, in addition to cost efficiency reasons, the need for integration stems
from the view of corporate offices, desire to achieve consistent branding. Another
reason for integration is to provide users with the same online experiences through
uniform look-and-feel interfaces. Global portal integration is achieved through the use
of common technology platforms and standards that allow remote sites to share central
corporate resources (information) and assets (servers), use the same style guides and
templates, and pre-approved reference applications. For instance, hosting services in
one central location would reduce costs to all network operations. With a distributed
architecture the host and control server could customise and deliver the service to
clients worldwide. One example could be serving banner advertising for a global
partner, where a uniform copy and message can be translated and customised on
demand for a variety of languages and geographies.
The characteristics of integrated global networks provide the architecture to attempt
to not only be able to centralise certain processes but be responsive and able to coordi-
nate the variety of localised sites and complex collaboration agreements at the global,
regional and local level.
Another area where global portals have been able to develop strong competences is
in the integration of the value chain. The value chain for a portal can be defined as the
design, production and delivery of content and commerce through a rule-based system
that permits the creation of value to the user. Broad-based portals have benefited
largely from transactional completeness in the value chain because their operating
costs to aggregate and manage large pools of providers of content, engage in commerce
and develop communities are very low. As integrators, portals create online user value
at a minimal cost. Their operating costs are mostly related to network communications
and operations. This architecture allows portal firms to separate common content from
content that is specific to local sites through centralised hubs. The key to building such
architecture is to build in the flexibility to support multiple localised versions in the
e-network.
Given the recent nature of globalization of the Internet an effective global portal
strategy has not yet emerged. The potential to develop one depends on firms’ abilities
to formulate an adequate balance of global integration and local responsiveness.
Finding the right mix of efficiency, local responsiveness and transaction completeness
and a global configuration of assets, competences, partners, content, commerce and
community is a challenge.
The success of any global portal strategy also depends on their ability to conquer the
massive online populations in the developing world. Current strategies have been
based on the online experiences of first-time users in China, Brazil or Mexico, which
tend to be highly educated, affluent and cosmopolitan. The needs, concerns and expe-
riences of the larger masses of middle class and poor income segments could be radi-
cally different.
In summary, the bottom line is that in the new economy a company still needs to
maximise the chances that customers will be aware of its existence, take a liking to its
products or services, decide to buy them, and be happy about the overall experience –
preferably in their own language.
14.9 International mobile marketing
In this chapter mobile marketing (m-marketing) is defined as the application of mar-

keting to the mobile environment of smart phones, mobile phones, personal digital
assistants (PDA) and telematics. M-marketing is characterised by both the interaction
with the World Wide Web and the location-specific context that enhances communica-
tion and delivery of information. Marketing communication and information can be
delivered to mobile devices via voice activated portals or ‘vortals’, text applications such
as SMS, using e-mail (the current I-Mode application) and via Web-mediated delivery
using the 3G spectrum. These applications provide ideal opportunities for making m-
marketing a pervasive electronic presence that senses and responds not only to who the
customer is, but where they are and what they are doing. It is clear that adding value to
the consumer experience will require that organizations anticipate and meet the needs
of customers not only based on psychographics, demographics and behaviours, but also
on their real-time personal physical location, and to travel alongside the customer to
provide them with tailored messages and information at the point of need.
M-marketing should be considered within the context of m-commerce. Emerging
from recent developments in communications technology, m-business represents
‘mobile’ business and refers to the new communications and information delivery
model created when telecommunications and the Internet converge. M-marketing
combines the power and speed of the Internet with the geographic freedom of mobile
telephony in terms of receiving and transmitting data and, importantly, the ability to
conduct transactions. The emerging capacity to communicate with any individual,
from any place, over any network, and to any device, regardless of time or geographical
location, provides enormous potential for marketers. For this reason the impact on
marketing strategies for direct marketers needs to be addressed.
Thus m-marketing is the use of wireless technology to provide convenient, person-
alised and location-based information for a commercial purpose to consumers and
businesses. Consequently a transaction in m-marketing involves a unique combination
of time, location and personalisation of the service. At the same time m-marketing has
two important limitations:
1. Form factor. The physical form of mobile devices invokes very different user experi-
ences from those of a desktop. Manufacturers will have to develop larger screens for
PDAs, convenient keyboards for two-way pagers, or voice recognition for mobile
phones.
2. Bandwidth. There are still several constraints for transmitting audio and video over
mobile devices. However applications, not bandwidth, will drive m-commerce
Exhibit 14.3 Adidas – m-marketing

The Adidas short message service (SMS) campaign provides an illustration of this potential. By utilising
the 247 Media Europe opt-in SMS database and using a text message to alert a specific demographic
group, Adidas was able to increase brand awareness and drive users to watch the Adidas advertise-
ments in the first break of the televised Brit Awards (an annual music award in the United Kingdom). The
media agency Mindseye Communication was looking for a new and original method to market the
Adidas brand consistent with its image and to co-promote the Brit Awards. This method allowed a direct
response by precisely timing the messages and alerting the target audience, people in the United
Kingdom aged under 30, to a specific event in a specified time frame.
growth. Many applications requiring large bandwidth are not necessary for mobile
commerce.
Figure 14.7 shows how the three characteristics of m-marketing are interlinked and
dependent on each other.
Figure 14.7 The three unique characteristics of m-marketing
Convenience and accessibility Personalization

