All You Need to Know About Grammar Is in This Pamphlet

There are nine parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
articles and interjections. (How a word is used in a sentence determines its part of speech.)

(1) NOUNS are words that name people, places, objects, feelings, ideas, and actions.
Examples: teacher, school, desk, joy, capitalism

Examples in use: Late last year, our neighbors bought a goat.

Lena White was a singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passes.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.

(2) PRONOUNS are words that are often used in place of nouns. Some pronouns are classified by
case:
Subjective (nominative) case: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, whoever
Objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom, whomever
Possessive case: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs, whose

Examples in use: I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest cafe in the mall.
The smallest gift is mine.

These pronouns are singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody,
no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something

(3) VERBS or compound verbs assert something about the subject of the sentence and express actions,
events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of a sentence.

ACTION VERBS are words that indicate action.

Examples: walk, run, think, sleep, sit, eat, drink, consider, assume

Examples in use: I drink as much water as possible.

We walk a mile every morning.

LINKING VERBS connect a subject with a description of that subject. Linking verbs can be
forms of the verb “be” (am, is, are, was, were, is being, has been, had been, will be, will have
been). Other linking verbs can be verbs that refer to the senses (look, feel, taste, smell, sound).
Three more linking verbs are “become,” “seem,” and “appear.”

Examples: John is tall. He looks apprehensive.

Billy is being mean. Jacob feels sleepy.
We have been late for school many times. John appears nervous.

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AUXILLARY VERBS, or HELPING VERBS, are used with action verbs and linking verbs to
help them do their jobs.

Examples:

Action verbs: is running, has worked, will be taken, does enjoy, have been watched, might go, should
read, may assume
Linking verbs: is being, has been, have become, are becoming, will be, will have been, must be, could
become

There are six verb tenses:

Present - Example: I walk every morning.
Past - Example: I walked three miles every morning.
Future - Example: I will walk three miles every morning.
Present perfect (has walked, have walked) – action completed at the present time or continuing into the
present - Example: I have walked three miles a day for five years.
Past perfect (had walked) – action completed before a specific time in the past
Example: I had walked three miles every morning before I got sick.
Future perfect (will have walked, shall have walked) – action that will be completed before a specific time
in the future - Example: John will have walked thirty miles if he continues his morning walk as
usual.

The MAIN VERB of a sentence is NEVER part of a PHRASE or SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.

(4) ADJECTIVES are words that modify nouns. They describe or tell what kind, how many, or
which.
One-word adjective usually appear right before nouns.

Examples: silly rabbit, garbage can, confused student, running child

Phrases and subordinate clauses can act as adjectives.

Examples:
Alex, regarded as one of the best players, will probably land a valuable contract. (Participial phrase)
Dogs running around the neighborhood could cause problems. (participial phrase)
Cats that have black and white fur have been seen in the park. (adjective clause)
Diamonds, which are very expensive, are beautiful. (adjective clause)
People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. (adjective clause)
In the town where I was born lived a man who loved the sea. (adjective clauses)

Notice that phrases and subordinate clauses that are essential to the meaning of a sentence are NOT
set off with commas. Non-essential phrases and subordinate clauses ARE set off with commas.

ARTICLES are three words that form a special group of adjectives that are used to introduce nouns.
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Examples: That chain of hotels started as a small operation.
The president of the company makes a very large salary.
The teacher found an apple on her desk this morning;

(5) ADVERBS are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They tell when, why, how,
where or under what condition.

Examples:
They are leaving now. Jim spoke nervously.
She is buying the car anyway. Very late sleepers will miss breakfast.
He is walking slowly. A happily married couple lives next door.
He put his books below. She is talking very quickly.

Phrases and subordinate clauses can act as adverbs.

Examples:
They went to the store.
Before lunch, he studied for his test.
He cried because he was sad.
If you save money, you can afford a trip to New York.
Although we had no money, we were very happy.

(6) A PREPOSITION is a word that is often used to show position or direction. It usually states
some kind of relationship (that of space, time, comparison, or exclusion).

Examples:
that of space: above, below, inside, outside, near, with,
that of time: after, before, until, during
that of comparison: as, like
that of exclusion: except, besides, but

Examples in use:
that of space: The elderly women put her best china inside the cupboard to keep it safe.
that of time: You can’t go until you clean your room.
that of comparison: My little brother acts like your little brother.
that of exclusion: I cannot date except on weekends.

(7) A CONJUNCTION is a word that connects one sentence element to another.

The seven COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS are:

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (You can remember them as the FANBOYS)
These words connect two identical grammatical units; for example, they connect two nouns, two adjectives,
two independent clauses, etc.

Examples:

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My favorite sports are baseball and football. (“and” connects two nouns)
I went to the store, and I bought bread. (“and” connects two independent clauses)
My girlfriend is tall and beautiful. (“and” connects two adjectives)

A SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIO,N or SUBORDINATOR, is a word that comes before a subject and

verb, creating a SUBORDINATE (DEPENDENT) CLAUSE.