In an m-marketing world Whereas the PC is often shared
people are not constrained by across multiple users, mobile
time and place. devices are typically operated
by and configured for a single user.
Localization
With technologies such as Global
Positioning System (GPS) or Time
of Arrival (TOA), m-marketing will
enable users to access information
and services specific to their location.
Each country/market has its own marketing mix
Distinction between e-marketing and m-marketing

A key distinction between e-marketing and m-marketing lies in the different enabling
technologies. Most notably, the facilitative mode for traditional e-marketing, the PC, is
a relatively large and cumbersome device that is probably deskbound and equipped
with a Web browser through standard connectivity. Even when configured as a laptop
it is not easy to move.
M-marketing is faced with the challenge of developing capabilities in a much more
diverse technical context, albeit within the single framework of mobility. Mobile
devices currently vary in terms of the network to which they are connected – the
‘European’ standard or the North American standard.
Rapidly emerging innovations will deliver the possibility of smart phones able to use
product bar codes to access product-related information and phones able to act as e-
wallets, as either a prepaid card for small purchases or a fully functioning creditdebit
card unit.
Benefits of m-marketing
The introduction of m-marketing should bring a series of benefits to consumers, mer-
chants and telecommunication companies. As with all technologies, many benefits will
arise in the future that are not yet even imagined. Some benefits that are apparent now,
however, include the following
For consumers
■ Comparison shopping: Consumers can access on demand, at the point of purchase, the
best prices in the marketplace. This can be done now without mobility, with services
such as pricescan.com.
■ Bridge the gap between bricks and clicks: Services permitting users to examine merchandise
in a store and still shop electronically for the best price.
■ Opt-in searches: Customers may receive alerts from merchants when products they are
looking for become available.
■ Travel: Ability to change and monitor scheduled travel any time, any place.
For merchants
■ Impulse buying: Consumers may buy discounted products from a Web page promo-
tion or a mobile alert, increasing their willingness to buy as they are right near or
even inside the store, and thus increasing merchants’ sales.
■ Drive traffic: Companies will guide their customers to where it is easier to carry out
the transaction, to either online or offline stores, due to the time-sensitive, location-
based and personalised characteristics of the mobile device
■ Education of consumers: Companies will send information to customers about product
benefits or new products.
■ Perishable products: This is especially important for products that do not retain their
value when unused, such as service-based products. For example, the use of an
aeroplane seat, that, when unused, generates no revenue and is lost value. This will
enable companies to better manage inventory.
■ Drive efficiency: Companies will save time with their clients. Because information is
readily available on the mobile device they will not have to talk about the benefits of
the different products or about prices.
■ Target market: Companies will be better able to target their products and promotions
to those in a given geographic area at a specific time.
For telecommunication companies the advantages are primarily more airtime used
by the consumers and higher fees charged to content providers for each m-commerce
transaction.
M-marketing requires direct marketers to rethink their strategies to tap into already
existing communities such as sports fans, surfers, music fans, and time-context com-
munities such as spectators at sports events and festivals, and location-sensitive com-
munities such as gallery visitors and small shoppers, and develop ways to get them to
opt in to m-marketing.
Applications must be responsive to location, customer needs and device capabilities.

For example, time and location-sensitive applications, such as travel reservations,
cinema tickets and banking will be excellent vehicles for young, busy and urban people.
Finally, as highlighted, mobile marketing enables distribution of information to
the consumer at the most effective time, place and in the right context. This suggests
that m-marketing, via mobile devices, will cement further the interactive marketing
relationship.
The players in the mobile value chain

Wireless Internet access promises great potential for all the players in the value chain,
but the key to a rapid take-up, and faster revenues, is finding a way to provide services
to as wide a customer base as possible.
Figure 14.8 highlights the players in the value chain in the mobile commerce market.
Figure 14.8 The interaction of the main actors in the mobile value chain
Technology providers
(e.g. telephone network carriers, providing e.g. 3G networks)
Content Service / Device

providers Portal providers manufacturers
CONSUMERS
Technology providers
The way the world views mobile communications is expected to change in the coming
years. All the power of the World Wide Web is expected to be available, at high speeds,
for those who are on the move. High-speed Web connections, always-on systems and a
concentration on data rather than voice are the major changes that are anticipated.
These developments will be achieved via telephone network carriers (with 3G proto-
cols). The first generation (1G) protocols included analogue cell phones. Second gener-
ation (2G) protocols included digital systems used by several mobile devices. The third
generation (3G) will allow users to enjoy the broadband experience with mobility.
Content providers
Content is a strong determinant of the benefit users get out of applications. Content
providers are, for example, weather channels, news companies, banks and travel
bureaus. Content providers such as Amazon.com, Barnes and Noble, eBay and many
others are deploying wireless front-end access in their e-marketing engines. Though
their offerings are still rudimentary, features include single-click buying, auction alerts,
and some interesting bonuses such as the ability to listen to music clips over the phone.
Brand names that are associated with trustworthy and reliable fulfilment will translate
effectively in the wireless domain.
Economic models for content providers ideally include creation of incentives for
consumers, assessments of technical and form factor limitations, marketing investment

versus incremental airtime, and building of customer relationships. Advertising is also
possible, but form factor limitations and airtime costs for downloaded ads are hurdles.
Advertisers are interested in this market, but have not yet figured out how to leverage it.
CNN fits into the value chain as a content provider by making its branded services
available wherever and whenever people want news. Users are looking for brands they
know, and many people turn to CNN for news.
CNN has signed 20 wireless operators worldwide to its mobile service. CNN is also
working with Oracle to create personalised content and custom news delivery using
hundreds of sources. News services will leverage extensive online audio and video.
Audio is very important because people spend so much time in their cars and cannot
safely read phone screens while driving.
CNN, a part of AOL, Time Warner, is part of a huge content conglomerate. The entry
of companies such as AOLTime Warner into the wireless space will help increase user
awareness because they have such strong brands. CNN mobile is moving from simple
licensing to a cable TV model of shared risk and growth for content distribution.
Service providersportals
Service providers are players that bundle together access, content and the device,
presenting the consumer with a simplified purchase and subscription decision, and a
packaged mobile data experience.
Portals are companies that aggregate different types of content and distribute them
to the user in a single site, making for simplified search, navigation and information
resource management. The benefit of the portal for the user is that all one needs is in
one place; the benefit of the portal for the content owner is that it provides another
channel to the end user.
Traditional portals are well positioned to play a key role in m-commerce. They
already have some key ingredients, such as Web-based communications (e-mail,
unified messaging) and content. However, they do need to adjust to new requirements
to perform in a mobile device, meaning that they have to strip out graphics and other
graphic-intensive features compared with conventional portals. Major initiatives have
been announced at MSN, AOL and Yahoo!, giving them a good chance at market lead-
ership from the start. In addition, new portals will try to break into these markets, some
of them backed by deals with companies at the carrier side of the value chain (e.g.
mobile portals owned by carriers such as Vodophone).
As shown in Figure 14.9, mobile services have progressed from being simple informa-
tional services and transactional tools to being an integral part of strengthening customer
relationships through value-added problem solving.
An example of the bandwidth-driven services is video conferencingmultimedia. As
the devices get faster with 3G technology users will be able to utilise video conferencing
in the air, as well as download different video applications.
Device manufacturers
Two important groups of device manufacturers are starting to play an active role in the
wireless Internet market. The first group includes mobile manufacturers such as Nokia,
Motorola and Ericsson and the second includes PDA manufacturers such as Palm,
Handspring and Microsoft.
Cellular phone and PDA manufacturers are both fighting for leadership in m-
commerce. It is unclear which kind of device will eventually win, or whether a hybrid
between the PDA and cell phone will emerge. As hardware costs decrease devices will
Figure 14.9 Evolution of mobile services
Value Bandwidth /driven
Multimedia
Video conferencing
Even/driven
Location-specific transactions
Transactional applications
1-click transactions
Informational Travel reservations
Online auctions
E-mail Gaming
Instant messaging
Travel updates
Basic
Yellow Pages
Voice News accounts
Personal
organization
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
most likely continue to specialise, with each device optimised for its required task.
There is of course a limit to the number of devices consumers will carry with them.
Despite growth estimations many players in the mobile manufacturing industry (e.g.
Ericsson) have recently decided to outsource the business. Increasing competition in
the mobile market, together with a slowdown in the growth of the industry (the actual
current figure is smaller than previous estimates), has triggered many mobile makers to
redefine their core business.
Recently PDA manufacturers also had sales problems – the total number of PDAs sold
was less in 2002 than in 2001.
Taking into account the potential of 3G, the competition and the fact that PDAs and
mobile phones have increasingly overlapping features, we will probably see mergers
and joint ventures among the players in the next couple of years.
Crossing the chasm and competition in the mobile value chain

Geoffrey Moore, in his book called Inside the Tornado, explains that in an early market
period margins are typically high and solutions tend to be customised. Product leader-
ship is key during this phase, since innovators and early adopters are attracted to
leading products and applications. The foundation for growing a customer base is built
in this early cycle, and as Sun-Tzu (the author of The Art of War) states, ‘Opportunities
multiply as they are seized’. The market for mobile data has seen adoption by many
innovators and early adopters, and many of the early winners in the value chain have
been either enabling-software and services companies or solution providers that have
been able to cobble together leading-edge solutions for specific industries or a narrow
set of horizontal applications such as messaging. Moore also writes in Inside the Tornado
that as the early majority adopts a product margins start decreasing. Solutions are still
somewhat customised, but operational excellence becomes key, along with product
leadership. As the product moves to the late majority low margins can be expected, and
products tend to be more standardised. At that point operational excellence and cus-
tomer intimacy play a bigger role. Dell Computers is an excellent example in the now
mature PC industry.
Figure 14.10 illustrates Moore’s chasm applied to the m-marketing industry. When
the WAP technology was introduced in the late 1990s it did not succeed in creating the
sufficient customer base that was necessary for crossing the chasm. An example of a
successful crossing of the chasm is NTT DoCoMo, which has succeeded with their
broad and standardised functionality.
Figure 14.10 Crossing the chasm at the diffusion curve can be very hard – the WAP did not make
it – NTT DoCoMo did (also see Case Study III.2)
Benefits
Costs
The Number of users