Examples:
Although he is seven feet tall, he has never played basketball.
Before we go for a long drive, we make sure that the car is in excellent condition.
Jennifer earn good grade because she studies.

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS are words like “therefore” and “however” that connect two independent
clauses.
Examples;
I love to watch movies at home; therefore, I bought myself a DVD player.
I like baseball; however, my wife prefers professional wrestling.

(Remember that “although” is a subordinator; do not use “although” when you should use “however.”)

Notice that the independent clauses in these sentences are separated with semicolons.

“Then” is often a conjunctive adverb, as in this sentence:

I am going to the cafeteria; then, I am going to the library. (Again, notice the semicolon).

(8) ARTICLES are three words that form a special group of adjectives that are used to introduce
nouns.

Examples: That chain of hotels started as a small operation.

The president of the company makes a very large salary.
The teacher found an apple on her desk this morning;

(9) INTERJECTIONS are words like these: Oh! Hey! Yippee! Ouch!

Examples: Wow! I really like that movie!

Oh, no! I can’t believe that!

A PHRASE is a group of words that DOES NOT contain a subject and a verb, and it does NOT express a
complete thought.

Example: for the New York Yankees

on my desk
except on weekends

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  A PARTICIPIAL PHRASE is a group of words consisting of a participle and the other
words associated with it.
      Ex.   Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.
      Ex.   Dolores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline.
      Ex. Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills.
     Ex.    Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise.
Punctuation with a participial phrase.
When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
       Ex. Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas
only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
       Ex. Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.
       Ex. The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.
If the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:
       Ex. The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
       Ex. The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
In order to prevent confusion, the participial phrase should be as close as possible to the noun or pronoun it
modifies. Otherwise, you may create a misplaced modifier:
        Ex. Jason saw the bird using binoculars. (This is written incorrectly. Was the bird using binoculars?)
        Ex. Using binoculars, Jason saw the bird. (This is correct. Jason was using the binoculars.)
Also, the noun or pronoun must be clearly stated. Otherwise, you may create a dangling modifier:
       Ex. Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot slipped on a step. (This is written incorrectly. Who was
carrying the books?)
       Ex. Carrying a heavy pile of books, he slipped on a step. (This is correct. He was carrying the
books.)

 An INFINITIVE PHRASE is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem"
form) that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive is
based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, an infinitive may
function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.     

    Ex. To wait for an hour seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)
        Ex. Everyone wants to go bowling this evening. (direct object)
        Ex. His ambition is to fly an airplane. (subject complement)
        Ex. He lacked the strength to resist temptation. (adjective)
        Ex. We must study to learn our grammar. (adverb)

If an infinitive phrase is used as an adverb and comes before an independent clause, it should be set off
with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed with an infinitive phrase.
       Ex.   To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.
       Ex. To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

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  A GERUND PHRASE is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the other words associated
with it.

         Ex. Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do. (subject)
        Ex. The children enjoy swimming in the pool. (direct object)
        Ex. Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents. (subject complement)
        Ex. You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work. (object of a preposition)

 A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE always begins with a preposition and ends with a

noun or pronoun.
Ex. Relationship of space: The book is on the table.
Ex. Relationship of time: John will be singing after dinner.
Ex. Relationship of comparison: My love is like a red, red rose.
Ex. Relationship of exclusion: Everybody except me saw the movie.
Prepositional phrase punctuation: When a prepositional phrase comes before an independent
clause in a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.      Ex. In the morning, I like
to get some exercise.
No comma is needed here. Ex. I like to get some exercise in the morning.

A CLAUSE is a group of words that does contain a subject and a verb.

 A SUBORDINATE (aka DEPENDENT) CLAUSE is a group of words that DOES contain a

subject and a verb, but it does NOT express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a
sentence; it functions within a sentence as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.

Examples: I put my dishes in the dishwasher before I go to school.

I do not want to go out tonight because I am tired.

Dependent clauses that are adjective clauses that modify nouns or pronouns may begin with a relative
pronoun (who, whom, whoever, whomever, whose, which, or that) or the words where or when.
Ex. My friend that I have known for ten years moved to New York last year.
Ex. Mrs. Harris, whom I admire very much, has earned two master’s degrees.

 An INDEPENDENT CLAUSE is a group of words that DOES contain a subject and a verb and
DOES express a complete thought.

Examples: Many people are against warring with other countries.

English 0347 is a difficult but interesting class.

There are five basic models of independent clauses:

1. Subject + action verb: John works.
2. Subject + action verb + direct object: John threw the ball.
3. Subject + action verb + indirect object + direct object: John gave Mary a diamond ring.
4. Subject + linking verb + predicate adjective: John is tall.
5. Subject + linking verb + predicate nominative: John is a comedian.

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The SUBJECT of a sentence is what the sentence is about. It is usually the first noun or pronoun that is
NOT part of a PHRASE or SUBORDINATE CLAUSE.

Sometimes, however, the subject is implied (when giving a suggestion or a command).

Example: Close the door. (The person you are speaking to is the implied subject.)