chasm (network site)
NTT DoCoMo’s I-mode

succeeded in crossing
the chasm in Japan,
because of its broad
and standardised
WAP got up The mainstream market functionality
to here but
fell into the The early market
chasm The
chasm
Technology Visionaries Pragmatists Conservatives Sceptics

enthusiasts
At the ‘early market’ stage the total costs are greater than the benefits. Apart from
fixed costs, costs increase linearly with network size. Benefits grow slowly at first, then
exponentially with network size. Since the number of users (or network size) is the
critical success factor, what will influence this network size? Generally, there are two
important factors:
1. Standardisation of the infrastructure behind the application drives down the costs to
the user. At a lower cost the application addresses a much larger market, and what was
once useful in one industry is now worth paying for in another. The cost of the appli-
cation drops as the infrastructure standardises, because economies of scope accom-
pany standards. For example, once a company owns a PC, the marginal cost of adding
an additional application is small. The cost of the PC, or underlying infrastructure, is
amortised over the benefits received from the numerous applications it can run.
2. The second factor that will influence widespread adoption of applications
across industries is broad functionality. An application created for a specific vertical
probably has some functionality that is specific to that vertical and some function-
ality that is useful to many industries. Before a vertical application starts its
migration a modified version must be created that removes the industry-specific
functionality. Obviously not every vertical application has enough common func-
tionality to drive demand in the broad market. The process is more akin to natural
selection. Certainly it is possible to discover a horizontal application for businesses,

however it is more likely that a vertical application will be modified to target a larger
market.
The 2G mobile WAP application did not succeed in achieving the necessary network
size and fell into the ‘chasm’. However, a tantalising example of strong branding and
widespread consumer adoption of mobile data has occurred in Japan through the phe-
nomenal success of I-Mode. Part III concludes with a case study (III.2) of I-Mode’s suc-
cesses in Japan and the various technological, cultural and business challenges that will
factor into the adoption of similar services and applications elsewhere in the world.
M-marketing strategy implications

In this way m-marketing develops into location marketing (l-marketing). The location
of the individual is known via their mobile device and appropriate messages can be sent
at a time when customers are able to act upon the information to purchase a product
or service. This represents the most innovative application of enhanced digital tech-
nology, whereby direct marketers have enhanced potential for interactivity through
the use of consumer location information.
For example, if a teenager sees a magazine advertisement for a film such as The Lord
of the Rings, they could dial *R_I_N_G_S* to access more information and promotions,
purchase tickets, or play related games on the mobile device. This is also an important
advance for direct marketers, who can take advantage of this added information about
a consumer’s location and stage in the consumer purchase.
Thus the strategy for m-marketing will be to use the power of timely and relevant
information, the enhancements provided by the Internet, and consumer location
information to reach consumers at the point where and when they are ready to do busi-
ness. In practice, effective m-marketing will depend on the ability to acquire mobile
phone numbers to establish a point of contact. Efforts to obtain customer information
online via e-marketing will be important in facilitating m-marketing, as well as the
potential to access mobile users via the mobile network providers.
While direct marketers have long used the telephone, they are challenged to under-
stand more clearly the relationship between the consumer and their mobile device. For
example, mobile phone users are generally reluctant to make their phone number
widely known and may restrict the listing of their number in formal and informal
directories. Users have adopted the mobile phone and in effect taken it into their per-
sonal space for the simple reason that they find a personal, mobile communication
device valuable and useful. The challenge to direct marketers is to develop the poten-
tial of m-marketing around providing relevant information, ‘being with’ the user, and
being responsive to needs while being determined not to impose unsolicited or unwel-
come information. Strategists need technical and managerial solutions that enable
them to identify when they are needed, to become a partner to the access, use and man-
agement of information to enhance consumers’ real-world embedded experience with
direct m-marketing.
Gathering data from mobile phone users can be done by utilising other media such
as television or radio. For example, some television programmes encourage their audi-
ences to send SMS messages to answer a quick quiz with the opportunity to win prizes.
Transactions via the mobile phone should appeal to direct marketers for a number of
reasons. Mobile technology offers personalised consumer interaction, often resulting
from consumers opting in to the enhanced information environment, customer-
location information and the possibility of continuous connection to the Internet.
With the proliferation of mobile devices, user liberation and technological divergence,
direct marketers can link to customers to develop new, stronger relationships and
interactions that will provide them with enhanced prospects for investment return.
The employment of these strategies by direct marketers will play an increasingly
important role in adding value for consumers.
14.10 Summary
During the last few years there has been an explosion of online commercial activity
enabled by the Internet or World Wide Web. This is generally referred to as electronic
commerce (e-marketing), with a major component of e-marketing being electronic
transactions taking place on Internet-based markets (electronic markets, or e-markets).
The development of the Internet as a ‘new’ direct distribution channel has resulted
in a shift of power from the manufacturers and the traditional retail channels to the
consumer.
Generally, the development of e-marketing in Europe has been behind that in the
United States. A major factor inhibiting growth of consumer e-marketing in Europe is
lack of confidence in online security. However, for those selling via the Internet, the
new European currency, the euro, will make it easier to do business, and give encour-
agement to companies selling to European customers. Since Europeans will now be able
to shop and compare prices at the click of a mouse, they will be more favourably
inclined towards e-marketing.
The market volume of e-marketing in the B-t-B is much bigger than in the B-t-C
market – five times more, according to some research results. The reason for this differ-
ence is that e-marketing is not a new phenomenon in the B-to-B market. Instead of
Internet-based solutions many industries have been using electronic data interchange
for years to streamline business processes and reduce the cost of doing business.
The main difference between buying behaviour in the ‘physical marketplace’ and
the ‘virtual market space’ is that the market space emphasises ‘high-tech’, and is more
characterised by the power of information and communication technologies to satisfy
customer needs and thereby continue business relationships.
The myth has been that the Internet will eliminate the need for intermediaries. Early
predictions called for disintermediation, that is, the disappearance of physical interme-
diaries, as people moved from buying through distributors and resellers to buying
directly from manufacturers. The reality is that the Internet may eliminate the tradi-
tional ‘physical’ distributors, but the transformation process of the value chain has
given rise to a new class of intermediaries. Companies such as Yahoo aggregate informa-
tion and make it easier to access new information and see new business possibilities.
The value-added is no longer in logistic aggregation but rather in information aggregation.
Three alternative strategy levels of e-marketing commitment have been presented:
■ Level 1. One-to-many strategy: use Internet presence as a company- and product-
brochure.
■ Level 2. Direct targeting: here the company starts selling on the Internet.
■ Level 3. One-to-one interactive e-marketing.
On Level 3 the company is moving from providing company and product information
to becoming an integral part of the whole vertical value chain from supplier to end
consumer. This virtual integration works faster than Level 2 (direct targeting) by blurring
traditional boundaries between suppliers, manufacturers and customers in the value

chain.
Companies that conduct e-marketing must be subject to the same laws, regulations
and taxes that govern operations of all businesses. But a company that uses the Web
immediately becomes an international business, and as such the company can become
subject to many more laws, more quickly, than if it were a traditional bricks-and-mortar
company tied to one specific physical location. Furthermore many countries’ legal issues
are difficult to interpret and follow because of the newness of electronic commerce.
What are the drivers and barriers of e-marketing?

Drivers
■ For the supplier:
– reduced working capital (less inventory, reduced administration);
– global reach;
– more efficient distribution (disintermediation means fewer distribution channels);
– ability to develop relationships with customers.
■ For the customer:
– more choices (greater product depth and global reach);
– ease of purchase and monitoring delivery;
– more individual products (via ‘mass customisation’ of products);
– cost savings;
– faster product cycle time (ordering, shipping, billing);
– in the B-t-B market the customer has better possibilities of swapping between
suppliers than with EDI.
Barriers (for both supplier and customer)

■ When entering the global market there may be different barriers to different coun-
tries: language barriers, cultural barriers, limited Internet access, different legislation,
logistical barriers, etc.
■ Web-technology is not user friendly.
■ Security fears.
■ E-marketing is not suitable for certain types of product, for example ‘high-touch’
products (fashion clothes) or very complex products or projects, where face-to-face
communication is necessary.
■ Conflicting interests (distributor and manufacturer may have different interests).
■ WWW # World Wide Wait (poor performance leading to slow download).
M-marketing (marketing by mobile telephone) is defined as the application of mar-
keting to the mobile environment of smart phones, mobile phones and personal digital
assistants. M-marketing is characterised by both the interaction with the World Wide
Web and the location-specific context that enhances communication and delivery of
information. The emerging capacity to communicate with any individual, from any
place, over any network, and to any device, regardless of time or geographical location,
provides enormous potential for marketers. The location of the individual is known via
their mobile device and appropriate messages can be sent at a time when they are able
to act upon the information to purchase a product or service. This represents the most
innovative application of enhanced digital technology, whereby direct marketers have
enhanced potential for interactivity through the use of consumer location information.
CASE STUDY 14.1 Sonic Innovations
A new US manufacturer of hearing aids is considering online