A GERUND is a verb that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund is
based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, a gerund functions as a noun
and can be a subject, a direct object, a subject complement, or an object of a preposition.
        Ex. Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (subject)
        Ex. They do not appreciate my singing. (direct object)
        Ex. My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (subject complement)
        Ex. The police arrested him for speeding. (object of a preposition)

A PARTICIPIAL is a verbal that is used as an adjective. The term verbal indicates that a participial is
based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since participles function as
adjectives, they modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: active participles and
passive participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the
words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
        Ex. The crying baby had a wet diaper.
        Ex. Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
        Ex. Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.

An INFINITIVE is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb that functions as a noun, adjective, or
adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a
state of being. However, an infinitive may function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive
phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the other words associated with it.
        Ex. To wait for an hour seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)
        Ex. Everyone wants to go bowling this evening. (direct object)
        Ex. His ambition is to fly an airplane. (subject complement)
        Ex. He lacked the strength to resist temptation. (adjective)
       Ex. We must study to learn our grammar. (adverb)

PUNCTUATION

Independent clause; independent clause. Ex. My CD player is broken; I need a

new one.

Independent clause, (FANBOYS) independent clause. Ex. My CD player is broken, so I need

a new one.

Independent clause (FANBOYS) phrase or subordinate clause.

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 Ex. My CD player is broken and cannot be fixed. (FANBOYS) phrase
Ex. I use my CD player when I want to relax and when I want to dance. (FANBOYS)
subordinate clause

Introductory word, independent clause, word that is an afterthought.

Ex. Alone, I sat in my living room, depressed.

Introductory subordinate clause, independent clause, subordinate clause that is an

afterthought.

Ex. After I got back home, a man from the shop called, although he had not done any
work yet.

First part of independent clause, interrupter, second part of independent clause.

Ex. The CD player, a machine I have owned for years, is beyond repair.

Independent clause: list

Ex. Three of my electronic devices have broken this year: the CD player, the television, and the radio.

“Minor Titles” are put inside quotations marks. (Minor titles are articles, essays, chapters, short stories,
poems, and songs.)
Ex. One of my favorite songs is “Visions of Joanna.”

Major titles (or major titles) are either underlined or italicized. (Major titles are books, magazines,
newspapers, plays, albums, movies, and TX shows.)
Ex. Bob Dylan’s album entitled Blonde on Blonde is my favorite album.
Ex. Bob Dylan’s album entitled Blonde on Blonde is my favorite album.

Commas and periods ALWAYS go inside the closing quotation mark.

Ex. “Strawberry Fields Forever,” a song by the Beatles, is also one of my favorites, as is “In My Life.”

Always place verbatim dialogue and language from other sources within quotation marks.
Ex. “I overslept this morning,” the student said, “because my alarm didn’t go off.”
Ex. “I was late for class this morning,” the student said. “My alarm didn’t go off, so I overslept.”
Ex. The teacher said, “I’ll overlook it this time, but don’t let it happen again.”

Use apostrophes to show possession and to mark contractions. (DO NOT use apostrophes with possessive
personal pronouns, plural nouns, or verb forms ending in s.)
Ex. John’s house is closer to Betty’s house than mine is.
Ex. It’s clear that the dog knows where its food dish is.

Hyphenate two or more words used together to do the job of one adjective: much-maligned politician,
half-baked idea, tough-minded administrator, twenty-five-year-old brother, etc.

Hyphenate compound words such as father-in-law, ex-wife, twenty-five, etc.

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If the infinitive or infinitive phrase is used as an adverb and comes before an independent clause, it
should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed with an infinitive phrase.
       Ex.   To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.
       Ex. You must consider your purpose and audience to improve your writing .

SUMMARY OF PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of Speech Use Examples

Noun names Maria had an idea.
Pronoun takes the place of a noun He is cute.
Adjective modifies a noun or pronoun He is a Mexican boy.
Verb shows action or state of being Mary took her book home.
Adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb We left early.
relates a noun or pronoun to another
Preposition We looked for you.
word
Conjunction joins words or groups of words Bill or she will call.
Article (the, a, an) modifies a noun My teacher lost the chalk.
Interjection shows strong feeling Ouch! My arm hurts.

SUMMARY OF CLAUSES AND PHRASES

Phrase/Clause Description Examples

contains no subject or verb/not a
phrase
complete thought
contains participle and other
participial phrase Jack having a cold left the party.
associated words
infinitive phrase includes the word to plus a verb To lie to your parents is wrong..
includes a gerund plus associated Borrowing money is not a good
gerund phrase
words habit.
begins with a proposition and ends
prepositional phrase My billfold was in my purse.
with a noun
clause contains a subject and a verb
dependent clause contains subject and verb/not a
Since I saw you last
(subordinate) complete thought
adjective clause HCC, which I attended last fall,
begins with a relative pronoun
(dependent) is a reputable college.
adverbial clause
begins with an adverb After I left you, I went to bed.
(dependent)
independent clause contains subject and verb/ a complete I saw my parents last night.
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thought

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