sales in Europe
Sonic Innovations, Inc. (www.sonici.com), a pro- want to admit that they need a hearing aid because
ducer of advanced digital hearing aids, has been this will make them seem older or even partly hand-
named number 117 on the 2003 Deloitte icapped. The development of Completely-In-the-
Technology Fast 500, a ranking of the 500 fastest Channel Instruments, that are practically invisible
growing technology companies in North America. to other people, may help to reduce the fear of
The ranking is based on Sonic’s average percentage exposing one’s handicap towards other people, but
revenue growth from 1998 (when it was founded) to will not remove the problem that using a hearing aid
2002. However, the profits have been very limited often means to admitting that ‘I am getting old’. In
until now, in fact Sonic had an accumulated deficit order to improve sales to the full market potential it
of $52 million by the end of 2002. will be necessary, in some instances, to change
In 2002 total sales of Sonic’s hearing aids were $68 public opinion to the problems.
million; and by geography: North America: $40 A second crucial factor for sales is the way different
million; Europe: $15 million; and Rest-of-World: countries’ social security systems subsidize costs.
$13 million. Figures show that every technological development,
Sonic Innovations designs, develops, manufac- which has achieved success in the recent years, is not
tures and markets advanced digital hearing aids able to improve the sales volume at all if social secu-
which provide a high level of satisfaction for hearing rity departments reduce subsidies for hearing aids,
impaired consumers. The company has developed due to budget cuts. This may even lead to counter-
patented digital signal processing (DSP) technolo- cyclical market developments such as in Germany,
gies and embedded them in the smallest single-chip where the market share of BTE-Instruments (Behind-
DSP platform ever installed in a hearing aid. By the the-Ear) has been increasing in the last years, simply
end of 2002, Sonic had 288 employees (in the U.S.), because they are cheaper than ITE (In-the-Ear) prod-
including 27 in administration, 72 in sales and ucts. Whilst in the rest of Europe and in North
marketing, 46 in research and 143 in operations. America the ITE technology is steadily gaining
importance. As a result, lobbying in order to avoid
Market potential for hearing aids public subsidy cuts seems the most important key to
It is estimated that 10 per cent of the world’s popula- successful sales for the hearing aids industry. Sonic
tion suffer from hearing problems. With a world pop- believes that the poor economic climate has caused
ulation of about 6 billion people, this gives a potential consumers to chose lower-priced digital aids.
600 million clients who may use hearing aids. The hearing aids market can be divided into two
Of course this figure is not realistic because the segments, analog and digital. Digital hearing aids
great majority of the world’s population is living in were first introduced in 1996 and currently repre-
areas where hearing aids are not easily accessible. sent an estimated 46 per cent of the U.S. hearing aid
Nevertheless, potential figures are estimated at about sales and 33 per cent of global hearing aid sales.
70 million hearing-impaired people in Europe and 30 Digital-based hearing aids continue to gain market
million people in North America. At the same time, share at the expense of the older (analog-based)
figures show that more young people are beginning technology.
to suffer from hearing problems at an earlier age,
which may be due to exposure to excessive noise. Competition
This shows the enormous potential of this market. Sonic meets competition from a number of world-
Today, around two thirds of users of hearing aids wide competitors, six of which have far greater sales
are 60 years and older. The gap between the poten- (see Table 1).
tial users and the real users of hearing aids is due to In 2001 some six million hearing aids were sold
several facts: First, in some cases, there is the stigma globally. This market is made up of industrialized
of hearing loss. This means that people with hearing countries, two thirds of which are the United States,
problems are reluctant to accept their hearing loss, Germany and Japan. The United States alone
so they wait an estimated five to fifteen years before accounts for 40 per cent of the market volume, and
they seek professional help. Some people do not Europe for around 30 per cent.
Table 1 World market shares of main hearing aids critical aspect of their international marketing
manufacturers strategy. In the United States there are more than
13,000 hearing-care professionals who sell hearing
Company Country Number of Market
aids. In this market Sonic position their products as
years on the share (%)
premium-priced, premium-performance hearing
hearing aids
market
aids and their direct sales force select hearing-care
professionals who are capable of, and interested in,
Siemens Germany 93 20% dispensing premium digital hearing aids.
William Demant Denmark 99 19%
Outside the U.S., Sonic sells its products to hearing
(the earlier Oticon)
aids retailers or through a network of established dis-
GN ReSound Denmark 60 15%
Starkey USA 32 13%
tributors, who in turn sell to hearing aid care clinics.
Phonak Switzerland 56 10% However, there seems to be a growing market
Widex Denmark 47 8% (both in Europe and the United States) for cheaper
Sonic USA 4 4% and standardized digital hearing aids, sold over the
Others (around – – 11% Internet. Sonic is considering forming an indepen-
30 manufacturers) dent online company, with the sole purpose of
Total 100% selling low-priced hearing aids on the Internet.
Generally, the market share of Sonic in United Questions

States is higher than in Europe.
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages for a
Most hearing aids in the US and Europe are hearing aid manufacturer like Sonic to sell hearing
custom-made to each individual ear. Until now, aids online?
hearing aids have traditionally been dispensed (sold
2. Would it be possible for Sonic to sell other products
to consumer) by hearing-care professionals in
or services online? If yes, how should it be done?
clinics. Due to the hearing-care professional’s influ-
ence over the consumer’s choice of hearing aid Sources:
brand, Sonic has believed that developing and main- http://www.sonici.com/; http://www.hearing-siemens.com/;
http://www.demant.com/; http://www.resound.com/;
taining strong relationships with hearing-care pro- http://www.starkey.com/; http://www.phonak.com/;
fessionals in hearing clinics has been the most http://www.widex.com/
CASE STUDY 14.2 Auto-by-Tel
An example of reintermediation in the value chain
Auto-by-Tel was founded in 1995 by Peter Ellis, who

based his business around the simple concept that
he could take advantage of the Net’s interactivity to
sell cars on the Web (www.autobytel.com). In just
four years Ellis became a heavyweight in the vehicle
distribution business. Since its inception the
company has helped more than 2 million online
buyers find a car. With a staff of fewer than 200, the
company currently grosses 1 per cent of new car
sales in the United States.
The goal of a cybermediary is to step in at several
points along the economic chain and integrate
buyerseller relationships. Some cybermediaries spe-
cialise and become Internet brokers, allowing clients both selection processes and negotiating power. This
access to a broader information base and enhancing is what Auto-by-Tel has achieved.
Based on a network of 2,700 dealers, Auto-by-Tel buying and selling used cars: both dealers and private
matches buyers with the nearest car dealer that persons may offer used cars for sale; private sellers pay
meets their criteria. When clients put in an order for a fee to do so. Third, a number of insurance compa-
a specific model the request is sent to a server that nies offer their products via the Auto-by-Tel website,
contacts all qualified dealers geographically close to and finally, clients can also obtain finance from Auto-
the client. Within 48 hours a product proposal is by-Tel. Customers can compare both insurance and
sent to the client. The network is composed of certi- finance on the Auto-by-Tel website.
fied car dealers ready to sell cars at the price listed on Auto-by-Tel has also entered into relationships
the website. Auto-by-Tel updates its database contin- with contractual partners. There are two categories:
ually and has a staff of 35 working on site main- the dealer network and the insurance and finance
tenance alone. The service it provides is free for partners. The car dealers with which it has concluded
clients and has the advantage of being cheaper than partnerships do the actual car selling. The objective is
traditional advertising. Car dealers who want to be to have a number of dealers, who profit because Auto-
an Auto-by-Tel franchisee pay an entrance fee as by-Tel expands their marketing and sales channel.
well as a monthly fee.
Source: adapted from: De Man et al. (2002), Jallat and Capek (2001);
Auto-by-Tel is an e-alliance with a solution strategy. www.autobytel.com
The Auto-by-Tel website offers a complete solution
for car owners, integrating a number of services that Questions
are relevant for car owners and buyers. More specifi-
1. Is it possible to sell cars on the Internet?
cally, four different services are offered via its website.
The first service is new car purchases: customers select 2. Explain how reintermediation is working in the case
cars on the Auto-by-Tel website; Auto-by-Tel then e- of Auto-by-Tel
mails the nearest dealer to ask for a price and checks 3. Which elements of Auto-by-Tel’s concept is it
that it is fair; dealer and customer are then left to possible to internationalize and standardize across
themselves to conclude their deal. A second service is borders, and which elements should be localised?
For further exercises and cases, see this book’s website at

www.booksites.net/hollensen
1. Explain the term virtual value chain.

2. Explain what is meant by electronic marketing.
3. What are transaction costs and why are they important in e-marketing?
4. ‘The WWW represents a pull medium for marketing rather than a push medium.’
Discuss.
5. What types of channel conflict are caused by the Internet?
6. How does the demographic profile of Internet users differ from the general population
of a country?
7. Explain the main benefits that a company selling fast-moving consumer products could
derive by creating a website.

8. Describe sticky features that websites use to attract and keep visitors. Why is
stickiness important to companies operating websites?
9. How do companies that create global Web strategies need to accommodate cultural
differences and can they turn them to their advantage?
10. For the following stages in the buying process, explain how the Internet can be used to
help achieve the communication objectives: supplier search, evaluation and selection,
purchase, post-purchase.
11. Why is the Internet a suitable medium for one-to-one marketing?
12. ‘Companies should spend a higher proportion of their website budgets on promotion
than on designing and developing the site.’ Discuss.
14. ‘It is inevitable that the transparency of information on products and price on the World
Wide Web will drive down product prices.’ Discuss.
References
Benjamin, R. and Wigand, R. (1995) ‘Electronic markets and virtual chains on the information
highway’, Sloan Management Review, Winter, pp. 62–72.
Boston Consulting Group (2000) The Race for Online Riches: E-Retailing in Europe (http://www.bcg.
com/new_ideas/new_ideas_subpage3.asp).
Business Week (1999b) ‘In the ring: eBay vs. Amazon.com’, Business Week, 31 May, pp. 49–55.
Butler, P. and Peppard, J. (1998) ‘Consumer purchasing on the Internet: process and prospects’,
European Management Journal, vol. 16, no 5, pp. 600–10.
De Man, A.-P., Stienstra, M. and Volberda, H.W. (2002) ‘E-partnering: moving bricks and mortar
online’, European Management Journal, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 329–39.
Frynas, J.G. (2002) ‘The limits of globalization: legal and political issues in e-commerce’,
Management Decisions, vol. 40, no. 9, pp. 871–80.
Gartner Group (2000), ‘GartnerGroup forecasts worldwide business-to-business e-commerce to
reach $7.29 trillion in 2004’, GartnerGroup Corporate Headquarters, Connecticut, January.
Grant, L. (1998) ‘On-line shopping soars: Net sales nag retailers’, USA Today, 15 December.
Guillen, M. (2002) ‘What is the best global strategy for the Internet?’, Business Horizons,
May–June, pp. 39–46.
Hofacker, C.F. (1999) Internet Marketing (2nd edn), Digital Springs, Inc, Dripping Springs, TX.
IDC (2000) ‘Europe sees big gains in Internet usage, 2000’ (cyberatlas.internet.com/big_picture/
demographics/article/0,1323,5911_281021,00.html)
Jackson, B. (1985) ‘Build customer relationships that last’, Harvard Business Review,
November–December, pp. 120–28.
Jallat, F. and Capek, M.J. (2001) ‘Disintermediation in question: new economy, new networks,
new middlemen’, Business Horizons, March–April, pp. 55–60.
Jastrow, D. (1999) ‘Saying no to Web sales’, Computer Reseller News, 29 November.
Levitt, T. (1983) ‘The Globalization of Markets’, Harvard Business Review, May/June, pp 92–102.
Lohse, G.L. and Spiller, P. (1999) ‘Internet retail store design: how the user interface influences
traffic and sales’, Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, vol. J, no. 2, December,
pp. 1–20.
Magretta, J. (1998) ‘The power of virtual integration: an interview with Dell Computer’s Michael
Dell’, Harvard Business Review, March–April, pp. 73–84.
Moore, G. (1995) Inside the Tornado – Marketing Strategies form Silicon Valley’s Cuting Edge,
HarperCollins, CA.
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sonal computers’, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, vol. 9, pp. 97–105.
Rayport, J.F. and Sviokla, J.J. (1996) ‘Exploiting the virtual value chain’, McKinsey Quarterly, no. 1,
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Further reading
Chakrabarti, R. and Scholnick, B. (2002) ‘International expansion of e-retailers: where the
Amazon flows’, Thunderbird International Business Review, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 85–104.
Clarke, I. and Flaherty, T.B. (2003) ‘Web-based B2B portals’ Industrial Marketing Management,
vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 15–23.
Emiliani, M.L. and Stec, D.J. (2002) ‘Realizing savings from online reverse auctions’, Supply Chain
Management: An International Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 12–23.
Gulledge, T. (2002) ‘B2B emarketplaces and small- and medium-sized enterprises’, Computers in
Industry, vol 49, no. 1, pp. 47–58.
Jalassi, T. and Leenen, S. (2003) ‘An e-commerce sales model for manufacturing companies: a con-
ceptual framework and a European example’, European Management Journal, vol. 21, no. 1,
pp. 38–47.
Joergensen, J.L. and Blythe, J. (2003) ‘A guide to a more effective World Wide Web presence’,
Journal of Marketing Communications, vol. 9, pp. 45 –58.
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Industrial Marketing Management, vol. 31, pp. 103–10.
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pp. 65–70.
Thiessen, J.H., Wright, R.W. and Turner I. (2001), ‘A model of e-commerce use by international
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Turban, E. (2002) Electronic Commerce: A Managerial Perspective, Prentice Hall, International
Edition Upper Saddle River, N.J.
Wilson, S.G. and Abel, I. (2002) ‘So you want to get involved in e-commerce’, Industrial Marketing
Management, vol. 31, pp. 85–94.

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2 Initiation of internationalization

Contents Learning objectives

Figure 2.1 Pre-internationalization: initiation of SME internationalization

Barriers hindering internationalization

Exit the internationalization process

Output Action: internationalization trial

Chapter 3: Internationalization theories

2.2 Internationalization motives

Table 2.1 Major motives for starting export

Proactive motives Reactive motives

● Profit and growth goals ● Competitive pressures

Source: adapted from Albaum et al., 1994, p. 31.

Profit and growth goals

Technology competenceunique product

Foreign market opportunitiesmarket information

Exhibit 2.1 Global marketing and economics of scale in

Through exporting, fixed costs arising from administration, facilities, equipment,

Domestic market: small and saturated

production equipment. A market penetration strategy based on variable cost alone is

Unsolicited foreign orders

Extend sales of seasonal products

Proximity to international customerspsychological distance

Exhibit 2.2 Internationalization of Haier – proactive and reactive motives

2.3 Triggers of export initiation (change agents)

Table 2.2 Triggers of export initiation

Internal triggers External triggers

● Perceptive management ● Market demand

Specific internal event

■ foreign enquiries about the company’s productsservices;

Figure 2.2 Inwardoutward internationalization: a network example

Buyer Inward internationalization

Buyer Supplier’s network

A direct relationship exists between inward and outward internationalization in the

Information search and translation

2.4 Internationalization barriersrisks

Barriers hindering export initiation

Barriers hindering the process of internationalization

General market risks

■ comparative market distance;

■ exchange rate fluctuations when contracts are made in a foreign currency;

■ foreign government restrictions;

■ Avoid exporting to high-risk markets.

This chapter has provided an overview of the pre-internationalization process. The

CASE STUDY 2.1 Blooming Clothing

A bumpy path to exports

It was 9 o’clock on a misty morning in February

Clothing had increasing difficulties in keeping up

CASE STUDY 2.2 Elvis Presley Enterprises Inc. (EPE)

Internationalization of a ‘cult icon’

Even more than 25 years after his death

For further exercises and cases, see this book’s website at

Questions for discussion

Contents Learning objectives

Information is a key ingredient in the development of successful international marketing

5.2 The changing role of the international researcher

5.3 Linking global marketing research to the

Table 5.1 Information for the major global marketing decisions

Global marketing decision phase Information needed

1. Deciding whether to internationalize Assessment of global market opportunities (global demand)

4. Designing the global marketing Buyer behaviour